Physical Science

Determine the acceleration due to gravity

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 Abstract
Due to the interaction of one of the fundamental force, gravity, and matter, all
masses are known to experience a force called gravity between them, under the
influence of our planet - earth’s mass; a gravitational field is created in which
all objects on earth experience a force in that field, and are subjected to
accelerate under the influence of it. Described in this paper is a series of
detailed and original experiments designed and carried out by the author, to
determine, to the best accuracy as his equipment can provide, the acceleration
caused by gravity on earth, also known as g. The detailed instructions in the text
should allow any reader to reproduce the experiment provided they have all
necessary equipments.

Introduction

Theoretical background

Mechanics of Gravity

Gravity is a natural phenomenon of the manner at which matter with mass tends to
attracts each other in this universe. Gravity is the agent which causes planets to
stay in orbit and objects to fall to the ground when dropped. It cause dispersed
matter to condense, therefore explaining the existence of the sun, earth and most
of, if not all of, the macroscopic object in the universe. In the classical
Newtonian mechanics gravity is explained as a force mathematically related to the
masses and the orientation of these objects in the universe. However, it is only
accurate to a certain degree. Modern physics describes gravity with Einstein’s
general theory of relativity, which is accurate and corresponds with all
observation in the known universe; it also predicted the existence of black holes
which were observed after the establishment of this theory, proofing its accuracy.
General relativity describes gravity as a result of the curvature of space-time
cause by a mass placed onto it. More recently theoretical physicist tried to
include a model of gravity into quantum mechanics, to arrived at an ultimate
physics theory by the name of quantum gravity, numerous advances has been made, for
example the super string theory. However these theories remain to be highly

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hypothetical and lack practical value so far. In this paper the author will use
gravity as explained by classical Newtonian mechanics, which is accurate enough on
the surface of earth.

In Newtonian mechanics, every object in the universe attracts and is attracted by

every other object, with a force directly proportional to the product of their
masses and inversely proportion to the distance between them.

Therefore





1






 

(1)

Mechanics of Force

Force is defined as an agency that changes or tends to change an object’s state of

rest or of uniform motion along a straight line. According to Newton’s second law
of motion, the change of momentum of a body is proportional to the impulse
impressed on the body, and happens along the straight line on which that impulse is
impressed.

We know that impulse is the integral of force in respect to time

Therefore the impulse produced during time t is:


  
 2


Where F is the force applied along the direction of the impulse

We know that momentum is defined as the quantity of motion and it is the product of
mass and velocity

 
 (3)

From Newton’s second law we can derive

∆  (4)

Substitute (2) in (4)

4
 
∆ 



 
   

 

Applying the chain rule:


 
  

  






Substitute (3) in




. 5


In conclusion we can now define force, as the product of a body’s mass and its rate
of change of velocity, along the same line as the force applied.

Mechanics of forces during freefall

During freefall, there will be two forces acting on freefalling body, namely
gravity and aerodynamic drag. Gravity has already being discussed earlier.
Aerodynamic drag is the force acted on the object as it travels through air which
is a fluid. Aerodynamic drag is a mathematical function of the velocity object,
density of air, and the aerodynamic profile of the object. Mathematically it is
expressed as:

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"  #  $%"
2

Where # is the density of air,  is the object’s velocity relative to air, $ is the
maximum cross sectional area, and %" is the coefficient of drag, in that a sphere
will have a %" of 0.47; a cone will have a %" of 0.5 and a streamlined body will
have a %" of 0.08.

From the above equation, we can see that the force of drag will oppose the freefall
of the object. However it is nearly impossible to create a mathematical model that
will incorporate the two forces with my limited mathematical skill. Therefore the

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experiment setup up will be chosen to minimize drag and its effect will be ignored
in our calculation.

Now we will analysis the only force acting on a falling object, the force of
gravity and its effect on its motion.

From equation (1) we can see the force of gravity is related the mass of the earth,
the object and the distance between their centres of masses. In our context, the
masses remains constant, the change in the distance between the centre of masses of
earth and the object during a freefall on earth’s surface is so small that it can
be treat as a constant. Therefore, the object will experience a constant downward
force of gravity during its downfall.

From equation (5) we can see that the force is related to the mass of the fallen
object and its rate of change of velocity. Since its mass remains constant, and the
force is also constant, its rate of change of velocity, also known as acceleration
will also remain constant.

In conclusion, we can say that a freefalling object undergoes constant

acceleration.

Kinematics of motion of constant acceleration

In this chapter a few notations will be used, in order to understand them, please
study the below terms.

& is the object’s vertical position

∆& is the object’s change in vertical position, also known as vertical displacement

& is the object’s displacement at time (t)

 is the object’s instantaneous velocity

' is the object’s average velocity

∆ is the object’s change in velocity

 is the object’s velocity at time (t)

( is the object’s instantaneous acceleration

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() is the object’s average acceleration

( is the object’s acceleration at time (t)

&0 is initial displacement

0 is initial velocity

As we already know, displacement is the product between average velocity and change
in time

∆&  ' . ∆

∆&
 ' 
∆

To get to instantaneous velocity we make the change in time tends to infinitesimal

∆&
  +,

∆- ∆

&
  6


We also know that average acceleration is the rate of change of velocity

∆
() 
∆

Making change in time tends to infinitesimal, we get instantaneous acceleration as

∆
(  +,

∆- ∆


( 7


Now we can use the reverse of the rules of anti-differentiation, to get an integral
for displacement.

Substitute (8) with y and t


&
&  &0 0  
 

Substitute (6) in


 &  &0 0    9


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Proof:

If we have

&
2  3
 3

Using the law of anti-differentiation

(
2  4&3|
0

 2  &( 6 &0

 &(  2 0 &0

&
 &(   3 0 &0 8
 3

Now we can use the reverse of the rules of anti-differentiation, to get an integral
for velocity.

Substitute (8) with v and t



  0 0  
 

Substitute (7) in


   0 0  (  10


Substitute (10) in (9)

 
&  &0 0  80 0  ( 9 
 

Because acceleration is constant, therefore a(t) = a, and then apply law of

integration we get:

8
 
 &  &0 0  80 0 (. 9 


Using the law of integration:

 
 &  &0 0 4:0.  0 (. ;<
2 0


 &  &0 0 0.  0 (. 11
2

Equation (11) now indicates the relationship between velocity, time and
displacement in motion of constant acceleration.

Experimental
Overview of experimental method

Because of the defined relationship between displacement and time, the author has
chosen to use these two variables to find gravitational acceleration. Displacement
can easily be measured with ruler; however the time taken for an object to freefall
such distance is extremely short, therefore it is only appropriate to use highly
accurate electronic timer. Once a set of time vs. displacement data are collected,
they will be substituted into equation (11) to obtain gravitational acceleration.

However, the following exploratory experiments will also be attempted along with
the main experiment, one of it is using the mass of the earth and equation (1) and
(5), the other uses the harmonic motion of a pendulum to work out gravitational
acceleration.

Planning of main experiment

List of apparatus

1X DC power source

1X burette stand

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1X custom electronic timer

1X pair of trapdoor attachment and a metal spherical weight

1X metre stick

10X crocodile connectors

Pen, paper and calculator

Now I am going to explain some of the apparatus

Pair of trapdoor attachment

The picture shows an already set up apparatus for the experiment.

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 Trap door A and B are screwed onto
a burette stand, the distance
between them are measured with a
metre stick. Trapdoor A and B are
electronic switches. When the
fallen body, a metal sphere is
placed below trapdoor A, it closes
the switch. As indicated by the
picture to the left.

The bottom trapdoor consists out of a magnetic plate, it is normally closed, when
the metal sphere fall past it, it will open, breaking the circuit. Below is a
picture of the trap door when closed and opened.

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 Custom electronic timer
The author has constructed an electronic binary stop timer that can time the
opening of two switches, with these two switches being the breaking of the metal
contact at trapdoor A when the metal sphere starts to drop; and the opening of
trapdoor B when the metal sphere falls through it.

This is the schematics of the timer

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The electronics of the timer can be explained simply as the following parts:

• 555 timer (U3) running in astable mode, generating a square wave with a
frequency of 1000Hz and a duty cycle of 66.34%
• The timing of the 555 timer is set but R2, R4, RV1, and C1
=  +>%1.?2021?40?A1. Therefore R2 is chosen to be 10K Ohms, R4 6.8K
Ohms, RV1 is a 5K Ohm pot turned 189 degrees clockwise, making its
resistance equal to 3.5K Ohms.

• The timing is accomplished by 2 HEF4520 binary up counter IC, with a maximum

range of 12bit
• It is consisted out of 3, 4 bit counter units, 2 in U1, 1 in U2
• Each counter consist of 3 input and 4 outputs, the inputs are MR(master
reset), a power rail high state signal here reset the counter; E
(enable) where a falling edge of a signal trigger the counter to
advance by 1, and CLK (clock) where a rising edge of a signal trigger
the counter to advance by 1.
• The counters are cascaded so that the output of the 555 timer is feed
into the CLK of the first timer, and the last bit of each counter is
feed into the E of the next counter. The exact counting behaviour is
shown on the digital analysis graph on the schematics.
• The counter’s output are feed into red LED’s through a 1.5K Ohm
resistor, indicating the state of the counter
• With the state of the counter and the period of the 555’s square wave
known, time can be worked out with the following equation.
  B,C. DCE>F Where period is 0.001seconds and count can be converted
into number from binary state with mathematics.

• The switches interfere with the timer and the counter in the following matter
• Trapdoor A’s switch shunts the clocking signal from the 555 timer to
ground, hence stop the counter from counting when closed (the metal
sphere is placed over the metal contacts)
• Trapdoor B’s switch carries the clocking signal from the timer to the
counter. When closed the clock signal will clock the timer, provided it
is not shunted by trapdoor A, and when open the counter will stop
counting.
• The reset button brings the counter’s MR to power rail high state,
resetting their current count.

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Here is a picture of the actually timer constructed on breadboard

Variables

Independent Variable
The independent variable will be the distance between the two trapdoors, which is
also the displacement the metal sphere.

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Dependent Variable
The dependent variable will be the time between the opening of the
electromechanical switches in trapdoor A and B, which is also the time it takes for
the metal ball to fall from one to the other

Controlled Variables
The controlled variables are:

• The acceleration of the sphere

• The timer, and its clock speed
• The trapdoors

The acceleration due to gravity is constant and it’s proven on page 5, under the
mechanics of freefall.

The timer and its clock speed are constant because it is set dead and does not
change after it is constructed.

The trapdoors are the same throughout the experiment, therefore their
characteristics remains constant

Experimental procedure:
• Mount trapdoors onto burette stand
• Connect trapdoor A to SW3 of timer with crocodile clamps
• Connect Trapdoor B to SW1 of timer with crocodile clamps
• Connect power source to timer
• Adjust trapdoors to the desired distance apart
• Hold metal sphere to underside of trapdoor A, so that the metal ball closes
the switch and stops the timer
• Press the reset button to reset the timer
• Let go of the metal sphere
• When the sphere fails past trapdoor B, the timer will stop
• Obtain the results from the states of the LED
• Convert the result from binary into numerical numbers, the equation for
conversion of a binary bit is as follow, the number in the end is the sum of
all output from the digit conversion.
G> F(B H,  2IJKJL JM NL NO (> G== F(B H,  0
For example for the picture on page 13, the counter’s state is 10000010100,
its value is 210+24+22=1044counts
• Work out the time, using the   B,C. DCE>F equation

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 • Record the results in a table for further manipulation, which’s framework is
already laid out in the theoretical background section under introduction

Exploratory Experiment A

This experiment involves equation (1) and (5), and the mass of the earth.

Combining equation (1) and (5) we get

P
QR
( 12


By researching the mass of the earth on a suitable source and its mean radius, we
can work out a value for a, acceleration due to gravity.

Exploratory Experiment B

This experiment involves the harmonic motion of a pendulum.

The actually behavior of a real pendulum is extremely complicated and are beyond
the scope of this paper, the equation of its motion involves infinite series and
differential equations. However if the angle of the swing, theta, is less than 1
radian, then we can use the small angle estimation, where the tangent of an angle
is so close to its radian, that we take it to be equal to each other. Then we get
the following equation

V
S  2TU 13
W

Where T is the period of one swing, L is length of pendulum and g is

acceleration due to gravity

List of apparatus:
• Weight attracted to thin string with adjustable length
• Nail on wall
• Pen and paper
• Stopwatch

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Variables:

Independent:

• Length of string

Dependent:

• Period of one swing

Controlled:

• Gravitational acceleration
• Amount of swing before timing stop
• Mass of weight
• Pivot of pendulum

Experimental procedure:

• Tie string with weight to a nail on wall, make sure the weight can swing
freely without touching the wall
• Hold weight up so the angle between the string and vertical is 28 degrees.
• As I drop the weight, I’ll start timing
• Once 3 complete oscillation has taken place, I’ll stop timing, and divide the
time by 3 to obtain the period of 1 swing
• I’ll repeat the experiment with short string length
• I’ll record the result on table for interpretation and manipulation

Findings
Main Experiment

The main experiment was carried out step by step as it is written on page 14.
However some changes are made, power is now supplied to the timer through a RCA
sockets instead of crocodile’s clamps.

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Results from main experiment

Table of results from main experiment

Displacement (cm) 10 20 30 40 50
*1
Counts (binary state) 10001111 11001011 11111000 100011100 100111111
*2
Counts 143 203 248 284 319
Time (s) 0.143 0.203 0.248 0.284 0.319

1. see page 13 for binary conversion formula

2. Time = counts . period (0.001 seconds)

The results are then plotted on a graph

Time vs Displacement graph of a

fallen body
0.35

0.3

0.25
Time (secnds)

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Displacement (cm)

As we can see the graph does not show any obvious relationship worthy of graphical
analysis, because it is a curved line. Therefore, algebraic analysis of each point
is necessary.

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Refer to equation (11)


&  &0 0 0.  0 (.
2

Because the object is at rest and has no displacement in the beginning, when t=0,
therefore the equation simplify to:


&  (.
2

2 &
( 14


Feeding equation (14) with raw data from the table on page 16, we get:

Interpretation of results from main experiment

Displacement (cm) 10 20 30 40 50
Time (s) 0.143 0.205 0.25 0.286 0.319

Acceleration (   
 
9.78 9.707 9.755 9.919 9.827
(m.s-2)

Since Acceleration is supposed to be constant, we will use the average of the

results in the table to obtain our final result.

Y.Z[\Y.ZZ\Y.Z]]\Y.YY\Y.[Z
]
Acceleration = = 9.7976m.s-2

Exploratory Experiment A

Exploratory Experiment A is carried out on the back of an old envelope

From Equation (12)

P
QR
(


The mass of the earth according to Wikipedia is 5.9736 × 1024 kg

The Universal Gravitational constant according to Wikipedia is 6.67300 × 10-11 m3kg-

1 -2
s

The mean radius of the earth according to Wikipedia is 6371km

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Substitute these values in (12):

6.673 ^ 10O ^ 5.9736 ^ 10_

(  `. abcd`eefd g. hOb
6371

Exploratory Experiment B

The experiment was carried out according to the steps provided on page 16. The
length of the string was chosen to be 10cm, 20cm and 25cm.

Results:

Table of Result from Exploratory B

Length of string (m) 0.1 0.2 0.25
Time for 3 swings (seconds) 1.98 2.74 2.84
Period of 1 swing (seconds) 0.66 0.913 0.947

We can then plot it on a graph

Period vs Length of pendulum

graph of a Pendulum
1
0.9
0.8
Period (seconds)

0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
Length of Pendulum (m)

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Again there is no obvious result from the graphical analysis because of the line’s
curved natural. Therefore the results will be analyzed algebraically.

Using Equation (13)

V
S  2TU 13
W

We get

4T  V
W
S

Substitute in the raw data from page 19

Table of Result from Exploratory B

Length of string (m) 0.1 0.2 0.25
Time for 3 swings (seconds) 1.98 2.74 2.84
Period of 1 swing (seconds) 0.66 0.913 0.947
_i j
Acceleration W  k
m.s-2 9.063 9.47 8.804

And the average of the accelerations is

9.063 0 9.47 0 8.804

 `. eebg. hOb
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Conclusion

From the 3 experiment conducted we can see that the acceleration due to gravitation
lies in the 9-10ms-2 region. The final result is chosen to be the 9.80m.s-2 from the
main experiment, Exploratory B’s result are discarded because of its deviation from
the other two. Exploratory A is completely theoretical and requires no practical
testing, and such a result can not accurately express gravitational acceleration
because it is not a universal constant.

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 Instructions for Reproduction
The production instructions will be given for the main experiment. So that the
readers can reproduce them elsewhere and obtain their own results

List of Apparatus

1X DC power source, 5V to 12V

1X burette stand

1X custom electronic timer order from Author

1X pair of trapdoor attachment and a metal spherical weight, Order from Rutland
Industries, as a kit call apparatus to determine g.

1X metre stick

10X crocodile connectors

Pen, paper and calculator

Experimental procedure

• Mount trapdoors onto burette stand

• Connect trapdoor A to SW3 of timer with crocodile clamps
• Connect Trapdoor B to SW1 of timer with crocodile clamps
• Connect power source to timer
• Adjust trapdoors to the desired distance apart, record the distance on paper
• Hold metal sphere to underside of trapdoor A, so that the metal ball closes
the switch and stops the timer
• Press the reset button to reset the timer
• Let go of the metal sphere
• When the sphere fails past trapdoor B, the timer will stop
• Obtain the results from the states of the LED

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 • Convert the result from binary into numerical numbers, the equation for
conversion of a binary bit is as follow, the number in the end is the sum of
all output from the digit conversion.
G> F(B H,  2IJKJL JM NL NO (> G== F(B H,  0
Otherwise an internet based converter can be used at
http://mistupid.com/computers/binaryconv.htm
• Work out the time, using the   B,C. DCE>F equation
• Record the time in a table

Analysis of results

• With table from last session, sort the result in pairs of displacement and
time readings
Using ( 
 
•

workout the acceleration by substitution
• Once all the results have been interpreted, an average acceleration is worked
out.
• This result is your final result

HAPPY
EXPERIMENTING

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