Math. Log. Quart. 50, No. 1, 65 70 (2004) / DOI 10.1002/malq.

200310077

On the linear Lindenbaum algebra of Basic Propositional Logic

Majid Alizadeh1 and Mohammad Ardeshir
1
2

Institute for Studies in Theoretical Physics and Mathematics, P. O. Box 19395-5746, Tehran, Iran
Department of Mathematics, Sharif University of Technology, P. O. Box 11365-9415, Tehran, Iran

Received 12 June 2003, revised 2 October 2003, accepted 6 October 2003

Published online 1 December 2003
Key words Basic propositional logic, basic algebra, Heyting algebra.
MSC (2000) 03G25, 03D20, 03B20
We study the linear Lindenbaum algebra of Basic Propositional Calculus, called linear basic algebra.
c 2004 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim

1 Introduction and preliminaries

Most well-known logical systems have associated with them a natural algebraic structure, namely their Lindenbaum algebra. The Lindenbaum algebra of Basic Propositional Calculus BPC, called basic algebra (Ba), is
introduced in [1] (see also [2]).
The lattice of formulas of BPC up to provable equivalence is a Ba . Bas, defined below, are for BPC what
Heyting algebras are for Intuitionistic Propositional Calculus IPC, and Boolean algebras are for Classical Propositional Calculus CPC.
Definition 1.1 A basic algebra B =
B, , , , 0, 1 (Ba) is a structure with constants 0 and 1, and binary
functions , , and , such that
1.
B, , , 0, 1 is a distributive lattice with bottom and top, and
2. for we have the additional equations a a = 1, a 1 a, a b c = (a b) (a c),
b c a = (b a) (c a), and (a b) (b c) a c.
The relation is expressible in term of equations with or in the standard way, i. e.
ab

iff a b = a

iff a b = b.

We recall that a Heyting algebra (Ha) is a distributive lattice with constants 0 and 1, and a binary relation ,
which satisfies:
abc

iff

a b c.

The fourth item of the following Proposition shows that in Bas we have only one direction of the above
bi-conditional:
Proposition 1.2 Let B be a Ba . Then for a, b, c B,
1. if a b, then c a c b,
2. if a b, then b c a c,
3. if a b, then a b = 1,
4. if a b c, then a b c,
5. a (a b) = a (1 b).

e-mail: majid@ipm.ir
Corresponding author: e-mail: mardshir@sharif.edu
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66

M. Alizadeh and M. Ardeshir: On the linear Lindenbaum algebra of Basic Propositional Logic

P r o o f.
1. Let a b. Then a b = a, so c a = c a b = (c a) (c b) c b.
2. Let a b. Then a b = b, so b c = a b c = (a c) (b c) a c.
3. Let a b. By 1., 1 = a a a b. So a b = 1.
4. Let a b c. Then by 1., b a b b c, so (b a) (b b) b c. Then b a b c.
Since b 1, by 2., 1 a b a. So a 1 a b a b c.
5. a (a b) (1 a) (a b) (1 b). On the other hand, a (1 b) a (a b), by 2.
Note that every Ha is a Ba . As a trivial example of a Ba which is not a Ha , let B = {0, 1} with the usual
definition of and . Define a b = 1, for a, b {0, 1}. Then B =
B, , , , 0, 1 is a Ba . B is not a Ha ,
since 1 1
0, but 1 1 0. So the class of all Has is a proper subclass of all Bas.
The following proposition shows a tight relation between Bas and Has:
Proposition 1.3 Let B be a Ba . Then B is a Ha iff for every a B, 1 a = a.
P r o o f. It is enough to show that if x a b, then x a b. Suppose x a b. Then
a x a (a b) = a (1 b) = a b.
So a x b.
As usual we define:
Definition 1.4 A subset F B of a Ba B is called a filter on B if 1 F , a, b F implies a b F , and
a b and b F implies a F .

A filter F on a Ba B is called prime, if a b F implies that a F or b F . For two filters F , F on B, let

F F iff a b F and a F implies b F . It is easy to see that the relation is a transitive relation
on the set of all filters on B.


Lemma 1.5 Let F be a filter on a Ba B such that a b
/ F . Then there is a proper prime filter F on B






/F .
such that F F , a F and b
P r o o f. See [1] or [6].
Lemma 1.6 Let B be a Ba and a, b B such that a
b. Then there is a prime filter F on B such that a F
and b
/ F.
P r o o f. See, e. g., [5].
Corollary 1.7 Let B be a Ba and 1
= a B. Then there is a prime filter F on B such that a
/ F.
P r o o f. Since 1
a, by Lemma 1.6, there is a prime filter F such that a
/ F.

2 Linear basic algebras

It is well-known that the set of all formulas which are valid in every linear Heyting algebra is an intermediate
logic between IPC and CPC, called Dummett Logic, DL, and is axiomatizable by IPC + (A B) (B A)
(see [3] or [4]). A linear Heyting algebra is a Heyting algebra which is a chain, i. e., such that for every x, y,
x y or y x. Since in any Ha , x y = 1 iff x y, the above axiomatization seems natural. That
would be more convincing if we remember that DL is also strongly complete with respect to the class of all linear
Kripke models of IPC (see, e. g., [7]).
Horn [4] called a Ha with the additional axiom (x y) (y x) = 1 to be an
Ha (he denoted it as
L-algebra) and proved that DL is complete with respect to the class of
Has. Note that every chain is an
Ha .
The case for Bas is very different from Has. The implication operation in Bas is wild. Recall that
we have in Bas only if a b c, then a b c, and not the other way around. On the other hand,
Visser in [8] proved that BPC + (A B) ((A B) A) is strongly complete with respect to the class
of all linear Kripke models of BPC. It is easy to see that although two axioms (x y) (y x) = 1 and
(x y) ((x y) x) = 1 are equivalent in any Ha , in Ba we have only one direction:
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67

Lemma 2.1 In any Ba , for all x, y, if (x y) ((x y) x) = 1, then (x y) (y x) = 1.

P r o o f. It is enough to show that in any Ba , (x y) x y x. That is clear by Proposition 1.2, since
y 1 y x y.
The following example shows a linear Ba which does not satisfy (x y) ((x y) x) = 1:
Example 2.2 Let B = {0, x, y, 1}, where 0 < x < y < 1, and and are defined as usual. Define
a b = y if b < a, and a b = 1, otherwise. Then B = (B, , , , 0, 1) is a linear Ba . But we have
(x 0) ((x 0) x) = y.
On the other hand, the example before Proposition 1.3 shows a Ba which is not a Ha and satisfies
(x y) ((x y) x) = 1.
Definition 2.3 An
Ba is a basic algebra in which for all x, y, (x y) (y x) = 1.
Definition 2.4 A chain is a linear Basic algebra, i. e. a Ba such that for all x, y, x y or y x.
Clearly every chain is an
Ba .
Let B be a Ba and F a filter on B. For any a, b B, we shall write a F b iff a b F . The relation
F is a quasi-ordering on B. Write a F b iff (a b) (b a) F . It is easy to check that F is an
equivalence relation on B. We shall call F the equivalence relation determined by the filter F , and we write
B/F instead of B/ F . Elements in B/F will be denoted by [a]. We obtain a relation on B/F by [a] [b]
iff a b F . This relation is transitive and anti-symmetric, so
B/F,  is a partially ordered set. For
[a], [b] B/F define
[a] [b] = [a b],

[a] [b] = [a b],

[a] [b] = [a b].

It is easy to check that the above relations are well defined. The interesting case is for . We show that for all
x, x , y, y  B, if x x and y y  , then x y x y  . Suppose y y  . We have y y  F , so
(x y) (x y  ) F . Then [x y] [x y  ]. By the same argument, we have [x y  ] [x y].
So (a) [x y] = [x y  ]. Now suppose x x . Then x x F . Since (x x) (x y) x y, we
have ((x y) (x y)) F , so [x y] [x y]. By the same argument, we have [x y] [x y].
So (b) [x y] = [x y]. Now, by (b) and (a), we have [x y] = [x y] = [x y  ].
It is also routine to see that [a b] and [a b] are the meet and the join of [a] and [b], respectively, and that
satisfies the axioms of a Ba . Thus we have:
Theorem 2.5 Let B be a Ba and F a proper filter on B. Then B/F =
B/F, , , , [0], [1] is also a Ba .


Lemma 2.6 If F is a prime filter on an
Ba B, then B/F is a chain.
P r o o f. Let x, y B. Since (x y) (y x) = 1, we have (x y) F or (y x) F . So [x] [y]
or [y] [x].
Now we wish to determine the set of all formulas which are valid in every chain.
The language of BPC is L = {, , , , }. The small letters p, q, r, . . . propositional variables and
capital letters A, B, C, . . . denote formulas, where the notion of formula is defined as usual. We use the sequent
notation to axiomatize BPC. A sequent is an expression of the form A B, in which A and B are formulas in
L. In the rules of BPC a double horizontal line means that we have two-direction rules.
A A,

A ,

A,

A (B C) (A B) (A C),

(A B) (B C) A C,

(A B) (A C) A B C,

(A B) (C B) A C B,

AB BC
,
AC
AB AC
,
ABC

AB C
,
ABC
AB CB
.
AC B
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M. Alizadeh and M. Ardeshir: On the linear Lindenbaum algebra of Basic Propositional Logic

This ends the axiomatization of BPC. For notations, basic definitions and properties of BPC, see [2]. We use A
for  A, and A B is an abbreviation for A B and B A.
Let us define
BPC to be BPC plus the axiom schema (A B) (B A). As usual the elements of
the Lindenbaum algebra of
BPC are the equivalence classes |A| of formulas in the language of BPC, where
|A| = {B :
BPC  A B}. The algebraic operations of the structure are just those inherited from the logical
operations of BPC:
|A| |B| = |A B|,

|A| |B| = |A B|,

|A| |B| = |A B|,

|| = 1,

|| = 0.

By the Substitution property (see [2, Proposition 2.4]), these operations are well defined.
Let U be the Lindenbaum algebra of
BPC. Then U is an
Ba . It is easy to see that for every sequent A B,
|A| |B| iff
BPC  A B, so for any formula A, |A| = 1 iff
BPC  A.
Definition 2.7 An algebraic model of
BPC consists of a pair B =
B, I with B an
Ba and I a map from
the set of all propositional variables of the language of BPC to B. The map I can be uniquely extended to all
formulas of the language of BPC by the following definition:
I() = 1, I() = 0, I(A B) = I(A) I(B), I(A B) = I(A) I(B), I(A B) = I(A) I(B).
A sequent A B is satisfied in model B (B  A B) if I(A) I(B). A sequent A B is valid in
an
Ba B if it is satisfied in
B, I for all interpretations I.
Now let U =
U, I be the term model for
BPC with the canonical interpretation function I, i. e., I(p) = |p|
for every propositional variable p. Then for every formula A, I(A) = |A|. So
BPC  A iff I(A) = 1, and for
every sequent A B,
BPC  A B iff I(A) I(B).
Theorem 2.8 (Soundness and Completenes) Let A  |A| be a map, as described above, from the language
of BPC to a Ba B. Then for all sequents A B, if
BPC  A B, then |A| |B| in B. Conversely, let
U =
U, I be the term model of
BPC with I : A  |A|. Then |A| |B| if and only if
BPC  A B.
P r o o f. By induction on the length of proofs. We consider only the Implication Introduction case. Suppose
A B C follows from A B C. By induction |A| |B| |C|. Then |B| |A| |B| |B| |C|
and |A| 1 |A| |B| |A| = |B| |A| |B|, by Proposition 1.2. So |A| |B| |C|. The converse is
observed above.
Before we continue this topic, we prove a useful property of
BPC, which we need in the sequel. In the
following definition  means deduction in BPC.
Definition 2.9 A set of sequents is called faithful if  (A1 B1 ) (An Bn ) A B implies
{(A1 B1 ), . . . , (An Bn )}  (A B).
All extensions of IPC are faithful, since in these extensions C D is equivalent to C D for all formulas
C, D. In particular CPC is faithful. Let E1 be the theory axiomatized by  . E1 is not faithful, otherwise,
it would be inconsistent. We want to show that
BPC is faithful. Our proof is Kripke model theoretic. A Kripke
model for BPC is like the one for IPC, expect that the underlying set of nodes need not be reflexive. So for a
Kripke model K = (K, , ), the forcing relation for implication is
for k K, k  A B iff for all k   k, if k   A, then k   B.
Given a Kripke model K with root k, let K be the model formed from K by adding a new root node k0 k
which is reflexive exactly when k is, and such that k0  p exactly when k  p.
Proposition 2.10 Let be a set of sequents such that its class of Kripke models is closed under the following
transformation: If K is a rooted Kripke model of with irreflexive root, then so is K . Then is faithful.
P r o o f. See [2].

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69

Theorem 2.11
BPC is faithful.

P r o o f. Let K be a rooted Kripke model of
BPC with root k and let k0 be the root of K . Suppose
k0  (A B) (B A). Then k0  A B and k0  B A. So there are k1 , k2  k0 such that
k1  A, k1  B, k2  B and k2  A. Since K is a model of
BPC, it is not the case that both k1 , k2  k. On
the other hand, if one of k1 or k2 , say k1 , is k, then k1  k2 . This contradicts with k1  A and k2  A. So K is
a model of
BPC.
Now we go back to Ba .
Corollary 2.12 Let F be the unit filter on U, i. e., F = {1}. Then U/F  U.
P r o o f. We show that for every formula A, [|A|] = {|A|}. Let |B| [|A|], then || = |A B| and
|| = |B A|. By faithfulness of
BPC,
BPC  A B. Thus |A| = |B|, and so [|A|] = {|A|}. Thus
U/F  U.
Theorem 2.13 The basic algebra U is a subalgebra of a direct product of chains.
P r o o f. For every prime filter

F , let F be the natural homomorphism from U to U/F . This will define a
homomorphism from U to U/F . U is an
Ba , so by Lemma 2.6, U/F is a chain, for every prime filter F .
To show that is one to one, let |A|, |B| U and (|A|) = (|B|). Then for every prime filter F , we have
(|A| |B|) (|B| |A|) F . So by Corollary 1.7, |A| |B| = |B| |A| = 1. Then
BPC  A B and

BPC  B A. Therefore
BPC  A B, by Theorem 2.11. That means |A| = |B|.
The two following Lemmas are Ba versions of Horn [4]:
Lemma 2.14 Let B be the direct product of Bas Bi , i I, let B =
B, f  be an algebraic model and let
B i =
Bi , fi  be algebraic models for every i I such that fi = i f , where i is the projection of B on Bi .
Then for any sequent A B we have for every i I, i (f (A)) i (f (B)) iff fi (A) fi (B). Hence, A B
is valid in B iff it is valid in each Bi .
Lemma 2.15 If B is a subalgebra of A, then for every algebraic model B =
B, f  and every sequent A B
we have f (A) f (B) in B iff f (A) f (B) in A. Hence, if A B is valid in A, it is valid in B.
Theorem 2.16 For any sequent A B, the followings are equivalent:
1.
BPC  A B
2. For every
Ba , B, B  A B.
3. For every chain B, B  A B.
4. U  A B.
P r o o f. By Theorem 2.8, 1. implies 2. and 4. implies 1. Since every chain is an
Ba , 2. implies 3. By
Lemmas 2.14, 2.15 and Theorem 2.13, 3. implies 4.
As applications of the above Theorem 2.16, we have the following corollaries:
Corollary 2.17
BPC  (A ( B)) ((A B) A).
P r o o f. Let B be any chain and a, b B. Then either (a b) a, which yields (a b) a = 1, or
a < a b, which with a 1 a implies a (1 a) (a b) (1 b). So a (1 b) = 1. In either
case, (a (1 b)) ((a b) a)) = 1. The result follows from Theorem 2.16.
On the other hand, Example 2.2 shows:
Corollary 2.18
BPC  (A B) ((A B) A).
The next corollary is Proposition 1.7 in [6]:
Corollary 2.19
BPC is not complete with respect to the class of all linear Kripke models.
P r o o f. We note that both of the axiom schemas (A B) ((A B) A) and (A B) (B A)
are valid in every linear Kripke model. The result follows from Corollary 2.18.
c 2004 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim

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M. Alizadeh and M. Ardeshir: On the linear Lindenbaum algebra of Basic Propositional Logic

Our last theorem shows that
Bas may be characterized by the fact that a certain subset of the set of their
prime filters has a tree-like property.
Theorem 2.20 A Ba is an
Ba iff for every prime filter F the set S = {G : F G and G is a prime filter}
is linearly ordered by inclusion.
P r o o f. Suppose B is an
Ba and F is a prime filter on B. Suppose G, H S are incomparable. Then there
exist x G H and y H G. Since (x y) (y x) = 1, then either (x y) F or (y x) F . So
we have y G or x H, a contradiction.
Conversely, suppose the condition holds but (x y) (y x)
= 1 for some x, y B. By Corollary 1.7
there is a prime filter F on B which dose not contain (x y) (y x). So x y
/ F and y x
/ F . By
Lemma 1.5, there exist G, H S such that x G, y
/ G and y H, x
/ H. Contradiction.
Corollary 2.21 Let B be an
Ba . Then for every x, y, z B,
1. x y z = (x z) (y z),
2. z x y = (z x) (z y).
P r o o f.
1. Clearly (x z) (y z) x y z. Suppose x y z
(x z) (y z). Then by Lemma
1.5, there is a prime filter F such that (x y z) F and (x z) (y z)
/ F . So x z, y z
/ F.
/ F1 , y F2 , and
Again by Lemma 1.5 there are prime filters F1 , F2 such that F F1 , F F2 , and x F1 , z
z
/ F2 . Since B is an
Ba, by Theorem 2.20, F1 F2 or F2 F1 . Suppose F1 F2 . Then x y F1 and
z
/ F1 . On the other hand, from F F1 and x y F1 we have z F1 . A contradiction.
2. Similar to 1.
Acknowledgements The first author would like to thank the Institute for Studies in Theoretical Physics and Mathematics
(IPM) for the financial support.

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c 2004 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim