anes

Architecture Sculpture painting

Romanesque

Rornanesque
Arc hitecture Sculpture Painting
Edited by Rolf Tom a n

phOTOS b y Ach illl Bedno rz

KONEMANN

C ]997 K"""mann V~rlagsgescllKhaft mbH

Boon~. 5t"'&: ]26. D50968 K61n
Edlflngand p.oJuction; Rolf Toman. upt"''''
Blrgi, lItye A~lIb Gundermann. O:>logne
PI,,;l{ogr~phIO$' Mhim Br<Inorz. Cologne. Klaus Frahm. BQmsen
!';em", ,,,,uKh: Sally Bald. Cologn~
Graphics; Ehrenfried Klucke .., Bierlingen
Ower dO$ign: r e", Feierobend, Cologne
Tronsla'iOll f.om .he Gr.m.n: Fiona Hulse.l.n ,l.bcmllian
Copy~"ingof ,he English edition; Con O:>ronros for Ibn Mcleod. Gombridgc
Typesening; Goodfellow & Egan, Gombfldge
ProJ...:uon m.nager: Onley Sch.per
RcproJuc.;"'ns: Tiff Digi,.1 ReproGmbH, Dortmund
Prin,.d and bound by: lmprimer~ Jean umour. Max""llI.
P"med In Fr.",.
ISBN 389508447-6
Hl9876S432

Contents

Rolf Toman

Int rod uction

Ehrtnfried Kluckert

Romanesque Building Styles

20

Wolfgang Ka ise r

Roma nesque archritecture in Germa ny

J2

Alick Mcl ean

Romanesque a rchiitecture in Italy

The monastery as Hea venly Jer usa lem

7'
11 8

Bc:rnhard and Ulrike Laule

Romanesq ue architecture in Fra nce

120

Bruno Klein

Roma ncsq ue a rchitecture in Spain a nd Portugal

178

H emfried Wischcrmann

Romanesq ue arch itecture in Grea t Briw in

The Roma nesque period in Sca ndi navia
The Romanesque period in Central Europe

2 16
251

25'

U\\'tGtt~

Romanesque sculpture

256

Barbara Dcimling

Medieval church porta ls a nd their

importance in the hi story o f law

324- 27

Ehrenfried Kluckert

Arts and crahs tec hniques

Romancsq ue painting

376
382

Maps

'62

Glosury

'66

Bibliography

' 70

Index of :a nists' namd

'76

Indtx of place Ilames

' 77

Acknowledgemems

48 1

Malay (Saone-cf lo"e ). former prIOry

of NQfre[)ame. dev.mh ntury
... w f..."n 'hr $<.>u'h.,.... '

~hur,h

RolfTOn1an

Introduction
A Romancsque church in a cemtlery surroundw by roumrysilk - such
peactful placts g"'e us a fttlmg of hlslorlc;al conlinUlIY. ThiS, or something
bke n. one Ihlllks. IS whal II lookw like In the Middle Ages, whm the
church was bUilt. QccaSlormlly one is able to find" vant;age point where
there IS nothmg to rtmmd one of the prC'SCnt. The ;attraction of Ihese
Romanesquc coulllry churches has somethmg to do wllh their human
proportions; Ihey do nO! compel adnnration hy mean~ of their imposing
SI'te. as city cathwrals do. And In add ilion, Ihey arc well aw;ay from Ihe
hurly.burly of everyday existence, and thiS sense of seclu5ion is reassuring.
Many of lhese Romancsque churches used 10 be monaslery churches,
and somt Sllil are. The reason so many Romantsqut monastenes are
surroundw by bellunful counIT)'$Ide 15 Ihal monaSlerlts In the eI"'enth
and twelfth centurits deVOtW themselves 10 their rural surroundings. This
COinCided wllh the IIl1eres[5 ()f the feudal lords under whose protection
monasteriCS were ()ften placed. Preferrtd SlICS for new m()naslCOts "'ert
qUlel valleys - 51111 in plentiful supply at thai lime. as Europe;an coullIries
wert only spar$Cly popu13lw. Around 1200 (followmg a huge leap m
the populallon after I ISO), it is thoughl thaI 12 million people lived III
Fr;mce, 2.2 !1lllholl in England, and 7 10 8 mrllion people in Ihe enormous
(450,000 square mtles ) area [hal WJS [he l'loly Roman Empin.
Monasticism in the high Middle Agcs
'fh<o Import'Jnce ()f monllslic life, bolh In ternls of the culture and Ihe
politics of the high Middle Ages. c;annO! be ()vertSIITlkItw. The cultural
philosopher Hugo Fischer even sub1l11w one of hiS books Ihe ~Blrth of
Weslern ClVlhUllon 0111 ()f the Spirit of Romanesque monasllcism. ~ The
Imparlance of monaSliCism m the Middle Ages can be seen In the brge
number of monks and monastertes that existed: al the height of 115
development, Cluny controlled well over 1,000 monasteries; it pla)'cd an
outslandlng mle amongst Ihe reformed monasleries of Ihe High Middle
Age5. The Cistercian order extended throughoul Europe, and Ihe
momentous work of its mOSI Important figure, !Wrnard of Clairv3ux, has
been declSI\'e III pro\'okmg Judgements of lhe Iwelfth century as the ~ Age
of the Cistcrclans.
Ho"- did Ihe monasteries of Ihls age ach""e their cultural influencc~ To
answer Ihls quesllOn, It IS uscfullo ex;amrne mort closely the Ihrtt l"'els of
social rank that " 'en so Imponant to Ihe way ~ple saw themselvcs on Ihe
Middle Agcs. This sense of social order was JumnlCd up neatly in Ihe
1020s by Adalbero, Ihe Bishop of l:Ion: -The I louse of the Lord IS on three
pans, which some wrungly belteve 10 be one: hert on E:!nh one part prays
(oram), another fighls (puguam). and yet another works (l.iboraut); these
Ihree belong together and will 1I011OIeratc being sel;U variance with each
olher; 10 such a degrtt, Ihalthe functioning (offic",,,,) of one is necessary
10 Ihe work (oper!! } of the olher two, and each will beslOW 1[5 aid on Ihe
OIhers. ~
M

Other lerms used for thiS Ihrcc-part concept are teaching, defendmg
.\IId nunurlng; they rtfer 10 clergymen, knights and farmers respeclively.
Thl5 t",nly of order, which was considerw to be Godgi,en, superseded
Ihe d,viSIon mlO tw() of Church and World, clergy and L.iIII)', [h31 had
characterrzed Itfe un"] the I1Imh cenlu'). The new tnpanlle oroer was 10
hold liS own to the end of lhe Middle Agcs, desplle the fact thalli dId nOI
take acmal varialions withm each rank mto accoum, nor allow for lhe
merchants and middle-class ciliuns Ihal appearw on Ihe social 51age
during Ihe late Middle Ages as a result of Ihe forced developmenl ()f cilies.
Therefore, the trinity of order largely reflecls the ,Igrarian world of Ihe
high MIddle Ages, or for Ihe purposes of this volume the Romane.sque
pertod from 1000 to 1250.
Monks played a special role wrlhln Ihe rank of the o.<I'o.e$, Ihe men
of pu)er. The mwieval hlslollan Hans-Werner Gocn has Ihe followlllg
10 53y: ~While originally qUlle Ikhbcrntcly separatw from the officilll
Church. monastiCism soon became an IIItcgr;a1 parr of the Church, whICh
m any case pla)'w a qUlle different, l1lfluenllal role in the Middle Agcs
comparw 10 Its role today. To an extent. Ihe monks formed a Ih"d rank
belween the clerics and la)'men; Ihelr way of Itfe was also an example for
comonumllcs of clerics :lnd laymen 10 follow.~ In Ihe cady Middle Ages,
monastertes were slill largely commUllllle.c com~d of laymen. h was
not untrllhe nnuh ccnwry Ihal berng ordamed as a priCSI was gener,llIy
conSidered 10 be [he culmination and fulfilmem of religious life. From Ihat
lime, monasteries IOcrt'aslOgly developed IIItO communilies of clerics, and
scarcely a monk was not ordainw.
Monasticism and worldly rule were nOI complelely separate worlds,
least of 1111 whert the rccrurlntent of the rl('XI generaTIon of monks was
concernw. It should be borne in mmd ,hal being accep[ed lllro a medic"al
nlOnaSte') was depcodcm on tWO conditions berng mel: proof of a sprrllual
SUllablillY for life .IS a monk (normally demonstrated during the nOYlIllte),
and a !tlfl. These gtfts, made to galll adnl15510n, and originally described
as ~almsM III Ihe relevant Iknedicune Rule, were laler incr~asingly large
PIeces of land. MonastrClsm almOSI lOok Ihe ownership of land for
granled, and many monastenes gradually fi lled up with members of the
nobility. In turn, of course, thiS affectw Ihelr POSlliOn of po"'er, and
str~nglhened Iheir mdependencc. Cluny springs 10 mind in Ihis respect as
well; II was founded by William of Aqull~ine as hrs family monastery m
910, and was answerable dorC('tly [0 Ihe P~pal Sec. In it$ foundatron
charter, Wilham nOI only ga"e up h'$ ng11.1 10 all Ihe monastery's rncome
and In"esIiIUIl'$, but " 'en laId down [hal no one, whether a bishop or
e"en the pape, should be alloww 10 seIze Ihe property belongmg 10
[he monas[~ry. Followlllg the dealh of !Wrno, th~ abbot Wilham had
appollltW, the monlcs were supposed to elcci a successor from amongsl
their own ranks. As early as 932, Abbot Odo recCived perm ission from
Rome 10 sprtad the Cluniac rdorms by fOllndmg daughter-houses, andevcn more Importantly - 10 rdorm eXlsllng monasteries and make chern
subordinale 10 Cluny. The daughter-houses were nOI governed by [herr
own abbols, bUT by priors answerable 10 the 3bool of Cluny. Thrs created 3
lighlly knn "unm"n,,), nf mnn~ ....n ... , and CI"ny became a SOrt of secular

Tk ~am oIlkn'1i.
ChronICle! of ~~ and John of
WOt('UICt, (. 1 UO.

- !'rono<ucalJO '" bul>O. .SlroIopc.1

woric by Johannrs LM:h,tnh<fJ(" 1.88
(~I from I"" Jacob M~ydorttNc:h

Oxford.

tOlloon l.

eo.."". Chnol1 CoIIrgt

Ms.I51.fnl.J82

f~udallord Itself, rtSponsible for th~ mveSlilUrtS and incomes of its own
enflffed monasrentS. Cluny's powcr was almost unlimited. and it was
IIIcvllabl~ that II should ha\'C to lake political sides - as in the Im'es\l tu~
Contest bcrw~n Pope Gregory VII and Emperor Hcnry IV. So. for many.
monastIC15m was. as Goetz commcmN, the religIOUS eqUIVa lent of hvmg
like a lord. Its en n obl~mCTlt IS an Impon3nt factor Mhmd Its succas and
huge historical Slgnifoclmce.
The cuhur:l.l creative achicvemcnts of thc monastcries a~ not somethlllg that could be expc<:ted of poor. untutored orQ/(}re$. EI'en during the
reign of Cha rlemagne, monks were pioneermg tl'"Chniqucs in the crafts and
trades, and many monasteries we~ even agricultural trade c~mers. In
~ddllion, Charlemagne, and hlJ son LoulJ after hun, aSSigned the modest
but nevertheless impon3nt cultural t.:Isks of hiS empi re to the monastenes:
they were responSible for the latin hturg)' and books, the Classical and
Christian tr:lditions and higher cGlICallon. Scholars wc~ gathered from all
over Europe and brought to Charlemagne'S pabce school; It was their task
to ~visc tl'1lldlllon:;d WOl"ks and create reliable models which Charlemagne
could th~n make compulsory throughout hiS emplrc. The chu rches and
monastenes were mstrucrf"d to bUild schools and choose SUi ta ble teachers.
In add1l10n, monks were ordered not lust to pray, but also carefully to
copy whatever books we~ necessary for tnchlllg. Eu rope has their
diligence to thallk for the foundations of its l i bratl~s and the preserv:ll1on
of the spiritual and sec ular knowlf"dge of the Ancicnt World. Carolingian

M~Jn~

'.91, no. 1<1081. foI. 6.

reforms to education were the bas,s upon whIch the culrural flowering of
the Murohngi an Renaiss:;mce M was ~ble to takc place; the poetry of
Thtodulf, and Einhard's \'.tQ Karoll "l3gnt a.e twO outstandmg examples
of th,s process.
As Alben M' rgeler explams, Cluny was connl'"Cted 10 the Ca.oll11gt3n
spmtual world by a number of dltl'"Ct affiliations: through Its fif$t abbot
Berno. who was prC\'iously abbot of &.umc; WIth the model monastery of
In da via the monastery of St. Manl11 111 Aut un; and, through Alger and
Gerhard. wuh the ca th edral schools 111 Liege and Rrgensburg. Finally.
Cluny was connected to Cha rlemagne by the co mmon goals of the CU'/I11$
dc. m the sense of earthly and social fulfilment, <I misunderstanding of St.
Augustl11e's onginal wo.k. 111 lile ~J )e uf the CIU1I13eenslans. the chan geo\"er from ~m pl re to the monastIC commu11lty w~nt hand In hand w1\h a
correspondingly h,gher emphaSIS on ,he monks thelm.cl\es. The almost
:lUtocrattc posmon of the abbots of Cluny, lind their excepllonally long hfe
spans - only three ruled 111 the penod from 958 to 11 09! - facilitated a
radical planning of both splntually cultural and social an.
In Cluny, the cclcbranon of the 11Iurgy was mo"ed into the center of
monastic:: life, In deed cxis'ence In general, In a way unknown unttlthen.
Along with the extenSIon of the cOIII'cnt mass (the sta ndard mo na SIlC
ctlcbratt on of the mass with chan t) hy ~ procession and :I. litany of all the
s,lints, a lllaSS was added in the UlOrtlll1gs. wh ich on days which were 1101
fcast days was celebra ted as a reqUlCnl mass. In add ition, every monk who

TM Ih ..... IOCIaI cia ..... t i IMy a"""~tN

10 !.:Inc Iltn'1' lIn a d~~m: lhey .fe I""
dctJy. kntt,hu an.! fa""" .. (Idtl. Des!"I'
111 ~honComlngs.. thIS inl~,pre"II01UI
rlan, wh"h W~$ lInked 10 Ilk.. aboull""
11,,11 TflnlIY. ""Id sway un"II"" end of
Mlddk Ages. On a wood c~""ng
ftom lhe.nd of I"" 151h mUfY. ~ch
dUS ' i ~"rtossly allocaled II> la,k '" hfo:
-Y"" ... y pr:oy ..... you protIXI and you
IIltlhe fiel,J ..

1""

F..adwlnus the monk writing

F..aclw;nu, I'salt~r.c. 1170.
Cambndgc. Tnmty Cullcgt Llbury
,\ I<.R.17.1. fol.lSJ.

Sonlo Domingo de Silos IRurg051

Capllais In ,hcdoi"~r. Twdfthntury

had bttn ordained was required 10 read a private mass and to sing the
entire ps.1lter every da). The con"ent masses were attended by 200 monks
dressed in white albs, and on feast days in choir robes, and they were
celebrated with an incredible displa)' of splendor. This developing spkndor
extended 10 the equipment uSt'd in the ceremonies, and even 10 the
chu rches themsch'es, whICh were lavishly decorated to the greater glory of
God. The celebration of mass, which took up most of the day, bame
increasingly extravagant; it required special rooms and spaces in order to
create and maintain ;I. proptr feeling of reverence. The second church in
Cluny. and cenainly the third, ,nus! have complied perfectly with !ht'$C
requirements. As Georges Duby putS it, ~the flowering of sacred art in the
eleventh century was a prodnet of the liturgical functions wh ich the monks
fulfilled for the population in general."
Cluny also adopted the new mass mo,'ement of pllgrnnages III faraway
Santiago. Two of the four great pilgrimage routes to Samiago, Vczelay and
St. Gilles, started at Chmiac abbeys. [n addition, the rOutes were lined with
numerous hostels belongmg 10 Cluniac monasteries~ the church fa,ades of
the latter appealed to pilgrims much more strongly than liturgy was able
to. Pilgrims were carrying Out in concreto man's business on earth, namely
arduous pilgrimages to the distant Christian Promised Land, with all the
temptations 10 efr from the straight and narrow that a devout pilgrim
could exptct to be exposed to on hiS adventurous and sometimes
dangerous journey; m order to appeal 10 these pilgrims, Romanesque an
developed its characteristic iconographic program.

Some of the most remarkable evidence exists in the shapt of the

tympana over church portals. Together with capitals, they were favori te
places for allachmg the weal th of Romanesque architectural sculpture
along the pilgrimage routes. If one looks more closely at pICtures on these
tympana, the historical distance separating us from the medieval
imagination becomes all the more apparent. Many of them include scenes
from the l ast Judgement - with God the Father in his role as ste rn judge of
the world and frightful representations of hell (see pp. 328 ff. ). Today, we
can only guess from the graphic quality of these images what fears must
hne tormented people m that time, given th e punishments which,
according to their Ch ristian faith, they would have to face for thei r sinful
existence on earth. Behmd these images of fear - and the opposite image
(though rarel y depicted in such diverse and concrete terms ) of hope that
one might be counted alnongst the juSt - are ideas regarding death and
dying which diverge radically from modern not ions.
Death and mon al agon)"
HistOrical differences in the way death is understood should per haps be
clarified a little. given that the)' can help us approach other medieval
phenomena which may seem alien to us, such as the cult of relics or the
apparently fantastic willingness to take pa rt in crusades that were lillie
more than campaigns of pillage and murder which led to the deaths of
hundreds of thousands of prople. It is with a sense of astonishment and
disqUiet that we encounter many aspects of medieval life, which were

Scmu~n-B"OIlnalS (Saon~.LQ"~J,

BorrOM

S."'. Ihl"" . drt .. 1f'om.he 'ymp"num

of ,he we .. po .... 1. T,,'df,h ,.n.ury

Elne (Wes,ern Pyn'nccsl. ,ombstone ,n

.he ('3,.htdul of Sa,nu-Eulal,.,

~IGHT

Borro.\! J.F.FT

fenioux (eha",n,e-)"h""me), bu,,.1

lan,ern 'n ,he formermeury. Twdhh
n.ury

rooted in Christian fundamentaliSm and a corresponding idea of d~ath.

Nearly everyone assumed that the earth was only a transitional stage to
anOlhe., eternal life. And everyone hoped that his earthly life would be
c011linued in I-I eaven, the image of Paradise Lost in the hereafter. But
anyone who did nut live on earth m accordance with the commandments
of God, and thus God's approval, was cenain 10 suffer eternallOrment in
Hell. Death marked the transition from existence in this world to life after
death, and one had 10 prepare for this while stilllivmg on eanh. No other
era in Western art has such a weahh of artistic representations of death,
and the associated central theme of crossing into Ihe hereafter, as the
Romanesque period.
Mankmd was filled with great fear at the prospect of death coming
unexpectedly, withom time for prayer and pTaClical repentance for the
forgtveness of sins. Even a pope could be vis.ted with such a terrible death,
as was shown on the tympanum of Ihe wesl portal of 51. Hilaire in Semuren-Brionnais {photo, tOp). The pope is shown silling on the toilet, <I
humiliating place 10 die; his soul escapes his mouth m the form of a small
child, which is imillediately seizoo by three horned devils. To the left is the
abandonoo I'apal See. A quite different, more merciful death is depicted
on a tombstone in Elne, Roussillon (photo, bonom right ). The gUUllt,
recumbem figure - which, accordmg 10 Philtppe Aries, is aCllmily ~not a
corp$.: lying down, but an unreal, standing figure ... which has been
placed inlO a lying position with its eyes opened and its head resting on a
cushion - is being accompanied by two angels to Heaven, which in this
case is symbolized by the hand of God resting on his head. ~ ThIS expla1l1s
the meaning of thi s type of representation of death, the g/Su"t ~represc11ls
neither a dead nor hvmg person, but one of the fonunate few, ~
Between distant Heal'en and the much closer Hell, whose terrible gates
could be opened by heavenly messengers (photo, opposite), lay the place
every sinning believer had to reckon with: Purgatory. That was Ihe th ird
place one might end up after death, and w:ts seen as a stage of suffering
which gave one time to repent one's transgressions on earth.
The theological concept of Purgatory, which had long been current in
popular beliefs, was not developed until the twelfth and thineenth
centuries. It modified the polarity of Heaven and Hell. thereby providing a
solution to some contemporary theological problems involvmg the
mixture of good and evil in man's deeds and the Grace of God - a concept
which was difficult to comprehend. It is possible that Ihe belief in the
existence of Purg.lIory resulted from 3 particular uncertainty, the Gospels
speak of both a judgement ~at the end of time, ~ upon the return of Christ,
and also of the punishmenTS and rewards that sinners and the just should
eXj>"t immediately after death. The theological conception of death 3S a
type of sleep which the dead person experiences while waiting for
Judgement Day does not appear to have satisfioo people in general. The
idea of Purgatory, a place in which - like eanh - one could en dul"("
suffering with 3 degree of hope, in which something was happening for
one's salvation, was altogether more bearable. Indeed, the construction of
such a stage between Heaven and Hell filled in much bener with the view
of the function of the saints by the Throne of Judgement. They had already

10

An a".,llodullfllho

&I"" of !-kll.

P;..tlt... of Hmry of BIoos. Winchosl~ .

.\I,d .,,~Ihh cnl1ury.
London, Br,u,"" Ltb... ." Coe'on ,\ h.
N....... C.lV, fol. 3'

bttn redeemcd and reccl'cd 111 HC;H"cn. and "crc nc"cd as mcdlators
bet,,~n God and mankllld, who could defcnd Ih~ souls aw,lIfing
Judgrn~nt or who h .d bttn lemporaTily punished, bUi IlQI daml1rd for all
mile.
The cult of rdi-cs
I)ue 10 their proxlmllY 10 God and ablluy 10 plead for mcrey on behalf of
anyone who called on them, sall1ts had becomc mcdlatory figurcs who
fired everyone's fantaSies and hopes. Most pIple $Ought 10 ha,c their
illnesses he'lled, and If this happened, u was conSidered 10 be a miracle
whIch that parucular saint had brought about h) obr:lIning mercy. The
proccsses which kd to Ihis happening, and which arc recounted m
numerous repons about miracles. arc 50mc of Ihc mOSI Imprcsswc
WlllltsSCS 10 Ihe medlcval search for l<knmy.
Spontaneous cults. such as Ihe pllgnlllagt 10 St. Elisabeth, were po"crful nun.fcslallons of popular reltgloo. and 50methIlIg 10 "hICh the Church
had 10 reaCi. Uncomrol1rd ,cneraIlOO of a S<lml undcrmmed the Church's
aUlhofll)' as the worldly agent of God's salvJflon. In ordcr to deal wllh
Ih.s, the Chu rch adopted whoevcr was bemg ,cneraled by incorporating
Ihem IntO Ihe canon of samlS. This ga'c thc Church nlUch greatcr comrul
over thc cult. Thc greater Ihe number of people gomg on pilgrimages. Ih c
more important became Ihe cult sue, the gra,c and church dedICaled 10 Ihc
saml - 1101 only Iheologically bUI 011 a polllic'lllevel. 100. It is Iherefore 110
surpfll'(' that ncn secular prin.:es $Ought 10 mvol'e Ihe relics of (u~"ally
IlI1porl"ant) salms m Ihelr deahngs; an example IS Ihe one d'5Cus$Cd III Uwe
Geese's dlssertU!on, aboul the VISit of the ucomllIumated HohenslJufen
emperor Frcdc:rick 1110 lhe gT3'e of St. EliS<lbclh m ~l3rburg. m 1236. The
emperor used lhe occasioo of lhe !r.lI1slallon or mO"mg of Ihe rem3111S of
lhe bndgr.tvmc. who had bttn canontzed lite J'U'IOUS )"ear. to dcmonslt:lle
10 the Pope hiS mdcpendcocc from Ihe Church: he "as suggesllng thai she
was Ihe more aUlhemic II1rerceswr betw~1l hlllll'('lf and God.
The hugc mcreal'(' in the number of sacred bUildings during Ihe
RomanesqllC period created a rapid rlS<: III the demand for relics. Evcry
church, mdccd ~ ..ery ahar, n~ed Ihe reltC$ of a sam t 10 act as its sacred
guarantor of eonsecrallon. I)ue to Ihe large demand for relics, the teachmg
that the bod)" had to re'1l3in coll1plctely InlaCi. whICh had been adhered 10
until lhe tenlh cenlll'), was largely abandoncd. This teaching had
forbidden the removal of md1l1idllal pans of Ihe body as relics, with the
cxccpllon of thmgs Ihal regrew, such u lulr, 1~lh, and finger and toe
nails. Anmher Idea, equally old, now gamed grealer protmncoce - natnel).
Ihal the S<l1l11 was aClually prac:nl 111 every pan of hiS bod)". A small bone
was all that was required 10 have the enllre S<lll!l at hand. This conception
was 10 :aSS<:fI Itsclf over the coursc of Ihe (\llddlc Ages. By lhe high and I:ue
Middle Ages. all nnsg1l1mgs had long bIoen forgott ... n. There are repons
Ihat people who werc dying or h~d lUSt died. and were likely to be
canonl~.ed, were PUt under pressure or e'cn robbed bccalll'(' of thell relics.
Wellknown examples arc St. Fran ... is and SI. Elisabeth. The ,etSlon
1I1,olvll1g Ehsabelhs corpse reads as follows: MWhrle Ihls holy corpse-,
wrapped 111 a gre)' shlTl wllh clolhs around lhe face, wulaymg on Ihe bier.

man) of Ihol'(' prcsc:nt, who wellknew thc holmess of the body and were
mnamed b)" Ihelr ",orship....amc and ... m. even lore. pans of her robes off;
50me "'UI Ihe na.ls off her hands and feel; mhcrs cut off Ihe tips of her
breasls :and :a finger off her hand, III order 10 k~p Ihem as rehcs. ~ In
additIOn, many relics were SIO!t1l ur furged m large quanll,ies. The Church
was quite helpless m the facc of thiS, and dealt w.th IJtcso.o aCl1l'Iues by
saymg Ihal anythmg "3S permiSSible as long as It promOlrd bilh.
Many of Ihese repons, which loday would bccoosldered odd 10 say the
leasl, ca n be found m a work by GUlberl Nugent (d. 1124), enlllied
/'sgnoril s,mctorum (The Rehcs of $allltS). Nugcnt cmicizes thc obsession
wtlh gellmg hold, and disJlOSlIIg. of relici. and uses particularly laughable
examples 10 show Ihe foolishness of slIch a cOllrse of 3Cllon and, above all.
Ihe nltStakc of equating Ihe ~enerable rehes of a saint wilh a favorile
tah~man. 10 whICh one ascribes magICal powers of healll1g. Such CTllICaI

II

,,",uSIa;. (G.aubUndenl. monastery

church.
VQf ... pand In It.. Lady Chapel

Mler G...-gory VI I h~d dcmoled Emperor

Henry IV to K'ng of the German ."
"aning ,he pr<.J<t"\.S wh;ch,..,.,..,,-nt
oula. rule from the sacred sph.... ,he",
arQSc ,n the twelfth con,ury the allfgorocol
,.""hin80f "TwoSword." ""..!<led '"
ITlt,hate be,w... n the Chul"Ch and ;.,cula,
powe!"$. 11 couW not '" ,t.. IonS,.rm
pK"en, a de" .. fO<" r"'~m' .... nco

.""'rs>ng. The dcpiclIOII of ,t.. ,mperi.1

COTOfl31ionofHcnry VI in Rome tn 11~1

(oppas!l.) sho><., H<1Iry bemg ano,n,ed.

g, ..n the >aJller and n"8 and. finally.
l>c>"8cr<>wned ",,h a m".r by the Pope
(Cd.." .... Ill). Th. m!l.' i.a ,digM.ou .,gn
of dig",'y and wa. ,n'ended exp,..,.. ,he
,,;c'rious pas",on of , .... F..mpcror "'!lh

'0

, .. pea '0 , .... rope ' (G. Lodner).

large tracts of land, were the main agents of this cult in this period of
European history. for monasteries had developed into the main places
where relics were kept. As Duby putS it, Mosl ~bbeys were built o ver the
tomb of a martyr or preacher of the Gospels, one of the heroes of the bailie
against evil and Hell ... Being the guardians of order 11\ the cult of relics,
which WaS kept lip near Ihe sarcophagi, monks served as mediators
between the Subterranean world of the dead and life on earth. Th is was
their second main funclion, a function which found solemn expression in
artistic form." Duby makes the point that ~Chrislians of the cfeventh
cent ury paid very careful attention to death. ~
It is typical of the5C works of art that they shOuld enable one to forget
their prerequisi tes in the light of the ent irely self-sufficient aesthetic
pe rfection of their formal coherence. But if they are made subject to an
ahistorical interpretation that entirely ignores these prerequisites of ritual
and numinous power in Romanesque art, they will become mere objects
with form and we relinquish the wealth of opportunities they o ffer uS to
help towards a more compkte historical understanding of thelll.
M

contemporary accounts are of spial imerest to any reader who is

concerned with histoncal accuracy, a$ they are {he beSt and earliest
witnes5Cs of the popular cult of relics. Th is is a subject abclUt which many
strange stories were laler put about, many no doubt soldy for the purposes
ofemertainmem.
The magical practices of venerating relics were alwa ys connected to
material items. The many wax votive offermgs displaye<! at samts' graves
during the Middle Ages were for the most part repre5Cntations of afflicted
parts of th e body, or in some other way referred to the person who was
appealing to the saint to be healed. These objects were considere<! to be
magical because they forced the saint to become aware of the namre of the
illness and the person praying to be heale<!. Even today, many churches in
the Catholic parts of Europe have votive o bjects, ex pressing grati tude for
recove ry from illness, being r~ued from drowning, etc. (photo. left). But
these votive objects, placed there to give thanks. lack the magical urgency
and power of the medieval petitioning votive offerings.
If one considers all Romanesque forms of art - churches, all the
om"mC,,/a ccdcs;"c, from th e StOne archi lcctum l s.culpture com plel .. with
~nes of the Judgemem and Hell, to the golden Madonnas holding the
Child destined to die for our salvation, and from crucifixes to relics and
the ceremonial equipment with which the death of Christ on the Cross is
co mmemorated - the impression of a great cult of death is overpowering.
And the clergy of the Middl e Ages, in particular the mouks who governe<!

12

ArchileCl ure and mea ning

There are OIher points of view which are highly relevant to an
understandmg of R oman~ ue art, and 11\ particular architect ure. For
example, it has frequently been state<! that the churches in the Han
mOuntains. and the monumental cathedrals of the central Rhine region.
belong to a special kimperial~ Romanesque style. According to Sc hu17. and
Muller. MRoman~ue architecture in Germany was supported by the
powerful members of the empire. primarily by b,shops and monasteries,
and also by emperors and in many cases by territorial rulers. T his meant
that the German R oman~ue style was associated with ideas of the
greatn ess of the Holy Roman Empire, and of Ihe glory and power of the
emperor. This is shown abo\'e all by the imperial cathedral s. They went far
beyond the purpose th ey were needed for, and were an architectural
display of imperial power, the architectural embodnnent of the idea of the
Roman Empire for all those who had eyes to see. Churches were nOI jusl
buil t to hold services. bm were important on a political level. as they
demonstrated the rank of their builders to the world at large.
Compare<! with France and England, Germany enjoye<! relatively
stable political conditions around the middle of th e ele"enth century due
to a conttll uit y of royal and imperial power. This did not change until the
1070s, when Pope Gregory VII intensified and clarified his demands that
the Church sho uld take prece<!ence over the sC\:ular Stale - a process which
was led by the reforms at Cl uny. The central demand was that the
tIlvcstiture of bishops and abbots of imperial abbeys should no longer be
under the control of the emperor, as it.had been until then; this would
dearly reslriCflhe power of th~ 5' ale 10 a considerable degree. The rcs,,11
was the well-known contest bctwttn Henry IV, who challenged the pope's
claims, and Gregory, who excommunicated and depos.ed the emperor.
Henry was forced to make a peni tenti~l pilgrimage 10 Canossa in 1077,
something th3t was 3 humiliation to his royal dignity. He manage<! 10 have
his excommunication rescinded. but th3t was by no m~ans the end of his
M

Imptfial coronal ion of Henry VI in

Rome.
re"u< de bulo, lober.d I>onorcm
Augu . ... 11 95- 1196.

BerM, Rurgcrbibli01Mk
Cod. 120. fol. 10Sr

diifercn,~

wilh Ihe pope. Within Germany, Ihe empire had divided imo
parties loyal [0 the Chu rch and 10 the emperor, a division thaI was 10 have
10llg-term cOllSequella:s.
Once Henry had gOI over [his low ebb ill his power, he 50011 started
work on rebuilding Sp!'yer Cathedral, [he prestigious building of his Salian
~na:SlOr5, makmg it e"en more maglllficenl. Clearly a demonstral1on of
[he power which he felt he had regained, or indeed Ilever lost. Other
German cities apart from Speyer also developed this imperial af(hiteclure
(see pp. 46 if. ). In this comext, Gumer Sandmann states that ~E.specially
"flcr thc ,truggle over illvcMitu rc, whcll thc [mperor had comc into
,0nilicl wIth the Curia, and soverClgJI SlateS to the west 110 10llger
recognized the universal status of the Empire. the emperors allemp[ed to
construct an imperial metaphysics in which the pope pla)'ed a subordinate
role ... The widelling of thoughts of empire in the Classical mould ollly
occurred gradually under pressure from ils rival party. the Church ... This
probably also explains the fact that after Henry IV's reign, and during Ihe

11M: outward form of S""ycr Calhedral i.

>{,II much ,1 was when .. builo ({he
3PSC, bhnd
d"'uf gallery and
10_rs we .. new ] ",he I" .. iga,ion of
1 Itnry IV,,, 11)82,

"""des,

Hohenstaufen dynasty. Classical and secular forms such as vaults and

galleries became pan of official architecture; the wealth of forms that were
pan of the Christian tradition were being extended 10 include heathen
forn's, ~ B)' givillS this example of royal architecture, and correlating it
with many other meanings. Bandmann clearly shows that illtellcctual and
symbolical andlor sociological aspects pla)'ed a very important role in
medieval sacred buildings.
Th e Divine and the biller contes t for the eanhl y Jerusalem
On .. motif Ihat

oo:~uu

l,me and 3)53'" ,n

Roma""~qu"

a,1 i. 11,011 uf II,e Cily

of God, Jerusalem. It pJay a part in architecture, sculpture and painting

(see pp. 434 if. ). Its relevance is probably mOSt far reaching ill the field of
archi lccture, especially if one considers that all the ecdesiastic~l SlrUClural
forms - such as columns, apses, arches, towers, vaults - are references {O
the Ci ty of God. ~a modificatioll of anciellt concepts of the House of the
Lord." As Sandmann says, Mchurch architecture is , .. the type and symbol

\3

CoII,"""u. St. ~r!ln (?). c. 1170180.

r."hm~nt. pm drawing. h.,ght
10,nd>(S.
T1>t Ihgue. Kon,nkli)h B,bliorllttk
1>1... 76 f5

uf the Hea"enly City. the Kingdom of God, whtch believers were helping
fO fashion." One of the Fathers of the Church, SI. Augustine himself,
stressed this identification in hIS work De CiFllate Dei. A generaltzed
approach in ascribing meanmg ,s of lutle hdp in understandmg par!tcui3r
archileCiural characteris!tcs. Their symbolic nature will remain abstract in
Ihl' fact' of such genera liz:uions. In contraSt, the references to the Ci ty of
God in a painted or sculpted urban shorthand are concrete and obvious: a
castle or a wall conne<;;tl to towers, or in sacred architecture, the fa<;ade
wilh twin fOwers, which - probably for thIS reason - found increasing
favor during the Middle Ages.
The depiCliun uf the earThly jerusalem ts also done usmg a circle, which
is a symbol of The Divine, and a reference to the life hereafter; it appeared
on many pl:ms of Palestine in the customary pallern of a Clrde divided imo
four quarters. On the map of Palestine on p. 14, This idenufic31ion is
emphasized by the text on the bottom Ige of the page: ~An)'onc making
efforts to be one of )'our citizens, jerusalem, and who is looking forward
10 your delights, must exert himself greatly. This City of Jerusalem will
nOI laST for long, bUT will be an image of permanence for all time."
Immediately abo"e Ihe lext, separaled only by the picture frame, are
Chnstian kn,ghts who are pllltmg Muslim mounted warriors 10 flight. The
kn,S)" on the wh"e hor ... i~ St. G>rge, who 10 .Ome e:.-Ient IS v,ewNI ~<
s.1nctifying Ihe crusades by takmg part in them; his success makes plain
Ihat Ihey arc actong wuh God's support. This drawing, made ncarly 100
)'ears afler the Firsl Crusade al a time when II was hoped th~T Jerusalem
(Quid be re-conquered, IS tdeological m characler. It caSIS an ideali1.ing
light on an event Ih~t tn reality was ralher nnhol)", as even some contcmporanes felt at the time. (There was a desire 10 be able 10 view (he Hol y
LlIld as God's coumry on earth bUT, in the view of Bishop Jacob of Vllry, il
was lost because Ihe scum of the earTh had gaThered Ihere. And indttd,
Palestine was Temporartly used as a penal colony.)
The ~armed pilgrimages to jerusalem ~ are sume of the mosl stnlster
aSpe!:ls of medieval ChriSTian fllndamentalism.lbeir cruehy and blondness
are frightening, and are a historical lesson for all, including The Church,
given that by conservati\"eeSlimates they costllpwards of 22 million lives.

Co nstruCl;O" work
An)"one who reads the Bible carefully will nOI;ce thai some of Ihe images
and phrases used are borrowed from Ihe buildtng trade. Architecture
dearly played a I'ery important role from an early stage, as wdl as the
process of building. 1bis changed little during the Middle Ages: .OlIrces,
whether in pIctures or wriling, paint a vivid piclure of the processes at
large building sites. It is nOI iust the manuscripts thaI were produced from
about 1000 onwards that enable uS to picture these construction sites;
there are also scenes from the building trade in glass windows, tapestries,
frescoes, and even relonqu3m:s and altarpi eces. Written .Ources are
scarcely less powerful- lellers, accounts of lives, descriptions of building
processes, such as those concerning the reconstruction of Cantcrbury
Cathedral from 11 74 to 1185, or Abbot SlIger's work De consecratione
ecdes/ae Sanet, DlOn),5". which was produced belween 1144/45 and

14

F.b.!orf ""'p of!/u, world

F.b.wrf (:),1208l18 (?).
Copy of !h, destroyed onglOa1.
Ileigh, 'pproJ(. 144 in.;hrs. Kulmbach.
l.andsch.ft.mu .. um Oberm.II1
Plas.. nburg

Aqu3mamkof 3 kmgh!. f",n.;

!h"!e<:n,n ,.ntury.
Ilronu.,h3..d,h"ght II IOchrs.
Coptnh.g.n. lhnm .. ks N.'ion.lmu ......
r..:"henh.ll"n

On !h. Eb"orf map of !h. world. with

Jerusalem In 'he cemer, and !hc top,
bottOl1l and sIdes wgw wuh !h, crucif..-d
Chnlf, tl>< urth
as tl>< Body of
Ch" ... Mate".1 to do ...lfh the "ory of
Chm", lif. and O1h.. .<3crW .,.."" ar<
m,<"dOlW In numerous .kIall Pic!UIU.
Includw ," the s<:qu,,,,. of even!, ...
Adam and lOve '" P.rod"", Alexander the
GrUl and Inc oogms of!he Saxons. and
th. Crudrs.

"ppc:".

Two I"'"sofknlgh!sdoing bani .

Shttt from a $P<'(~IJlm '"gmJlm.
M,ddle Rhmc o, T,;""r. 1200.
H.no'e~ K<"Smer Museum

15

An:hbubop Anno Uof CoIosne "'uh lilt

lint ~at buold"'l1 boom In Ihr CIty.

fi,~ chun:hn hr found!. Mu"aN"'. at

tilt froluofa V".. AOO/rOf. ( . I 183
O...m>tadt. H......,hr Landt$:- und
H<><hochulblblooxhd:. H. 94S

"'h"h&,~ ~ Us hlsh r~nk

Archh"hop Anno [I (IOS6- 1I 7S1was

the lut II'c.r bI,hop-<:um-bu,lck, In
CoI<lgl1oC. ~Iostk"h saw th. end of ,he

~. IIv ",o"ulc,..,. of Saalfcld on

Thunnp;l and C ... fschaft 'n IIv

s......lonJ.

all\OrlllSllhr pn""p"1 F..IlfOJItan CI~

dun"llIN Rorna"""' .... pmod. n..
IUU" ...""" at IN OOclom loft shows
An .... It wllh 1M fi~ churches M

foundtd. whICh ens".ed hos faint aft~r

dca,h: ,hty ateS,_ M"hul i.. Sirghurg.
St. Gw'gc .nd SI. Maty ad Gradum in

1151. Gimther Binding has Introduccd and evaluated Ihesc s(mTCe$

thoroughly.
FlrSI of all. wllh an expcndllure of hunun bbor Ihal IS scarcely
Imagmable today, the foundal1ons ....~rt laid - freqlltmly on damp or
unstable ground. The dcscnpnon of the bUlldmg of the monasttry of
Wittewltrum, around 1238, discusst5 problems such as poor foundallon
SOIl - as ""1."11 as more shon-ttrm problems such as ca"e-ins and heavy
rainfall.
Once the foundations were ready. the b.uldlng materials had to be
aeq.u red. It is rtported Ihat Louis the German had tht wa lis of both
Frankfurt and Regcnsbu rg 10m down In orde r to build his twO cburches.
In 1192, the marble and limtstone to budd lrons cath,:dral were
transported 10 lyons from Tralan's forum In nearby Four\'ir. Indeed.
Classical bUIldings In gentral were popular sources of sume. OIher
bUlldt~ had 10 make e,'en more costly arrangemenTS: after 1026. Gauzlm.
the abbot of Fleury (S;um-Benoit-sur-!.oue), obtamed marble ~a panlbus
ROI1l3n1e~ and iome5(ooe from the NlVtrnalS. which was broughl 10
Fleury by ShIP, Tht stones to bUIld 8altle Abbey were also Iramponed by
ship across Ihe Channel until, by a Im raelt. a quarry was dl.'iCo\"Cred
nearby,
Then the stone mawns. brickla)'ers and sculptors i:0t to work. together
wllh the mortar sti rrers, plasterers and whittwashers, carpenters and
roofers. laboure rs and handymen. Their activities and tools are depIcted in
countless pictures. Wooden scaffolding, sllmbr 10 Ihat used at construction SlIes un,,1 the beginmng of the Iwenlleth century, when steel
sc3ffoldong benme more common. docs not 3ppear to ha"e bn used

north of the Alps umillhe middle of the fourteenth cenrury. Before thaI.
work was donI." using canl1lever sc<lffolding, and ther. arc thorough
rC'Cords of the various ways In whICh It was constructed. AI tach stage
of work. a Inel working ar.a wu created al the wall copmg, and once
Ihe wall had bttn bUilt hIgher. the .'iCaffoldlng was renw,-ed and att3ched
hIgher up. The construction matenals were probably moved up the wall
uSing ramps, and transponed uSing slrelChers, skips and baskets, The
second half of the ,welfth century saw the use of SIm ple cranes which
at first were nothing more elaborate than a rope with a baskel lied ro II.
lt was nOI "n,il late, thaI pulleys were Inlroductd as the first tC'Chnical aids, The various CIaftsmen got up to tht hIgher 5lions of the
bUIlding by means of ladders or sloping walkways, whICh were normally
WICkerwork.
Buildrn and founders- building 3$ a form of Divine plan for salvalion
It 15 now clear that the large-scale bUlldll1gs of the Middlt Ages were
produced wllh enormous effort and m Ihe face of incalculable risks. And
e\'erybody look pan In Ihe work because budding a place of worship was
part of the plan for salva lion. Whoe"er took pan 111 the conStnlCllon
work. either br giving building materials or physically working on the slfe.
was blessed with the Grace of God -Ions before Indulgenc~ ~1.1ned!O hr
sold for the sa",e purpose. The '-ery act of building a chorch included a
degree of worshIp.
ThiS was especially significanl for those who had churches founded
and bUlh. In hiS second will Bishop Bernward of IIIldesheim has thI S 10
say: MI Ita,'e gi"en much thought 10 lbe quesllon of what commtndable

Arch"cqur~ l dr~"'on,

by G. /lladon&.

from IIIblo, brgmn"'l oflht Ih,rt~n1h

<enlu,)". ~b"''''''lrr. Jolon Rylan.J'$
L>bm)",

~b.

frS. 1016

BUIldlnsof ,he 'I""cr "ll!..:ll>cl.

H,~b,;,nu. Maurus. "Dc: on8,n,OO <.

Monle Du,no. ml)<\Jlfery hbr Jry. cod.

OJ>

16

1023.

5;I,n,cs (o...~1~1>lanfl""' ~. fo."",.

T'ht IC'Ull"u.al <Ire.., ,,,,,, of b",lrungs

Ibbey church of Sa,n't.MII'>(oks

""... UI.mkd ofUo the chu.ch t~r.ln

1)~1l'Ie>.

Thr ...... n e.05""3 low~. w"h

rolumnsand cap""ls

dt'~IIIICItly ",sible from ,he ground.

T'htehurch"'ln q""!llOn. Ilk. ,hlSont In
5;1'"1.... Were u.uaUy pilgrimage chutehn

bUlldrng I could ertel. what I would have to spend ... III order to cam
myself the Grace of God ... [ started .. . 10 found a new church which I
could budd 10 the praisc and glory of the name of thc Lord. Ihereby bolh
fulfillmg my own promlSC and providing for holy Chnslendom. ~ Bishop
Connd of Consla~, who was laler made a s.1ml, hd the s.1me goal m
mind; one of the places he bUIlt was the Church of the Holy Scpukhre,
whICh w;as alt;]ched 10 Ihe mlnSlcr and was intcnded to sa"e the faIthful
from haVing [0 makc Ihc journey 10 Jerusalem, or allematl"ely to makc II
casler for them 10 do so. ThIS addressed the Idea of COpIes. In those days, It
was unnecessary for copIes 10 be duplicates as Ihey tend to be today. All
that was rcqulred was a particular form - round 111 the caSl! of churches of
lhe Holy Scpukhre - to 5c:f\e ;as a remmder of the Importance of Ihe
ongmal, or e,'en 10 replace II. In the end, II "''as no longer important
whelher onc had l'ISlted lhe Iioly Scpukhre In Jerusalem or in ConSt3ncc.
In any case, Bishop Conrad h3d much gnaler Ihmgs m mmd: apart from
Ihe eXISllng mmSter, whICh was dedICated 10 the Mother of God, and Ihe
monaSlery of 5,. Peler In I)clcrshau.scn, he founded three further chu rches
III Constance, those of 51. John, SI. I..... wrence and St. I'Jul. By doing so, he
had recreated the five mam churches of Rome (San Giovanni in Laterano,
San Lorenzo, San Paolo fuon Ie mura, Old 51. I'eler's and Sanl3 "taria
Maggiore ), and ""lIh them the Uoly Cily llself, m ConSlance, Ihe MfdlX
1I1aler Conslantia. ~
ThIs IS also quue re"ealmg as to the relationship of the founder or
bUilder 10 Ihe work Itself. The builder as both Qu/or and Que/or, decided
on the type of bUlldmg and m many cases also I'reSl:ribed a model. To
quole Gunter Bandmann once agal11, Myes, we are qUllc juslLfied in slallng
thai ouly a few, unllnport~nt building contractors m The MIddle Ages
relinqUished Ihe OpportUIllTy 10 make del,ber~tc Imks wilh oumanding
models m order 10 keep 10 Simple cuSloms and Irndlllonal crafts. The
architecTS of larger conlraCiOrs had 10 focus Iheir IIlgenully on the copy,
not on creallng OTlgtn31 fonns. ~
The clients qUIte frequenTly look care of obl:J.lIllllg lhe building ""'Ierials,
Thus, F.inhards Vila Karo" Magill, about Ihe iLfe of Charlemagne.
recounTS Ih31 Ihe emperor personally brought columns and marble sbbs
from Rome and Ral'enna 10 be used m his palaflne chapel in Aachen.
NOller Balbulus, a monk al SI G3l1en. relaln m hiS Gesta Karol wrinen
'" 885, Ihal Ihe emperor brought Together Mmastel'$ and craftsmen of all
such arlS from all rrglons Ihls IudI' of !he lXean. ~ BUT despite thiS, The
names of the anlSIS ha,'c been forgOllen aimOSI everywhere. Bandmann
anemplS TO expbm away Ih,s fact m terms of II belllg part of M!1Ie
charaCter of serving an all-cmbrncmg idea." Meanwhllc, Ihe example of
IIcrnward of Hiideshellll clearly shows !hat the bishop was concerned
about safeguard ing hIS soul's SaIV3110n. Bolh Bishop Conrad of Connance
and Abbot Suger of Samt-Dents werc bur~d al Ihe entnnces of lhe
churches they founded. This IS not so much an exprC$Slon of Ik .. ollon 3$ of
the ho~ Ihal Ihey ....ould bcnefi! from the mnumerable prayers of
gramude of those "lslIIng Ihe churches. For Ihe churches they founded
were not lust the price of God's mercy, but also guaranrors thaI they would
[lever be forgonen.

17

Btsalu. Cualo"'a
RomantSqucc bridge. twtlfth ~tn.ury
Bridges I'I.~-.d.n ImporUnt role
amongs he $ular lu",,"onal bullJlngs
"f the M,JJIt Ag.... Wi.hout .hem, II
would "",,,,,,Iy h.. bc-en possibl o
pro<<<J along th. road. and path. in
many pl.e<c . T..... lers In .he MIddle

Agff were. rather mIxed bunch. On .he

great I'mg....llsunce rou' one ""ould
encoumer .he fnr~gr"'''s, .he stranger
who h.d Idt hIS homd.nd, .oge.her with
pIlgrims, poor homdess j)f'lple, Ira.der,
(n,,",!rels and pl.yers) ...aders,
m<'rc.n.ri... ndc .... f.. m<'n .. Monk.
would ~ lourneylng to f.now
m<>rI'<feri uf .helt orJe~ .nd

mcss.engtrs would
od""lOwns.

~on

.helt way to

OPPOSITE

*\1;' , he first. h,Vlng Itamed how.o

buIld ,..lfh concrete, gl.... nd steel""
have bt-com<' .wu. of the .pc-cial rank
.nd power of SIOn wme.h,ng wh"h our
.nces'OI"< had los,,'o .hem. bUIld,ng in
OIone smed to be the only pos .. ble, as
wellaSlhe CUSlomary, method of
construe ..on
*The..., i. a fundamental diff.re"".
between loving In
nd pIling .... ,,,
boulJers on '01' of each o.her, and
.",,,aily work,ng,.otIC ... Working .tones
.I.v.... thcm to a position of symbolism
.nd m<'.ning.
(Randmann)

a'..

"

ROMANESQUE
CJ
Z

S T y L E S
Religious buildings

Types of building

Unear planlorm - - basilica

Central planform

aisle-Ieiis church
hall church
church with raised nave
and lower side aisles

circular layout
four-sided layout
(Greek cross)
polygonal layout

Aomanesquecturches are chllractelized tIy

ltIe cIariIy ollhN coocepbOn in !heir ground
plan, elevation. and clear arrangement 01
space . II we leave asiOe 10< the momem

table opposite). 8\I8fallundamental OOIId

Ing typeS can be distInguished The flrsl
main groop of buildings are those basad
00 the bnear planlorm. The $&OOrld main

any irdividual archi1ecwal eo\emenl$ thaI

a/Iowtld lor divat$ity (pleas.e rele< In the

group are oontrally ptanned ooildrngs. a

style frequently found in eastern Europe .

4
s

Gree4< Cl'OSS
domed rotunda
(Mantua. San

(Montmajoor.

SaintCroix)

Lorenzo)

The Byuntlne bII"UICII (best translated

as "hall of the kingl wUh ~S high central
nilVG and low side (IIsles stlNad as the
f'I1(l(!eI

tor medoeval rebgOOU$ areMocture.

1 Nave. 2 Side aisles (in SOI1lf.I cases there

may tie four side alSles) . 3 Transept
4 Choir/apse. 5 Cle<estory (upper $OCIion
oj the rl8V9 walls PfOYiding lighting 10< the
inleriofj. 6 Cross.ing footersectioo of the
nave and transep1),

The ~ (lOp) 51. Aegodius. l<Jen<orrt>urg

(twelfth cen\\.r1), rod exterioo" (below). 51.

GoOOhard. H~ (twellIh ctlOIury).

both bas! on the tinea. pI..,tonn of !he
basilica. The oentraI nave 01 a basilica is
U$Ualy wide< than and plj8CI$ far above the
$Id& ai$Ie$. The windows in the top secbOn
01 the wal oj Ihe nave (Iho~ clerestory).
provide io< direct light to entn. the chuK:h
inteoo<. The basilica is the nml common
type 01 Aomanesque religious builoing.

The church In Schortens - 5il1ens\ede

(formerly 5t_ Florian . above) daleS from the
twelfth oontury and is a goOd exampki 01
an alste-less c hurch . Thrs type 01 ehurch
with integrated 3j)S8 dIlvfIloped lrom the
early medieval house church. lIS homo
geoeous irl1erIo< spaoo is not articulated by
supports. The walls are brok&n up by large
lanoet windows which allow plenty 01
light into the church, ell'l!)hasiz.lrIg the
oo~etory charac18f olthe S8C1'ed interior'

I"'~

~n

Kall church lohneJSoest (!ell).

Kall church with raised neve and lower
side aisles Poitiers. Notre Dame (right)

In south-weste<n El!fOP8. partrcularty in the

Poitoo region (Portiers. 51. Pierre). one
01181'1 comes across hall churches and a
variant of the same. !he church wilh raised
nevI Ind lower side Iisies.
In cootrastlO the the IaMr 1)'1)8 01 church.
the side aisles of the ha. church are of the
ume height as the central nava.

20

Long alsledlcen\fally

baptIstery

ptanned (Gravtrdona.
5. Mariadel Trglio)

(Milan, San
Lor-enzo Maogror-e)

In centrally planned buildings

aI ...

menl$ relate 10 one central point The

ground plan is 0/100 based on a <::irde or- a
square 0( variants 01 the two. At best. Ihrs
central plan integrates any apses, chapels
and >KW\alS. although these are oIten added
10 !he delrimant oJ the symmelricaf design.
The cemetery chapel 01 SI. Michef d'Entrayguas (below) Is circular In design
with e;ght ,adjalillg apses.

Building components of Romanesque religious

architecture

NIIrthex or atrium (Iorecoo't). a~Ndy

preS8<\! In e~ Christ"n churdl

1loiIdinos

-.

2 The Interior weawn &e<:tion of the

Iorecoon hM often been developed as
the "{Ialilee:
3 The narthex to\l&Iher with the
4 weSl towel'S IorrT"I -.towered

5 The cent .... nave of the bllsilica is

,,-~

6 the two side aisles. tn "" ,ample we

see e 8irr1lIe aisIed bIIs<Iic8o.
7 The crossing is 5U,mounted by a
centralt~r.

6 This is abo the poim from which the

arms of the tranS8llt Stall.

9 Contn"ng!rom the ceotral nave, the
ctIOif or presbytery e><lends eastwards.
to TolhisiSconnectedtheap$ldal..med
sanctuary and in some eases also an
t t ambuIatoI'y. often iIcorporatng ctIap8Is.
tn an aisIed bllsilica. the nave and the
transept Inlerwct. This interwction Iorms
the crossing wNch Is &IJ'moonted by the
central towe,. Conti"''''V the side aosles in
an eastern direction and penetraung, as ~

_e, the SIms of the transept. there may

be an ambulatory fumished wrtIl chapels.
tnstead of s.uc:h an ambuIat<"Y there may
be a .........oer of ap:s.es adjoining the <:hOir
on the eastern side as a con~nuation of the
side aisles. The choir amb\Itatory is seen
as an important preliminary .U1\J8 to the
ambuIatorie$ of the Gothic ptlriod.

Familia. leatu,es of F\omafIeoqlle a~

ture are the twintowered to' the singletowered west fronts, less coonmonly fcunc:t
are 8 dist>nctMo Iorecoon {called the
"para~' in Maulbf'Onn}. tho narthex and
the atrium.
The nanlle. makes ii, tnt ' IPPMrance in
earty Christendom as an OIlIer hal placed
horizontaOy to the ma'" body of the Roman
Lateran basilica_ This Iyp/I <:lIn bII traced
back to Constllnbne ...00 built the first ~rge
ChriStian asserrtlly hal ;", Romot. the
bllsiIQ by the latltfan Palae(, (3t 3 - 3t9)_
AooIher standard blIOding type is the
ixls<1ica wiIhou1 a trans8llt: in the taunt>
ceoIury. Sta. Maria Maggiore in Rome was
~ as "" aisled hod wiIhou1
transept The oent .... nave. tlanked by the
side ai$les with flat ~ ,::ontinues Into
the semi..:ircutar ap:s.e at its aaslem end.

Hlldeshelm, 51. Michael's Church, 1010 - 1033

View of the _twork WIth at""" and porch (drawing). '1"_ 01 the choir with side apses
and transept IlIrrf\ts (photo),

1 atriumlnarthex
2 pordv'oPIee
3westflm~

4 western ceot .... tower

5 _.tam staircase IlIrrets

6 centrat nave (cleres1ory)

1 side aISle
8 central tower
,~-

to transept towers
t t ChOif apses
t2 apse

- 0

JI',I ,
I

, --

,
,
,

I '1. 1 . _I _r
0=

--

, ""

"

'\

"

. -. -1 -1-1 ' ' 1 -. _,

"
21

The exterior / west I

Aorn.-... crucn. ere oIIrIn

'"""*'
b __
ano. a .......
b .....-

dit1ongdoaddy brtrIiId .__hit is M1het ~

potdIat - . _ _ aI . .

- * " and

A ~ sIrI:lng doMIIDpmIfII it the ~ . oonsosMg oI_at

oompoo ... o. oIIan IItonked b """""' IIIld

1umoI.had with a por1ICO.

Both liturgicall)' and archltecCurall)'. 1M

westwork Is an ~nt bl.>1(IIng
componant cornpriting _ral storeys and

erecteod In Iront 01 the ac1 ....1 cnurth.

Aocon:Iino 10 1M symbolically ~
polarity 01 east and west. the II"" was
regallMd . . 1ha SIde IhrNtenad b ....
powera. n.. tonrfiad ~ _ _ ..-..
10 dttand.,. dIurd! aganst ~ powera.
The _tlront it1he ..... _
IIIld 811I"0Il

Welt front without a tower

n.. ____ Iron! is very common in

Itat,o lind in IhII KUIh 01 FranoI. ~ it marked

b utICUIalWlg anti SIIUCtUtaI deYIces IUCh

poIu~. atlactled pilars, ........
Ofl"lllmental band COUI"SeS Of 9CIJpIlKIIL In

..

beII_

1IiIIy, \he
Of campanile is oMen
,ree\OO next to tile we$t lront. whereas In
France ttua it not OMen the case.

...... _~IIem.g. 01. tUIIing

Hera ... ~ lind 1he entrano::eI Of
lie IiogIIr ..... po<1iII . . . . . .. a
~.., fYSIem 01 II1ICtJIII1ion The
arN 01 tIM portal itsfIII can be emphaaI.I:lId
b cornpIP IlooIding MCbOnS. lhIa iI aIIo
\he arM ..nor..,;uIpIur1t ill snuallid
Thelerm narthex are. IS used ~ the _ I
lfOfIt Is aI1 ....111d In !rom 01 1M basilicarypa

1,1Ie OrI)MMCtioo. In most casu.

.....-

\he 51fUC1ura oIlhe '~de pfOIIodes clue,

a. 10 the arbCUlalion 0I1he in18riQr-.paQt.
The "M 01 pilasl"'" Of ~ can
Indicate the distribution 01 1ha maon l"1li ....

-_..
-.--

TypgIy racIangIMr rod dew.t 01 any

~~often . . . thellr"ldoltha
buCIIrypa ' - . Thus d _ _ 10 hoda
lie ~. 0UIIine0I wtOI. III lila ...... _
~allruCUally aesIhebc . . 01 iIIa""""In INIfIY ins1anCel 1he _
1roo1t ill"Oghiy
atrutU.:I IIIld rithIy rMooratecl. (ExampIM.
01 the liructural and Offl8mltOtaI reper100fI
of RorNInesque arc:hl1ecture can be found
on the page oppos~e.)
A lurlMr Cfiterion 10 t!isllngl...sh bIIlWeIfI
the
1)'1*' of west 1mnt ;. PfQIIkIed
b 1ha number 01 the staIrcase lumots (and
1M pr--.ce Of absenoa 01 a _
choir
alIdIOf.., anter::hun::h. ~ ~I

...no...

A blind _ I Ironl (IIoCrettn _llronIl is

io depeo oderolly 01 bolt! 1ha
InIar"IOf IP&C8 IIIld the shIpII 01 the root.
~

1 'IOOmIIOfllCOUrt
2 westt'" ct>oir
3 _18m transapt
an:Worlide

iii iii iii

,-

,-

S WHlemcenu.!

iii i iii i

West lront with flanking towers

West front with central tower

Thoo - ' Iront ......tIl ' - ' _ _ ;. IhII

l)'PoCIII dMIgn ~ lor" IhII Rorr\aon""'"" ~ IIIld WIdltspfead in ~n
and - . , Europe " is a syrnbok:
relefwoce 10 IhII Qllteway 01 the ~

Tower 01 1ha

-.

~1075
Tha
__

Iowa< MCIIOn and

01 f'IIdoorbom.

hasno~in1ha

possesseS

two araAar

alai< turfetI - aI IaaIures relating

10 1I"0Il
ongnIIIOf1Jfled d\af8C\ef 0I1ha IlooIding

West front with transept

and with <*'1ral_
The re two variatIOnS:
1 1M tOWtN II ln1egrateod InIO 1M wes~.n
\raIIM9I1_ tIboYe).
2 lila ' - ' II pIaoMI witIlIn the axil 01 the
oentraI _
on 1roo1t 01 1M west Iront

22

--.

Central west tower above porch

St. BenoItIUfLoQ. mid eIeYen1h oenIury.
An~~_1ront.

West front with three towers

The '****'is ~ etud\ 01 MafIIo
lud1 (pictured) lakes lIS pIKe ~
0. rnoro.menIaI ~ ~
and has . - . d YirIuIoII)' ..-.aIIarad ___

tha 1WIIIth century. BoesMg two 1ranMptS

rod Iwo Mil 01 triple - . . . . thos etud\
has 10 be _
in reIabon 10 the itnpIf\IIl
ca1hedrala 01 WOfrM aod ~ .

The weslwOfk makes Its distinct.....

appuranc. In 1M carolingian an::NIac1urt
oItha te18 eigI>1h oenrury and comes 10 the
bra In !he firsl PIri 01 the ""'th century.
From about tha yea. 1000. a moditIIId
......,.. oItha CarolingIan WISIwoOrI< ~
with numerous arcI"ooIecturaI detaiIt _a
Iakan _ O f ~ " " " - and .....
b ()IIor-. _ . ExempIN; 01
~ tIuIIIinIIJI can boo found aI _
f"OII"IIm.-;l ........ Fraro:a. in thalOUhm
PIri 01 modtm HoIend. in 6eIgro.m IIIld
1twoughoIII Ga<rnarov Thare Is ......aIIh 01
....... _
who;h rellBct the dietIlIy
be,-" clille<enl countries and dillarem
cultural regions.
Tha westwork UIOIIIiy consists 01 a central
PIri WIth an alrium (breoour1) and mutti~ upper cIlu:It. and may alSo be
~1Id WIth transept1ikoo lide-wlnga.
gaIeriM IIIld various nanking towen.
The dlaractefistoc axIIriOf leal.... 01 ilia
Ca<oIIngoen IO'I-IIWOfI< is the _ I lronl
with _
towwa who;h remained on t.iI8

IOf oenturiaL The tad that .. WHIMN1<I

... ~ on ......... Iashoon IIIld " - IOIda
gaogo." ...... distrtouban dMrIy II.WMI
IhM " - building !ypI _
tw.. bMn
boIMd on 1ha ~ III ..-d
prcqam 0I1ha cartllingoln em.:-e

One variallt 01 westwork takes ilia brm 01

I lrans....... 51f"UCture the wio:fth ollila l"1li ....
and alMa. Tha wincIows abcYfI the po<tal
in(Iio;ale Qllilaries IOf the nobiIiIy

The exterior I west II

Pilasters and column:;

Arcades and arches

1. Engaged pilas'e< 2. engaged column,

1\aII->Iumn 3. mullkhaft. compound Of

11 is in Ihe lop bellfy 01 d'luroh

dusIered pilast91 ("I 4. blind "rcaOOs, I1Ik1ng.

Blind west lront

The blind W<lSI Iron! 01 san t.tiehekl in
Pavia is remorvsc:ent 01 an imposing
thealrical backdrop. One C8(I lrequefll\y
_ such $lOOp. high tacadH in the cities
01 Northern Italy. The west Iron! is divkIed
1010 three parts bv powe<fuI, ""rtlcIIl
~ Iu . t ..-.d pllall. ...
The raking blind .~s along the edge 01
the Qllble reconc:ikt the horizontal swoep ot
!he pitched roo! and the Yerlocallines of the
pilaSIlt. strips. The west lron1 is "-"'the<
aceeotualed by the synvneuical .~
men. 01 !he por\I'Ils and the windows.
The.e are also numerous reliels diSlribu1ed
ff!l8ly along the wall spaces.

I arod II: g<ound-j:>Iansofengioged column

and /T'lJIIi-shaft pilaster: a. pIiolh; b. erogaged
coIlIrM: c. pilaste, strip: d. e<1~
<::QIvmn/inIi1 pilaS1!l<s: e. altiM:fIed
coIumo-JIh_-quartertirdeprofile.

Articulation of the west front

lOW<.!rs

wtlere ooe tan oIIan observe the inlflfplay

01 blind arcatle1i (AI and blind arches (B).
The blind arcltde$ take up and ....ry .he
arel'l motiI. T~r with the cornice (C)
and the cupola. they loon 1he <::OmpIebOn of
the lOwer.

west lronl of NoIreOeme4-Grande in

P\:>rtiers (above) is regardod a s the perlec1
8'ampie of a ~ rich in sculptural
decoraloon thaI has been worked out in
lI'ealdetail.
The

Emphasized b'f vertical lrieles 01 roond

arcadir'lg;, the . tru:;ture am be understood

10 represanl an al-encompassiog iconograpNcal program.

Wesllront with central tower

The _at Iron. 01 Santa Maria di To;jIio al

Gravedone leatures a 1'IO..I:l'be. at details

whicI1 ernpllasize the a&eendlog line and
the IIetgh1 of !he whole building. Sel 01'10
1he IowooIr rectangular base, !he ~
lower
as fa, UIl as the ridge of the
0001 and is divided Into _ral Sloreys.
The lowe. rectangUlar part of !he
in189'Bled bel tow&< is lnMIrsed by a
slender leseoe - a aunpIe and elega01
soI\Ition 10 the p<ObIem of ~ !he base

".,ards

,nm two;rone$,

Structural elements
The OOrizontai cornice (I) oIIen occurs in
CO!ljuncbOO with a lrieze 01 blind areading
(2). Horizontal blind arc;tde$ (3) and
II8f1icaIIeseoes (4) are elerMnts Ifequenlly
usOO to articulate towers and 'acades. The
towars .., question are u_l~ massive
wesllowe's.

Romanesque friezes
West front with centra l apse and twin
towers
Trie<. St f'elefs cathedral

The ch<Irch WIth two choirs was first lntroduced in

the carolinlJi<ln period. n finaly p<Odoced its 0WfI
~ weSI Ifonl, known as the wei llronl with
centra' I p H Ind tOW8l'I and included two Dt mora
lOwers. Tria"s Sallan cathedral is a pronounced
Vllriation of this type, with a central pediment and
lou, towers. The W(lSI cI'w.Iir which delines ~ as a
building...ttl twWl locus space (aM ground ~n) is
U$lIiII/y Iound .., the Ge,manspaaking areaS of
Europll. This type also occurs spotIIo:Iical/y in
Burgundy, Lorraine, Lombartly and Tuscany.

Ground plan (lett):

A: east choor; B; west choir: C; nave; D: side aisles;
E: staircase turrets of the weSI Iron\.

InterlaCe frieze

23

The exterior I east I

1. Ctooi". 2. SanauIry, 3. A"t:datcIIY . ChoIr

1ransflIll 5. ChoIr =--g 10_ 6 ~
c::t\ail* (<hMII). 1 Ctooi" 1t8nsep1 o;:h/IpeII.
8 . Side ct"\apotl. 9 Transepl chapell.

The choir, Its spatial structure

and Its elements
~

!he choir was !he ~ in the

d'uI::h...oere tIe<=*ll'l' WIg. ll* II*" was
exlended and !al... became the li1urgocal
cen1ef con\IIining the high al1jt.,. Lale, a
SIInctUllry or apse Will .oo:IId at the
easl.. n end. The whole complex was now
gtr'It<IIIy reterred 10 as !he choir The
. .1enIoOn at the sIIIe . . . . inIo the d"IOIr
..-rIled WI the ambuIIIory Ffom Iha ....
0I!Vy orMMts .... ...... II otIIn
_ ' .... 0Id

by

~ chIpeIs

knOwn as ......-.g chIpeIs ...tdl . .

~ into.ct.- ($I.. Mar1in at TOIn)

The ...... rgemIfII oj !he choir ..... ~
at CUIV 111 (1088): the . . .:tion at . choir
1t8nMpI ~ a c:rt:lSP'II whidI _
surmounted by \he central dlOW _
. The
Hlllem IidM 01 \he lransepl ... 1urnIIIIed
with side 'p$fS which togolllhol< wi1tl the
radiabng chapell Iotm dense ring 01
apsN. Thoa ~1 01 the choir ....
.....ot CUIV 111 the model lor ""'"'Y
~~~cnyb

aBated ~ IIUCh IS La CIwItM

buI 8110 lor 0IhIr buiIckIgs outsoo F!Ince
whk:1I. ' -. teno:IIod 10 ba ~ on
a"""" rnodnIlCallllhan CI..-.y 111 .

Central apse with side apses

The 0I0IraI epM wIIn !hi . . . - sIIIe
apses (RNcIt.a d'Addio. St.. MlwII San
SIg&sm:Indo. twelfth ~ jIOWI1 to the
bIIiIic:a Iotm 01 a high nave and _
soda
aisles. The skill ap&H _ the tnezes 01
,oond arCliding below the ,oot1ine Iotm the
end 01l1>li soda choQ. The central apse is
decotated with a high band 01 blind

-.

....

There.,..

_1.

24

ax..

.aen

CN"8ct&ris1>e laatvr.. 01 !hi IO"(;IIIIed

H,rsau
1l'1li choir with Ch8peIs in
echaIon and me abHnoe 01 a crypt.
Ano!ha, typ;cal and rIOYII dWeIopmanl II
the choir side alliat whidI ~
willi the main d'IOIr vie areaOa$. Thos
0I0rus MaIO< Iur1hIf underIiMs the
-..ely o;tonoinant potiIIon 01 .... choir.
~ in IronI 01 it IhII 0I0rus MInor
(lor !he lay bro1tIIf"I not laking 1*'1 in !hi

School.,.

.....,.

The IirsI c;:hun::h 01

~,

St. AuraIius.

S&IWd .. IhII modal lor

KIosl&rr&ic11enbaeh in ita eooeepIoon 0I1he
choif. $1. Au'..... was. howaYa,. bo~ witt1

protwo1lIy

Hlrsau f st. Peter and Paul

_ _ ~ the d"IOIr. M .. -V IiI*y

1hI11heM ..... also indudad in lilt plant
lor $I. PIlaf
Paul but ..... _

Hlrsauer Bauschule
(The Hirsau School)
Choir with chapels In echelon

At St. MaIIIt WI GanganbactI_1M I d"IOIr

five radiatong apeideII chapels. "IWo
......... ap&H
placed in !hoi
01 the
tnlnMplt. .....1 10 the central apse A
ru,the, apse II IKkIed to
01 the
transept .,-ma. These .1t*lngIy ImII
~ .,. allo knOwn as apai::tioIa& .

end _

Klosterrelchenbach

Hlrsau f St AureliuB

The N$1 end 01 the lor...... abbey eI\u:II 01

51. S - (photo and ground plan) II a
remarkable example of choir with
~ in actwIon. The transept_ 10
' - diNpp6arad. . . the ..... broadens
out - . . the choir .. a ..u 01 the
"t1ighI' 01 ___ .
IWI at _
chapels 10 the -.st 011l'1li CftIIMWIQ orienNd
towardl 1IW choir. The central tranIi8IlI
d\IIpoIII
WIth .aen othe( ....
In:adel. thus anh<Inei'Ig Ihe promi"."ce
of the choir.

Chancel with five radiating

apaldal chapels

""""",.

aoo

St. ~, and Paul prcMdad the In$pWaIion

lot the potiIIoniog 01 the choir and tral\Hp1

01 the AlIerh&ilogervr>Clt-..ter (All Sein~

C.1hedraI) 01 Sehaflhlnl$6t1. ~,
100. was probabty onfIuenoId by $I. Peter
and Paul, ..-.:& at AIpIrsbactI, 100. !hi
a"IIMIn!I was 1rWlSIo<med i-01O ChoI"I.Malo<
Many IadorI
~
thOio.1ankWIg
_ . ._. . . tI\M
pIannad
lor
~ . ....... 1O It'aoe 11 $1.. ...........
and in KIoItoo, eic:heo bech.

The exterior I east II

y
0
0

Ii
1=1==-~.

- 0) I

"~-t~

Polygonal choir
The MIl'IICi:Ie 01 .... apR II btoI<en 14' info
a number 01 '-!$, The bUll; f'\'IOdIIIll'IMI
lroq\Hlfllly ~
!he octagon Of "'dodecagon wnoae in18f1of opefW Into I ~
choir.... ThiI melhod - * ' lilt c0nstruct"'" ot ~ ,... mina,kln like the
"... in Ihe parilll d\utch 01 Neuengeseke
(lhinMnIh celllUry).
The ~ cIetIgn 01 !hoi CI'IOif II Iieulaled 0I'II)t by lrleze 01 round ~,
Cllt:Ular ~ end ......... plinth

.r.

s.oz,g

Ambulatory with three apsldal

chapels
The eaSlarn pell at the Church ot SI.

Iesenes made 01 masorvy.

Inte<fl' II c,..1ed by !he allMnation of
se<rf.cireular headed and ~fT&I'II8U~ed
windows. The sec:ond storey 18<","",,'e, in
I bind .~ which is surmounted by

GoOenard In HikIHheim eontII:lt 01 lilt

The poIygoM' choir 01 St. PetSf In

(tl\n11H1f'11h cen1ury) boasts -'!h of

delaill: !he IWO-.torey IXlfT1I)Ie>: is articu"'led by plinth and blond atCading and by

Sma. IicIe tUl'l'1S have been insenlld

~ !he apse and !he cOOir, and Ihefe
.... apsidioIes ,!\aChed to the cOOir IicIe
aisle .

ambuIIIlory ... th thr" IIPIidaI chapels or

ap6idioIH. the apse. !tie choir and the
cIloir tide ...... The .n&Iow apeM 01 the
lraRMPI emphf.siz. itt c:IoM I!ruelural
II.I1ini1y wi!I'I!he choir complu. The H51&rn
jill" o! !he churdI rom.. !he c.m.. !ower
rising ~ !he choir k\Ullre The 1fCfli.
IeCIIKaoI J!ruc!ur"'9 , ....... In heightened
ayrNJoIIc ~ 01 !he choir.

Ambulatory and radiating

chapels (Chevet)
lypocII 01 !he Rom8nesque Iro::Mectu ... 01
!he ~...,.. .... baskas lea!Uring .n
ambulatory wrroundIng !he ~ with a
ring o! 'adlal"'ll r;hapeII {~!}. 51.
Austremoine in 1$SOi,. is fur!her dialing.
UlSI\ad
B recraogular ~ CtIapej
placed ~ !he innerrnoa! 01 the lou<
~1Ory ~ rourded chapell. ThIs
IormabOn ""'" be the resuII 01 change in
!he building
One can also deleCl !he
~ ot the des;gnlhll was 10 -*"lhe GoIhIc r;hoor lUTIbuIalOry.

r.v

'*'"'",

"*'

Churches with towers above

the choir area - variations
The lillie duch 01 51. CIr>dicM at KInf>eoTI
In !he northem par! 01 !he ea.d< Foreat
(.......-.eh C*"IIuryj ~ !he toutIt...,. GImlIn RornInMquI chun::tI 0111.type ~ are _ _ IitIIII Aomen-.....~~nNIby--

Triple-apse (trefoil) plan

The lillie priory o;h.In:h 01 SMlI~
loncIrft 1_ ground plan *""") was
lounded In 1088 end II ~
aarnp. oIlhe -'Y Romanesque sty in
Ihe 8a$.L.anguedDc .egoon. The dotJbIe.
boIyed ............ 0Yef inIo. CfOSSIfIIIIn:>m
which IIPMI .,.Ierd in WWf &imiIa, 10
lIa"". The """" apse is sep&.aled from
the o;rQoUing by means 01 an e>:IeOded ba\I.
n. "HSlIofmM>on" is relerred to as lreloil

Saint-Marlin-de-Londres

or 1riple-apse plan.

~ II:ICHe !he chorr I'N, Iomq I .....

~ 01 chair _
In II.- regooro
One renon ~ be !he lid II'1II . .
'*'<;:II~ ... GcIr'rWIIIIICI ~ . . ...SII!l/WIuI. Rwrogu.. ~ - ' MaritI,
- ' ~ ~ Milr1In .nd MochMI, as II
.....aIy trw ClM ThoI dwIgle 01 pa!tOn
Min! II one .... o! ~ . . - r y
worI<: """'II1'r1InI<lIh pAtron Monts aICh as
~Qr~""I _ _ oI
~ IheI !he ~ r8Jgion
.... jIII"oI . . Ft........ ~
The choir. uaudy ree!angtr6I, In 1hiIIM. II
~
~
!he _ . whir;h Ihuf
pr<MdH I ~ link ~ heawn

Kenthelm, SI. Candldus

Tower aboVe the ChOir area

Towers flanking the choir

""

...,

Ambulatory and radiating

chapels
FoIowwIg !hoi' _
buoIa plan, .... long
0II'IIfaI ~ ..... Ilia !he "'OHrIII inIo
choor wt.o;fl .. iIUITOUI'Ided by ."
IIImbuIIotory ~ oo.A from ....
arnbIAaIory .... ChtN ~ ~
(~)

which .... arrangMI ~

but noI COI'W'IIIdIod ..w:h..:h OIlIer.

The choor. #Ie ~ ancIlht oadIIbng
~ ... CClnllrucIed 0\'8f crypiI buill
KCOfding 10 11>10 samelhfrpe and dMIgn.

-.

Often ... type 01 chun::tI . . . ~

.,. _ . HIhIIII . . CUI. !he _
. as I
kind 0I1INNd dIOir, ~ 011 ~ .,.

The

bay is linked

r.v hi _ _

wtIidI .,. IUIh WIllI the $IdIB aisles. Thay

,..... Ihe ~ with !he __ and COO'Uln
the c:hcW SIde d>apeIs.

2S

The interior I west

The galilee

eartt MIddle Age$. the

end had the characler of WI
. 'dep."deU IItUCtUIf on Iron! 01 the man
CfIurdl. ft UIUdy oonsi:sIed 01 a IWO-Stofey
Qen\fal hal WI\tl trvN-SlOfey SIde comparlmef'Us. The gaIeries enabled !he rulers 10
tot present al the Mrvce and participate
"om an eIeo<aled pos<l00n. UntM the ~me or
1~ Clunoac: ,eIo<m. the W9StworI< was used
lor worIdI)' matt..s. lor example as a
COUrlfoom tor the ruler h was not unl~ the
twelfth end tIWIe.n1h cvnturies that ah8f'
IlbOO$ - . mQ wI\dI negral8d the
_tern Mellon intO rn. mcoin body 01 the

!he nwthex on !he western pari 01 a church

The

In the baika oIlIle

is a V_bOn 01 !he atnum

Of

(_
p;tgt 21 ). The ~ lO!hecor--.t
church 01 Maubonn is also caIed !he
I*IdiM (1210-15). h IS ~ as
UI'lIQIJe and perlecI el<3O'lple of art "om !he
bme 0I1hIt Hohenstaulen dyna$ty (left)
The IOIIuences !rom IkJrgundy .... otMovI
and can be seen in !he special tin,$h of lhe
caplta!s and In !he high pltoths
Each or lhe \IV" bays hal been coo
llruc1ed abo'Ie a SQUare. The portal and
lilt twin arcades open onto !he 1ofecou(I.
The monumenIaI crossribs e)(lend IikI
" . - . artt.s !rom IhIt moghry ( f t.
pot'II'J. whodl . . placed on hogh 1)IInh.
T....... with !he IraIISIIe<Se ribI. lilt ribs
whodl diagonally o;:tOS$ !he cross vaul! loom
.-ni-otdes. The ~ spIS of !he brt
...et.. conIribuIe to !he ~ of Ihe
onIlIrior In spiIe 01 !he ~ ~
UMd lor ots arbCUIebon, and . . . . lilt
aqua! POOPOI1lO115. !he interiDI lias lin
ItmospI'Iet. whrch is any!hong 001 hea")" Of
dark - a ~ty thaI was emphasIZed as
I speeofic dlar8C1erislic of dasarcar

"""'"

n.

-..or!< W!Ih its own o;n.;. is il

......... 10 the IitI.-gocaI MIIDI'ICImy 01II'1II
MCIIOII 01 the building. and to !he pIaa 01
the ruIIrs. The Iimer otten had a ;aIIery
buill in !he well choor !rom which !hey
-...d f.lII<t 1*1 in the ....-Ices ard beneath
whoeh !hey would ~ be laid to rest. Thus
the _!trn Ira~ with Ih9Ir gaJeries
gradually ~ as symbol of lTIaj$SflC
dignity lor the digrutal'ie$ of the realm. sueI'I
as the IIfChboshop or the empo!for

Hohenstauteo aretutOClule.

I
,\.;_' '-\1
~

..',..

'
'. ,

'

.I J

tI

'

,L .

I ' ,

111 ~ .~ I'

"

.., F""-'
\
~

" ff';~ "

Basilica /hail church

Nuns' gallery

Western gallery, singte--slorey

E....Mion 01 the ~ oIlhe ca\tllO'aI 01 CauI8 ~IIO (twelfth e.ntury)

The ~ e.thedraI 01 San Evlll'Cl. buill M the bITIII oIlhe Lombards
blend 01 ~ and hill church. The main complex WIth 11$ lour ai$Ie$ 1$ pre<:aded by an
vnusually large galilee The two OUIer bays. when /elated 10 the nave. rll$UII in a .abO 01
baY' of 3:3 The ~ lratlSlI8IH arm.. extend tar down into the interiOr -
em.raeterlstk: ITIO<tI otten found in AmIenIan 8O'ChiIecIur. h m.ohtl\aV(l boon intr(l(lu(:110
No<them lta'v alter the Second Crusade.

The hogh gahry opetWIg IOWaItIs the ........

is OCII'IItr\.Icled 0YeI' . , atSIed, Iow_\em
lid Nunt' ~ can oIten be found in
~I thufdIes 01 BenedictIne rfoIns. for
.~ in the convent church 01
UppoIdsbe<g in HHSe (now the Protestant

An.nposorog eI!ect is aea!8d by tha inIIOf

01 If.. wwf*O<I< of !he abbay church 01
Eu.1 (eIeYenIh eenlUfyj The hogh gaIary
torms I1rikong cootrasl to !he thickse!
Ifet.s of !he ~1Ioor and is probably
inspired by !he CaroIirlQUIn Pallobne
Chapel In Aach&n.

...-1$

pariah Church).

... Western choir, tw()+slorey

The t-.$IOf1ty _tam c::I'ooIf oIlhe c:I'Iurd'I
01 S1. George in Cologne (1WeIIth CNuty)
pIO!eCtI !rom !he square centl'aI section 01
!he _18m tIiII and is spenned by a
domed ceIWIg The wall system ;. arbCU
IIoI41d by ........ of piI;tsIets ...,;I round
wchtd window$. On the top stort'y, . . . . ;.
I 0DITId0r btI'ond lilt wal. In lilt _18m
sectIOn; lilt top storey used to Iunc:Iion as

.,...,

Western transept with gallery '"

The Schonanlurche (Scots church) on
RtgenIbu'll (S!. James', eievtln!hitwetllh
century. righI) , an aisled coIulMlld
basilica, t8ill\.OrH a western transept A
galltory, whodl was used by dIOris!~ was
put in front of !he SOO!hem and IIOfthem
ItmWlllion of lhelr..sepl

26

--

The interior
Construction of the
nave

~1IgN~)

The dIsign 0/ .". ..... 0/ .". ....... in

~

c:I'Iu!cIwI ill otten

a ......ROtey ays\eITI. One Of two IIIIgM

~trilorium

01

blind

trIIorIum)

.......

alQ'or I

cIefestory ....eN (:II)nII1n,io;tod ~ lilt

arades. depeocIong on !he size and

proporbonS_
0/ _
!he buIdO'lg. The ~
~

Oftwo~.

'"*

n.

suuctura .. oonbnuIId in !he

MONyI.. Such a ~ " ~ on
the overaI buIdO'lg plan. One 1y5Iem.the CI05$II"I!I~". iI8 basic proporllon.
which ill repeal&!! in the ~ 0/ the na .....
Each bay has iI8 own ..a.A1. 1M 1ho:'\n1
boling taken by the ~ $ornebmee the
....... ill arIicUaIId by a 01"l)'Il"...: ......
.... lI0II 0/ ~.. .,., coUn.-... Such I
dMogn IkIdI _ _ .,.,
10
MO_
~

Singie-lier construction

Double-tier construction

Fonwnay, leN...., CisWQIn abbey church

ot NoIfa oan.. ~I rom 1139). The IIII"IgI&-

II the ...... conIll'\ICliOn is in 1WO stage lhe

high ....... is diYicI&d by me.. 0/ de ...

allow lor
a c:IeNoItoty, wtIIC1"I would ...... bNn .".
MCIIon ..... construction does

_"~_TlIlIOrowso/

.......

<;VCUIar 1-*1 WWIdow's in ... - * "

..... __ ~lorlhalpurpoM. The .....
MCIIon above 1he areades is artlCtJlal! by
meansol~.

a lOW 0/ semi-cwc:uIIIf I"Iead&d

wn:IowI and by !hi arcadH. PiIMIMI Of
a1tactolcl c:obmI -.out SUUct\If1OI tunclIOII ... onMt1ed in Iron! 0/ 1M . - in
on:Ier 10 ..*,*,,,, .". ...... 51*)1. The
~ vaurrw.g 0/ .". ntivo:kIaI ~
I... med by t ... ",........ arches wNch rtOdiII!.
lrom lilt capita. 01 the pilaslars and
lOry willi

attach&d Q01\ImnI in the cIe'HlOry. In both

cases the CfIurd! in ",,"loon is groinYIW1!ed arcaded basIica wI1h ....... wall
rasIIng on poIAra, Iypa partjQrlerty

_
in fWIIIIt\.oentur ~. n.
pocIIQ on .". Ie" shows bey c:on\ari'Ig
an arcadt and dri<asIory """"*,,,",, . . . .
the second .ample illustratet a bey

hous.Ing two
...-.

arcades and two deorHlory

1 side .....

,,'-.,..,

III

....

5de<H!O<y

--

The Chun;h 0/ 51. Gewutle in NiveOeaI

SaIgU:n ~arOlRl 1000(1046) is a rypoul
.,..~ 0/ a wal consln,io;tod in two

Three-tier construction
This rype 01 ..... COfISlrudion is likely
00QlII" ..

suet. as

10
ItIrge ~ calhldnoll.
in Worms. The CWIItaI

11"141 _

Mdion ill ' - * lor !he ~ Of .".

tr'orun. WhiII in moa c:as.M C .. LIMd lor
~. IheftI ... _
chufchII whic:fI
do ~ u1ikze 1he ~ betWId ~ tenl ...1
MClJon. In IUCII cases blind l,iIorium
.. applied pur-'Y lor reasons ot lUrtaca
..loculation wtIIC1"I ean be 51ruct",&!! by

..-

ft
r

.~

\
I i
I

r I,

Such a blind IrIIonom can be _

in the
wa.I eleYation 01 Wioc:Ilfill, Cllh1dral
(1060). The I1rict1y I>oriZOOlat IayeMg 0/
.". Vlriout buoIcIrog MII:fion5 is typical 0/
English ard'Irtaeran In on:Ier 10 try and
...... tIw ~ on lila hofIzonIIoI.
slender arcades and "-t. ar1ICUIMrng
piasl...
_~.

Rhythmic alternation
Three-tier construction

oumam

CIIIhedraI ... nor1hIm EngIIod

"""'*'

... 1093 rod

tts ITIOIU'l1eflIaI pokf'I are
construc!Id omo o;:no;:iIorm bues and
surrourdId by attad'led ~ who;h
lead up 10 the YauIting .mere they blanch
~_ A/!a<""ting WIth these IIIII~
are ~ pIIoeI_1Ila bay
Assogned 10 uch 0/ !he 1WO areadM wiIIwI
.... bay _ _ do...tlIe
!hi
gaIery and _
""!lIe
was
in

begun

1128.

""""*"'"' ..

Three-tier construction with

gallery
5aJIIHu.... irI AuIu'I was begun in 1120
as an~ bMka .... .a ...... ,liar
!he
medii
The
- - - . 0/
__
_0/a Cluny
fwM.Iiw
conIlruCIOn
will....I

Four-tier Construction
The Ioofzone ...... conslfllCtion is 1ayeNod
hom boIIom 10 lOp . . 1oIows: I~ ,

Ij/IIeoet.. blind trDUn. rod

~.

The bay .. separaltld !rom !he gaIe<y 1ewI

bya .......

headed window .. the darestory The

\IiIltery wndow -repealS" the ll'UCIIKI 01
the two arches imtQrated by .". bay The
oIerestory ~ are already part 0/ lilt
VluItad MCfIon ...nocn , _ aoo.. the

-.

~ IIit>O'4 the high ....... arcades.

Roman COlly g.alll; ........., as moo;IIN ( _
blraHon allow). willi !hair piutan
p1aCed be'- the gallery windows., The
baadI end ...... end rOIIIItI InN" ...
tur1hat raIarancea 10 CIauocaI enbqui!y.
Howewo-. ..... " orIy _
cIeresIory

-",..,

27

...."
'-

1 chancel

Choir

and crypt

3 tnumllhal

,,,"

The choir
OOginally 11>9 choir deooled ltl8 place
where !tie sing"'9 in church 1001< place
SOOn it was designatad the liturgical center
arourd whICh the church irnerior or !he
basilica dev&IDped. The simple eally choir
was extended by !he ch;l~ square and
Ihe apse or chevet. From !he thirloonth
ce<llUry onwards. It\e boIef araa betwOOll
the monks' and ltle lay church has I:>wn
marked by the chancel or choir Wee<!
which also servEl'S as a platform for $il'lQ(lrs
or as a lecte<n. The SIze of It\e chotl is
usually diclated by the width and height
dimenslQ(lS of !he
e.cep! wtIefe
partial closure ot the crossing allows a
lIIIn'owing of the choO'.

""lie.

Basic choir forms

The basIC type 01 the eatty Fraokish 1IIsJa.
Ies$ cnu<ch consists 01 a sif1\?18 !>all CIt'
basilica-type $p3C(I with an adjoi.w.g
rectangular sanctuary (2).
AisJa.less churches are also loond in
northem Ita~. tor example in Pavia arod in
Sirmione. The ttalian type also compnses
a simple. undivided hal woth apses and
llanking apses or apsocfioles attached on

, ,0

...."
'-

1 chancel

.-

3 ambulatory

=-

the eastern end.

These chUfch IOflns are rel9!T8d to as
Hhaped "basic type., with the English
ponlCO church constiMlng a $j)tICia1 form_
Also conceived along the I'shaped ground
plan are the closed CIt' open halls (porticos)
arlilnged around the central haN and
seMng as last restOng places ICIt' the
donO<s. One example is Aecut.er In the
Canterbury ar8a (seventh cenlUry).

Chancel square and apse

(on twCllevels)
In Great SI. Manln , CoiootlOl, twetlth
century, the apse adjoIoong the chancel

square is dIVided into two levels. The lower

level consists 01 blind arcading WIth
columns and Il!<;8SSQS opening up beNnd
them. The level above has a peristyle Wlth
laroe seml-eirwlar headed windows.

ki\

Chancel square and apse

(ononele.&I)

In the church 01 San Michele of Pavia

(twelfth century) ShiPS lead up from !he
erossn'lO to the elevated chaocel square
(1) and 00 to !he apse (2). The apse is
constructed on one level.

The crypt

Single- and multi-pillared

crypts

The crypt was oriQioalfy the place whero a

martyr was laid 10 rest (conl essio). Lat9<
on, \tie CI'fPI served as last res~ng place
for both secular and spiritual dignitaries.
Aixwtl the crypI would be constructed the
east choo. and latttr lIle whole 01 the
cIlurch. The tvooel Cfypl. consistIng 01
individual chambe<s, t\as ~s origins in !he
&arty Christian catacombs.
The doounant type in ninth-wnlUry llafy
was the hall crypt which was designed 10
indlJde aisles and was vaulted The
heiQIltened C&iIIng made it necessary 10
raise the choir above

Depending on the scale and the design,

Cl)'pIs are (l;slonguished accoIing 10
aisles and sUppor1s. The single and 100"
pillared types have "equently been
ron$lructed with a grQIn vau~_ The short
shafts 01 the ooIumns abSorb the vetlical
thrust 01 the vaulbng, while the outward
thrust is diverted inln the OOter walls.

These Cl)'pI in!eri()r$ are charaeterinKI

toy massive cushion 0< a.eanlhus eap!lals
(Corinthiatl capitals). Addibonal transvef$tl
arches are nltan foond in hall cryptS with

twCl. three. CIt' fool aisles.

Hall crypt
The hall crypl 01 Speyer is often called "the
most beautiful Cl)'pIIn the world: Indeed. it
aeatO$ a magnificen1 invession. woth its 8
moghty piers. its massMl walls. and irs t4
COfTI8O'
36 engaged coIumn$ and 20
I,eestar>ding columns (righl).
The groin vault is articulated toy transve<se
8fdIes. Extending Irom the heaVV cushion
capotals CIt' the imposls 01 the piers, they
o:tvide the crypt into 1/>(ee alroost square
spaces lined up alClng the transvef$tl Il)(is.
$0 that three naves a'e formed, each with
three bays. Each 01 the side rooms is
extended in its eastern part toy three altar
recesses. The bases and the cushion
capitals &ugQ8St thai building was ~n
aroond 1(l30.

,.;ers.

Ambulatory crypt
In !he crypt of Flavignysur,CI.le<ain. Sa,nt
Pierre. the ronlessio (2) is surrounded toy a
rectallQUlar ambulalO<y (I) which leads
into the chantry ch~ 0< O<aIOrie$ (3).
An adjoiroing aisled arm {~J k,ads on inlO a
hexagonal lady Chapel (5). This COO'oj)Iex
groond plan was conce;...eel in the 00ItI

-..
28

"

Rectangular choir
chors are often foond in earf)'
churches 01 the lshaped type. ie there is
no chaneel SqUare in lront 01 the apse.
Thera are two ditle<enl typeS: those with a
ftal ceiling (tor example in Goldbach on
L~ COnslanoa, around tOOO). and !hose
with a vaul1 (Soest, SI. Maria zor
Rectangular

H6helHolme4,jrche, ttuneenth century)_

The interior
vault and dome
The flat oej~ng taken over f.om the early
Christian bMllica was g'ao..oatly replaced
by a stlTl!)le barrel vau~. The polasters
anached to the front of the aIsle columns
are (:<I"'",ved in the vauf! by trans\lel$(l
arches. The intersecbon of the transept
aOO the nave vaults '9SIIk in grojns !rom
which the groin vauk lak&s its ""me.
These groins were reinforced by means of
ribs which otten sprang !rom the column
capotats. In the COUf$<j of ~me and in
dmerem regions. thIS so..ca.lled II.om vau"
was adapted and developed In a variety of

Groin vault
The inla<saclion 0I1wO bar,eI vauHs al right
angles above a squars results in lhe
formatIOn of arched diagonals Of groins
wil hln the vauK. This i$ hOw lhe vauh

Curved vault above a lunette

The conSIf\lCUOf1 type of the pilgnmage
church ,eached its climax in tho d>urd> of
SlIInl'SerrWt in Toulouse (1080- 1150). hs
~ vauk spans a nave thaI consists of
eleven bay5 and has Qlllieries dWided 1rno
TWO parts. The transverse arches spring
from the capolals of Ihe (HIg<IOed coIvrms
which span a IWCC8Ssioo of bays.

~~.

abovs lhe crossing of a bar,eIvaui!ed

church navs with a balfalvauhed transept
was created. The piers of !he crossing
mall< the 0U!a< coma, of l he grojns and of
!he vauh

Construction of dome and vault

Twotype-Sol

thrust are
crealed In ..

--...

"au":
the
vertical aOO the
OIItwarl"l thrust

The maIn

OIItwarl"l1lYusl
IS absorbed by
the exterior
waAsofthe
1IIsk! and by the
buttresses.

Pointed vault and groin vault

Four arches lacong """ another are domed
by TWO arches al right angles to each other.
crea~ng lour
sphencal tflaoglM, Of
peodenliYes (concave spandrels). which
are walled up.

A typical fealure of the Romanesque

ca1hedrai 01 Salamanca (Iw9t1th C9n1l1fY) is
its pointed "auh. The vaull tapers to a poont
at its VIlf16X. thus forfTllflll groins (see groon

"aulIj.

Domlcal vault
In many CilSIIS lhare was a deslre 10 "raise"

the

CfO$SIf"Ig

by means of a

vau~

wrthoot

the COOSIf\lCUOf1 01 a dome. The gfO+fl vauf!

was then ex1ended ilCfOSS the laval oIlhe
arcades, thus 8mpha$lZJng !he di,tICIion of
both the nave and the transept by means

o! ribs

Dome resting on squinches and

pendentives
" a dome is erected over a crOSSIng. a
$OIution must be tound for the transibon
from the squara into a corcle Squinches
are used 10 bridge, by means of sman
vaulls (which have the appe.lI,ance of 8af$
horns). the comers of the square. thus

Of

creanng an octagOfIiIl space which can

lhao carry the ctrclu of the dome.
concave
PandenliY8S a.... s.pharicaI
triangles which bulge OU! ba1waef\ lhe
arcades (ie. they "hang' OU! inIQ lhespaca)
and ca'ry!he circle olthe dome.

Dome resUng on a tambour or

drum

Domed churches
A special fealu .... of the P9rIgord region is
the domed chu.ches. their dorne$ uSlIIIIIy
ris<ng up above pendeotives (Pkigeux. St
~tl8f1ne-dttIaCiT6IStF rom). PartICUlarly
impressive is the domed dlufd> of CheNal
(see photo aOO grouOO plan) dallng hom
the tw&Ifth QlfUvry: he<e, lour dorne$ have
been arranged one i:>eIuOO the other (3
bays in "'" IUIWI And "'" <:hnir)

San Tomaso in l.emJne in AImenoo San

Banolomeo (tw9II\h century) is a round
church MId is used as II baptIstery Of a
memorial d\apeI (right). The inlerior of &Os
rolunda 19a1UfElS an II\IIIIf corcle of ~umns
which forms ~ and suworts a ring
wf1ich is transformed into the dome. 1hs
tambour (Fr.adrum) Of tambour corcle has
windows which allow light into lhe dome.
The dome ~soff opeos out into a lantern. a
sman IOUnd tUlfat. wf1tch also has win
dows. Visible !rom lhe outside, the
tambour is o~en aruculated by pilas1ers,
1 9 _ and blind arc:adng. Tambour
circles a's used in caotrally plal1l1fKl
build"lfI!ls WI1tt corcular oround plans.

29

Church doors
and windows

Iconographical program
The 1)'ITlIiInUm shows the cenlrallheme.

in,.. .reniYolb

.mile !he ~ .-:ondary themes

' " dej>oc1ed
(lor .... mpIe.
0IclINew Testament or .1Ie.gor\CB1 $<:erleS)
The lintet oItan de9iC1S ___ related 1<1
!he ceotraI !heme In !he tylT4IIIt'Un The
...... ~IO!he~.,.. Thepllnlh
_
below !he wall ~ ~
_ _.

Church doors

'*""'"

~ ~

buiIcIO"9I ' - twee

IypIIs d _ : I. !he ~
I'CU'Id-an:hId _ ; 2. ... r--.d 01
IMpped por1a/; 3 . ... I'IIOIIMCI por1lII - .
coIlJrrq,. ~ . . . case 01 2 a"Id 3 on perkUar
."... -*Y d ~ deIaiI in
oonarucIion as ...... In ~
Tht QIlUrn$ incU:Ied in IOIrIII d !he
~ enlr.'lllce& aI...." ~ !he
columned portal. T~ (al. eapiIM (b)
!WId an:IY.dIs (e) are ~ lind ant
allen lINd 10 dispIav decooIIM! elements.
n..
_ _ ...:I !he columned porI8II
~ Ihedeslgr1 oIlhe~ ' - - - '
fIn'lIt..IiIo!I por1aI oIlhe GoIhoc: 1*IOd.

_ofIen~aIIegoncIII

.......
...

Recessed columned portal with

shallow projecting pc.ren
Buill tier- 1190 and 1200. ItIoI WUIem
poftalol Saini Trophime in Aries ill amoogII
!he portals 01 Frerd1 ~
ardv\ecIl..Q most richly dec:orali1d ~
figln_ 1CUIpIurw. h appears 10 ' de\IdIed IlseII II'om the III ruc:nn 01 Ihe
buibng on as tar .. _ ...... s" !he ~

F'IJUIPOn _

-..ation.

'- _

~"'~I~
Portal and porcI'I ant ~ inlO_ ...........
IotIhe~oIa~

~ k:o"og.oaphocal ~. The
ceotraI ~ os Ihe expec:I31ion 01 SllMitiOn
associaled wIIM Ihe Last Judgment. .1

iIus1raled in !he tympanum. !he ~

II-. lint*. and !he ~1 81... (~ the
capoIaIt). l.Jr'IIiI<re III"" GoItoc ...::hiIeeture.
!he CMIraI ooUm does nee ~ dIJIo:I
1heme by IMIIri'Iog I9n
IhiI CUI

r...

'MIUkI ' - been CIvI$l as !tie ruler oIlhe

WOf1d) tIo,IIlhe ",,*,"a"Id_ -.:.ng...
wall ...-..orc:. .. ..-o-s........ 01

Arles, St-Trophime
(western portal)

---_-~

hnt81

salYabDn.

Recessed or stepped entrance

, '+-)

. 'I.l"...

-~

il:Lir',t
,..

----

Semur-en-Srlonnals:
on !he IhreshokIIO !he GoIhc: period

!;he

"'Ie<

wt'IICtI o.poct f9ntiwl ~

Stepped entrance with columns

,.,,)

Se""",...,

The IavishI\I decorated por(;h of

BrionNIiI (St Hilaire, twelfth e8n1UfY)

,.....,11 a transiIional . . . In wllOCh

!he . . .'11 ~ ~ decoraled
coIumnL The IIOM8S depocII on !he
(HUnua-..sI. and IheCM$l on ~
in ttIe r,mparun. place ~ well inID ttIe
QQIhe .... . . do !he It$I1nI;I M:twoII rt.
and the "poonIfId" ~,..,;h ,

lin'"

simplified

hMI*I lights ...... <IMc*>g

4 the ....IoiI-hI!8ded WWldow

~IIN;

The last",,,*, QIIl vary as la, at tt..

Gotho(: rOM window The ltWd tr.quently
OCCUri with ltMth ornarnen~J1ion, while tt..
second can I\ave th'lIfI Dt mOOlIig/lts With
type 00II. tt..1nIl'8doI is otten deconited

Seml-clrcular headed windows

wilhmullion
Wf!h lis nell ornamentatiOn, ... figunI_

,_

.......

IClIIpIurM. iIs coosoIiN IO'Id lis __ mask.

3 quatreto;I wniDw

!he IiPSkIaI-.dow 01 the Wa/IerIch d\IIpeI

In Murmardl (~Ih oentufVj takes Ita
pIaoI 81'11OroQS11hf1 mD$I dIIItonctty Romen-

elongated quat,etoII window

esque windows ill Gemllf'ly

6haHwheelwirKIoW

30

n.

portIII. n.....re too..- cIiIIenom IypIIs 1 !he

SII'I'I!* Mmi-<:wI:uIar r - * I wmow; 2. ...
~ Mmi-arCl.fIw headed IigtU .....uh
~ ~. 3. the S1epped .......
~

'

type 01 IIIlIf1Ir'lao is !he r-.sed portal of

the calhed,al of Speye, (eleventh <*lluryl_
Slapped lowl"'ds the central ui$. and
blinded In conlrasling storie. !he MgrllIIf1ts
of !he ardllo<m !he shape 01 a funnel
type 01 por1aI can be ~rOed .. ttIe
pro&oIyJIe
_
!he _01 tt.. oIIandecorI\ed
inctucM portal.

Fan-shaped windows,
cinquefoil and stilted

The Romanesque -..Irldaw is

WI
ft

Windows
........'ur.....rsion 01

en. 01 !he most disMct ~ 01 ,..

5 'lilted treloil window

Amongst !he Romanesque -.oows most

~ on Iotm on !he ~ and

N 1feIoiI windows. boIh ~ 11;1 . . .

ca*'GO'Y 01 !hi- fI'Il.ti.bI wrdOw The ....

a....n

wrdOw 01 St.
In Neuu (dallng fn:Im
... ~Ih cenlury) hila a rIoCIaIlguIII,
Ibltong (I*,,) trom wt'IICtI !he IndMdual
ugrnanlS raliat.. !he so-called foIII or

....

......
u.
:rr .....

Piers and capitals

lriau

Piers

""'"

The ~ Ihru$! of Ihe ........ is abIortJed

by ayaNom III piIIrs. the outward one by
Ihe ou* butIr_ The pillar and wlOll
COI1$lruCIion in AomaJl65qtle reliQoous
buddiog 'XliII in lhal stat.: ,elabOOSlup of

The
con
strucUon
01 a pier

tension Pillara are classified according 10

the Itva grOUnd pIan$ as follows: 1 Ihe
clrwlllr~: 2 the qu,atre/Oil polar; 3 the
crucI\omI pilaf the respond, Of poe< with
engIIged piIfof. 5 Ihe cruciform poe< WIth

1IIWts.

Of oompaund poei'

>;

.....
.......

shallotpie<'

The

respond 8I'Id the compound poet' share II-.

ba$Ie . , . . ot the c:rur;dorm pMar. The

IatIef MI .nad'IId WtIs whdI oIIIn end

....

in~The_~

WtI$ jut out ~ the gopraI$ ....., Iorm

the t r _ ardws at II 8UIt.

--

Rectangular piers
Tn. ~ rectangular potfS of 51. Cyriakua
in Sulzburg (tIeYen\tl ctnMy) CilIIn01 ~1

be r.rdIId as an indtpencItKl1 archntcl urat ..."",,1. They art par! of Ihe SUWQf1.
ing WIll S1n.lClure and marely Rank !he
rounel-arched .rcades.

Circular pUlars

w.

S. AbbondiD in Con!Q (eIveoIhcenturyjos.

typical arcaded buIIica ";!h !he 08119
'Hung on pillara. The Cl<CVlar pOlan lila
OOIlSln.Ie1td /n)m brId< and ara lowed by
moroumental cuahion capotaJs. The main
function of 11"4 pilar. is 10 IUI)pOfIIhe ~
walla _lilt flat QtIIing

Engaged or attached pillar

The respond

1_1IboYe1
T...... NoIr.cam.11lwteendlcenturrl, The

Tn. tofmer priory church of Anzyle-Duc in

0CIlIgtIfW a!\ildled rIiIV9 pilafs are

01 the

Io\.<1I'IIype Responds JlfOI8Cb:'9 beyoncl1lle

arcadH II4JPOII the transverse 8fdws of
Ihe ~ VIIUII. NoW Ihe S\.WQII ~
by .... ~ at piIars and ooIumnL

Burgundy II'W8ttIh century) ks chafaclBflZad

by IY51tm of fftPOI1(Is.Orienladtowards
lIMo na the haIlcotumO$ (r(t$j'lOl'lClS) ....
a!1aC:h8d 10 rllC1aogular pdasl8fl. Thty
tem'IIIUIl' in ~Is from which 'P'lng 1~
11' _ _ arc:llts

The capital

ConUnuous string or band

The ~c 01 the ~
eapuoI can tit .....0 tram the S1I'I'Ipie
cu:shoon c.prtaI (2) 10 the IigtnI capital (5),
~ of 11M a.shocn capotaI, the 10caIed pyr...... capital (II. ITOghI wei tit
!he ~ "'proIofypII- The lor.::
c:.ptaI with lit 'IOIoM Of spraI $(fCI (3l IS
.... NI1y aiIpIabon. E.m.IIishmenIs such
as I~MlIu_ or sIueIds l1'aoslofm the
cushion gpoIaI ..10 an ~ caplliIl
(4), The door.w. tItmoIm$ $how grea!
Imagination arod IocIude apnal maills and
floral Pf-tI$n'II, Cl'1N\lng ever ' - varia'
tlOIlI. TMM
IoIowed by masks and
rinaI IhapeI and lioal1y by IiQuratiYe
___ . .. ot whtIl cuImonaled ., Ihe
.lIcapitaI.

eo.- or stmg c:ourws _

courses (_~)

I;:CII'IIInUt(I

around ..ml0lClUr.ll WKnenIs suc:I'I

ane

as

~poIwtor~

_a

,
... Ornamental or decorated
capital
A1.1he1ormtr~~

cnureh In ~ lhe<a are capIab

whoch show I mmbooabOll 01 omarnental
PiOn_ and Imagony creaMII$.
of

s.:m.

the eap/lais -'So de!lod fiOura!lVf! $O&I'I8S.

Cushion capital ...

Tn. hNvy eap;1aII countefbalanoI lIMo
ongInallOg from the .rcades
wtw;:II it 1I'.......ned onlO lIMo WIts of lIMo
poIwt of Sl Man-. om KapiIoI in Cologne

pi.......

Figural capital
f9Jral eajli1als in !he nave of !he

The

torm.r priory

cl'lurc:h of AnzyIeOue In
Borgundy (twe/tIh century) COfIIbo'Ie o:Ieoo-

fatHamasl<

sn..eswilh~

__.
31

Wolfgang Kai ser

Romanesque architecture
in Germany

Pre- Romanesq ue archi tecture of the Carolin gian period

The decline of the Roman Empire was marked by tormoil and a mass
migration of peoples. As a result, the Merovingian kings, who reigned well
into the eighth century, were able I<J contribute linle 10 th e archi tectore
of central Europt. Trade dec lined and th e towns were impoverished.
Any building was usually conStructed in wood. Only a few towns were
able to retain the important role they had once enjoyed under the Roman
Empire. Tours, in the west of the Frankish Kingdom, and once the sphere
of activity of St. II.brtin, became a shrine for the Franks. In contrast, one
of the most important towns in th e declining Roman Empire, the old
imperial town of Trier. largely lost its significance in the following
cenmries.
A monumental style of architecture was able to rev ive only under the
Carolingians and Charlemagne, who strove for a renewal of the Roman
Empire (RellOval/o Imperil Romanorum), unmng central and western
Europe under his rule in a Frankish Empire. Imperial monasteries and
schools promoted the culmral unity of the Empire. Initially it was a malter
of experimentallon, and casting about for a valrd form of expression. In
these earlier days many ideas were tried Out, and a mulnplrcity of building
styles developed side by side. Simultaneously there was a dC\'elopment of
basilicas, both wilh and without transepts, hall churches with rectangular
choirs and one or three apses, and, finally, centrally planned buildings
according to the function and requ irements of the client. h was the
emperor and nobility, as well as clergy drawn from noble fam ilies,
especially bishops and abbots, who promoted bUilding and granted the
large commissions. Of all the buildmgs constructed during the Carolingian
ptriod, the number surviving barely reaches double figures.
Centers of Cha rlemagne's court architecture
Since 796 Charlemagne had been building his prestigious Palatine Chapel
{photo, opposite}. Supervised by the Frankish master builder, Odo of
Mctz, the prestigious bUilding proje<:t brought in craftsmen from all over
the Empire - Mfrom all areas thiS side of the sea, as it was described. In
798, just before the coronation of the Emperor, the shell of the building
was completed. and in 805 the chapel was consecrated by Pope Leo III to
the honor of th e Saviour and the Morher of God. The central SlTucture
stood as part of four connecting building complexes on the southern side
of rhe Imperial Palace. It was connecred to the hall of justice via a long
wing, halfway along which was a passageway ro the Aula Regia. The core
of the latter is 10 be found today in the City Hall in Aachen. The Aula
Regia was a monumental hall With tWO lateral conches and a western apse.
The huge hall served as Charlemagne's throne room. The Palatine Chapel
has nor come down 10 us entirely unchanged, for the rectangular choir
from Charlemagne's rime has had 10 give way for 3 late Gothic choir. The
main space of the chapel describes a regular octagon, around which is laid a
sixteen-sided ambulatory with galleries. The interior of the OCtagon,
crowned by a cloister vault of eight sections, appears astonishingl}' steep.
Eight massive srructural pters, angled in on themelves to form the corners
of the octagon, define the penmeter of the central space.
M

32

"'ad~n, Charkm.s ....

lnn~r

Pala" .... ChII'd.

"t"W of Iht OClagon. Completed

798. !loom fimngs.J\' 19!h CwIUtr

Aaehtn. Ch.dem.gn.. Pal.""" Chapd.

G",und pl.n, ongmally with nanhox and
r .. ngularchoir

The arcade opening~ appear as though Clll Olll of the wall. A strong
horizontal string course leads rh~ ~ye from the massively heavy lower
.torey to the light and graceful galleries in the upper level. The large
gallery openings are steeper and higher in proporrion than the arcades.
Within each opening there are twO Ie,els of arches supported by Corinthian
COhllllllS, one level set upon the other. The classical Corinthian columns
are spoil., and were brought from Ravenna to Aachen on the instructions
of Charlemagne himself. It IS not only these spoils that link the tWO cities,
as San Vitale in Ralenna is one of the possible prOtOtypes for the Aachen
Palatine Chapel {photo, p. 77). Built in the sixth centur)" under the
Emperor Justinian, S. Vitale is also an example of an octagonal central
space on thrtt storeys. ringed however by an octagonal ambulatory. This
is nOI the onl)" difference between the early Chrrsttan model and the
Aachen Palatine Chapel. In Ra,enna the piers are much slimmer and
narrower in design, and do not gtve the appearance of being an imegral
pan of th~ walls. The columns in the arcade openings curve back in a semi
circle and give the room a wonderful feeling of breadth. In Aachen, by
contrast, the effect is of a steeply-sided shaft. In his Aachen Palatine
Chapd, Charlemagne strove to create a central structure in the image of
the early Christian imperial chapels such as he had seen at Ravenna. This
architecture was designed to symbolize the role of the klllg as the advocate
of his prople and as the mediator between the secular and the spiritual,
this world and the next. Thus the square as a symbol of the worldly is
comblrled With the ctrcle as the symbol of the divine. The resulting octagon
is regarded in number symbolism as synon)'mous with eternity. S. Vitale in
Ra'enna was nOt the only model for Aachen: also imporram was the
church of SS. $ersius and Bacchus in Constanlinople, which has an
octagonal central room encased in a square, and was built as a palace
chapel under the Emperor Justinian in the third decade of the sixth
cenwry. Particular architectural prominence was g,,en 10 the west gallery
behind the throne of the emperor by means of a tower-like construction,
all four sides of which jut out. This tower, protruding from the fa.;-ade, was
a new development, conceived in the Carolingian period, but not 3t that
lime conslstemly exploited. Facing the former atrium, the entrance fa~ade
with its high round-arched recess draws attention to the Roman mOllf of
the triumphal arch and lends an tmperial mOllumcmalit)" to thc fa~ade. This
entrance recess and the small pilasters with imitation classical capitals are
the few exterior Carolingian forms which remain from the originally
plastered exterior of the I'alarine Chapel. The small pilasters were designed
only as decoration and serve no strllctural function.
The finest presencd example of a Carolingian exterior is the gate house
of the former monaster)" at l orsch (phOIO, p. 34). Erected around 774,
presumably as 3 three-part triumphal g.l1ewa)", il marked the boundary of
the atrium of the church 10 the west.
T he lon;ch gate house looks back histoTlcally to classical antiquity, but
the idea of the triumphal gateway was modified by making the three
archways the same height and size, and nOI emphasil.ing the cemral arch in
Ihe classical manner. Use of the classical idiom IS made III Ihe columns wrrh
the entablature, the pillars with round arches, the fluted pilasters and the

33

S" Gallen. Collrg,atr Libroty. mOll."ery

plan.comple,rd on II>. "land on
Reldocn,u In ,heeady n,nth ,.ntury
I 110us.< for.ht r",inutof nobl~ gues ..
2 Domestic offlC ... j Nollie guests
4 O"... ",hool5 Abbof's build,ng
6 Dome>!>.: offices 7lnfinn.ry build,ng
8 Doctor's hoos< and ~po.hecary 9 H.. b

garden 10 Bell lOWer II Port.r

]2 Sthool hud ]J L,brary ]4 Bath ~nd
k""l>.n 15 lIosp"a1 16 Ckm.tr
17 En''''tlCe 18 Reception hall 111 ChOir
20 Monastery ch"r<h Ib."llCl l
21 Servants' quarters 22 Shp pcn~
2..1 PIgs 2~ GoatS25 Mal'C$ 26 Co"".
27 Kitchen 28 Hos.el29 Pamriesand
wine ""lIars30 cto"'l':r

monastery. They guaranteed the M:lf-sufficiency of the organizatio n which

operaled not unlike a small independem ste. The monastery church
forms Ihe center of the whole, and attached to it are the endosu re with
chapter house. refe<:tory and dormitory. Around this cenmll area arc
grouped the domestic offices, the living quaners for the lay brothers, the
gueSI houSt. stables and other livestock buildings, larders, hospital
and gardens. There is a striking precision in the planning of the whole
complex. above all in the church in which the square is already being used
as the unit of measurement of the ground plan. ThtS principle was fully
exploiled on ly in the following cenTUries. h is til this respect that the
church of the 51. Gallen monastery plan differs from the old Christian
basilicas such as S. ~]aria Ma~iore in Rome which had no defined system
of proportion.
In the chu rch of the 51. Gallen monastery plan the nave is butlt up out
of a series of squares, whilst the aisles measure half Ihe wtdth of the nave.
That means that each square na" e bay is equivalent 10 tWO square aisle
bays. The square crossi ng, the point of intersection of the nave and Ihe
transept, determines the unit of measurement for the whole. The whole
ground plan of the chu rch is deri"ed from this square, and thus each part
of the building is placed in " direct relalionship to every other part.
Although thts development of a quadra tic scheme was hardly exploited In
the Carolins.an pertod, it was 10 form one of the mOSt important
prmC1ples fot the sacred architecture of the following century.

form of The bases and (apiTals. On The other hand the facing of the wall
with a (:olorful Text ilc-like surfa(:c is Byzantine in con(:eption. The triangular gables of the upper floor (:ome from the norrh~rn t.adilion. The
(:ombina tion of columns with round ar(:hways is medieval and incon(:elVablc
in dassieal amiquity, in which only a horizontal entablature was possible
above (:olumns. Seen in its totality, the gate-houM: at Lors.:h is nn edifi(:e of
extreme rdinement. Although It stands al Ihe beginning of western
medieval ar(:hiteaure, it is at the same time an exquISite ht,:...::omer, an
almost decadent building.
The St. Gallen monastery plan: instructions for th e ideal monastl:-ry b )'oul
The gate-house at Lors.:h on(:e stood at the enrran(:e to a 13'gf, monaStery
(:omplex which has now disappeared and is known to us only through
excavations and a few remams. All the other Carolingian monasteries havc
suffered the same fate 3S LorS(:h; they ha"e ~en WIWCrted, modified or
eventually destroyed. The only way we have of (:on(:eiving of the layout of
a Carolingian monastery is from a par(:hmem plan which originated on
the island of Reichenau on Lake Constance, and whICh is now kepI in the
library of the St. Gallen monastery. This monastery plan is the ea rliest
architectural plan of the Middle Ages still in existencc. The diSfribution of
the individual buildings is in harmony with monastic life whic:h developed
a(wrding to the ruk of St. Benedict. Around the (hur<:h are grouped a mass
of monastic buildings, small courtyards, gardens and paths. The facilities
which surrounded the church were of vita! importance for the s,urvival of a

34

j I Dormitory .nd c.lefactory 32 Sa<:rt5ty

33 Hos. bahry 34 CIo,,!e' 35 K,rchen
36 Novices' school J7llor~ 38 Ox.n
311 Coope1" 40 Wood 'urn..
41 $.or<chous< 42 ~b1t kiln 43 Knchen
44 Refec.ory 45 Nthhoos<

~6 Cc"", ry 47 Rrew<ry ~8 Bakery

411 P... tles 50 Mill 51 Va"ous ~rti"'n.
5l Thl'C$lung floor 53 Granary
54 Gardene,', hoos< S5 Vrge.able garden
561'oulrry houses

II IIJ

>Om

S<1'It""Sudt. colonnadtd
b,o"I""" Ground pL.n

The Karch for form - centrally planned buildings. basi licas. one-aisla:l
churches
Included In
small number of ccmrally planned bUlldmgs of Ihe
Carolingian JX'Tlod art' the afor .. ~nlloned Pa!aun,c, Chapd in A.. ehclt. Ihe
circubr MIChael Ch3~1 In Fulda, treat<! by the Abbot EigJl oowttn 820
and 822, and Gtrmlgny-dcs.PTis, bUll! ncar the lOll"(' :!.ccordms 10 the
quadral1c ground plan under Theodulf, Bishop of Orleans. a relative of the
Emperor Charlemagne. and conSTalcd 111 806. Thes.e Isolated c:<amptes
of cemru lly planned buildings apar!. the dominam SlrUCUIrI: which
dc,-eiuped was the ha$ihca wllh a nave and IWO aisles, Iransept. lorho.,
bay, and scmi-circular apse. The surviving Carolingian churches did nOl
follow the clear and priK quadratic SoI:hcmc of construction gin-n in Ihe
SI. Gallen monastery plan. The aIsles were 1ll00dy much narrower than
half Ihe wtdth of the na'e. The lransc:pt W35 nOI )et a balance<! Slructure
which mteTKCIe<! the na,'e al nght angles CTeallng :I sep3rate squa~ area.
Th,s dlSllncl area of inlel"S('("flon, "hH;:h opene<! OUI to all four s,des
through four cqual-si~d arches, pr.-surposi a na,e and transc:pt of l"'Iual
height and breadth. ThIs pailI'm was as reI unknown In CarolingIan
arChl!Kture.ln Ihe Carollngtan slyle the crO$Slng W;lS not fully de"doped,
Ihat IS to 5-3)", Ihe transverse arms were much lower compared 10 Ihe nave
and gave Ihe appearance of h:wlIIS been added bter. The transepls were
acceSSible only from the cro~sing via small openlllgs. These transc:pts
separated from the square by partial walls were, for e"ample, 10 be found
III the b.ls,lica In Steinbach near MlChe1sl~dt 11\ the O<len fOmit budt III
817 by Emhard, the bIographer of Charlenugne. Today only the na,'e with
ItS sc:ml<m:ular apse and the nonhero WillS of Ihe Iransepl remain
slandlng. The basIlica creeled by Emhard In SchgenSIJdl-on-~lam (sec
ground pbn abo,c}. on Ihe othcr hand, had a connnuous tranSC:pl. whH;:h
was sepaUIe<! from Ihc na,'c by a largc scml<ircular arch. Thc
Schgcnstadl church was bowncr no more a rruc fUSion of the na,c and
transept than was Slembaeh. II IS nOI a baSIlica With a n3,'e supponed by
pIers as at Sleinbach or ScligenSladl, bUI a basltH;:a With columns which ha s
been prescn'ed al SI. Justinus in I lochst ncar Frankfurl. The building wllh
liS IlIIprcSSl\'e rC<'ded capitals was built 11\ the first half of the ninth century.
In addillon to the pier and column baSIlicas, CarolingIan architKlure also
produced Simple one-aIsle<! churches wlIh one or thrn' apses al the eastern
end of Ihe buildmg, as, for e"ample, at St. Iknedlet III Mal! or St. Prokulus
In Nalurns III South Tirol. Churches wnh thrcoc apses were a fealure aix)\"e
all of Ihe AlpIIK' regIOn, such as DisentlS, Mttall and MUSlalf 10
Graubunden. The church of the IkncdlcltlK' monaslery at Must.nr
(tllustr.lIe<! Tlghl ) "'as buill around 800 from a foundatIOn of Charlemagne.
With liS cellmg, oTlgmally fbt and vaulled only III the laiC GothiC peTlod,
the church IS Impress,,'e for ItS eastern \TIapsal lernllllalion. Each apse IS
framed With hIgh blind arches, Ihe mIddle one belllg somewhal larger and
thus cm phaSlzed.

.\I~Jl;lL<. Gra .. bundnt, Mona ....-y ch .. rch

from lilt ..... Ih...,~st. Around 800

Inc

Confl ict wi th Rome _ Ihe abbey ~hurch in Fulda

Ikfore liS rebUlldmg in the &roque 11)"11', Ihe abbey church In Fulda was
one of the mOSI monumenral brge bUlldmgs of Ihe urohnglan penod.
8ctWttn 791 and 819 an eXlsltng church was replaced b)' an enormous
new structure under Abbot Ratg"r. The baSIlica, wllh na,'e and IWO aIsles
and a scnll -Clrcul"r apse at Its eastern end, had a huge west lransepl wuh a
broad weSI "'pse. Nowhere else lit Carolmglan architKlure IS such a
tIla~SI\e w~51lranscpl to be found, liS model bemg Old SI. Peler's lit Rome.
In the Carolmgian period Ihe ahbey al Fulda was one of the mOSI
important spiTilual (.ICnt~rs north of the Alps, and as early as 751 was
subordmated to the power of Rome. It IS therefore not $urprrSlrIg thai
Fuld~ SOll]'\h l 10 emulate SI. Peter's church m Rome. It was a common
feature of all basilicas and h~11 churches III the Carolingian period that
they had fiat celllllgs or aileasl open roof trusses.

35

ABOVE LEFT

BF.LOW

Fuld.:!, Sr. MlCha'!. C"holic Chap'!,

Con"~nct,

round cryp!. 820-822

cry!". 780 and 890

C"hIt31 of Our Lady,

ABOVE RIGHT

STeonbach Mlchd"adtlOd~nwald.
Compkll827.

Tunnel cryp!

CryPIS
Only centully plann~d buildi ngs or crypls were vaulted. The laner had
been erected as lombs since Ihe lare eighth ccntury, mostly undcr Ihe high
altar. The main reason for this was Ihe dcsire [Q crcalC a place for Ihe
venerated ~lics of the saints and 10 make Ihem aCCe$sible to everyone.
Various ground plans were selectcd depending on the architectural
possibilities of the particular building: a ring crypl, a barrel-vaulted, semi
circular passageway such as in Seligensladt, or a crossshaped paSs.1ge or
tunnel crypt as at Steinbach (photo, left). When in the post-Carolingian
JXriod the cult of relics assumoo ever greater importance, the passage or
tunnel crypt was enlarged. Rooms were built with one, four or mo~
supports. Gradually crypts developed into cen ters of cult worship in their
own right. Impre$Sil'e construclions wef(~ created such as Ihe hall crypt of
SJXyer cathedral, a church below a church as It were (photo, p. 46).
The west work - Ecclesia mililan5
One of the most significant developments in the Carolingian JXriod was
the abandonment of the exc!usil'e!y squat, earthbou nd nature of the
extended early Christian basilicas in fa\'or of the increased use of towers.
The abbey church at QntulalSomme, begun by Angilbert, a son-in-law of
Charlemagne, has none of thi s horilOntaltunquility, but is characterized
by groups of {Owers at the east and west ends. The {Ower strUCture of Ihe
westwork was designed either as a means of highlighting a separate
devotional space for 3n additional church patron, or as a part of the
building attached to thc church and rl'Sl'rved for the emperor. An
impressive example from the Carolingian period survives in the monas\('ry
church of Corvey (822-848). This westwork, added between the years 855
and 873, underwent no further alterations and slill conveys the full power
of the Carolingian concept of architttture (photo, p. 37). Rising above the
low, heavy basement, whose groin \<aults are supported by piers with mock
classical capitals, without transverse arches or bays, is the quadrum. T his
is a steep, oJXn, central space surrounded by an ambulatory wllh three
arcades on each side, and each with a gallery above. A scmi-circular arch,
oJXning out onto Ihe center of the western gallery, allowed an
uninlerruptoo view of the emJXror'S throne.
The main function of the westwork was to draw altention to Ihe
emperor or ruler, nen if he was not there in person. The westwork
em bodied the power of the state and the sacrosanct nature of the rul er. The
westwork church encompasses {wo distinct areas of significance within it:
firstly, the actual church to the east dooicated to the saints, the E,deslIl
tfmmph{ms, and, secondly, the bulwark-like we${Work, symbol of the
Ecdesia mililtJns, the place of Ihe rulcr as the protector of the church. T his
explains the large number of westworks in Saxony, which had been
conqueroo by Charlemagne. They proclaimed unambiguously the strength
of the emperor's right to rule this area.
The weSlwork as a structure influenced architecture well beyond the
Carolingian JXriod and underwent many modifications in form. The end
of the tenth century saw the westwork at St. Pantaleon in Cologne with its
group of three towers. In 1090 the westwork of the collegiate church at

36

....OHIUT

C.......,. ~ c h,,,.. h .'''',ovI

n.- hall of ~k
IFlOW UFT

c.,..".,., .bb.y ~hun:h.

wts,work ,n,(1'''''' w"h
,mpmal plkry, 87.1-8S,S

Frktnhors. was complttl'd, a grOIlP of rhrtt

10Wtrs

of qllLnr~~nr,ally

''0,,,11 .. 10.. ,, d'''';!''''"f. In Ihc: m,ddle of Ihc: fwdflh nfury Ihc:

w(..!Work

dallng from lhe firsl half of ,he lenlh ct'nillry al lhe: talhl'dral in Minden
was rcbllih tnlO a Saxon traJlStpi. Sumlarly tn Gcrn rode in the Hart ,n tht
first half of IItt Iwdhh century, a wcstblock was e.ttd around lht
e:onsung Ouonl;1n round lowers (ste photO$, pp. 38-39}.

RIGfiT

Cot>"t1, abbtr ( hurch, "'<S'

from. Ablwe ,hc:Carol,nglan
" '""work a", lWO 'O ..... rJ f,om
1146.Groundpbn

37

Cologm, S{.I'~"talro". w~"work.

{e"Ih cenlury

J8

L.,~

Frkenhom . parISh church of

S{ Bonlfac.
Former coll<"gla church. "'"nlcm .nd.
Around 1090

Gtmrodt. fwm~r con.'~nt church of

S. Cy.iakus.
,h~

Wes,~," ~nd.

,welfTh <~n'UT)"

firs! h.II of

'\\,nd~n. cathNnl parISh church of

SS. P~trUS and Gorgomus. 1X"'Mrn ~nd
from ,he lim half of , .... ,<n,h,on'u,},.
Con,ctt~.o a ptrptndocular block on
, .... mid ,",,'dllh century

39

GC'mro, formoerronwo. church of

So. Cy,,~kU.. N~n Iookln,u.., bttun 1ft

'"
111100.... 1111. Sf. MJ(:h3d. N .. C' i00i<'"&
ou"IOL(Io.-]033

Early Ro manesqut ,h chit eClurt of Ihe O u onia n Period

Under the successors 10 Charlemagne. Ihe Frankish EmpIre spill mlO Ihrrr:
a western. a I%lIIral and an eastern pan. The power of the t'mJl('l'Qr was
weakened and II dark age followed. Greal wars broughl de\'aSlallon to Ihe
land, and budding ~cli\'iry largely came 10 a standsull. The Hungarians
cngulfnl The Frankish EmpIre from Ihe cas! and from the west Ihe
Normans brought ruin and destruction 10 town and COUniry. II was nOl
unlil Ihe tenlh century thaI Ihe ,rumbling ... mpifO: was reconsohdalw
under Ihe firs! $;axon ... mpc. or Henr y and abo,,\" all under Dno Ihe Grear.
From Ihe E.1S1 Frankish Empire evolved Ihe I luly Roman Empire of the
German Nation and from Ihe West Frankish Empirc came Francc, Both
pans of the Empi re now began to lead a lifc of their own, a development
whIch was soon mirrored III theIr archuccture. The pollUcal and artlSIlC
centers III the East Frankish Emplrc shlfttd eastwards, to 5.axony. the
homeland of the Ottoman Em~rors. Everp\hen archllcctun began to
nOUrISh. Around the beginnmg of the new mIllennium mOSI blshopllC5
con!iCCrated new cathedrals, for example Malllz, Trier, Rcgensburg,
B.lmberg, Basel. Strasbourg and Constance. Today, however, there arc
only Isolated fragments of Ouoman archllectllre still ren13l1lmg. The
buildings m the Onoman domaIn now developed a style of their own. It
was no longer merely a maner of mllfallng and reshaplllg ClassIcal and
carly Christian antiquity, but also of finding a new, llldc~ndcnt approach.
So II was that around the year 1000 a dlstlllctly new ty~ of church was
developed. the transept baslltca with nave and two aisles and a squa re
crosslIlg separated from the na'e and transept by four arches.
In 955, the year of the victory o,'er the Itunganans at Lechfeld, Otto
the Great commissioned the bUIlding of the cathedral at ~ I agdeburg,
whIch "OIS 10 become the melropolitan church of the rK'warchblshOJ'llC.
OtIO the Great wamed to emulatc the Carollllglan trndilion, and, for the
bUlldmg of this chu rch, he had magmHcenl columns WIth marble and
gramte shafts brought from Italy. After the fire at the Cathedralm 1207
these columns were built inlO the wall5Creens of the chancel as 3 SIgn of
reverence for 0110 the Great.
Gemrode and Hildesheim - the capitals of Ouonian architecture
St. Cyriakus m Gernnxle In the Ilan is the oldest presen'ed la rge bu.ldmg
III the Olloman style. The nunnery w;as est:lbltshed 111 96 1 by Margr;a"e
Gero. Ap;an from some remallls of bte Rom;allC'5quc clol5trrs. the monastery
bUlldmgs have been lost. The church llself wn changed m the twelfth
century by the construction of a west chOIr and the heightenmg of the west
towers, The exterior pans in the Ottoman style which arc sllll preserved
are hardly articulated. It IS only the large round-archrd wmdows whIch
alleviate the heaviness of the eastern apse. The Important charaClrnsuc of
the a rchllC'Ctu rr of this period is the bck of a plmth. although because of
the changes made in the nmetttnth crmury thi s facl can only be
appreciated in the rastern apse. T his typical early design characteristic
makes the edIfice appear to nse I'ery abruptly out of the ground.
The ground plan of the church conSISU of a nal'c and rwo aIsles w1lh a
shghtly kmked axis. The ongmally contmuous transept m thr eastern pan

40

41

Essen Cathedral. th~ fann<r coll~i .. c

chun:h SIS. Cosma. and Daml.n. W"tcm
apse modckJ On Aachen. MId elcven,h
""n,u!"),

Rc"hcn.>u, O ixndl, formc:r collegIa ..

church of 51. G>rgc. Looking oown
nave in e.sl<rly direction with Oltoni.n
mural.

doe Ilot quite jom a, Tlgh' angles to Ihe nave. suggcstlng :t certam
inaccuracy on the part of the builders. Onginally Ihe crossing was nOt
regular in shape. Today's regular shape is Ihe rcsult of a ninetecnrh-cenrury
restoration. Access from Ihe transept is gained via steps 10 the elevated
choir, with liS forechoir bay and semi-circular apse, and to the hall crypt
situated under th e choir. Two small apses in the two east walls of the
transept wing complement the east cholT. Compared with Ihe archiTecTure
of the Carolingian period, ,he interior of 51. Cyriakus is endowed wiTh a
superiority and a greater generosity of shape and proportion (photo
page 40, tOP left). Both forms of support, the column and ,he pier, find
much greater use, and support the arcade arches which open up the nave
to the aisles. By the use of columns and piers a clear rhythm is brought into
the construction of the nave wall. Halfway along the nave a reCiangular
pier divides the arcade into two. On both sides of the pier there are twO
archway openings wilh wlumns. By means of Ihe central rectangular pier
not only the wall but also Ihe whole interior of the na,'e and aisles is
divided into two areas of equal size. The g.ll1ery area, too, mirrors this
division of space, although the openmgs there are smaller.
Each of the double arcades in Ihe gallenes is surmounted by a single
large semi-circular arch, although the gallery Storey has a different rhythm
Ihan the arcade wne. Three double arcades of Ihe galleries correspond to
one double arcade of the arcade floor. What is similar is the strong division
of the wall by means of a central pier. T his system of division is nOI
continued right up into the uppermost storey, Ihe clerestory. Its windows
are set imo the wall without any alignment to the storeys below. The

42

inconsistency in Ihe construction is strongly remmiscent of the Carolmglan

wilh its variery of experimental styles. Just as with the clerestory wmdows,
so it is with the opening of the eastern apse, which is cut "ery abruptly OUI
of the eastern wall of the forechoir. The clear and sure division of the nave
walls, on the other hand, is emphallcally nOI Carolingian. The Ottonian
architecture no longer conceives of the nave walls as continuous rows of
arcades. The arcading is now interrupted, the wall has a rhythmical
repeating pallern and particular parts arc emphasized. In Carolingian
architecture it is only on Ihe eX!erior that we find the tendency 10 stress
particular elements by the projection of certain features. In the interior, the
inclusion of g."lileries was new, and furthermore characteristic of nunneries.
where the sisters of the order had special separate rooms reserved for their
usc:. T he prototype for the galleries is probably to be found in Byz.aminc
architecture. The capitals in the arcading are still beholden to the STyle of
the classical CorinthIan column, although Ihey are already showing a
cenain independence in their representation of human heads, until then an
unusual feature.
Ottonian archiTecture reached a peak in the former BcnediCline
monastery church of St. Michael in Hildesheim (photos, pp. 40-41). In
996 the Hildesheim Bishop Bernward, a kem patron of Ihe arlS, broughl
Benedictines from Cologne to Hildesheim and in 1010 began the con
struClion of a chu rch dedicaTed to 51. Michael. The building was com
pleted in 1033. It is assumed Ihal Bishop Rernward, who had traveled
widely in France and Italy, himself participated in the planning of the
church. Later recollslTuClions have interfered wilh the original Struct ure of

Ol{ma.. h~lm. AI",...,. (orm~r "u"~ry church.

from th~ third doc:a<k of the d.v~nlh ...,ntury.
Vi .... from the south .. aSl (~bo,~).
!"',,"OT .,~w of ,h" octagon (below)

this building even more severely than is the case in Gernrode. Moreover
the edifice experienced the most se"ere destruction in the Second World
War, and today's Structure is the result of the post-war rebuilding, The
basilica. which has a nave and tWO aisles. a double choir and twO
transepts, is attracllve for the balance of its construction, which culminates in towers at ooth its eastern and western ends. Compared with
Gernrode, St. Michael in Hildesheim is much more balanced in its design.
This balance can even be peru:h'ed in the ground plan: transepts are added
to ooth tile eastern and western ends of the na"e. As tile navc and the
transepts are of the 5.1me width. their point of imerseaion, the crossing. is
square in form, The crossing square is repeated three times in the na,'e,
making it the basis of tile proportioning of the bu ilding, This regular
square crossing opens out to all four sides with the same height al1d
breadth. The l1a,'c and transepts with their crossing arches witllalternate
masonry layers thus achie"c a complctelr new spatial relationship one to
another. Although tile essential features of this design conccption wcre
present in tile Carolingian period in the 5[. Gallen monastery plan. It was
only implemented for the first time m St. Michael in Hlldesheim. Nevertheless, the fact tllat the side aisles are considerably broader than half tile
width of the nave sllows that the quadratic concept has not been carried
out in its purest form, The corner points of tile three ground plan squares
in the na,'e are marked by piers. Each pier is conn~ted to the next by thrtt
semi-circular arches resting on two columns. By this arrangement of piers
and columns, an alternation of supportS is achie,ed. wllich in this form.
pler-column-column.pier, is known as Saxon alternallng supports. The
alternation in the form pier-column-pier, on the other hand, is known as
the Rllcnish alternation of supports after tile area where this form 1I1a;l1ly
occurs. The il1scriptions on the imposts. each with the names of the three
5.:Iints, arc intended to com'ey the Idea that the saints, symooliud by the
columns, support the kingdom of heaven, ~ymooltud by the church. This
symoo1ism is also to be found in the Magdeburg cathedral of 0[10 the
Great. By means of the alternation of piers and columns the space is
broken down into regular pallerns alld split into three areas.
Here it is different from Gernrode, where the nave wall is divided III
tWO parts b)' a single pier. In Hildesheim a honwntal reglet runs above the
arcade and aoove this a smooth area of wall ascends up to the clerestory,
who~ windows are also not aligned 10 the arches below. A flat ceiling
closes off the evenly proportioned nave.
The few remaining capitals from the time of Bishop Bernward are so
called cushion capitals in clear simple forms, which no longer hark back 10
classical tradition, but which represcm a new dC"dopment in 01l0nl3n
architecture.
A notable feature of the 01l0nian penod is the predilection for flat
walls. The walls were as uninterrupted as poSSible b)' features such as
Opcnillgs and windows, The spaces were dearlr delineated and lhe surfaces
sparil1gly aT\iculared. The most important decor~tive feature was the
dlfferemla)'ers on all the arches in the church, where the architecture was
accentuated by aiternatlllg red and light-<:olored stones 011 the arch
mtrados.

43

OPPOSITE LEFT

Soest. colkp"cchurch of St. Patroklu .

WesltO....,r. Around 1200

OPPOSITF, RI C HT

P.dcrOOrn. Cuhedral of

s.. Mafia,

SS. 1.IOO"u. and Kilian. WCSllo.,.,.cr.

Around 1220

The incorporation of Carolingian archit ectural concepts in a new idiom

1low the exterior was incorporated infO the articulation in the Ononian
period is impressively demonstrated by the westwork of SI. Pamaloon in
Cologne (phOIO, p. 3S}. St. Pantaloon was begun in 964 by Archbishop
Bruno and consecrated in 980. This archaic.looking building with its
broad, squat nave and subduoo tranM:pts had a steeply towering westwork
added to its western end, an almost centrally dominated space with a
square ground plan. The st~ply rising central spaces arc surrounded on
the west, south and north sides by galleries. The space opens out east
towards the nave in a high wide semi-circular arch which is built in
alternating layers. In SI. Pantaloon the Carolingian idea of the westwork
finds its Ollonian descendant.
Apart from the basic concept of the westwork there arc no other traces
of the Carolingian. The traditional west work was completely translatoo
infO the Ollonian. This is evident from the exterior which reveals:1 desire
for a new articulation. Each storey of the fa~ade of the westwork is
articulated by means of lesenes, which are conne.::ted to one another by
friezes of semi-circular arcading. These small semi-ci.des, which are laid
on the wall like a flat relief, apptar somewhat lacking in boldness. They
simply protrude from the wall, not on consoles as became customary later.
The blind articulation and the arcade frieze n'presem the beginning of
mcdkval archiredura! articulation. The exterior is thus endowed with a
fine relief which can be used to de.::orate allthe way round in a new idiom.
Carolingian designs are also employed in the former convent church in
bsen. It was begun at the end of the tenth century by the Abbess Mathilde
and consecrated III the middle of the eleventh century. Whilst the west
block from the Ouonian period has remained intact (phOIO, p. 42 ), the
nave was converted infO a hall church. Even if the exterior of the Essen
monastery giyes the appearance of a westwork, it is in reality a west choir,
the end of a church nave or aile. T his is a new feature: the combl1lation of
the westwork and the west choir. In this case the west block encloses the
west choir, whose interior elevation is modeled on the OCtagon of the
Palatine church at Aachen. The ground plan describes three sides of a
hexagon, around which arc grouped various small, randomly placed
rooms in the ground and gallery storeys. Based on the Aachen model, the
piers with theIr inwardly angled faces have arcade openings. Above these,
and separated by a cornice, there are high semi-circular openings with
columns inserted in them, as in Aachen. Similar to St. Michael in
I-l ildesheim or St. Pantaleon in Cologne the arch intrados are built
alternately. A light semidome spans the apse. The return to the
architecture of the Aachen Palminatc Chapel was deliberate. This is shown
not only by the whole composition of the west choir, but IS also evidenced
by the small details such as the classkal lonk or Corinthian capitals.
A further, indeed even clearer, exploitation of the Aachen architectural
conception is to be found on the Upper Rhine, in the former nunnery
church in Onmarsheim in Alsacc. In its ground plan and eleyation
Onmarsheim is a simplifioo imitation of the Palatine Chapel of
Charlemagne. T he octagonal, centrally planned building, erected in the
third de.::ade of the eleventh century, is also encircled by an octagonal

44

ambulatory. In the west there is a singletower front, whilst the CaSt has a
small ,e.::tangular choir with a gallery. Although both buildings, Aachen
and Otunarsheim, have similar interiors, the detail at Ottmarsheim
reflects the ZeitgeIst of the Ollonian, and has abandoned any vestiges of
the classical idiom. The columns have cushion capitals, and the ind ividual
vaulted sections arc clearly separated by transverse arches. The impresSIon
of space has bl-come much more balanced and tranquil. The cenrral space
and ambulatory have bl-en gIven :1 strong interrelationship. Overall, the
building appears much simpler and more cubeshaped.
Towers and groups of towers
Inspired by the Aachen model, the western end of the church at
Ottmarsheim was given greater prominence by means of a tower. It was
not only at Ottmarsheim that towers were built during the Ottoman
period, but also at many other churches such as the small former monas
tery church of St. Cy riak in Sulzburg and the St. Luzius church in Werden.
Under Abbot Berno the west block of RelChenauMiltelzeli was built after
1006, a quadratic tower Structure, which is articulated by long lesenes and
semi-circular arcade friezes. At Trier cathedral under Archbishop Poppo
around 1040, the lOwers and apse were combined to form a west block
(photo. p. 23). T he result was a complex. richly articulated structure witb
four towers and central gable, in which the huge apse is framed by solid four
cornered towers with round staircase turrets attached.
One of the most impressive towers is surely that of the OUOl1lan
cathedral of Bishop Meinwerk III Paderborn Iphoto, p. 45}. According to
the latest research the whole west end was developed around 1220, and
not in the late Ottonian ptriod, as had previously bn assumed. I-I owe,cr,
the tower clcarly reproduces a previous Ottonian lOwer in structure and
outer appearance. DeSigned to draw attention to thc choir and the
cathedral, the powerful tower ascends dramatically witholll a plinth from
the ground up into the sky, flanked on Clther SIde up to half its height by
round stairway turrets. Above all it had 3 symbolic function, advertising
th ... importance of the bishop's church far out into the surrounding
countryside. This mighty edifice dominates the skyline of the town, almost
threaten ingly proclaiming who was the ruler over its inhabitants.
The collegiate church of St. Pat roklus in SacSt was also endowed wi th
JUSt such a mighty single tower shortly bl-fore 1200 (photo, p. 45 ). This
was, however, not ere.::ted by the canons, but by the cirizens who had
grown wealthy by means of trade and built to assert the independence of
the town from the canons. The tower contained the town armoury, and in
its narthex was the court porch and above it the counCIl chamber. Single
tower fronts, constructed particularly at the west end, were characreTlstic
of parish churches in the following centuries . .Bishops' or monastery
churches almost always had frollIs with double towers or west choirs.
The towers, which rose high above their surroundings, were able to
send a powerful and visible message. Dominating their area, they were
considerable statuS symbols, proof of who had rhe greatest influence in a
town. The citizens, by whatever means they had become rich, erected a
tower as a sign of independence from church domination of the land.

S~)e'. Cathed ....1of St. MarLa and St.

Stephan. N ..elooki"g~3", 102713G-

OPPOSITE
S~y .., Cathedral of St. MJria and St.
Stephan. V;'w from the northoeait

""

Speyer, Cathed .. 1of St. )l.13,i3 and S,.

S"phan. 11011 crypt. Around 1030

High RODlanesq uc architCClure frODl th e Sali an period

The archi tecrure developed under the Olton ian Emperors was further
consolidated under the Salians. The great creative act of Oltonian
architecture, the development of a characteristic ground plan, was taken
further. Indeed, 3 new independent style e"olved, which dearly differed
from the Ollonian. The problem of vaulting was one of {he most importam architecrural challenges to be overcome. Never before or since have
buildings of such monumentality been consuuned as in the course of the
eleventh century under the Salian emperors or;u the monastery of Cluny
in Burgundy. In the archttecrure of these twO important sacred buildings of
the eleventh cenrury, Speyer cathedral, staTled by ,he Salians, and the
abbey church of the Burgundian reform monastery at Cluny, there is a
clear expression of the struggle between papacy and emptre o\'er the
problems connected with the Investitu re Contest. Spe)'er, an edifice of
unprecedented monumentality, became the embodiment of unlimited
imperial power, a testament to the self-esteem of the Salian emperors. The
cathedral was the expression of the idea of Christian world dommation,
an expression of a style of rule, which. according to Stefan Weinfurter iii
characterized by ~the all-pervadmg power of the EmptTc, the creation of
imperial unity with a firm hand, the Strict control of the imperial church
and the increased magnificence of its rule through the dignity of the
Emperor.~

The im perial cath edral at Spe yer - a pio neer of va ulting in Germ any
According to Ordericus Vitalis, Spe)'er under the Salians ha:ame the
~Metropolis Germaniae,~ one of the most important places in the
medieval German Empire. Four Sal ian Empcror1' and two of their consorts
found their last resting places in [he cathedral. The monumen tal SPCrer
Cathedral was begun between 1027 and 1030 under Emperor Conrad I[
and was completed under Henry IV. After the heavy destruction inflicted
in the seventeenth century the building remained a ruin until the end of the
eighteenth century, when Ignaz Michael Neumann reconstructed the west
block in Classlcal-Romanesque style. I-I owe\'er, in 1794 the cathedral was
devastated again, and in the early nineteenth century was even earmarked
for demolition. It was only saved from destruction by a decree from
Napoleon_ In the nineteenth century Heinrich Hubsch carried OUI its
restoration, replaCing the western end with the westblock which still
stands today and which is faithful to the original Salian conception.
New research has established interesting information about the history
of the building of the medteval sections. 1be oldest part of the church,
begun between 1027 and 1030, is the east crypl, to whkh the towers
nankmg the choir and the foundations of an initial transept weTC added.
By around 1035 the above-ground construction was probably underway
with the completion of the sanctuary and transept. Betwccn 1035 and
1040 the piers of the na,e. initia ll y designed to be sho", were erected close
together, and the outer walls of the aisles and the barrel-vaulting of the
chancel were constructed. Only after 1045/47, after the death of Conrad
II, was the na,'e extended to its present length under Henry 111. A[ its
con5ration in I 061 the nave 5tion, the west front and the towers mUSt

46

:\13;n" Ca,hN,a] of S., Martm and SI.

SI~ph~n. VItW from Ih. UI'. 1081-llJ7

-f u
I, - I

Sp<y .....a'heJ,.I,
ground

plan

MatIlZealhN .. !,
ground pl3n

48

already have been completed. Until recently it had been assumed that the
original Speyer Cathedral was designed only to have vaulting in the aisles,
but the latest research suggests that the building begun by Conrad II would
have had a huge transversc: barrel vault, spanning almost 45 feet,
if technical problems had not prevented itS execution. The planned
transverse barrel vault with wmdows al ils base was modeled on the
monastery church at Tournus in Burgundy. The reason for the architects'
failure was .he exceSSIve width of the nave. As the execution of the stone
barrel vaulting was unsuccessful, the building is likely to have been
spanned with a wooden vault, for only cross vaulting and relief would
have closed off the interior in a manner which was convincing and
appropriate to the design and construction of the nave walls.
Problems with the unstable underlying ground in such close proximity
to the Rhine must soon have led to damagl' to the building, as Emperor
Henry IV was forced to undertake fundamental renovation of the
cathedral soon after its consecration. The bishops Benno of Osnabriick
and later Otto of Bamberg were appointed to carry out the imperial
commission. In the second phase of building the choir and transept were
rebUIlt, although the original dimensions were entirely preser.'ed. The
major achievement was above all the successful vaulting of the nale.
Snong !estnes weTC attached to the wall projection on every other pier to
carry the barrel arches of the vaults. Broad semicircular w lumns with
Corinthian capitals were in turn placed on th ... lesenes and from these
sprang the transl'... rse arches dividmg the individual va ulted sections. The
na' ... is thus divided into six bays, each na,'e bay corresponding to two
aisl ... bays. T his relationship of the nave to the aisle bays is known in
German as the -gebundenes System.~ To the eastern side of the nave are
allached the transept. the forechoir, flanked by staircase turrets, and the
semi-circular apse, and to the western side is the west block, rebuilt In the
spirit of the Salian design concept.
Compared with SI. Michael's church at Hildesh ... im (photos,
pp. 40-41 ), Speyer Cathedral has walls of unprecedented solidity and
weight, The walls with their strong relief are richly modeled and
powerfully developed in all dimensions. Piers, which are terminated by a
simple cornIce, carry the nave arcading. o\'er which the clerestory windows
are for the first time brought into alignment. Even the windows of the
aisles are 011 the same axis. Such consistent articu lation had been absent in
OttOlliall architecture. The step of bringing into alignment all the windows
from the clerestory to the aisles was of the greatest significance for
subsequent architecture as it was only then that the valliting of a whole
na,'e became possible. This arrangement of windows along att aXIS unplied
a move towards a more vertical form of articulation and a declin ... in the
significance of the horizontal.
The large, flat semi-circular arch resses which surround the arcades
and windows .11$0 emphasi1.e the vertical articulation. TheS!' arch recesses
are repeated thirteen times in the nave. On the piers between the individual
bays there are semicircular projtions which rise from plinths with Attic
bases. T he semicircular pillars terminate in cushion capitals from whose
entablatures spring round arches framing the flat blind recesses of the

~b,n., Calhedr~1

of SI. Morun and St.

Sup .... n. Na .. c look,ng ".~t

wall. By dint of this system of articubtion the nave walls take on;l relief of
measure<! and sculptured volume. In thIs scheme the bltnd recesses serve to
hIghlIght the steepness of the upwardly strivtllg nave.
Modeling of the walls - blind rcresses and dwarf galleries
Despite the small alterations undertaken, the cast parts of Speyer Cathedral
arc still amongst the most impressive examples of medieval architectu re in
existence today. Res!X>nds which articulate the apse rise above a hIgh
plinth. The res!X>nds sup!X>rt semi-<:ircular arches above which there is a
dwarf gallery, an uninterrupted row of small column arcades which run in
front of a passageway JUSt below the edge of Ihe roof. The dwarf gallery
resumes above the transepts and the nave walls. I-ICTf", however, it is
divided rhythmically by !iections of wall which mark the bay separatIons.
Plinths, res!X>nds, blind arches and dwarf galleries all serve to model the
walls and detract from the heaviness of the upper parts of the building.
Previously a central !X>rtal opened out from Ihe nave into the west block. It
was nOt simply cut OUI of Ihe wall, bUI was recessed and narrowed
towards Ihe center (see p. 30). This recessed !X>rtal segmented Ihe wall into
several layers and 5("rved dearly to emphasize the solidity of the masonry.
This was the first use of such a recessed !X>rtal, but Ih is design sub
sequently appeared on almost all brger churches.
In 108 1 under Emperor Henry IV Ihe e,uhedral ,u Mainz wo" built, 3

Mamz. Call>edral ofSI. "bnin.nd SI.

S'cphan.l)warf g;o.Uc'l' on lhe ca~lcrn

.'"

basilica wilh a nave, aisles and groin vaults. The old cathedral, erected by
bIshops Wilhgis and Bardo, had burnt down in 1081. The new structure
was consecrated in 1137. The appearance of Ihe Salian western end of
Mainz Calhedral is not known. It is unclear whether there was ;I simila r
structure on Ihe sile of today's late Hohenstaufen west choir. At the east
end the nave terminates in a semicircular apse, whilst the aisles have flat
ends with flanking stair turrets from the firsl cathedral. In front of the apse
is bUIlt a square bay surmounled by a sail vaull. This appears as a tower on
the exterior of the building. This ground plan arrangement, similar to a
crossing, suggesls a transept, but in faci the twO aisles are continued on
both sides. Each of the five bays in Ihe nave corresponds to twO sligh tly
transverse rectangular bays in the aisles. Groin vaults span the aisl('s.
Originally Ihe nave was similarly vaulted, but Ihe Salian groin Yaults wer('
replaced by Gothic rib vaults. At Mainz vaulting of the nal'e was part of
the plan from Ihe very conception. This is clear from the cI('restory
windows, which are not aligned with the arcades. Instead they are
clustered in pairs and thereby take account of the vaulting. The nave walls
of Mainz Cathedral are articulated by shallow roundarched recesses
which risc above the nave piers and eXlend 10 just below Ihe clerestory
windows. On every other pier there is a semicircular pilaster, which
SUP!X>TlS one of the IranSI'crse arches of the nave vaulting. In comparison
wilh Speyer Calhoo rol Ihe articulation is much fl3tter 3nd relief-like, and 3S

49

H .,frld, ruinS of the former flmed,,'t"'.

mon.sterychurchofSt. W>ghm, St. SI11lOn

.. ndJud ..sTh.d.us. 8uilt .fter 1038.

Tr .. nStpt and ..pst

result the impression of sp~ce does not

of Speyer.

~chieve

the tension

~nd

liveliness

Twin-towered fronts - StalUS symbols of great bisho ps' and mo nastery

ch urches
In 1015 a Salian reconstruction of Strasbourg Minster was begun under
Bishop Wer'nher. It was a long, colonnaded basilica with nave and twO
aisles, attached transept and semi-ci rcubr apse. Parts of the choir and the
underlying spacious and monumental hall crypt arc all that now remain of
this building. The long, colonnaded basilica had its originS in early
Christian buildings, but its length corresponds to today's Gothic construction. Remains of Salian walls in the Gothic west front suggest that
already in the eleventh century there was possibly a Twin-towered ftom
with a ponico in berv.'een. The Cmhedral of Our Lady at Constance, and
Basel Cathedral begun under Emperor Henry H, both episcopal churches,
likewise had twin-towered fronts. This type of front was characteristic of
cathtxlr:lls and great monastery churches.
From around 1025, at about the same time as the construCiion by
Conrad II of Speyer, the cathedral church of Limburg-on-the- Haardt was
begun. The church, whose west front also had a twintower, was
completed in 1045 and is today an Impressive ruin (photo, p. 51). Still
preserved are the outer walls of the nave, partS of the column bases in the
nave, and the crypt and walls of the choir in the east. The basilica with a
nave, aisles and east transept has a crossing separated from the nave and
transept by four arches. Instead of a semi-circular apse, the eastern end of
the chancel is flat. In lhe archileCiUre of the Upper Rhine the flat chancel
end was a common fealure, and was indeed developed in this region. This
type of chance! is already to be found in Reichenau-Oben:ell and
Constance Cathedrnl. In bolh buildings a semi-circular apse W,IS covered

50

bya rectangular wall. Later the flat chancel end was to become one of the
characteristic features of the so-called Hirsau School of Architttture. The
side aisles of the monastery church of Limburg-on-the-H aardt were not
vaulted as at SlXyer, but closed by flat ceilings, thereby remainmg truer to
the tradition of the monastery church. T here was a conscious decision not
to adopt the modem architectural form of the vault. The eastern parts of
the church are richly aniculated. Shallow recesses, showing less rdief than
in Speyer, rise above a plimh. Both liS rich exterior artICulation over a
plinth which runs around the buildmg, and the twin-tower front, make the
monastery church of Limburg-on-the-llaardt a typical example of Salian
architecture. T he whole building is given a monumental quality by
expansive aTliculation comparable to Speyer Cathedral. Nothing remains
here of the tranquil prostrate shape of Olton ian architecture, it has made
way for an upward striving for height.
After a catastrophiC fire the monastery church in Hcrsfdd was rebuilt
from 1038 onwards. Destroyed in the eighteenth century, it is amongst the
mOSt impressive monastery ruins in ~rmany (phOIO, left). The basilica
with nave and twO aisles has a projecting Roman transept In the east with
side apses, behind which the na,'e extends to form a long choir with :i
semi-circular apse, The na\'e was separated from the side aisles by nme
round_arche<l column arcades, wh~ ~rche-<: re<w<1 nn heavy ru<h,nn
capitals, In the west all elevated choir rose up, ilS raised apse situated
abo\<e a rectangular entrance hall. The entrance front and west choir were
IXrhaps combined here as a reference to the old concept of the westwork.
The nave of the church had a flat ceiling.
That is only one of several fealures of an older style present in the
Hersfeld church. Features which look back 10 previous ages, such as the
Roman transept, are not JUSt explained by the re-use of pans of the old
walls, but are a conscious borrowing from the paST. JUST as in Hcrsfcld, the
cathedral in Strasbourg had a long projecting transept, which was
reminiscent of the early Christian basilicas. The concept of the colonnaded
basilica is furthermore very much in the early ChriSlian tradition. Even
though many of the features of the Hersfeld monastery church may be
borrowings from the past, it is nevertheless \'ery much a church of its time,
and a creation typical of Salian architecture. Isolated motifs which refer
back to the past do not hide the fact that the essential overall nature of this
architecture is one which ~ddre$ses us in large forms which dearly rdate
to one another.
Rhenish School of Architecture - tn apsal choirs in Cologne a nd th e
Rhinel ~nd

The Rhineland became one of the most important centers for innov3tion
in architecture in the clc"emh century. In particular, the old bishop's
seat of Cologne devel0lXd into a Significant center of architectural
creation with SI. Maria im Kapitol as one of the principal artistic
highpoinls (photo, above). The construCiion of this church stands at the
beginning of what became known as the Rhenish School of Architecture.
The most striking feature of this church, which suffered ht;avy destruction
in the Second World War, is its ground plan which was conceived with an

Lombu'll ..... tM-Hurd. rulB of 'M

formrrlk~JCI"' bbory. 1025-1045.

[n't1"_ . ,........ VltW from 1M '" (lbov<:

rlS'") . _

from .ul (b<low ....),,)

~xr ~ ,f'... -c.'

~...
.. ' : 1

~.

--

f"
'.

..

..

'1" .

...' ..~
~.~.
-a-</
.."
.... -./
~
,'"
.:..
~.\
,,'
r.

}
I

.. '

C".

'.

-.~.
. .

. '..

L..Ab

~
.~
, 'II

I'

51

Cologne. Sf. Mari~ 1m Kaplfol. vIew of

lhe friaJ>S;lI choir.
]040-1049.0.1065

52

Cologllt, St. Apos,tln. firs, third of ,he

tI"~lh ...,n,ucy. F...Sltrn p;ln. aft ..

1192. Vitw from ,ht nOrth ..... 51

unprecedented completeness of form. Of particular nOle is the so-called

[riapsal choir. which is a!lache<! [0 a na,'e and twO aisles. In Ihis building
there is not only an apse at the uSlern cnd, bUI the semi--circubr apse is
also repeated in the south and north instead of transepts.
111e ground plan is therefore trefoilshaped. The thr~ seml--circul;lr
apses are integrated by means of an ambulatory joining them together, so
that the apses and crossing all appear part of 3 unitN spatial whole. This
ambulatory leads into Ihe side aisles of the nave. [t may be that the trefoil
pa rtern crealed by Ihe Ihree apses is a reference back to the Roman burial
site, and yet the unity achie"ed by the continuation of the ambub tory into
the aisles is above all ;I 5;1l1an concept whICh seeks to integrate everylhing
into one conIC':I. Here Ihe transept has developed into part of the choir
and has become a fundamental part of the sanCUlary. 111e aIsles and rhe
ambulatory of the triapsal choir are groin vaulted, wh ilst Ihe thru arms of
the cross in front of the apses are barrel vaulted. The crossing is crowned
by a sail vault, a type of vaulting bter often found in the Rhineland. T he
nave origmally had a flal ceIling. The vaulting e,.,isting today dales from
the bte Ron13nesque period, or represents, as do man)' other parts of the
building, a re<:onstTUction after the terrible devastallon of the war. In Ihe
choir there are columns with cushion capimls with a more cube-shaped
and taut form compared with those in Hildesheim. The western side of the
church of Sf. Maria 1m Kapltol probably dates from an earlier period and,
with its reclangular projcctmg stTUcture and stair turrets placed at the
corners, is remmiscent of St. Pantaleon (photo, p. 38). Despite war
damage, the Salian wall articulation is still 10 be found in the lower pariS
of the choir, where a high plmth LS terminated by a powerful cornice.
Abo" e the plinth, sha llow rec~ses articubte the wall. The parts of the wall
above Ihis are allTlbmed to the Hohenst3ufen period. A sense of free space
and a meldmg of the IIldh'idual pariS of the interior characterize this
building, which has a "ery early e,.,ample of a cholT ambulatory. ThIs
concept of the choir ambul3tory was borrowed from France (St. Martin in
Tours ) and was only taken lip again Oluch later al St. Godehard in
]li1desheim (sa: p. 25).
A golden ag~ of laiC Salian architecture on the Upper Rh ;ne
The monastery church of Murbach in Alsace (photo, p. 55) is one of the
greatest ach,evements of late Salian architecture. The nave and Ihe aisles
with their flat ceilings were demolished in Ihe eighteenth century. The
eastern partS which adjoined Ihem, and still stand today, date from the
eleventh cenrury. The transept is only apparent from the e,.,terior as it is
obscured by the chapels bu ilt in the interior. The nave e,.,tends, uninterrupted b)' the Iransept, right lip to the choir with its flatterminalion. The
111ain chOIr is flanked on both sides by side chancels. which open OUI onto
the former with double arcades, a feature borrowed from Cluny. The main
choir and side chancels both end wilh a flal termination typical of the
Upper Rhine, and square towers are bUIlt above the transept wings. Like
the eastern end of Speyer, the east choir of Murbach is trilly monumental
in its effcct. The lower bd of the main choir and side chancels are

articulated by high, steep blind arcades. Deep windows have been cut into
the stone of the bll1ld recesses. Each layer has been wurked OUi of Ihe wall.
Towards the middle the articulation is accentualed WIth the central
window slightly higher and broader Ihan the laleral windows, producing
the effect of a delicate rhythm. The area above the upper windows is from
the I-Iohcnstaufen period, and dates from as late as the second half of Ihe
twelfth century. The individual parts are fine and created with Ihe greatest
care and attention. Particularly splendid and of monumental effect is the
accurately layered ashlar or square hewn masonr)'. OrigmatlOg in
Burgundy, it is one of Ihe earliest examples of its kind in Germany. In
Alsace this type of mason ry is also to be found at MarmoUlier
(Mauersmiinster), where one of the latest Romanesque western ends has
been preserved (photo, p. 54 left).

53

MatmO<llltr (MaucrsmunSlrr). AI"""".

wesl~'" ~nd. mId Iwrlfth crntury

54

OPPOSITE

M urrn.,h. A!"", former monastrry

church.
aSI parrs, atQund 1130

Alpir~bach,

S,.lIened""

formor monur~ry chu"h of

IO~-II25, nav.

BELOW

CaI ....Himu. owllO .... r (leh) w"h

s<ulp,ural <ken""i"n (&.. il rlgh,).
Early ,wtlfth ""mury

Hirsau School of Architect ure

The Benedictine Order underwent a profound renewal in the tenth century
which was inspired by the monaStery of Cluny in Burgundy. The main
centers for this reform of the Order in Germany were ,he Black Forest
monasteries of H irsau and St. Blasien, and 111 Swinerland ,he monastery of
Einsiedeill. The full effect of the reform became felt in ,he second half of
the c1evemh C(mUfY, and its spiritual ethos was reflected ill the architecture by a r("turn to the early Christian. This was evident in the construction
of ClullY JI, where at the end of ,he ulllh cemury arcades of columns were
erected III ,he style of the early Christian basilicas. It was in the same spirit
tha, partS of the Hirs,1U reform monasteries were designed and built for
the liturgy, albeit with sonx regional variations. From 1059-1071 a basilica
with nave and two side aisles, twin-lOwer front, transept and chapels in
echelon was built in Hirsau over the 10mb of St. Aurelius. Only Ihe nave of
this church is still extant. [ts choir terminat ion with three echeloned apses
has been uncovered and recorded in excavations. In the Twelfth century the
church was rebuilt, and columns and heavy cushIon capitals added.
A new monastery complex including the St. Pe,er and I'aul church was
begun under Abbot Wilhelm in 1082 and consecrated in 1091. In 1692 the
monastery was destroyed. Only the northern west tower of the antechurch
wa< <r:lrptl, :lnd this a("wally dal"~ from ,h.. first half of th .. twelflh
cemury. Neverlhe1ess the ground plan of the church is stili clearly visible.
SI. I'c,er and Paul was another exam ple of a colon naded basilica wilh a
nave, twO side aisles and transept with small apses constructed on the cas,
side. A square choir bay wilh latera! choirs on both sides adjoined the

56

hulinzdla. monul~ryc"ur<:".
1I05~llIS. Wesl po"~1
Pau]LI,ull . rmn.of monaST"ychur<:h
from ,h~ ""mh "

crossing. The lateral choirs represtmed an extcnsion of the aisles across

and beyond the transtpt. The main choir had a flat tcrminalion. In the
nave, the crossing S<.:!uare provided the basis of the proportlonmg of the
r-difice. After the crossing the wlunms of Ihe na,c do nOI: resume
Immediately, but to the west of the cross-shaped crOSSllig piers rhere is a
further pair of columns on a cruciform ground plan. In Ihe area of this first
nave bay the aisles were barrcl-vauhed, whilst the other areas of the
church had flal ceilings. This pronounced bay III from of the crossing is
peculiar to the Hirsau churches, indeed it IS a typical characterist1(; of other
buildings based on the Hi rsau style such as Alplrsbach in thc Black For..-st
(photo, p. 56 above ), All Saints in Schaffhausen or I'aulill~clla in
Thuringia (photo, right). The spatial discontinuity of the first nav,! bay can
be underslood as Ihe archilcclu ral expression of liturgical fUllctiol1s. It was
here thaI the area resened for the monks, namely the choir, ended. The
easterly choir area, whICh IIIcludcd the transtpt and crossing, was where
the monks took pan in the church strviee, and is known as the "chorus
maior. ~ The MChOTUS nl1nor~ adiollis the laner III the direction of the na,e.
In churchcs of the Hirsau School, it is rccognizabk by the piers in the na,e.
The ~chorus minor~ was probably also marked off from the na"e by a
!i.anctuary rail. The Mchorus mlllor~ was a part of the Cluniac church
layout alld was determined by the hturgy, for it was here that the monks
not inmlved in the canonical office participated in the service.
The monastery churches of Alpirsbach, Allerheiligen (All ~,alllts) in
Schaffhausen and the monastery ruin in Paulin1.ella arc impressive
expressions of thc spiritual ethos of the Hirsau Reform Order and its
school of architecture. These churches exemplify the mOllumcmal
architecture of this order. Decoratl\'e deuils arc almOSI emirely dispensccl
With, but It is III the very absence of thi s decoration that the effect of this
architecture lies; It appears monumental rather than merely sobelr.ln {heir
st~"tP proportioning, these box-like naves correspond to th,e spa{ial
conception of the gre~( imperi~1 calhoorals of Spe)er and Mainz.
Common to all church architecture of thIS period III Germany is the
sheer &lccpncss of the inner SP.1CCS, together with a monumentality whICh is
the very essence of Salian architccture. The spiTllual tension between the
emperor and the papacy is all-pervasive in this age. It finds ilil clearesl
expression III the opposition of IWO buildings such as the catl~edral at
Speyer and the monastery church at Alpirsbach. i:k>th buildings represent
highly sophisticated architccwre, bUI are qUIte different in (:haracter.
'ipc)cr is the monlimenlJl imperial claim to aUlhority down to tru~ Slllalle<il
detail and decoration, whilst Alpirsbach, Schaffhausen or l'lIullllzeib
encapsulate the greatest possible clarity and simplicity.

57

Worms. Ca,btdral St. Peter, wes' choir,

end of ,h. ,wrlfrh crntury

La le Rom anesquc archileclure in the Hohcn5taufcn age

The Staufen period includes Ihe whole Twclllh cemury and Ihe early
,hirt~nTh, and ils anisTic masterpieces a~ 10 be found in Germany and
Italy. The nobiliTY and The knighTs were now beginning TO be the patrons of
culture. In Germany Tbe arTistic cenTers continuoo to be on tbe Rhine, as
tbey were during Carolingian and Salian Times. It was in Cologne, the
middle and upper Rbine. as well as the Saxony of Henry the Lion that the
pioneering buildings of the new style were devclopmg. Inilially still ver)'
mucb rootoo in the Salian style, it was not until the later STages of the
Staufen period, tbe early thirteenth century, that the STaufen STyle reached
ils peak in an inTensive dialogue with The architecTure of French vaulting.
The eXTerior structures are ollen dominated by tower groupings of equal
weight at the eastern and western ends, and the fronts arc articulaTed with
a much gre3ter sense of depTh and thr~-dimensionality. The main
clemenTS of aniculalton are small pai rs or rows of arcbes, which in their
turn are spannoo by larger arches. The lines of tbe walls arc broken down
by means of blind arches and rows of columns which are recessed inwards
in several individual stepped la)ers.

Worm" S,. I... r Ca,hrdnl. Ground pl.n

58

Maria Laach - the em bodiment of a Staufen monastery cbu rch

The very essence of The fully formed Romanesque churcb bas been
prC$Crved at the Benedictine abbey of Maria Laach (foundoo in 1093) in
the Eifel (figure, p. 59). The weST choir, [laVe and crypt were completed in
1156, wbilst the cast cboir did not see completion until I 177. The atrium
in front of tbe west cboir, moreover, is an addition of the thirtccnth century.
The basilica has a nave with five transverse rectangular bays, twO side
aisles eacb witb five rectangular bays, and double transepTS. This differs
from tbe system where the proponions arc based on Ibe crossing square as
module (Ihe ~gebundenes System,~ see p. 48J. l1>e cburcb was designed
right from tbe beginning to incorporate vaulting, altbougb tbe vaulting of
non-square bays did cause problems. The vaulting has tbe appearance of a
longitudinal barrel, into which curved undersurfaces for IUllcnes bave
been CUt. Compared wi lb Speyer Catbedral, the interior space is noticeably
beavy and low. Arcade arcbes and clerestory windows are cut abruptly
into tbe walls wltb no articulatIon III between. Characteristic of the early
Pf"riod of Staufen arcbitecture is the sturdy, powerful elevation and the
strict uniformity of the walls. The extcrior is a typical Structure witb its
tower groupings abo"e Ibe east and west choirs, each carefully balancing
tbe othcr. Slim, higb towers over square ground plans rise in tbe spandrel
between the east choir and transepT. An octagonal broken tower crowns
Ihe crossing. Round towers are anached to tbe ends of tbe western
!ransept, and above the crOSSlllg stands :I square tower, crowned by a roof
of four rhombi. Both choirs ha\'e been consciously designed to stand 0111
with Ibeir massive, clUSTered, towering structures. T be result is a rich
contrast of varying stereometric forms. Narrow, flat lesenes subdivide the
surfaces of tbe exterior into upright rectangular areas terminated at tbe
top by round arcb friezes. Their St:lufen character can be clearly seen in
the round-arched friezes whicb do no, SImply project from the walls as in
Salian architecture, but rest on small corbels. There is an obvious pleasure

Mana Loa.h, ikned;Cflne monaSlery

church. VltW from ,he nonh~I.
ground pl~n. ] ]56 and 1177 roasl chOir'
completed

59

RQShe"n, Also, p."~h ~hu",h of

S,. p.,~r ~nd Paul. Th"d quarter of

Rooheim. AI<ace, p..i.hchur,h of

St. 1'<1.,..n<I Paul. Nave Iookingu.t

rhe rw~lfth ...,rury.

vitw from rhe '""uth .....,,,

here in enlivening the ~urface with ~mal! decoratlH' detail. Each indiVidual
shape or group, whether lesenes, roundarche<! friezes or blind arches, is
integrated into a unit of great streng,h and tension.
Masonry as a plastic material
This fondness for groups of towering structures is taken further in Worms
Cathedral, which was built shortly after J 120-30 {photo, p. 58}. The
whole building must have been complet~-d by J J8 J except for the west
choir. T he smallest and last of the three imperial cathedrals to be
completed, it is the most unified stylistically and the cleare"t example of
the late Staufen concept of architecture. The basilica with a nave and two
aisles is erected using the crossing square as a basis for the proportioning
of the building. that is to say, that there is a ratio of five square nal'e hays
to ten side aisle bays. In the east there IS a transcpt, which contmues ;nlO a
quadratic forechoir hay with a narrower, semi-circular apse. The east apse
is not viSIble on the exterior, because the east choir is closcd off by a
straight wall and flanke<! on the edges by round towers. In the west the
nave ends in a polygonal choir terlnlnation, which is also flan ked by round
towers. The latter lie in the line of ,he side aisles. The poliygonal choir
termination was a new fe;Hure, as until this time there had on Iy been semi
circular apses or fla t termina ted choirs. The polygonal choir is an
archite<:tural feature originating in France which only became widespread

60

in Gt-rmany at ,he begllllllllg of the thirteenth century. The immediate

prototyPf' for Worms is taken to be the choir of Basel Cathedral. Despite
the relatively shorr period of construction, the interior of Worms
Cathe<!ral is nOt uniform, but this does not detract from the effect of space.
Its elevallon is based on the imperial cathedrals of Speyer and Mainz. The
interior space IS dominated by the massively heavy piers and the great
quadripartite rib vaults which spring from torus capitals with richly
molded cornices. Angular and rounde<! responds afford Ihe wa ll a StrOng
relief. T he IIlfluence of Alsace and Burgundy is eV1dent in the cast choir
with its stone band rib vaults, and in the later molded band rib ~aulrs of
the na,e. It is III the west choir ,hal Ihe IateS' SlagI' of Staufen archite<:ture
is 10 be found. Here masonry has been de~eloped (0 its maximum
potential. The stonework has e~olved imo a substance which can be
sculptured, and in wh ich individual parts are modeled. Even more striking
is the fondness for decorating breaks in the wall and for covering uniform
parts of the exterior wall with ornament.
T he surface of the buildmg is characterize<! by a skilful play of light and
shadow, brought about by the strongly sculptured execution of the
individual parts, particularly the dwarf g."1l1eries. For all that, the wall is
not supposed to appear lighter in effect, rather the power of the wall
was to be emphasize<!. It is an almost unarchitectural lare style which is
embodied in the west choir of Worms Cathedral and is equally charac'

Ramberg. a"I>tJral St.

G><ge. Consccralcd

P~I"r

an<!

In 1237

& .. 1. monster, forlntr calhcd",1 SI.

Ma,,", looay Pr",.,.,am

I"mh ch~rch. Ahcr 118S. Nave, wall
elevallon

teri$tic of the wesl choir of Mainz Cathedral. The sculpturallr modeled

walls are broken up by means of ra:esses and galleries, pen(:lfaled by
windows, but ncver\heless relain their solidity. These examples of bte
Romanesque architecture date from a time when the great high Gothtc
cathedrals were already being erted in France.
Centers of Staufen arch itectu re in Ihc southern upper Rhine
In Alsace. one of the heartlands of Ihe Staufen emperors. there were many
new churches bUIlt in the twelfth century, com mon to all of whkh was the
usc: of rib vaulting. A characteristic feature of the architectural landscape
was the contrasting relationship between the interior and exterior. Whtlst
the interiors of the churches in Alsace appeared relatively heavy and
compact. the exteriors were rich in articulation and omamem. TWIlltowered fronts. already present in the Salian period. were developed
further in the twelfth cemury. Under the influence of the cathedrals of
Strasbourg and Basel. twin-towered fronts wcre built in selestat,
Uutenb.1ch or Guebwiller. Parallel to this was thc popu13rity of crossing
towers, a large number of which were erected in Alsace. for eX:lmple the
multi-store)'ed, OCTagonal crossing towers in seleslat, Haguenau, Rouffach,
Guebwiller and Rosheim. The ground plan selected was always Ihe basilica
with nave and tWO side aisles, transept, choi r bay, main apse and side apses
on the transept wings. In the nave the crossing square was used as the basis
for the proportioning of the building, and an alternate supporting rhYlhm
employed.
SI. Peter and Paul in Rosheim was constructcd in the thIrd quaner of
the twelfth century and is acknowledged as one of the most beautiful
Staufen churches in Alsace (photo, opposite lefl), The basilica Wllh nave
and two side aisles, transept, choir bay, and semi-ci rcular ap:ot is very
richly articulated and ornamented on the exterior. A multiple molded
plinth, blind recess and round-arched friezes over lesenes covered the
whole of the exterior. The transverse fa"ade in the west and the main apse
are particularly heavily ornamented. The building has a high octagonal
crossing tower, which was renewed in the Gothic period. Just as 111
Guebwiller or seleSla! there are human figures on the crossing tower on
the slanting pans ncar where it meets the roof. The intertor tS
characterized by a stTtct uniformity of the walls. The nave is rib-vaulted
whilst the side aisles are grom -vaulted. Cruciform piers and sq ua t wlumns
on "cry high plinths with heavy, block-like, ornamented capitals alternate
along the arcade.
The Staufen eastern partS ofStrasboutg Catlledral are of monumental Stze.
Its east choir and transepl were built o,'er the old 5.ilian ground plan from
the late twelfth century onwards. The semi-circular apse, which joins directl)'
onto tile transept, is encased in a rectangular wall as at Worms. Hi;!;h plinths
support huge picrs, which in turn carry the high vaults and crossing dome.
Despi te Iheir pronounced steepness, the east pans seem to wei@,h heavily
on each other and are characteristICally Staufen in style. They exhibit a
heavy monumentalitr, typical of the late period of Staufen architecture.
Similar in its heavy, powerful appearance is the interior of Basel
Cathedral. which was rebuilt after a fire in 1185 (photo, below TIght).

61

llal""rst~dl,

L",bfrautnklfcht.

Around 1140. View from 1M .~"

Qucdhnburg. colkglatc church SI.

x . . .atiui.

lQ70--] 129. Nav.lookmg \',esl

In Ihis ,hurch, galleries hay~ been inserted between the arcade level and
the clerestory. Each gallery has rhree ;lrc;adcs resting on a pair of colonneuts, each contained within a flat round-arched r~ess. Many influences
coincide in Basel, as the upper Rhine tradition here merges with the
influences from France and Italy. In this way something distinctive has
emerged: a heavy, powerful space which is typical of the SI3ufcn
architeCTure of the upper RhllIc. The galleries of Bm;d cathedral indeed
influenced the cathedrals in Slrasoourg and Freiburg. The latter is
indebted to Rasel for its Romanesque east parIs.
Bound by tradit ion - the centre and east of Germany
In 1237 the imposing new Suufen cathedral at Bamberg with its many
towers was consecrated (figure, p. 61 above). The cruciform basilic:l With
an eastern crypt and western transept h:ls a double choir. Whilst in the eaSt
choir lone Romanesque forms arc able to express themselves freely and the
masonry is articulated with typical sculptural richness, the w<'"Stern choir
has adopted forms from the early French (;Qthic. The east apse. nave
pediment and slim eastern towers are built up over a high plinth. Semicircular in its lower area and polygonal above, the richly articulated' apse
has wide windows on each side of the polygon. In the molded window
intudos there are colonnettes with astragals winding around the arches.
The hollow moldings of the window inrr:ldos are filled with spheres and
roseTtes. These small. corporeal forms of decQT:ltion model the walls and
lend great expressive power to the buildmg. The n:lve. whost proportioning is based on the crossmg square module, is vaulted with six or four
part ribbing. The hea"y uniform areas of wall combine with the vaults to
form a space which conveys considerable power and might. The interior
thus has :ltt austere, serious char:lcter compared to the exterior which
projects joyfully upwards.
Around 1140 the Liebfrauen church in Halberstadt was rebuilt, although
the older parIS in front of Ihe nave which resembled a westwork were
preserved (photo, above). The building exhibits some architectural motifs,
which :lre indebted to the I-Ilrsau style of architecture, such as an e:lst choir
with chapels in echelon, or the pier arcades, which do not join directly to
the crossing. bill are separated from the crossing arches by a short strip of
wall. The basilica with nave, sides aisles and transept has a square
forechoir which is accompanied by side choirs. Semi-<:ircular apses are
attached to the main choir, the side choirs and the east walls of the
transepts. The walls of the nave with its flat ceiling rest on piers which
have an almost imperceptible rhythm. Both square and rectangular piers
are used, creating a very subtle alternation of supports. Moreover, there is
very little wall anicul:ltion. Only the east parts of the church are vaulted.
The still persisting traditions of Ottonian :lrchitecture, such :lS the alternation of supports and fl:lt ceilings, are combined with southern German
influences, suc h as, for example, in the eastern parts of the church with the
architecture of the Hirsau School. That this variant of southern German
:lrchitecture should be emulated is significant, since it is this monastic
architecture which kept alive the fbt ceiling basilica. The same applies to
the collegiate church of 51. Servatius in Quedlinburg {figure, opposite,

62

KO.lllI-lun .... for"",. ~,'" abbo.y

and Paul. Fn)m 1135
'0 ,hot I,"t .....,Ifrh ~",.ury. E.u . I......
(hotlow), round u<:h fntu on.hot ""lin
apse (above .

~hu.dlofS. . I'fl ...

bottom) which used .he same S3Xon alternallon of supportS .secn at St.
M.chael III H. ldeshe.m.
The basilIca of St. Godeha.d in HildeshC lln, built from] ]30 to 1172
WIth a na,'e and twO aisles, also uses the double alternation of supports of
St. M,chael. Of particular arChlteclUra]lInponance IS the chOIr (photo,
p. 25), since ,hIS was the first IInloe m Germany thai an ambulatory with
apSldal chapcls (c~\'et) was buIll surroundmg the chOIr. The sources of
msp.rallon for thIS ambulatory are 10 be found m French architecture,
where the chent had been known smce the tenlh century. 51. Godehard
rem;lIns a umque example of thiS m Germany. It was not unlillhe Gothic
age thaI ambulatonl'S of thIS type were used agam, and then it was under
the d, rect mfluence of French architecture.
I.ale Staufcn Archilec1ure on the Rhine - the inl craction wilh France
A la.e stage of 51'aufeD architecture IS exemphfied by the monastery church
of 51. I'eter and Paul in KOlllgs!uller, bUIlt between 1135 and t~ late twelfth
century by Emperor loIhar (phOlO, ab()\'e len). 1be choir and tr.msept are
grom vaulted. On the one hand, the ground plan with twO lateral chOIrs
flankmg the mam structure follows the pallem of the Hlt$;lu School,lhallS
an anlNmperial concept of bUlldmg. On the Olher hand, [he nch anlcubuon clearly shows the WIll of the Impenal chent rommlSSlOllmg t~
build mg. 1be delailed articulation of lhe mam apse m the eas' IS 'YPlcal of
the late nyle of Smufen archItecture. The amcu lation is generously endowed with responds and round-arched frines, and the walls arc sculp
tured 111 their style. The imperial authority is ex pressed in the cbSSlcal
ornamentation. which, as in Speyer Cathed ral, was created by
Lombardlan SlOne masons.
St. Klemens In Schwan.rhclndQrf near Bonn was orogmally bUIlt by the
Cologne archbIShop Arnold "on WiN as a palatmechapelaround 1150, but

63

lkud-Sch"'~rzrMln.dorf,

pat.1I11C ,huf\'Ch

ofs.. Klnnms, ] ]50 and 11 'J. F.JI.mor

from.M norIh~u,

Colognt'. St. MUlln 'MGrral, formor

IknNlC"... monulrry church.
1150-1172. V..'" from 1M MMJlh ....iI

OPPOSITE

Lmburg.n dc-r Lahn,c;lIhedul, former

collc-gla.. and pamh church of St. G>.g.o
.nd St. NIChola . 1215-1235. View from
'MnorIh .....,.'

was converted 10 a nuns' church In 11 73 (photo, above left), The ground

plan is based on Ihe Godehard chapel In Mamz cathedral. although St.
KI.,n .,ns IS cruciform. Towards ,h., .".st, In th" d ..",,"on of .he 3fK", the
IIllerlor opens up on both noors to forlll a broad space. It was h.,." that
not 10llg before 1173 the first ribbed vaulring in the Rhineland was
erecled. The exterior .5 endowed wuh a neh, laUi articularion. The lower
walls of The ehapel arc largely resTrained in their decoration, but the upper
part, on rhe other hand,.s all the "'01'(' opulent lIIots ornamentation. Therc
IS a dwarf gallery, running around the whole church, and co,ered by a
narrow roof. Abo,e the gallery Ihe lIIalll part of Ihe church rises up and
Teaches a peale III lhe shape of a powerful Tower o,er the mKidle of Ihe
building.
The nch surface' .s much more highly tk,cloped than, for exalllple,
l\-bria Luch, anoth.,. church of the s.-.me period. The shaping of the

64

wmdows on the uppcr I('\"d of the huildmg has acquired a STyle of ilS own.
The wllldows Me no longer SImply round-ar<:hed, bUT qUire unusual 111 their
form'_ 31m<K1 mann",i" on "yle, ~nd q,,~'refoil or fan-sh~ped.ln ,he la.er
arChllKtUr(' of the Lower Rhone such window shapes arc commonly laken
up agam and vanatlons created.
The extenor art",ulallon of Ihe mlllster at Bolin (photo, p. 66) shows
further development and pcrfecllQII. Its cast cholT wilh semi-circubr apse
was compl('ted III 1166, wh.lst Ihe oonSlrUCtlon of the Transept, na,e and
seml-circular west cholT enclosed III a rectangubr wallloole unl11 1224.
The towers and apse rose from a songle high plinth, whIch togelhcr WIth Ihe
blond arch" of the tWO stor('ys abo,(' I('nd a Ulllly TO Ih(' ustem end. The
tOP of the apse is crowned by a dwarf gallery, In Ih(' IIItenor Ihe eaSI chotT
appcaB low and heavy, wh.lsi Ihe na"e on comrast is graceful and well-iiI.
ThIs is achl('\'ed by Ihe "dd'IlOIl of a blmd mfonum betWC'CII th(' wide-

Bonn,S,. M.rtin Minster. 1166 (USTern

p.rts), 1224 (nal'e and ",'en choir).
View from ,I>e CaSI (Id, ), tripartlTC wall
ciCV311Qn Iccn,cr)

spanned arcades and the triparti te clerestory windows. The tnforium

is offset from the waH, but cannot be used as a passageway. The doublelayered effect of the two lower storeys is continued in th~: clerestory,
where small columns with pointed arches stand proud of tine wa)1. As
regards the construction of the wall in the mmster at Bonn, the
inspirations gained from Sainte Trinitc in Caen are modified to a late style,
almost over-f~gi le and thm in ItS cOnstruction. This pattern of three
storeys, consisting of arcades, triforium and clerestory, became widespread
in the religiolls architecture of the Rhine. A frcqucm alternative to
the trifonum was the ga llery, used for the first time in St. Ursula in
Cologne. Gallery storeys from the late 5raufen period are also to be
found on the Rhme at St. ~reon in Cologne, Bacherach, Anc!ernach and
Neuss.
There was a further developmem at the collegiate church of 51. George
(phmQS, pp. 65 and above), which had been begun in 1215, consecrated in
1235, but not completed un til the middle of the century. Both types of
elevation, tnforium and gallery, were combined by creating fOllr storeys, a
design Inspired by the early French Gothic style at laon. The triforium
storey was inserted bctwl>en the galleries and Ihe clereslO'ry. Overall,
however, the quadripartite elevation appears heavier and mor,(' solid than
its French foreruT11ler. Of particular note also is the charming landscape
setting on a rocky outcrop which was used 10 maximi~e I:he strIking
im pact of this church with its mul tiple towers.

66

LImburg an der Lahn, calheJral, former

colleglalc and I"lnsh church of
Sf. George and Sf. Nicholas. 1225- 1235.
View m crossing wllh quad"I"l""c wall
ricv.llon

These archI tectural ideas at tained ,heir full flowering III St. Aposteln
(photo, p. 53) and St. l'. lartin Ihe Great (photo, p. 64) in Cologne. The
archittural origins of these sacred buildings are to be fOllnd in Ihe
Cologne Iradi lion, as is evident in both churches; for example, the idea
of Ihe trichora (doverleaf pattern) from SI. Maria lin Kapital was
laken up again. The former collegiale church of SI. Martin the Great was
built in place of the church burnt down in 1150 and was consecra ted
in 1172.
T he Ihree conch apses wilh their shorl barrel-vaulred forebays are
grouped around the square crossing, over which the massive tower rises
with its four accompanying slim octagonal staircase turrets. Before the
extension of the cathedral towers In Ihe nineTeenth centu ry, Ihis Tower
dominated the skyline of Cologne. T he nave and side aisles appeaT as a
mere annex in comparison to the huge eastern end with ils high towers.
Round-arched blind arcades divide the conch apses in to three storeys.
Dwarf galleries over a plate frieze, which run all around the eastern parts,
unIte the different partS of the building. The flchness of the articulation
increases towards the top of the building. Characteristic of these generously artIculated Cologne churches is their twolayered wall construction,
which shapes both their interior and exterior. The heavy walls are thereby
afforded Iheir necessa ry solidity, but al the same time appear light. T his
efft of lightness is inc reased at the crossing and towards the ceiling
by the use of recesses o r passagewa),s behind "rches. This kind of wall

R.. ubutg, pt<'St3n, ca,htJ .. 1church,

formtrly $,. Mary and $1. John ,he
Eva~h". 116(1170-1215120. VItW from
,huou,h

Juichow, formtr Pr.monStra,.n>oan

colleg.. 'e,hurch oIS,. Mary and $,.
NICholas. N.ve alur 1144

articulallon was ,"flu.neN by Norman architecture and lend; a grace

and elegance to the interior space which is unusual in Sraufen a"hi!(~cture.
Th e influence of Henry the !.ion. North German brick Romanesque
architecture
The center of Lower Saxon an was Brunswick, the stronghold of the Guelph
Duke Henry the Lion. Thecathedral in Brunswick was rebuilt beTween 1173
and 11 95 tn a uniform style. With its monumental digntty and ausl:erity, and
heavy, almOSI unaniculated external appearance, the building seems somewhar antiquated. The cross-shaped basilica, whose proportiontng was
strictly based on the crossing square, was designed for vaulting thmughout.
Its nave has an alTernaTing system of supports, although its inv~rmcdiare
supports arc not columns, bUI p,ers without re~ponds, which apPC'ar simply
as part of the walls. Thus rhey combme wuh the barely lit c1erest01"}" and The
barrel vaUl Tto produce a heavy, almost cavernous interior. This powerful but
heavy inrerior is complemented by an exterior constructed from bare,
undressed SlOne, and relieved only by a few lescnes or round-arch'~ fnC"lCS.
Nortl1ern reticence m Brunswick and soUll1em opulence in Worms ootl1 go
to make up the very wide spectrum of style thaT is Stnufen archltccnure.
In 111. north of Germany brick bc.'ca",e the favoTtlc building material in
ooth religiOUS :md secular architecture. After initial use of drcSM:d stone,
brick was used \11 the Premonstratensian church in Jerichow, begun soon
after 1144. This was a building witl1 a flal ceiling and ascetic, restrained
forms in the spirit of H,rsau (photo, right). Since the late classical period
the tcchniques of brick building had not been used in their pure form, until
tl1e Premonstratensians and Cistercians resoned to its use because of the
lack of dressed SlOne in the nonh.

67

"'.ulbronn, former Cimrci.n abbey.

Second half ofth~ twelfth comury_
A~"al

VIew

Maulbronn, forme' .bbeychuh.

Na"elooking caSt

The architecture of the Cistercians

The secularization of the old ideals of the Cluniac order, mostly noticeable
in the extravagantly splendid abbey at Cluny, promptl a group of the
monks to found a new monastery in Citeaux in the twelfth century where
life was to be 11 accordmg !O strict ascetIc monastic rules. In 1113
Bernard of Clairvaux entered the order and within a very short time led it
10 great prominence. More than 500 new Cistercian monasteries were
founded under Bernard, all of which were imbued with the same ascetic
spirit. These build mgs were all simple, plain and austere, in1ine with the
ideals of the Cistercian order. The construction of towers was not allowed.
Only a ndge-turret was permiul, which was used for the bells, and could
only project slightly above the ndge. A Cistercian church is therefore
generally a low building without any lOwers or projections. Decorative
detaIl m the il11erior is largely dispensed with.
The Cistercian monastery at Maulbronn has Ixen preserved almost
completely il11acl. The complex with its main and auxiliary buildings is
not ulllform in It5 style or age. The center of the monastt"ry is made up of
the church and the adlOining enclosure, that is tht" areas which wt"Te
reservcd for the monks. Slightly apart from thIS were the domesllc offkk,
gardens, cemetery and infirmary. The whole monastery was enclosed in a
circumval1allon (circumference wall), closing it off from the exterior. The
basilica with na,'e, aisles, transept and flat terminated choir was o rigmallr
cOl-ered by a flat ceiling similar to that in thc church of the Cistercian
monastery of Bebenhausen. The vaulting was added latcr.
Elxrbach 111 the Rht"ingau exhibits the same type of ground plan as
Maulbronn, although the proponioning of the building was based on the
square crossing, and the building was groin vaulted. The church of the
monastery, founded in 1135, was built between 1150 and 1178, and has
remained intact and without any subsequent alterations, apart from the
addit ion of Gothic chapels in the side aisles. Re.:tangular responds, whicb
rise up from corbels which arc set in the wall at the height of the imposts,
carry the transverse arches between the groin vaults. Each bay has two
clerestory windows, a clear indication that righ t from its initial design the
building was designed to accommodate groin vaulting. T ht" characteristic
features of Cislercian dCSlgn are evident in this budding, namely, very
simple articulation, a relaTive lack of decorat ion and the ciaritr and
simplicity of the interior. I'articularly charactcriSTic of the Staufcn period is
the low and heavy interior and the uniformity of its surfaces, which
breathe an austere grandeur.

68

G.,.,.... "~bi).,r.

Maulbronn. former
monastcry arca and galil

Maulbronn. ground plan of the

abbtychurch (top), Intcrior of
gabl (nplll

"

RUin of the 'm~"al palace at

Gdnhauscn. Sond halfof th~ twelfth
(ntury. Palas, sat~ house wnh chapc'1
and lOwer

RUin of ,he impc'rial pabcr at

Gdnhaustn. Arcades of m.in loving
quanel"$

Secular Romanesque architectu re

Residential and defensive buildings were amongSt the most important
items of medieval secular architecture. Their austere charncter originated in
the fortified towns and castles, wher(' the areas of residence and defense
were brought into ntaximum functional harmony w,th on(' another. Since
the early Middle Ages rulers of the empire had preferred palaces as places
of residence. The German expr('ssion for these residences, ~ pfalz'" also
originates from the Latin ~palmium.~ These imperial or royal palaces with
their genNolls halls, roof-covered promcnades, chapels and atria were
widespread throughout the empire, as at this time the emperors led a
peripatetic life with no fixed seat of government. These palaces would all
be visited in their turn over the years. The domestic offic('s attached
fO the palaces would provide for the needs of the emperor's court. The
arrangement of the buildings relative to one another has its origins in
Roman, Byzantine and Germanic prototypes.
The imperial palace of Charlemagne in Aachen and the extent and
nature of its functional buildings is already well known in all its essential
featurcs. At Bodman on lake Constance and the Carolingian palaces at
[ngelheim and Nijmegen, excavations have revealed useful information
about their structure and function. T h(' imperial palace at Goslar (figure,
opposltel was built III the firSI half of the elcvemh cemury under 0110 111
and Henry Ill; the hall Structure partly dates from this period. E"'tensive
resfOrmion work and reconstruction in a romantic style in 1865 account
for its present ap~arance.
The ruin of the imperial palace at Gelnhausen (photos, above), first
memion('d in 1158, is regard('d as one of the most beautiful and artistically

70

Ruin of th~ ,mpc'ria! pal"". at

Gdnhaustn. Wall detai[

important imperial palaces in Germany. Frederick I recei"ed it before 1\70

as a fief. Several German emperors are known 10 have resided here, and on
occasions it was used to hold th(' lmpt""rial diet. The film was reslOred in
the nineteenth century.
The pflnelpl('s of castle building were determined by the nature of the
landscape. In south and west Europe there was the altempt to achieve as
standard an overall design as possible. In northern Europe, in contrast,
particularly in Germany, the castl(' was an organic part of the !and)Cape, as
it were, and ;ts defensive capability was adapted 10 th( prevailing
IOpography. The rmg castle, the rings of which consistt""<l of walls and
buildings, would be situated on a site which was protected equally on all
sides. On flat terrain the castl(' would be surrounded by a moat, whilst on
a hill tOp it would eas,ly be protected by th(' steep slopes. A keep, which
usually stm separately, would tend to serve as a last refuge rathu than
first defense. Therefore the upper floors of the main lOwers were some'
times built as residences. The 'palas' would house further residential
quarters, ineluding a hall and a number of hving chambers which could be
heated. The construction of castles was therefore one of the most
significant artistic achievem('nts of the Staufen era. [n the elC\"enth century
castles still served :llmost e",elusively functional purposes. It was only in
the twdfth century that larg(' independent types developed, The starting
point had been the "Turmburg~ (tower castle) which was comparable 10
the ~donjon~ in france (pp. 174 ff). [n the Staufen castle indi"idual parts
were added to make an e"'tended group. DeSigned as round, square or
polygonal, the keep represenred the fortified central part of the Staufen
castle.

Londdx'l\, AI.acc. asd.. "'lin. "",0

1m", quan". ","h d'''l'd "'1<'1

Goda fonnc:. Im""nal p.Lo,

clr>'m,lHh,nrl.h cm.ury. So<alW
,m""rul houst. 1868-7\1 ..... "'... ,"'" 10
'0; p.--o, form
Goob'.I"'Lonnatc.rea ,.,th s0-<:011t.;i
'm~I~. ,.h.a~ .. nd colq,.-,,,
chul'1:h. An,~'s ,mp.n<ion

Ceremonial rooms and lIvmg quuters were loc;lted in :1 separate

buildmg. the p.ala.,;. It was generally slllIated in the innermost castle
counyard under the protC'ChOn of Ihe kC'('p and the circu'nvallanon
(ci rcumference ""'311). As the USlle dId 001 sene reslden\lal purposes alone.
but was abo"e al1l1ttemkd for Ihe represematlon of Ihe cour!, the design
and layout would be arranged and decoraled to fulfill these fUII"ions. The
chapel and the chambers whICh could be healed and used as living
accomnlOdanon complete the composition of a t)pICal castle. ThIs MSIe
structure was st311dard for all castles. whether ,"'penal palace. ministerial
castle, or the castle of a SO'erelgn prmce. Ikyond the functional requirements there was a st"ving towards clear ground plan fOrl115, ald~ough thIS
was always subordl11:ltc 10 topographICal conslder:!.tIOI1S. In thIS C01l1CXI a
d,sflnction may be drawn betwe!"n two t)pes of SIIe: those sued on high
ground and those situated on low-Iymg ground. Those on hIli TOps or
rocky ledges rep resented the mOM WIdespread type. Some might be
sItuated on the SUm1l1lt. whilst ochers would be sited on Ihe sk,pe. In the
latter there would be a ditch 10 front of Ihe castle. with a huge wall
sh,eldll1,g the castle and 'Glden" .. l quanel'S. The summit was of course Ihe
mOSt secure SIIe for a castle. The 'pabs, Il$ldenual and dOme5lk buildings
",ould be 5IIu3t.d 10 the mncr SIde of the rC'Clangular or polygonal
circum"albtlon. the sh:lpe of the lalfe. bemg dl<:t3ted b)' the nature of the

.~:'"'\~-.~~-:-!l'.~
....,:- '":;

____

~"<-.J

..

-~

71

otITER LEFT

Rogcnsburg. "liaumburg Town"

RcsOdcnll~lto",cr. n",d quaner of Ihe
Ih,nn,h nn,ul"}'

F"'iburg, town founded by the Zahring<:'

Duk~. F"st half of the I..... dfth ((nlUI"}'.
,\ kria"cngraY'ng of 1643

Karde .. , Rom.n<"S<l"" hou~ (,00",,),

!lad Mun"ereifd. Ro",.~"" house
1167/68 (""10 ..... )

site. The cmbossed stone masonry, which lent Ihc bUildings their monumcntal and defensive appearance, is very typical of must Staufen casiles.
The castle at Landsberg in Alsace was constructed around Ihe middle of
the Iwelfth century and is largely walled in embossed stone {photo, left).
The upper floor of Ihe 'paJas' ruin has a series of four small roundarched windows and an oriel wilh a round-arched frieze. The ground plan
aI Ulrichsburg at Rlbeauville has been complelely adapted to the mountainous site. Extended m the twelfth century with the addition of, amongst
other things, a h'Cp, it ranks as one of the best exallipies of Staufen castle
building (photo, opposite).
Town archlle<=rure is juSt as much an imponant featurc of the laic
Romanesque period as castle construction. Until the early twelfth century
there were few towns in Germany. They mostly owed thcir existence to a
bishop's seat or important merchant settlement. These towns had grown
up over long periods of time without any dellberatc pianning. This
changed at the beginning of the twelfth ccntury, whcn for the first time
since antiquity new towns were founded and erecled according to clead)'
designed plans. The most importaut princdy families of the time, the
Staufer, the Guelphs, and the Zahringer, founded new tOwns to consolrdate their territories and endowed them with rich privileges. The most
impressi\'e towns were those founded by rhe Zahringer, which included

72

Freiburg im Breisgau, Villingen, Munen and Fribourg.lt was not umil the
middle of the twelfth century that the Staufer followed their example with
towns such as Schwabich Gmund, RCUIlingen and Haguenau. In their turn
the Guelphs created Uhn, and Henry the Lion founded Lubeck.
The Zahringer towns were planned in the shape of a large oval,
surrounded by Slrong walls wirh gateways and towers. A wide market
streel, o r twO main StreetS intersecting each other :It right angles, determmed the layoul of the IOwn. At the ends of theM' streets stood the town
g.1tes. Parallel or perpendicular to the main srreets were the side STreets,
behind which in turn lay the tradesmen's alleys. The main streets were of
course used to hold large markers. Finally, space was left between the
houses for Ihe church and its graveyard.
Few Romanesque dwelling houses remain preserved, as they were
largely of h3lf-timbered construction. A small number of buildings made
of stone or wood have survived, .1I0wing us at least a small insight into the
house buildmg lechniques of the rime. AnlOngstthe oldest are the so-called
Romanesque house m Bad h'lunstereifel (pholO. left above ), which dates
from 1167/68, and the former hall courtyard in ObcrhhnSletit from
1160170. Also of interest is an imposing SlOne house on Ihe pilgrim roUl~
at Obernai in Alsace, with groups of double windows with trefoil arche~,
which dates from around 1220. Yet anorher example is the so-called
Romanesque house (late twelfth centu ry) al Rosheim in Alsace which is a
tower-like construction wilh embossed corner-SloneS. In some German
towns impressive reSIdential towers from the late RomanC"5que period have
SUTVtI"OO, SIKh as in Rcgensburg where the so-called Baumburg Tower {photo,
left) dales from the th ird quarter of the thirfccnth century. The Yellow
House in Esslingcn, a four-slOrey late Romanesque tower with a square
ground plan, was construcred around t 260. Its embossed Slone fa,~ades
boast WIndows with pointed arches. Finally, cenain half-timbered houses
in Esslingen. Bad Wimpfen and Schwab,sch I-Iall have been shown to date
from Ihe laIC Rotltanesquc period. This was proved by employing SCientific
techniques to determine the age of the wood used in their construction.

RIb<~u,,IIe.

UI,,,ltsburg. E.."lf

,wdhh-lhlt,<"tn,h <"tn,ury
rUIn ofTrlfd., Ann_,ie ,he
,oy.1 fo",f".IIOn of ,h. S.. ufen
.&"~ and for 3 ,,,n. ,h. 1'1"". ",he", the
tm~fI.1 1"_1,
k~p<. Wdl '0_'
('x""",,, leh), ch.pel ofld (Mar Irh)
Cml~

~fintS'

Vi.'"

73

Alick McLean

Romanesque architecture
in Italy

In 1026 Teodaldo. b.shopof Ar~o (1023-36), sent Maginardo to R;l\'CTln.3

10 sway San Vitale as a model for ,omplcrmg the cathedral of Arello,
completing Ihe tralnmg of Ih,s archlfect whom tht bIshop ~Iumcd as IJrtc
arch,tectonica opt/me (mdr/o. What hulc documentaTIon remams of the
resulting bUilding, which was d('$lroyed In 1561, indicates that Maginarao
did mdttd Integrate aspects of San Vitale. What he adopted is significant
for undcrSlandmg the dcvclopmcfll of Romancsqut architecture throughout Italy. He fused the cen tral. palacc-<:hapd plan of San Vitale with a
basilica! plan. and thereby mfuscd his cathedral complex WIth an Imperial
character.
Magmardo and Teodaldo's Intentions in dcvcloplIIg Ihis hybrid
cathedral and pabcc chapel arc made clear in reference to another copy of
San ViTale, 200 years earlier, across the Alps, Charlemagne's I'alatine
Chapelm Aachen, TIlls ea rher Carolmgian structure was less compromismg than Trodaldo's, bcgmning wuh a purely centraliud plan thaI was
remarkably true to the Justinianian model. With his palatme chapel
Charlemagne had aSSl:rted architecturally the same Imk to the laSt great
Roman Christian emperor, JuStlman, that he had asserted polillcally when
he had hlmsclf crowned. on Chmtm:u Day, 800, as Emperor of the Western
Roman EmpIre, Trodaldo's return to thIS same model suggestS hIS own
amhltlon to IlIlk hlmSl:lf to Impenal Roman Chnsuamt)', The overlaId
longltudlllal plan of The baslhca suggests, howe"er. a slightly dIfferent
Imentlon from that of hiS Nonhern Imperial predecessor: the palace
church IS fused wnh a bUlldlllg capable of mlllmering to a far larger congregallon than a centralized church alone. San Vitale is therefore not a
relil;Jous amlchment ChriSllamzlng a secular Imperial palace, but rather an
imperial religiOUS structu re fusmg secular and religiOUS authomy at the
traditional scat of a bishop,
The repelilion of SImilar overlays of centralized and basilical forms m
Romanesque !lallan churches III the eleventh century, whether III Ancona,
Montefiascone, or. most notably. III Pisa, mdlCates how ambitious Imltan
bishops were in their buildmg programs and their symbolism. to the point
of compellng not only with past Holy Roman Emperors, bUI also wilh
their present-day successors, Their consistent reference to models al
Ravenna, even more than to Roman models, indicaTes that Rome was by
no means Ihe sole font for Romamtas. The remains of Imperial Roman
architeclUre were sldl VISIble throughout the peninsula as well as across
the Alps, In some cases. especially m Ravenna, they were in berter
condillon than m Rome 1ISl:lf. The quality of Ravenna's late anllquc
bUlldmgs, amongst the best preserved m the peninsula, helped to establish
the Importance of Ravenna m Italian Romanesque archiTecture, Their
datmg to the Christian era of Roman anllqUity was another factor,
Furthermore, The monumenu of Ra,'enna arc not only Roman and
Chrisllan, They are also Impenal. and therefore ideal models for
consuUClmg Insmutlons wnh aspirations to follow the Chrisllan Imperial
tradITIon so dramallC'3lly assened by JUSl1l11an III bolh Ra,'Cnna and
Coostanlmople, The charanenstK designs of Ra"enna's buildings. from the
TIme ImmedIately precedmg. durmg and 3fr~r Jusllnian's rule, also made
Them easy to rt'Cogl1lle, ev~n m cop,es, They are composed of plan

R~"~nna (Em,lia Rumagn.), mausoleum

ofThwdo.ic. Fi.~, quan~. of ,h~ .ix,h
cen'ury

R,,'cnna (Enllh. Romagn. ), O"hodox b.p".,ery.

Fifth century. Mosaicdec<),,"on$ In ,he ,n'~m)l"of
,hc~iKuI3f'-pl"n

build,ng

Borro.\!
R,,,.nna (Emilia Romagn,, ).
mau""kum ofG.lla !'Iacid,a.
c. 425-450

Mauwleum ofl1lcodor;c. ground

pl.n

elements and details that include simple ~olumetTic massing and the open
o. bli"d arch, for i"stance at the Mausolea of T heoderic (photo, lOp left)
and Galla Placidi., and unornamented exterior bll1tressing piers, such as
at San Vital~. Thcir interiors and exteriors are similarly de.::orated with
arcading, such as at the Baptistery of the Orthodox at R",enna (photo,
top right), and with mosaic work. T he latter con tinued to be executed in
Italian Romanesque and even Gothic churches up 10 the thirteenth century
and beyond, dUl' to the lIlf1uence of the mosaic workshop tradition in
JuSllnian's other, and primary, residence, ConSTantinople, and through the
western Byzantine offshOOT of that workshop, the mosaicists of San Marco
in Venice.
The argume"t here is nOt, however, that Ravenna was the exclusive
font of Romanesque halian architecture, but rather that there was a
plurality of re.::ognizable sources from di~erse moments and places in
antiquity. Types originating from the city of Rome itself, whether the
b:lsilical section or cruciform pbn of St. Peters. or elen earlier pagan
temple facades and drcular, Pamheon plans, were often overlaid over one
another. as in Arezzo Cathedral. A third distinct SOurce was also present,
that of :lnother great dty of Christian antiquity,Jerusalem.
The story Ihat follows explores the variety of ways that different
patrons adopted, mixed and trans formed these prototypes over time and
across the diverse landSC:lpe of the halian peninsula. Sicily and Sardinia.
Again, as at Areuo, the fi nal package produced from th is assortment of
heteTOgeneous models appears to have been drive" nOT only by formal or

75

OPPOSITE

SOTIO~t

Vmice.St. Mark',. Bogun 1063. Mosaic

<k<;m.nons m the: m,enor of the: church

51. Mark's, m.m portal with rnOS'''C$.

'W,

te<;;hnical interests, but particularly by symbolic ones. As Hans Sedlme)'er

and Richard Krautheimer have made quite clear in their studie!, of archittttural symbolism and iconography, the religious Structures of Romanesque hall' nOt only housed congregations, but also spoke 10 th~'m, tellmg
them spttific messages that vaned according to the admixtur(' of scale,
models, and O\'t'rall compomion. And few buildings were static entities,
but were themselves changed by successive generations of paltrons and
architects in order to modulate thei r architectural-symbolic messages
according 10 the composition and importance of their congr~gations.
These messages followed their architectural sources loosely blur consistemly, declaring the connection of local religious and even lay i~lstitutions
to three fundamental sources for political, religious or moral order that
provide the cultural framework for the architectural history in these pages:
lmJXnal roots, Chrisllan lmJXrial authority, and the Apostoli(: mission.
These three symbolic worlds combined, and often conflicted, in the
mentalities of eleventh through thirteenth-cenlUry halian bishops and
priests, elnperors and lords, abbots and monks, merchants and ar1isans.

s..w

Rav.nna (Ermlo. Rumasnaj,

Viul .
S26---H7. brerior view, ground phn

77

Pompou (Em,lia RomagnaJ,

N,nth-elc,.nth
,.ntury. Na"he~ and c.mp;>n,1c
from Ihe "'CSI (left), n ..c and choir
(bck>w). ground pl;.n of , h,e
mon'$'~ry complu (right )
monut~rychurch.

Northern Ital y
The area to the north and west of Ravellila proved to be the starting poun
for the revival of Rom an and Ravenesque architecture in Italy. Patrons and
architects adopted and transformed di\'e~ forms over time in response to
divugent patrons and publics. The dty that retained the strong..-st ties of
any halian city with Byzantine cuhure, Ven ice, shows in its archite.:ture
simultaneous tendendes linking it to Justinian and earlier antique
traditions and also of establishing a distinctly local character, nOl only
regarding const ruction and forms, but even ill the programs of its
buildings. lbe primary church of Venice was, and still is, not a cathed ral,
but rather the palatine chapel for the elected secular ruler of the city; the
Doge's chapel of St. Mark's, begun in 1063. Its plan and interior (figure,
p. 76) show a fusion of the clarity of the centralized S(:heme of San Vitale
with the multiple domes of Hagia Sophia and particularly of Justinian 's
five- and six-dome Greek cross designs for the Hol y Apostles in
Constantinople and for SI. John the Evangelist in Eph..-sus. T he significant
difference from any model is the rel ation of the church to its setting, Piazza
San Marco, visible in the 1204 depiction of St. Mark 's the entry portal
mosaic (photo, bottom left ). Not only does it draw a broad S(:rttn of
inviting arches across the east end of the great space, but it then

78

ill
".

communicates its constellation of interior cupobs across the city with the
quincunx of domes projecting high above the rooftops of the adjoin ing
urban fabric. Both inside and out, the church appears as a glistening
reliquary, appropriate for the re.:ently stolen relics of St. Mark, whisked
away from Alexandria in the ninth century by Venice's true source of
power, its merchant adventurers (pirates). The accessibility and visibility of
these relics, around which the new church was built, made them and the
church the common identity of the emire city, not JUSt of its ruler or bishop.
The unique program and open, inviting character of SI. Mark's is a hint
aT the son of the fusion of architectural, social, political and religions
innovations That was 10 be re~ated in institutional architt'cture in haly.
These innovations, together with The funds for Romancsque Italian
building campaigns, can largely be attributed to the growing number and
importance of merchants throughout the eleventh and twelfth centuries.
The early and forceful presence of merchants along the Adriatic coast even
led the region's monasteries to be constructed and admin istered as much
for the laity as for the cloistered monastic brethren, in marked contrast to
contemporary abbeys across the Alps. South of Venice, by the mouth of
the Po, Benedictine monks constructed a settlement at Pomposa (photo,
top}, between the ninth and eleventh centuries. As in the earlier

C;.id.le (Fflulij, Tcmp,clto Sanl3 ,\I,m3

tn V.II.,. 772-76
Staion.1 dr.wlIlg
.howing the lavI,h inlerior dc<:oraflon

m.

development of Carolingian monateries in the north, the Benooictines of

Pomposa btlllt for themelv<"$ a monatic complex as the command center
for managmg extensive agricultural holdings. for tudying the abbey's rich
library of antique and Christian texts, and for the musical cor.nposition
and chanting of ps.1Ims, greatly aided by Ihe codification of mu sical
nOlalion by Pomposa's own Guido d'Areuo inlhe early elel'enth century.
The prominern role of the monastery in the regional e<:onomy and culture
is clearly broadcast m its architectural forms. with its richly {Ie<:oratoo
porch and tall, multi-lel'eI lombard campanile. It even had a structure
g;I'en over to Ihe laity, ils Venetlan-Slyle Palazzo della Ragkme_ The
brickwork, blind arcades and bUll1cssmg pIers of Ihe chun;h show the debt
to nearby Ravenna, now overlaid with a Triumphal arch motif opening the
porch to the west, de<:oratcd not with arnique spoils, but WiTh Ravenesquc
majolica plates and geometric ornamental panerns STemming f,.om bolh
merchant trade S()urCei and regional lombard decoralil'e tradi tllons. The
e<:ho of the triuntphal ernry of Old 51. I'eter's al the porch of I'omposa
appears to be more than a coincidence. During the "ery years that the
Pompoa porch was under construction, Abbot Guido, although himself
from Ravenna, succeOOed m sa:uring the abbey's autonomy from the
bIshop of R:wenna. placing II under the direct authority of St. Peter's in
Rome. GUido built the Illlage of the mother church at his own abbey.
The brickwork, the archoo corbel tables and primitive ornamental
forms, and the campanile of Pomposa recall another archiH'clUral school
thaI was as inAuential in the construerion and decorallOJl of Italy'!; Roman('S([ue churches as Rome, Ravenna and Jcmsalem were in their symbolism.
ThiS IS the school of the lombards, the Ger1l1an1c tnbe that descended
from the nOrlh-east, beyond the Alps, with Ihe conquests of the lombard
King AllJonio In 568-72. establishmg centers north of the Venetian
lagoon, at Cividale and Aquileia, and surrounding the Hyzantine
Exarchate with terrilorles along most of the western Po, and as far north
as Como and as far sollth as the foot of Italy. The remarkable Tempielto of
Santa Marta in Valle at Cividale (photo, right), from c. 762-76(1), is an
early example of the richne5s of lombard decotall"e work, FuslIlg
Byzantine and even Saracen innuences, which would ha.ve been
communicated through the southern Italian terrilOries of the l.>:.mbards.
More typical is the archite<:ture originating around Milan and I'",via
around 800, known as ~the first Romanesque- in Europe. It is beSt ~n in
the Milanese basilica of San VincenlO in Prato, renovated in Ihe elel'emh
cemury, though With few deviallons from the origll1al structure from
c. 814-33. It is a simplification of architectural forms derivoo from the
Byzantine Exarchate, not only adopting them from the religious ,tructures
mentioned abo"e, but also from the Palace of the Exarchs, erected for the
governors of Byzantine Ravenna after 712. From the latter comes the
upper-Slorey blind arcade corbel vault, whose columns a re either
abstracted into stiffening pilasters or, for interllals of open wall.
abandoned altogelher. At the main apse of San Vincenzo in Prato these
arcades become windows. forming an arcaded gallery that. together with
the blind arcaded corbel vault. was 10 become the signatut'e of the
Romanesque apse, from Southern Ital y to lombardy, across th,e Alps 10

Northern Spain, the Rhine valley, eastern France and Norm,lIldy, and even
as far afield as Hungary and Dalmatia.
The success of Ravennesque galleries, blind arcades, corbe! tables,
buttresses and brickwork under and after Ih e lombards was based on a
mixture of pragmatic, political and symbolic reasons. Although records or
remains of extensi,'e building programs initiated by Ihe lombard kings
and dukes are scarce, from early on the precocious governillg apparatus of
the lombards out of their capital 3t Pavia showed a d ear respect for, and
willingness to protect. the building profession. In 643 the lombard King
Rotharis regi steroo Ihe privileges of builders. In 714, King liutprand
promulgated a graduJted list of prices to be paid for buildings and
construction work. These legal provisions indicate a support for new
construction and renovalion across the lombard kingdom, which by King
liutprand's reign included nearly all of Italy. Such legislatil'e protection
favoroo the development of what King Rotharis called the ~magistri
comacini," or building masters, as a coherent, trainoo corps of lombard
builders. These master masons would not have been limitoo 10 those
originating from Como, fTOm which the term "comacini" may derive, but

79

(Em,Ii. Romagna ),
church .nd bar"SI~ry of
San Giovan",. Founded in 1008
Vigolo

Marc~

monas(~ry

80

AlmtnnQ San I!..Inolorno"O ( Lombardy ~.

C"lrcula ... plan cburch of San Tomaso In
I.,mln n.dill> cmlury. Inmic of I""
~ ( Iop) ,utcr- ( b()ltom)

r.1I~r to

masons from across thc peninsula, St~ped In a still prestnt

Roman tradillon of brick and Slone COnSlruClion, whom Ihc Lombard
kings rcsPCCled and ~Iped to organlu Icgally mto what appears 10 ha"e
bttn the cqulValclII of a gUild.
II was Ihls Irgal orgalllzallon of long-cstablished but decaying Roman
bUlldmg crafts Ih~t literall y revIVed the bUilding IIIdustry in haly as early
as the srvellih cClllury, 1101 onl)" III major celllers, but, through bands of
IIlIIerant masons under thelT masters, in slI\;,1I towns and even the
couillryside. However, thclr masonry techniques were diStincll)" different
from those of their Roman predecessors. Whde the lalfer usrd long bricks
or square stones to remforce and stiffen rubble and mortar or concrete
walls, the Lombard m3$OM used the higherprofile Byzantine-type bricks
to construct enhrdy bflck walls. wllhout rubble infill. This technique
Simplified construction conSiderably. elimmatmg t~ necessity for formwork. It was appropriate for smaller-scale construction, but was al$O
effective for large buildmgs. and could be executed with dressed or e,'en
carefully selecled undressed StOnes In place of bri<:ks. The tendt'llcy of
Lombard walls to be thinner than Iradmonal Roman walls led to the
daboralloll of lhe ,';mous l'enll;;;I1 bulUesstS. scrn as euly as 5.1n Vitale
(photo, p. 77). which Sllffened Ihe area of wall planes, while arched corbel
ubles helped 10 remforce IhelT upper edges.
The market for well-organrted Lombard tnaSOll teatrui constructmg
both urban and rural bnck SUUCIUrcs W3..S greally enhanced by the IlCW
politics of Ihe papacy begmnlng In I~ carl)' ele,'enlh cenlury. As in Ihe
Glse of Pompos:!., popes beg;;an to sponsor monastic foundalions which
"'ere Independent of local bishops 35 a means of achieving new goals of
splTItual reform and lemporalluflMhcllon. Because many abOOls. sucb as
t~ Lombard William of VOlpla1l0, ellher moved 10 new postS at Olher
abbeys or hdd churche5 and monasteTlCS under a mOlher abbey, Lombard
building techniquC5 and mason teams mo\'cd rapidly across not only lraly,
but elsewhere. such as m William's abbey church in Oijon, France, begun
In 100 I, and e\'en as far as his $alelhle abbey of Ficamp in Normandy. A
capillary system of simplt, well-built. and recogllll.able abbeys and churches
began to populate areas of Ital y and the north that had previously been
bastions of the Hol y Roman Emptrors and Ihe bishops thcy appointed. It
should nOI be surpriSing that as tenSions began 10 grow between the
papacy and the emplrc In thc latcr elevenlh cem ury, ... mpcrors began 10
respond With IhclT o... n budding programs. adopting the Lombard RomanC(juc techniqu('$ and ~1)'lc 10 Ihelr own termorial and symbolic ends.
Thc area of haly where the Lombard Romancsque style dC"eloped
earl,csl and remained IT\OSI pure IS along the Po. eXlending from the
Adri;;l'" lUSt cast of 1'0mp0s3 up t~ rl\'ers 337 miles of na\'igable
.... alerway. At ,elllers both large and small the red Po valley bricks were
used to ,reale Ihe w;;lll, arth and I'aulung s)"srnns. 1111s ,onstructional
~plem III Ium ... as used to anKlllale IIlSlIIuuons wllh largerscale
\ymbolll; forms. such as Ihe porth of I'omposa diSCUSsed abo'e. AI Vigolo
.\laT(:hl.'se. a small rural ,ommumly far up!itTeam along the Po, the local
!aldal lord. Marcht$C Obeno. had the new abbey of San Giovanni
constru(:{ed wllh IWO such forms. combllllllg a tradllional monaSTery with

81

J.,hl.n Il.ombardy!. s..nt AmbrogiO.

N,n,h-twelhh crnlury. Vicw from n:lv<
u,"wards,ground plan

OPPO.ITF.

J.,hlan,s..nl' IImbrogio. Atrtum .nd vIew

from the wOSI

a structure apparently directed ,owards ,he local populace. Besides the

abbey church of San Giovanni stands the circular baptistery of the same
name, adopting its plan frolll the Orthodo" Baplis,ery of Ravenna, from
San Vilale, and possibly from the roundpl;annOO Holy Sepukher in
Jerusalem (photo, page 81). The funCTion of this circular s,rUCture remains a
m)'stery: the rareness of monasTic b.lptisteriC'S m;akC'S some scholars consider
it an oratory. The record of an early baptismal font within, howe"er,
suggests that this rural monastery, although turning ilS portal away from ,he
nearby village, welcomed its children and convens into the Church.
The other symbolic form at Vigolo Marchese, less cryptic in its use, is
the bell-tower, similar to thaI of Pomposa. These towers, like their numerous counterpartS throughou, Romanesque Italy, combine multiple S10ries
of Romanesque blind arches and pilasters wi,h the square plan made
famous in the eighth-century belfry of Old St. Peters. A papal bull of
Innocent IJ from 1134 accounts for this early reference to the Vatican: like
Pomposa, San Giovanni di Vigolo '\hrchese belongoo e"clusively 10 the
Patrimony of SI. Peler's.
One of the largest-scale and most nnportant of the churches that fused
Lombard Romanesque construction with forms from St. I'eter's was the
great monastic basilica of Milan. Sa111' Ambrogio. The church began as a
martyrial basilica for the remains of Ihe martyred sam ts Protasius and
Gervasius. It was construCied under St. Ambrose, who consecrated the
church 111386. Upon his death in 397 St. Ambrose was himself buried in
the church, giving it its current name. In 784 Peter, archbishop of Milan,
established a new Benedictine foundation at the basilica. which was
confirmed in 789 by Charlemagne, who added to the establishment a
college of canons as well, who were to minister directly to the urban lay
congregation. The new institutions associated with the basilica, together
with the growing commumty of Milan, 100 to the construction of a new
presbytery and crypt at Ihe east end. which til turn provided an
appropriate setting for the altar of gold donated by bishop Angilberto II
beTween 822 and 849. Shortly afterwards the campanile was added to the
south of ,he church. Its square plan. material, construction and decoration
make it the earliest surviving Lombard bcll,ower to base its design on the
recently finished campanile of S,. Peter's. Be,ween IOU and 1050
composite pilasters replaced the amique fourth-century columns. allowing
for the vaulting of the aisles, without ribs, and of the nave, with ribs. to be
erted o"er the following century. The same period S.lW Ihe construction
of the pre5em atrium, with the second, taller campanile added between
1128 and 1144. The collapse of some of the western bays of ,he church led
to their construction and reinforcemem in the late twelfth cemury; the
entire church was restOred in 1863. The complex and continuous building
histOry of Sant'AmbroglO indicates how its monastic and canonical
institufions periodically redefined themSl'lves architecfurally for the ever,
growing community of this greal cemer of administration, trade and
communication at the threshold between Italy and ,he North.
By the late eleventh century Lombard structural innovations and
Romanesque archittural vocabulary were well established throughout
the Po valley and began simultaneously to diffuse both south and north

82

Como (Lornb;lrJy), S,onl' AbbooJIO.

1027-95. In.ertor ofll\trolumntd

bo ..l..... \kn). e~.enor YOfW from.he:

.o",h "''fit

and 10 be ada pled and varied, even In (he regions of Lombardy, Ermlia
Romagna and (he Venelo, Sant'Abbondlo In Como was reconsecrated as a
Benedicline abbey church In 1095, concluding Ihe construction of an all
stone version of Lombard Romanesque archnecture (phOIO, opposlle). It
was begun as early 35 1027 wllh an ambitious fi,'e'alsle plan and a dp,
precociously rlbva ulted apse. Its twin lOwers anticipale the second lOwer
of SanfAmbrogio by at leastthr decades, Ihough Iheir symmetry shows
Ihat Ihey were nOI looking only TO Rome, but also 10 the great
contemporary Frellch monaslC."ry of Cluny.
I'avia's 5;\11 Michele, bUilt between c. 1100 and 1160, is another van
31ion on Ihe regional an;hitectural vocabulary (photo, opposite), with its
la rge pediment spanning Ihe en lire fa~ade, 35 al SallfAmbrogio" but agam
rend ered in Slone, richly scu lpted on Ihe f3~adc, and wilh dp arcades
following Ihe slope of liS roofline. This same model is follo"'ed at the
lWelnh-cenrury calhedral of Parma. wllh Its octagonaltwelfth./thirtnth
century baplislery deploying an even more plastic rendering of its
elevations and intenor" wllh mull1ple Slories of trabe31ed galleries
surmounted by elegant arcades defining Ihe lermmalion of liS elghl wall
surfaces. The single.bay porch of the cathedral of Parma compresses Ihe
elaoorale sculplUral figurallon of Pa via mto a remarkable representation
of the monlhs of the year. repealed al Ihe bapl1stery. Similar porches and
sculplUral schemes appear as well al l\'lodena's Porta della Peschena and
Ferrara's Porta del l\ lesl, 10 mentIon a few.
The slrongly sculptural nalure of eleventh and twclfth-century
Romanesque churches along Ihe Po "alley should be secn In Ihe same IJght
as their counterparts In the north, such as Hildesheim's St. Michael or

84

Autun's SalntLazare. Fa(adcs, portals, bronze doors, illlerior capilals alld

e"en floors and crillngs were articulated with "egeta!. monstrous" and
narra""e sculptural schemes directed to the growing lay population of
dlles whose monastIC and episcopal admlllistrath'e centers aluacted
merchanl communlhes. Innov3110ns in agricultural tools and techniques
and IIlcreasmgly successful stewardship of agricul lural holdillgs, partlCU'
larly by monaSI1C houSC$, provided crop surpluses capable of fceding not
only serfs, tenant farmers and IhelT feudal adminlstrarors, bUI also urban
dwellers. Urban dwellers m IUrn provided local laborers and manufacturers of agri cult uT3ltool s" clOlhmg and luxury goods as well as traders
importing similar goods. Th e trade successes and increasingly soph,sti
ca led monetary IIlSlfumenlS of Venelian and, especially, Tuscan mer
chants, who are trealed la ter in Ihe texl, made II possible for thi s new class,
many of whose members had recently been scrfs or peasants lied 10 Ihe
land, 10 wander further and further from their local origins. Tra vel in turn
begot increased worldliness, $OphlS!lcation and wealth, and freemen and
women began to aspire m lhell own laSles to goods and wa),s of life
preViously reserved 10 Ihelr episcopal, monasnc or noble lords. \'(Ie have
already secn the firsl siage of this Iransformation in archilcclure. with
religiOUS bUlldmgs addresSing broader publlC$ bolh with architectural
Iconographies, such as Ihe lowers and porches reflC(:ting fe;l lures of Old
51. Peler's, and also wllh allurmg figural eXlravaS"1KCS, wilh monSlrous
crntures Str:ughl OUI of Ihe pagan Imagmatlon. The scenes of the months
at the portals of Parma. Modena or Ferrara represent a shifl from Images
of fanlasy and fear 10 a 1I10re SOphlStlC3led. na rum'e content, precociousl)' represented III I-illdeshe,m"s bronze doors, but now e,'en more

Verona (Veneto), San uno i'>bggior.,

10H-IOJS, W"" f"",<k

BOTTOM

P",a (l.omNrdy),S:m M"hd~,~. 1100,

1160. \'('os, la,adc

"m

Son Ztn<.>. d~v",ion of II.. n3\'~ and .. de

...los

S3n /<.I,chtl., ground plan

empathetic, with their scenes of the dally actiVIties of both peasant and
village,
The shift in sculptural figuration from th e famastic and even
threatening figures of the elevellth ce1llury to the more empathetic ones in
the twelfth was paralleled by changes in archite<:tural design, The usc of
pilasters and blind arcad~ that had characterized earlier Romanesque in
Italy ba:ame more complex, developing more and more from a structural
system to onc cxpressi\'e of harmonic order, Such a shift was consistent
with chang~ in musical composition at the time and with the cuhure of
trade, no longer barter, bill based on abstract, proportional systems of
major and minor monetary values, such as lire, soldi, and denari.
One a"hite<tural example of this development is Verona's San Zeno,
an urban Benedictine monStery and church built in its current form
between 112] and 1135 (photo, top left), Its hislOriated bronze doors and
nanking marble relief panels comain, subdivide and control figurati\'e
scenes imo narratil'e sequences rela ting SlOries of the Old and New
Testame1ll, Ostragothic kings and Carolingian sagas. The \'ertical pilasters
and piers of the fa~ade, the side elevations and the campanile similarly
subdivide the eXlerior walls, providing three levels of phrasing and
rhythm, from the three bays of the main fa~ade, to the four- and eight.bay
rhythms of the side and central bays, 10 the horizontal Slriation of the side
ele,'alions and campanile, San uno is the logical development of the
Lombard Romanesque structural innovations, now transformed from the
simple readings of planes, gables, roonine arcades, atria and towers into a
complex layering of major and minor themes. like the musical nOfation
developed by Guido d'Arezzo at the ne3rby Benedictine house of Pomposa
100 years earlier, Ihe horizontal and vertical marks of San uno provide an

85

[]
P.rma !F_J'lIlIl> Roonagno l, "'<il fa{;ldo of
and """".,ery

Ih~,,'IIN,.I ... mp.o.nlk

e_ .

t -
o

nus m.gmfictm ~nl<'mhl~ COnillflnll of

lhe c~ll>cd,al, ump.n,lc and b.pmtrry
....., "'" bu,1t .. 1M ""me lIl11t: Coru.f,lN."fIIMl
",ork on ,hcca,hl,.1lI,ho.. ghl10 h..~
a.,.de. 1090. Tht uw" of.ht-da"'.'~o
c.u..d by'ho e .,hqu,ke "f 1130 'J
.1"1'...1, h wa. probolbly IHII 'ool!.""'.
beeau... heu.hl .. 1w>scomplrfcd bl'
1130. In 1170" ..'u "... hl and a few
y~... l1Trr iIt..I...,o A", .. bml d,1l'CTrd
,t.. -.,fonn:, dol
.11='100510
,he , n''''""al uc. of .he na"" and .,do
..sin, cry", and d.oll. II........ al ...

""",,10.-

~ponllbk foo-.he low ..,h,f Dnan.

from .t..Crou,<bnng from II~S. "'h",h
".sdoslsnW fortt.. c:",IIN..,', ""II''' (I'.
305) and .. now '" It.. ,hurth's ..... ,Mm
Iran..-pl arm. An bm, came .o Pa,nu
for a .,..nod _.y. ..,n ~a .. b.rr In ordo,
.0d,,1.ho bulld'ng"f.ho NplII''''''
11. ~6-l!16). hruliy t..camp.o.nlk wal
bu,l. bt-:"....... 1284 and I2U. Tht
up.o.n."", of .he ... htdr.I"...... ,hcm
..de chapek aloo <bIts from ,h'J ."'~.

86

.-e

._e_. e...
I

~,

OPPOSITE

.... odena Imll.. Ronugna l.ca.hcdral.

iltgun 109'9. ''.., fa{;ldo. ground plan
Ilonl

'$m

r amu, b,pu"cry. p<)rI.1. [)owl of lhe

(101'1, do .. ,1 of Ihe tympanum
(abovel

~rch"'ohs

Mod~na

(EmIlia Romagna ). c~lhed .. L

Begun IO?? Rood SCreen and ambo

ordering matrix that is capable of org.lnizing both architectural and

sculptural composition at once abstractly and narratively.
The planar abstractions of San uno's elevations become spatial once
inside the church, in the poly-rhylhmic subdivision of the nave, and in the
vaulted bays of the crypt. The scale of Ihe crypl and of its endless fidd of
columns would have returned monks, the local faithful and pilgrims to a
more primit;"e world of architectural composition and prayer. T he crypt's
absence of phrasing rhythms induces an oscillating reading between the
individual and infinity that echoes the relation octween the worshiper and
the gold relics of the church's patron saint. What remarkable progress is
evident in the layered composition of the nal'e and extenor by no means
prcrludes the building's capacity to continue to transmit the pre-urban,
pre-merchant mcssages of the church, whether in the crypt's atavistic
capiTals or in its anCIent cult of an early-Christian saint, who offers
salvation not to labor, virtue or sophistication, bur to physical intimae)'
and to an irrational, unqu estioning faith in the presence of spirit 111 body
parts and in th e building housing them.
The exterior of San uno suggesTs that the church designers were eager
to draw the laity into th eir holy precinct with a miXTure of abstraction and
narratIon tuned 10 their increased sophistication. The presence, design and
effec, of the crypt ~uggest ,hat once having lure<! the laity into the core of
the church's body, the designers willingly abandoned Ihe world of
Structure and order, excavating at once their own archllcrtoral archaeology and the archaeology of faith, dIsplacing reason with sensation and
magic and exhuming the faithful's most primitive inSlincts of pantheism,
fear and credulity.
To th~ south, not far from the confluence of the Adige passing by
San Zeno wlIh the Po, the cathedral of ~ I odcna was built ~twcen 1099
and 1184 with a rather different relation of outside to inside. In place of
San Zeno's grid of horizontal and verrical piers and stripes, the
elevations of Modena's cathedral 3re integrated by piers supporling
blind arches, integrating these two traditional elements of Lombard
Romanesquc. Subd,vision occurs within the curvature of the single
arches, with triple-window galleries lining the entire circumference of
the church and then penetrating the interior. Once within th e body of
the church, however, the outer layer of pilasters shifrs TO a rh)'lhm of
every two arches, their sequence less o rdered than That of ,he Gothic
vaulting. Single :lrches still frame triple-window galleries, but now as
incised curves into an apparently continuous skin of brick wall surface
which slides behind the giant order pilasters sustaining the vaults. At
the end of the nave one last triple sequence of arches, framed now by
the breadth of the nave, leads the visitor past a richly hiSlOriated pulpit
and sanctuary screen (photo, above ), past the ferocious senTinels of
lions supporting the screen columns, and into the field of colu mns and
arches sustaining the triple apse crypt vaults. Even here the logic of one
to Ihree remams, ordering and harmonizing the competing animalistic
and Classical capitals of the crypt columns.
The subterranean, atavistic world of San Zeno dIscussed above IS also
present in Modena's crypt, but in tension wilh the church's dominant

88

Romt. San P~oIQ fuor; k mura. 1200.

Clo;, .., orcadts

89

Rom<'. s"nla Mana In Tras,~.~.~.

.O"-O.\llll(arr

Romr. Old S,. Potor'. AT"um. &gun

c. 1148. V.... f.om It.. wos,

s"nl'Anvlo In Fornu. (C.m~nta).

c. 1075. V ..... from It..~,

t.320

BorrO.\lI.f.FT

Romr. s"nla Matl;t In ~mtdln.

c. 1200. V..... f.om't..norlhwot

Rome. San

CI~men!~.

c.

lIOO.ln!~"Of

.,~W

Rome. So" P.olo IUDr; Ie mur~. 1200.

o."alJ of mouic III !h~do"t~r

fI<:>rcncc (TuKanyJ. Sa" "t.m3'U .1

MOOle.

EI~,"tOlh-thln ..... ",h

..... ,,'ury.

Ch.ncti

rhythm of Ihrees. which o rg."lnt2es the crypt's cult of S:llnt Gemilli~no. Ihc
city's first bishop. The order, and even classicism, of Moden~ Cathedral
tell of the continuous scnlement of the area and strong connection fO the
Roman p~St- a pas! also prescm al Verona, but less explicidy at San Zeno.
The linkage of Ihe crypt of Modena to ItS elevallons leads the .:hurch to
forge a different relation with liS public from that at San Zeno, less
surprising Ihe laitr with the world of the crrpt than adl'eTfising its enti re
sacred iden-tity fO all the spaces surroundl1lg the church. }\n extraordinarily rich documentation of the cathedral's construction process
suggests why Modena Cathedral may haw had a differem relatllon to the
laIty: from the beginning of its construction process they appea r 10 have
been inl'olvcd_ By shordy after 1115 the lairy had established a free
commune and were voting 111 their consular meetings on malters rt:garding
the construction of the cathedral. The product of their joint efl'OTfS with
the clergy. the architl'Ct Lanfrancus. sculptor Wihgelmo, ilnd their
countess. the famous Mathilda of Canossa. established a new paradIgm
for the region. perhaps on the baSIS of its stylistic innol'ations, bllt more
likely for practical reasons: It appears to have been the only church along
the Po valley, albeit incomplete, to hal'e withstood the great eaTfhquake of
1117. which damaged severely or destroyed the cathedrals of Cremona,
Piacenla, Parma. and most of the other structures thaI we have .examined
in the regIon.
Rome and Tuscany
The use of arches al Modena links it to contemporary and earlier chllrchcs
bllilt across Ihe Apennines. in Tuscan y. before and under Ihe rille of
Mathilda of Canossa. who controlled Tuscany and milch of Emilia
Romagna from 1069 to 1115.llke San Mmiatoal f-Ionte ,n Florence.l'isa
Cathedral, and numerous olher Tuscan churches of the time, Modena

91

Flor."c. iTu,"",ny), s.." Mjn.~'o "I

Mont . Elev.n' ....... hirt .. mh .. mury.
\X'es. f~~adc
San Domen"o di Fic$olo

(TU<or3"YIJo10f""".)' fud;. fi .solana.

101.1-1028 and I.,.r. Fa",d.

92

a""'.

~1orcnct, fup"I'.ry ofs..n G; .....

Ek ............. h,rt .. n, h ..... ury. &,.r;or
and intorior views

Flor~""'.

Sail

..; L.

M,",~!oall>lon!~. Im~,ior

vitw to It.. oasl

San MmLalo. ground plan of Ihecryp!

.~ .

. ...., ,4
' .'

.: r

9J

~I"m~

S;.p. Mar Ch,usd",,, (TII .... "y ),

Chapel of Son G.IS"no. c. 1185. In! ... or

and ,,<IO"Q' VIewS

80'ITOM

P;""i. (TuKany), Son GiovannI

fuore"I!". MId Iwdfthern!IIT). ])~I .. I
nf[hefa~.dc

adopts elements of the atria present at Pomposa, Sant'Ambrogio, and

contemporary and ead,er Roman ehurches, whether Santa MaTla in
Cosmedin, Santa Maria in Trastevere (photo, p. 90), or Old St. Peter's,
With irs Tuscan counterparts, Modena compresses the atrium arcades
from the detached fa~ade of the alrlum dirccily 01110 Ihe church's main
weSI fa,ade, registering Ihe atrium deplh and rhythm in the relief of its
blind arcades. T he result was the presentation of an entry iconography
wi thin the thickness of the single fa,ade, which was therefo[,(, capable of
projecting its symbolism directly, yet abstractly, into the surrounding
space. As in Florence's baptistery, Pisa Cathe<lral. San Martino and San
M ichele in Fo ro in Lucca, San Gio\'anni Fuorcivitas in Pistoia, and Santo
Stefano in Prato, the imagery of triumphal entry arcades is cchOf"d on all
visible fa~ades of thc church, in both lall blind arches and in gallery-level
corbel arch friezes or recessed arcades. The result was indeed a more
robust wall construction, thickening and reinforcing the wall along the
same lines as earlil"r Lombard designs, but more dramatically and,
considering Modena's good fortune during the earthquake, with greater
seismic robustness. The good formne of Modena Cathedral in 1117
appears to h3\'c ratificd the style ofTuscan blind arcaded churches, which
are more classically composed Ih an Iheir northern Italian counterparts,
designed with carefully harmonized fugues of relief arches suslaine<l with
sometllnes elaborately ca rved Corinthiall or composite capitals. Tuscany's
Romanesque churches in most cases present tven more elaborately and

94

1:"'1'011 (Tllw:anyl, CoIkgJ...a San,' Andru.

"",Id'Ill! from 1093

N",,' Romanq1K
onw;.,.ds. \th. fa{adc

Pra." (TII!o<any l, Sa..." Sfcfano. hr>t lulf of

,he- 1....,lft.. Ctt""ry. CkM<,et

Tlchly anl(:ulatcd ekvations 10 facmg streets and p.azzas. uSing .M sa~

prec.ous marbles ",slble In the PUlpll, sanctuary scrttn and porr:als of
Mooena for all extCTlor surfaces. The resuh IS a !>Cries of churches whIch
Tlval Roman lemples, tTlumphal arches and amphitheaters in the Tlchness
and compositIon of theIr eleva. Ions, appeaTlng in thc casc of the baptistery
of Florencc (photo, p. 92, lOp right) $0 convincingly classical Ihat
subsequent generalloM, as early as Giovanm Villant In the early fourtttnth
centu r}', conSIdered It to be an antlquc Temple of ~ I ars.
his remarbble that the Tuscan churches plctu rcd In these: pages el'en
surpas!>Cd the .. Roman cOnlemporaTlcs in thc classical materials and
composillons of theIr exteriors, and so resemble Ihc deSIgns of fihttnth("("nlUry Florentine churche' to be dubbed ~ 1)rotoReoai~sancew by architlural histOrians of a more teleological bent. Romc's clc>'cnth- and
twelfth-century monuments were claboralcd sim11arly to those In Tuscany.
but morc on thc Ins1dc than ou.slde, such as in the cloister of San Paolo
roori Ie M ura (photo. p. 891, In the nave columns, choir and al'S'! of San
Clementc, or on the cosmatesque noors of these and many mher
contemporary Roman churches. Il owever. the porches or atria of these:
Roman churches bufferrcd Jewdlike mteTlor sacred precincts from thelT
urban surroundings wlthm Ihe s;lme tradmon .hat ~'C hal"C seen In Milall
or Pomposa, a tradlilon that was equally present south of Romc. at
Sam'Angelo In Formls (photo. p. 90, oouom flghtl or at the abbey of
Montecassmo.
The s.gnlflcance of the Thscan compression and enrichment of Ihl"
porch fao;adt 15 clearly eVident m thc buildlllg h,story of Sail Mmlato al
Monte III Florence. The earllesl pomon of lhe church on record is the
crypt, from the early eleventh nlury. bUIlt by and pnmarily for the rather
corrupt bIshop of Florence, HIldebrand and hiS consort, Alberga. The
columns and capilals arc rich mlheir spolia, frammg the blchromc inrarsia
allar houslllg the supposed rcmalns of the patron 5.3mt, M mias, gleaming
al the back of the crypt. By nl1d-century an all,a.lCe of local bis hops,
popes, and, by 1069, COUIllCSS Mathlld.1 made Florence 11110 tht ccnter
POUII of . he era's grtat reform movemelll. The archllt'Cls of San Mimaw
pusht-d anemplS tn anract the lany yCI further th311 church institu tions
north of the Apennmes. They began w elaborate the crypl entrance, presbYlery and lower fao;adt of San M lll iaw wllh identical forms. pro)ectmg
the interior iconography of theIr saUlt's prco;inct and of the sanctuary from
the fa~ade across the CIlY. The five ba)'s of Ihe sanclua ry are dcfincd with
pol)'chrome arches placed on Corllllh.an capllals on rich gretn f..lomefer13lo marble; .h,s same so;hema is repealed allhe secllonal shift between
the presbyler)' and the na\'e, wherc staIrs lead up along Ihe side aisles and
down along the nave axiS to the cryp . The five ba)'s of the lower fao;ade
provide the final TeClIPliulaUOIl of thIS IInagcr)' of frammg and passage.
alternatmg blmd arches wllh Iht thrcc portals providing emry 10 the
church IIsclf. The I(:onography of these: repeated fivc polychro~ classical
bays is made expll(:lt m the upper fao;acJco of San MlIllato. It is composed of
an aMlractcd daS5ic:a1 'emple fmnt, with a mosaic figure of Dlrist, Sf.
MlIllaS and the Vi'8ln guardmg the ~mdow. whIch. at the base of the
pedImental tcmple front, appears:as a door w Its figu13twe Ila. Like Ihe

95

PI", lTufany l."",MJ,al. b.:al"i .. ~ry and

dt1 M..x"IL.

~~mp"mlt on ,~Dmpo

106J-1J50

"

1',s.,c.,hl 1. 1063. 108?-1272.

In,~rior .. cw

Pi ... b.pmt~ry. 1153-126.1

P,s.. c.t~dr"l. Ek,"."on

of th~ n"w ~nd .. d~a"l"

Pi,a. Campodci M, ... roli.

Plan ofth~.m".~comI'Jcx

presbytery within the nave, this temple door is visible to the faithful, hUI
appears unreachable, hovering above and out of reach. Only the nave of
the church and the crypt remain accessible, providing the intercessionary
powers both of St. Minias attd of the clergy celebrating the EuchariSt in the
presbytery above his altar. The message both within and outside the
church is the same: salva tion is rich and beautiful. but accessible only
through the hierarchy of the church and the veneration of saints.
The imagery of a splendid paradise - of the Celestial Jerusalem rendered in classical arcades and rich pol~'chrome marbles became the
common theme of churches along Tuscany's own ma;or river valley, the
Arno. It also appears in Florence itt the Baptistery. in the Vescnvado, in
Santo Stefano 31 Ponte, and itt the church of 55. Apostoli as well as in the
Badia in Fiesole. As it proceeds along the valley it becomes fused with
other motifs. whether the zebra stripes of San Zen" or the deeply sculptural rendition of surfaces characteristic of l'isan Romanesque architecture_ In each case the effect is to animate the cityscape wi,h ,he same
conflated unages of classical antiqu ity and salvation that had previously
been contained within the apses or crypts of earlier or northern churches.
Even the remote chapel of San Galgano at Monte Siepe, built around
1185, projects its interior sn iping Onto the cylin drical drum of i,s ex terior
(pho'o, p_ 94, lop), constructing the same richness of its marble neighbors
wilh alternating bands of brick and while stone.
The largest-scale expressioll of Tuscan Romanesque is at Pisa's cathe-

97

Ar=o (Tuscany), Santa Man. de)).

Picve. &fore 1008, ..,novated from 1111
to the end of the twelfth century. Interior

Lucca rruscany}, San MIchael in Foro,

Fa~de

"lew

Santa M.n.
drIb ri ..c.
Ground pion

dral complex, knowll as the Campo dei Miracoli, or MFicld of Mimcles~

(photos, pp, 96 and 97). As the name implies, the rich, highly sculptural
architecture of the cathedral comprises an entire site, consisting in a co
ordinated array of buildings built betw~n 1063 and 1350. The first
elemem in the complex was the cathedral with its baptistery, which was
originally locatt"<l1O the north of Ihe church. The cathedral was begun in
1063, possibly as an ex voto, hOlloring the Virgin upon her delivery of a
dmmatic victory of the Pisan navy over the Saracens off Sicily. A
contemporary fa"ade inscription records that funds for the building
enterpflse came from the spoils of victory, celebrating l'isas emergillg role
as one of the twO dominant naval powers of the Tyrrhenian Sea. together
with Gelloa, In the first decades of the next celltury the l'isans extended
the fa"ade of the cathedral to the west, and then, in I 153, replaced the
original baptistery with a new, circularly planned structure 011 an axis with
the new cathedral entrancc. Plans for this remarkabl e interlocking of
church with baptistery, similar to that at Florence but more precisely on
axis and with a purer geometry of circle and cross. may date from the time
when the archbishop of 1';s3 was serving as patriarch of the Ilewly
established Latin Kingdom of Jerusakm. contemporary with the extension
of the cathedral fa"ade in the first decades of the twelfth cenrory, Pisa's
strong connections with Jerusalem at this time, both through its
archbishop and through its recent conveyance of crusaders to the Hol y
Land, explain thc startling similarities betwccn the Campo dei Miracoli

98

and Jerusalem's most sac red site on the Temple Mount. The circle and line
composition of Pisa's baptistery and Cathedral ech()(Cs that al the Temple
Mounr"s HaramalSharif, or Noble Sacred Enclosure, where the centrally
planned Dome of the Rock. known to the Pisans and crusaders as the
Temple of the Lord, aligns with the basilical Mosque of AI-Aqsa. then
called the Temple of Solomon. At the time of its completion the Pisan
complex would have even been morc splendid than its Holy Land
prototype, with its pol)'chromatic imarsia, marble and richly sculpted
elevations gleaming like that other Jerusalem of Revelation, the Heavenl y
Jerusalem, which John describes as studded ill precious stone, The other
structures added to the complex onl y amplified the Campo dei Miracoli's
gold presence, transforming an entire area of the city into an outdoor
reliquary with the elldless arches of the J 174 leaning tower, and with
earth, excavated and transported b)' the Pisans from Golgotha, lining the
burial ground of the 1278 Campo Santo.
The power of Tuscan Romanesque churches assured their adoption
beyond the ooundaries of the region. Both Pisan traders and Camaldolese
and Vallombrosian missionaries transported the rich classicizing elevations and polychrome interiors to port cities on the Tyrrhenian sea as far as
Sardillia, whether at 5.111 Pictro Sorres ill Bont1fa or Nostm Signora di
Tergu at Castelsardo (photo, p. 99). San Pietro Sorres in Borutta was
erected between 11 70 and 1190 on the foundations of a1\ earlier church
from the previous century. It fuses Pisan motifs of rotated squares in arches

POrtO Tom'S ISardmia), San Ga~sho

Ds,dsardo (Sard,nial, Nos'''' Signo", di
T"rgu. W"'I f~de, nav" and .. de aISles

Bulzi (Sardonia) . San Pimo del

Crocifi,..,. \t'esl f~3dc
I:\orUlla (Sard'Ula), San P'elro Sorres,

] 170-90. Apse:

99

Sant' Antimo (Tuscany). Iknlic.ine

monastery. Founded in] 118. Ambula.ory
(left), .emallls of .h~ dois.e. (bdow)

6 ... I;ct;ne

mona,.~1')'

of San.' An,imo

San.' Annmo w~ h. s",'an song of .h~

g.u. mll3eval hal'3n mOM\fe.iO$ .h..
li .. 1 a"",d,ng '0 .h.lknlic.in. Rule.
Though" wu follo,,'1 ,n .h,s Won by
mbe, m,s,.rp'es such as ,he Cis'.'Clan
s..n Galgano dating f,om .be ~nnmg
of In.. ,h",... mb <~mul')', none of 'hem
con ",'.n begin lOapp.oo.1I ,hi. bUIlding
for its df. of unny. pow.. and .."".
Signs of .h.,mm".en, <keltne of ,hIS ero

OPPOSITE

Sam' An.In.... Vicw f,om .he soll.h eas.

can be:lttn on ,he fa~ad. of San"

Annmo, wh",h was nen' finlshl.
Dnpi.e1a,.r effotls on ,h. p;t" of ,h.
CiSlercians. soci,l and rdlgious chanlles
s"ned ,he IRnd of m(>l'Ing from ,n..
country In.otbec",es; many pamhes. of
wbateve. Size. hod ..",IS .. mIla. to Ihose
of an abOO" and In"e5,1 ,hem in
buildIng chure,," .nd ... h.d,als.

&an Pietro m Vall. (Umbna ). form.,

Iknedicllne monaSlery. T.n,h~twclf.h
cen,"1')'

100

with bichrome striping and geometric intarsia characteristic of PisTOia,

Prato and Florenu (phmos, pp. 92-5 ). The connection to Tus<:any was
probably through the 8c-nedictine monastery of Camaldoli, which by early
in the umury comrolled properties nearby in Saccargia and elsewhere in
its judicial and administrat;'e region. the GiudicalO of Torres. The Abbey
at Saccargia was also a conduit for Tuscan design motifs for Nostra
Signora di Tergu, which was itself an abbey church, and which also had
strong connectIons wirh Italy's original and most powerful iknedictine
sear, 1\lontecassino. It appears 10 have bn constructed in tWO phases,
wi th an early church begun in the early twelfth century, and then the
remarkable fa~ade added a century bter, using the rich local stone mixed
with marble 10 achieve its rich bichrome effects.
The diffusion of the highly plastic Romanesque style of Pisa was not
limited 10 the Tyrrhenian sea. The Pieve of Santa Maria Assunta in A~zzo
adopted a flattened portico entry similar to thar at I'isa Cathedral (phOTOS,
pp. 96-7). Although geographically closer 10 Florence, where a similar
blind porch frames thr~~ portals, the high relief of the Pieve's second- and
third-level arcades and fourth-level gallery shows a stronger debt to Pisa.
The same applies TO the treatment of architectural details, where the
builders relied exclusively on s<:ulpture for their articulation, abandoning
polychromatic IIlIarsia or the planar harmonic subdivision of San MlI1iato
or the Florentine baptistery_
It would be a mistake to look only west for influences, however dominant Pisa and Florence were at the time of the Pieve's interior and new
fa<;ade. which were exc<:uted in the twelfth and early thirteenth century.
Ra ther, rhis extr::aordinary flat-roofed elevation and the bIer, early
fourteenthcentury tower show traces from one of the earliest sources of
Italian Romanesque architecture. Ravenna. While it is possible Ihat the
similarity of the fa~ade of the Pieve TO the Pabce of the Exarchs in
Ravenna and of the lOwer to towers such as that of Pomposa are due to a
direct Ravenesque influence, this author suggests that the source for th~
forms may have been the very buildings built by the architc<:t Maginardo
for Teodaldo after 1026, after his visit to R;avenna. namely, the cathedral
of Arezzo and the bishops palace. Within its rectangular urban site the
architects of the Pieve inserted a cr05s.shaped plan surmounted with a
dome which, however, remains incomplete. The apse and side walls are
lined with upper-level arcaded galleries which. apparently Pisan, m;ay
again deri"e from the now destroyed carhedral and its original Ravenesque
sources, which would have included the second-storey arcade, now fallen,
of the Mausoleum of Theodoric. What is extraordinary about the Pieve is
the apparent fusion of the cathedral's domed cross plan with the flat roofed, galleried fa~ade of the Palace of the f.xarchs, which may have been
visible, in copy, at the bishop's palace in Arezzo. The Pieve is a religious
monument rhat looks like a civic structure. The secular reading is
reinforced by the heavily fortified appearance of the m;assi"e later tower. It
is at once templt'". cathedral and polo/ill"', although in reality it is none of
these, btl! the relatively modest institution of a parish, second in
importance TO the famous cathedral ofTeodaldo.
By the year 1200, however, parish churches in Tuscany were capable of

102

monumental expression, as in Pratos Santo Stefano or similar institutions

at the Collegiata of Empoli and San Gimignano {phoro, right}. Each of
these canon churches thllved due to liS d'Slance from cathedral seats in
other towns. While the local bishop's seat seems to argue against a similar
siluation at Arezzo's ]'ie,e, ;t turns out that the cathedml of Arezzo was
unusually distant from the town, situated within its own fortified enclosure
on the suburban Pionta hill. It was so remote, in fact, thaI rhe bishop was
forced to move into the lown center. and to build a new, more central
cathedral seal, beginning in 1277. In the meantime the I'ie"e of Arezzo had
begun to caler 10 the religious needs of the lIrball population th rough its
presence at the Platea Commllnis, documented since 1008 as the official
town marketplace. The Pie"e. etymologically the church of the people.
grew in scale and monumental articulation from that date to the early
fourteenth cemury. paralleling the mcrease in the merchant population of
Arez7.0. Consistent with its counterparts to the north of the Apennines. the
Stages of its growth are marked b)' a transition of its architectural sculpture
from grotesque figures to narrati~e scenes, including its own cycle of
months. now with both agricultural and urban vignettes. The architc<:tural
equivalent is the reorganization of the interior mto a va&! open space clearly
delineated by Gothic structural forms. articulated with the round arches
and mouldm~s that remain true TO the 10uJ;:-stJndinJ;: Romanesque - or
rather Ravenesque - tradition of the IOwn.
As if in counterpoint to these. urban de\'elopments, another religious
institution began to take shape during this same penod south of Arezzo, in
the wme-rich countryside o,'erlooked by the citadel of Montalcino. SantO
Antimo. as pure a Benedictine monastery as any in Europe, was begun
about 1118 (photos. pp. 100-1). It is closer in spirit and in architcc!Ure to
Burgundy than to ally Tuscan or Northern Italian monuments. [tS
Toulousiall slyle sculpture, its radiating apse chapels and ambulatory and
its remote setting all confirm a Cillniac influence. So does its s<:ale, as one
of Italy's largest, wealthiest and most powerful Romanesque monastic
complexes. Its status, however, deri>ed from quite a different source than
that of Cluny: unlike its Burgundian counterpart, Sant"Antirno was an
imperial foundation, reminiscent of Ca rolingian monasteries, e"en in the
title of the abbot as "Conte l'alatino. ~
Despite its obvious wealth and the vast expenditure on its construClion,
San!' Antimo never developed to th~ eXlreme scale and excess of either the
early Carolingian monasteries or Cluny 111. If archItecture can mdced
communicate religious ideals, then the design and cOnstruction of Sant'
Antimo codify in stone a sensibility cOnsonant with the spiritual aspira
tions of eleventh and twelflh-century monastic reform. Though its plan
and s<:ulprure show clearly Burgundian influence, the purity, even
muteness, of ilS vast expanses of unarticuiated wall. anticipate another
Burgundian architectural tradition, that of the Cistercians. The
resemblance is le-ss in structural systems than in concepl: architC<:ture, not
sculptural figuration. is the primary means of representation. SantO
Antimo achieves Ihis expression without suppressing sculpture. but simply
by the primal force of its archltecture. It has the same layering of single
arches over double-arched windows at the apse and interior !pliery that

As".i (Umbria), CathN",1 of San

Rufino. Begun~. 1134. West f""ad~

SpoIC'to (Umbna), CathNr31 of San.~

Man. Assun.a. Begun c. 11 75. Wes.
f,,~ad.

the Cistercians were to use, but where the Cistercians and later wlhic
architects were to claborate this la)'ering through "enical SlruCl'ural units
interlaced by ribs and rib vaulting, the architc<:ts of 5ant"Amimo render
Iheir layers as so man)' peeled away skins of smooth stone. The side
elevations are supported With Lombard, even proto-Gothic piers, r~pidly
proceeding bf-tween each window as they move to the apse. As they arrive,
howe\'er, something extraordinary happens: the wall surface breaks free
from Ihe ,trucrural rhythm, supported father by the most fundamental
architectural reinforcement, the curve, T he ground-level radialing chapels
provide the only visible buttressing for the ambul:Hory's vast sensuous are,
above whoS(" terracotta roof tiles rises Ihe sanctuary's exposed S("micyll11drical form.
Sa11l'Antimo is the swan-song of Ihe greal medinal monasteries of
Ihe Benedictine rule in Italy, Though followed in the region by other
masterpieces by Ihe Cistercians themselves, such as San Galg:nno in the
early thirteenth century, none matches the unity, force and s<:ale of its
impact_ Signs of the waning of ils era are already visible al Sam 'A11Iimo's
fa"ade, left incomplete to this day, with one of its elaborate portals p13ced
instead, according to Raspi-Serra, at the nearb)' church of San Quirien
d'Orcia. Despite Ihe subsequent efforts of Ihe Cistercians, the tide of soo:;ial
and religious change was away from the countryside and increasingly

towards Ihe ell)" where many communities of all sius were i.westing the
equtvalem of an abbot'. wealth in the construction of their loo:;al churches
and cathedrals.
Umbria
The churches of Assisi and Spoleto (photo, top) are a few examples of Ihe
d,,'elopme11l of Romanesque architecture in Umbria, to the soulh and cast
of Tuscany, The chronology of San Ruffino at Assisi reflc<:ts the history of
Umbrian RomanC>ue architccture and intimates the eventual displacement of Italian Romanesque by the Gothic. The church dates from a
Mparva basilica ~ from Ihe eigh th centur)" which provided a modest selling
for the remains of the tOwn's patron saim, the third-century mart)'r
Rufino, Around 1028 Bishop Ugone replaced thiS with another structure
and. by 1035, established it as the cathedral of Assisi_ One hundred years
later, around 1134, Bishop Clarissimo hirt'<l Giovanni da Gubbio 10
replace this basilica wi th Ihe far larger one that stands on the sitt today.
The fa~ade of the church regi sters the work of Giovanni da Gubbio at its
lower ponion, with a triple rhythm of larger bays subdivided by a second
uiple rhythm III each bay, The horizolllal and vertical subdivisions of the
fa~ade pbne recall the designs of 501n Zcno, which was begun eleven years
earlier, although Ihe verticals dominate the lancr more dramatically and

103

OPPOSITE
li>","ni.1 (latium), San Pi~[fo. Begun
towards I"" end of Iheelov.mh nlury.
lXI,,,] of '''''

f.,.de

Spol.lo (Umbria). SanlEulenu. Second

h.lf oft"" t,,.llth cenlury. N.. "'all
B01TO~t

..

V.lenz:ono (Apuba). Ogm .... ntl dl CUtl.

Begun altcr 1060. F...... ,erior V,"W 01 the
~

wilh a cons is lent rhYlhm. San Rufin o instead has an equivalent bias of
horitontal and vertical divisions, which form a grid that seems to run as a
layer behind the more structural "ertical burtress.cs providing the major
fa~ade subdivisions. This grid is si milar to Ihat employed at San Pietro
fuori Ie Mura at Spoleto, though again Ihe laner is more regular in its
subdivisions, neatly framing its remarkable sculpture (photo, p. 307). At
the lowl""r fa~ade of San Rufino Ihe sculplure is concentrated on the
portals, with thl"" wall surfaces ornamented only by the superunposed grtd.
Rather than serving as frames for figures, the panels of this grid respond to
the si7.e of the portals, whkh push for thems.cl,es a wider space at the
center of each of the three main f.,ade panels. As at Sant'Anllmo,
architecture is the primary expressive medium, nOt sculpture. Instead of
layering skins, San Rufino develops layers of Lombard ooy syStemS,
pushing it beyond the abstract consistency of s'1n uno into a similarly
expressive language as at Modena or San Miniato in Florence. III each of
these churches, a syncopated rhythm of threes reinforces the primary
fUllction of the west fa~ade: the expression of passage.
The dassicism of this rhythmic system is repeated on the laler upper
fa~ade and echoes a similar dacissim wiThin !he earlier church crypt. The
three Gothic ros.c windows vary in sIze from edge to center, and ahgn
precIsely above theIr respective portals, as if to recapitulate the imagery of
passage by penetrating the church with circular arc of lighl. The pointed
arch framed within the tall pediment crowning the fa,ade is again Gothic.
but with broad dimensions that are in character with the spacious
proportions of the reSt of the fa~ade. The TWO dividing corbel tables and
miniature blindarcade galleries restrain any vertical potemial m the
upper-Storey GoThICism and maimain the clear overall Image of a temple
front overlaid with a ground-storey triumphal arch cmry. It tS not
n<xessary to look as far as San Miniato o r Empoli's ColiegiaTa for the
source of this imagery. but raTher to The nearby market piazza, where the
0.lrimhian columns and pediment of the ancil""nt Roman Temple of
Minerva stand to this day as an explicit model for the o"erall form and
absTracted poTl!CO of San Rufino's fa~de.
The earlier crypt of San Rufino is e,'en more explicit in its classicism,
with most of its columns classical spolia, and even the scat of the bishop,
according to traduion the burial place of San Rufino, a Roman sarcophagus. The magic of San Rufino and of so much Umbrian Romal'tsque
architecture is that this classicism in composi tion and in details by no
means exdudes the homunculi of sculptu ral imagination. but rather freely
accommodaTes them. as does the upper Gothic fa~ade. Figurations of the
E~angelists are painted in the early Ugon ian crypt and then repeated in
sculptural form around the central rose window. They confuse any eas)"
notion of progress from figure to abstraction, and rather emphasize that
even at the time of The constrUCTion of The basilica of SI. Francis, when the
upper fa~ade was completed, creatures from the primitive world could
share and even support the International GothIC. A close look at the base
of the central rose window reveals, indeed, one of two famous
Romanesque Umbrian reinterpretations of classical caryatids.
The other caryatids support another rose window at another Umbrian

105

Bari (Apulia ), San Ni(:ola.l\(gun IJl 1089.

from 'M no"h "'C~l, ground plan

Vitw

cathedral, that of Spolcto, south~ast of Assisi. That these two statues are
framed by carefully carved miniature Corinthian columns and capitals
makes it clear that Umbrian sculptors and 3T(hilecrs wcrc well ~ersed in
their antique models already in the twelfTh and thirteenTh centuries. As at
Assisi, wiTh iTS Temple of Minerva, the patrons and artists of Spoleto we re
blessed with impressive antique modds, the Temple of C lilUnno and the
palco-Christian church of San Sal~atore . The early thirteenrh<entury
mosaic of Christ above th is rose window re,'eals the same inSTinct that
guided The architl'Cts of the last phase of San M iniato 31 Monte in
Florence, who similarly broadcast an image of Christ for the entire town
to see. The diverse sources for the design of the cathedral, from Assisi to
paleo-Christian to Roman and Vemetian mosaicists suggest a rich,
vibT3nt artistic culture in The city du ring the Romanesque period, which
only grew in intensi ty after the sack of the town by Frederick Barbarossa
in I 155. A conTinuous classical building tT3dit ion in the area from distant
antiquitr made such a culture possible. This building tradition was in
!Urn sustained, as at Milan and ['avia, by the active presence of a
powerful Lombard seat in the Duchy of SpolelO. Br the tenth century the
advent of the Carolingians led to the shift of power from the Lombard
dukes to impe rially and papall}' appoimed bishops, who even occupied
the same palaces as their secular Lombard predecessors up to the
thirteemh cenlUry.
The Lombard history of Spoleto is best recorded architeclUrally in the
gem-like church of Santa Eufemia (photo, tOp left), Here, in the middle of
Umbria, sta nds a twelfth<enrury church that serves as a text-book
example of Northern Lombard design prinCIples, from the triple apses to
the pilaster strips and corbel tables stiffening the exterior elevations. Its

106

Umbria n lin('age is hinted at br the simple bifoT3te window above the

portal and the subtle designaTion of a triple rhythm with the two side
windows on either side of it. The interior reveals the archaeology of
Spoleto's Romanesque sources, with paleo-christian columns, pie rs and
capitals interwoven between abStraCT semi<olumns supporting Taut,
perfecTly comp<>S('d lower and gallery arches and vaulting that echo in
miniature the nave and side aisles of Sant'Ambrogio in Milan.
Puglia
As one proceeds far enough south and east along the Ita lian peninsula to
reach the Adriatic coast, another SCt of influences appears, from BYlantine
sources. The elevemh<entury monastic church of Ogniss3nti di Cuti by
Valenzano, in Puglia (photo, p. 105, bottom), has Ihe same triple apse
termination as Sa11la Eufemia and so many other early Romanesque
churches, but the three square protrusions in the na,'e roofline indicate an
utterly different organization of the imerior space. Here, three bold domes
spring from ta ll piers and pendentives, subdividing the interior like that of
San Marco in Venice and its early-Christian and Brzantine sources.
However, as so often, more local sources may have been equally important
10 the designers, in this case the corbelled donll~'s, or trulli, trpical of
utilitarian buildings in the area since the Etrus.::ans. Similar domed forms
are visible in the octagonal cupola of the cellualizw church of Santa
Caterina by Con\'ersano, built in the twelfth century following a pla n
Irpical of Srrian quatrefoil churches.
The oldestlarge-s.::ale monument of the region. San Nicola at S.,ri, built
around \089, appears more Lombard in its design than B)'tanTine, with
links in iaroUi and interior details to Pisan alld Florentine architectu r(' as

TrQ,a (Apulia). ,~tl>oodr~L &gun

IX'OSt

In

10'13.

f.,.dt

811onTo (Apuh~ J. Ca lhed ... 1of San

V.icn1tno. !lc.gun aftt. ] L75. Vicw f.om
tht south "'cs<

well. The reason for such northern influences so far south in Ihe heel of Italy
is simply the ocean, which providl rapid conveyance 10 and from areas far
mOT(" remOle than the 1'0 or Amo valleys. Indeed, Ihe palrOnS of San Nicola
.11 Bari were perhaps the most capable and faNanging seafarers in the
world, namely Norsemen, or Normans. from their recenlly established
Duchy of Normand)'. By 1041 Ihey had arrived 311he shores of Puglia, by
1059 the Nonnan Robert Guiscard was anointed Duke of Puglia and
Glabria, and by 1063, his Normans had extended their territOr) to include
Sicily. Their Norman French origins, howe"er, are less preselnl in their
Apulian and Sicilian architecture than other influences. The first and mOSI
importam inspiralion In the case of Bari was Saint Nicholas him >elf. whose
remains Ihe Normans transported from Asia Minor in 1087. Two years bter
they beg,," his church, applying to Ihe fa~ade a tripk division adopted from
Lombard churches such as San Zcno or Modena. Its vertical proportions,
steep roof and two flanking towers link illo the spires, westwol'ks and tall
narthex entries of Nomlan churches of JUlllleges, Mont,S:lIntt.Iichel, and
Gen, all from Ihe mid eleventh century. It is in the interior Ihat the Tuscan
Influence is t'vldent. with the horizontal arched screens. grouped piers, Iriple
rhythms, ITiforia and c1eresloryechoing 5.1n Miniato and Pis;! Gthedral.
The cathedrals of Trani {begun I098} and Bitolllo (begun :lifter 1175 )

share sufficient chanctemlles with San Nicob in Bari 10 indicaTe Ihatlhe

latter spawned an Apulian school of archiTecture (photos, 101' right and
pp. 108-9), Both are unencumbered by the double lOwers of Bari. Ven
though the tall. slender tower of Trani is nearly coplanar wilh thai
chorch's fa~ade, it detaches ilself as an apparently scparate forlllabove the
groondstorey arch. The west elevaroon of Tran, breaks from liS model at
B.1ri by providing :I conlinuoos, smooth sorface w,thout the reinforcing
piers breaking Bari and Bitomo into a triple rhythm. The only rhythm is
that of entry, where a compressed and extended 'ersion of the Tuscan
porch, Aallened from its original protrusion from the fa"ade, frames three
portals abo~t' a dramatic double stai r. The single.tower composition of
Trani is particularly we llsuited to its site: the tower is counterbalanced by
nothing less grand Ihan the Adriatic, reflecting in its azure blue the bright
white Slone and elegant proportions of the church.
The same balance of similarity and difference between the architcclUre
of Trani and San Nicola of Bari is presenl in their cults. The ca thedral of
Trani is also ded icated to a SI. Nicholas, bUI nOllhe same one as aT Bari.
Rather, the Trani 51. Nicholas was 3 pilgrim boy from Greece, who took
up a cross and bore il to holy silcs in Gree, Dalmatia and the Adriatic
coast of Italy, singing incess3111ly "Kyrre c1e;sOIl~ up to his death near the
original calhedral of Salll3 Maria 3t Trani. T he sanctification of this young
pilgrim in 1094 led archbishop Bisanzio to found a new church on the site
of the earlit'r, ninlh-ccntury cathexlral. Beneath the entire complt'x the
Tranesi cOnStructed a \l3SI new crypt, perhaps the source for lal('r doublt'
churches, such 3S San Fra ncesco in Assisi, which shared San Nicola's
necessi ly of accommodaling Ihrongs of pilgrims without disrurbing
services. The giant, \lerticaltransepl. with its tall exterior apses spanning

107

TrOll1 IApulial,calht<l,al. BtgUIl III 1098.

Wnl fa~ad. (far Idy l, nov. IQ 1M wt"<I'
(ldT l. ,;"w from IMSClUlh .a51
(oppom' l.devalion ("'lowl

the two interior levels, symbolically imerlinks nave and crypt with the
site's traditional 31ld new cults. The transept's large thirteenth-century
Gothic rose windows illuminate the terminus of both the eucharistic
sacrifice and the pilgrim saUlt's journey to death and salvation at the center
of the tall church crossing.
The cathedral of Troia (photo, left ), begun shordy before Trani in 1093
by Bishop Girardo, proclaims clearly its independence from the school of
Rari. Unlike San Nicola or Trani's ca thedral, Troia is designed with brood
proportions and wilh a blind fa~ade arcade punctuated by inlaid da:orati"e motifs within its arches. T hey derive from Tuscan Romanesque
archita:ture, panicularly from the elevations of Pisa's cathedral, dating
from 1063 to approximately 1108. The la tter dare corresponds to th e dare
of Ihe second major building campaign at Troia, between 1106 and 1119,
when Bishop Guglielmo II completed most of the church. The le ll-tale
Pisan inset rotated squares and circles in the blind arcades date from one
of th~ 11'.'0 early building campaigns. The link to late eleventh-, early
twelfth-cenrury Tuscany is due to the political status of Troia, which was
direcdy under the patronage of Sf. Peters in Rome, which, in turn, had its
strongest ally on the Italian penimub in Tuseany's Counuss Ma thilda of
Canossa during these very years. Either direct visits by local architects to
Mathildine archita:ture in Pisa, Florence, I'istoia, Lucca or nen Modena,
or contact with Tuscan builders through pilgrimages or the first crusade,
which dcpaned from the area ill 1096-7, led to the adoption of these
motifs at Troia. The presellce of other Tuscan pbnning ideas in the interior
of Bari's San Nicola suggests the laner. The explicit presentation of distant
Tuscan motifs at Troia, on its main elevation, emphasized how imponant
uniqueness in Apulian religion alld politics was to the bishops constructing
and inhabiting the cathedral seat.
Sicily
The mixtu re of Byzantine, Islamic, Norman and papal ROmall styles
present in Norman I'ug!ia is even more extreme ill the other kingdom

108

established by the Normans, just beyond the tip of haly, on the island of
Sicily. The recent and powerful presence of Islam on the island and the
Normans' tolerant altitude {O it, as well as {O Byzantine and {O Roman
Christianity, led to an extraordinary ra:epti"eness to combini ng Islamic
and BF.antine architectural forms for Latin-rite churches. The simultaneous presence of the Normans in Nonh Africa assured continuous
influences from African Islamic trad itions throughout the Romanesque
period. The Normans arrived in Sicily from France in 106 1, and won
control over the island over the nexi thirty years. As in Normandy, England
and Puglia, t h~ ~NOTlhmen ~ transformed themselves from restless Viking
marauders to permanently settled citizens of a highly organized political
kingdom. One of the primary vehicles for this rad ical change in identity was
their adoption of Latin Christianity, which not only led to a normalization
of relations between the Normans alld the Europeans they once terrorized,
but also provided an ideal means for the Normans to pacify and unite Ihe
areas they conquered and settled. Just as Charlemagne had used a mixture
of palace, cathedral and monastic construction (O stabilize and extend the
Carolingian empire "two and a half centu ries beforehand, the Normans,
beginning wilh William LOllgsword at Jumieges in Normandy, William the
Conqueror at Hastings in England, Robert Guiscard at Venosa in Puglia
and Roger [I at Palermo in Sicil)', engaged enthusiastically in building
campaigns {O establish their presence in each region in stone.
As if {O confirm the parallel between Carolingian and Norman
archi tectural policy, Roger 11 constructed himself a palace and anached
palatine chapel, dedicated {O Sf. Peter, in Palermo. The chapel was
completed between the year of Robert's coronation, 1130, and 1143.
Like its contemporaries in Normandy and the Italian pl'Il insula, it has a
triple apse. Its tWO side aisles are screened from th e nave by marble
columns supporting classiCizing Corinthiancomposite capitals. The taU
pointed arches these capitals sustain are typically Islamic, as is the
stalactite ceiling, while the rich mosaics, dating from 1143 and 1189, are
Byzantine. T he dissolution of the wall and ceiling by mosaics and

Pakrmo (Sicily). P"la1lnc Ch,pel.

Complcted bt'w .... n 1130 and 1143.
Mos.alcdecoratlon< in th. ml .,o.of 1M
chapel
p.l"nno,u.he<:lr.l. 1069_1190. V;,:w
from ,hec'll

daborau non-suucrural vaulting patterns undermines the simple

geometric clarity of the rectangular space of the nave, anticipating the
more complex spatial arrangemen t of the sanctuary's triple apses and
their sectional proicction infO the screening arches and dome of the
crossing. The cnsemble creares a similar sense of hieratic awe as that of
the great Imperial churches of Justinianian Byzantium at Hagia Sophia
and San Vitale, on a more modest scale.
Similarly rich, hybrid church complexes sprang up across Palermo
during the twelfth century, including the Martorana, (Santa Maria dell"
Ammiraglio), San Gio"anni degli Eremiti, San Giovanni dei Lebbrosi, San
Cataldo, and Santo Spirito. The largest of the Norman building projects in
Palermo was the Cathedral, built between 1069 and 1190 by Ihe
Archbishop Walter of the Mill (Gualliero Offamilio) of Palermo (photo,
top). lIS apse and side elevation are the best evidence for how the entire
complex would have originally appeared. The interlocking maior and
minor pointed arches of the former and the wave-like array of stepped
windows and crenellation of the laner arc both Islamic in origin. The four
corner towers were added in a new phase of Sicilian architecture, under
the Hohenstaufens, starting in 1094, while olher elevations and the
interior, which serves to this day as the Pantheon for Norman and Staufen
kings and emperors, were changed later, especially after 178 1.

110

Cdalu (Sicilyl. c~.h.dr~l.lkgu" in IlJ I.

View from .h. sou.h .as!

Oblia
Roge. [I O<lglnall, planned and brogan
cooSlrucllon of another e:uhedral .0 hou..,
.he Tomils of the N<)fman kIngs of SICIly,
nO{ at Pale.mo, bu' '0 ,h. e.~ Cdalia,
The ",n..,p' and I->llCTuary dar. fmm
Rogerl limo. by, h,s .uccc-sso and Tn.
Hohcnllaulens completed Ihe " ..-. and
f.pd . between 1 ]gO and 1240, on a
mo,-c model' scal., fOCUSSing InSlead ml
Palermo Ca.ht<.! l as ,heir P.n,hwn, The

diff... ",. bMw.. n ,h. o"g",,1 ~nd

compie,t<.! '...,on of ,n. complex ..
eVlden, at the SId< "IeW, whe", ,h. sc.1e
dmps dranu.ic.lly 1".' .h. interl.ced
.,dICS of ,he .pst, side ch.pels .nd
tran",pt. T",~. of ,hIS wmplex O{n.
men 1 ".almo"' of ehes ar. sull
p.-csent In 'he ne"., " .... w.lls, '-Isibk
from ,he cloisle., bu. a.-r more con,",,,,,d
and Internally I.yered, r'lher Ihan in .. rlocked. Th.y .-rappe.r ., ,he upper "'OS!

b~.de, hUI a,-c f.med by lhe smoolher

.. hla. of lhe ,npk".rch porch .nd ,he
powetful. monoli,hic ,owers I,om",g ,he
entry. The Interro, is SImilarly Slmplifit<.!.
wuh ,he rtgul rhythm of lhe u"adornt<.!
!la". arches leadIng up '0 sanctuary
whose only uniquely No.m.n f,a,ure i~
lhe extraordinary BY'la",,,,, mosaic of 'he
sem,dome.

20m

" ..., .nd .,ck a>~I. (ngh.l. dO>I.e,

",110" Ib, flghtl.g,ound plan (abo"e)

III

MQ1lr~~I~ (Si~ily).

,;;j[htdral.
I [47-82. Pan of th~cooir from.ht
soulh east (lOp (~fT). """"" vi~w to
Iht e~.t hop lIght). doi... r (b.mumj

11 2

Monru l.
The dom,nance of Pal.rmo. and parTicularly of the blShop.t "s cuhtdral. was SQ
strong by 1172 10 lead King William to
.., blish a compctmg church. palace and
mona"ery nearby a. Monreal.. He
fint,hed most of ,he church by 1182 and
.he vaSt t".. nlyfive-b.y "'tuue doister by
1100. Wilham', goal of counterb.lanclng
.he bishop Qf PakrmQ , ....,..wed wnh
I'QPC l ucius )Ws ekvaTlon of MQn .... k to
.n 'piocopal "'ot ,n 1183. L,ke h,s

({)umtrparts m l'ugha. h~ was optn [0

Tu",all influences. In Ih,s c.se the .sculptor
Ikm.nno of Pi.... whom h, commi"iol>td
.0 encu'. brQnu doors for ,h. mam
ponal. which were ms.alled \II [185 .
Another .... sculp.ed by l\oriSQne of
Tr~m. W3S added to the punal.o ,.. nonh
five yun l~t.r. As at Cefalu. . . ..,co of
,merlocked .rc,," ex'ends abo"e the east
port.ls. f",med by .WQ soon pparen'ly
incQmpl.., to"' .... S,milar bbmic at.;,,"
CQ'.r the e".. rim Qf the apse and "ansep'
Qf MQnreale. more relentlo<<1y .ha n in ,he
transept of p.lermo Cathedr.1 or Cefalu,
wuh the elf":l of di.sohlng the ex.er;"r
planes of the .tructure.
A s,m,lar dem"en.,I,,'ng eff":l ..
ach,e"ed wlth,n .hechurch by 'IS mosa,CS.
A. In Palermo', 1'.1 ine Chapel. ,he",
I\yunttn. mos.,CS dmy .hc structure
of ,he po,n,ed arches .nd classicizing
Cmin.h'.n c"lumns supponmg their
wall . The linguistic " ..iatlQII$ in .hc
mKnptlOfl. accomp:"'ymg ,ht mosoIC
SCenes help 10 di1'he. their ,mcnded
eff., AIQllg the nanat",. sc~ .... on the
n3\'~ wall$ . hey are III Lotln, whICh would
h,.,~ been more f.m,!tar tQ the I.uy and
Nmman CQun, wh,l~ a. 'ht apse. SU'
round",!; .ht "ma,bbk mos,,,, Qf
ChrlSI, ,hey ur ,n Greek. "'tth ,ht
UCCptlQII Qf the texI In Christ's hand. The
La"n ,",'mds and a(Compaoy'ng mos:lic
.. gn.n... along .ht nave d",w th.
",o.. h,ppcr t<>wa rd .he cros.,ng. ",I\(re
na"aUQn and mo<iQII are ",opped by .hc
G....,k texl and the giam . otherwmlJly
vision of ChnSI dom,nallng the a~.

Though t".rrmt til . hc d"'cr~'ly of Uj

sources. the multl"alen, chanCIer of
MOflrealc only d"'mau<eS tho mulltpl.
funct'Ofl' tha, RQmall""'lue ah'I":'U'"
throughQut Italy was built '0 fulfil!, ."
atlraCl the lany with ,maS'n'tI"e Of
'mpothctic scmes, and then tQQ,",,h.lm
them wi.h thc aw.som. power Qf d,v, ...ty.
The mediators htt"',,,n da,ly C",St ......
and e,.mal ..l".tton were .ht pcrm,ncn.
,nha b,t.nts of the church. These hQly
residents. the "'lnTS. " ..gy, and. a.
M"nreak, Iht ktng., proclaimed In archi
'<Clore the" re.dln ... to in.ercede on
behalf of those members of the la'ty who
",cre ""ilhng '0 honor them and to abide
by Ihti' law<.

OPPOStTE

Vicw of the n:",e an.d .ide ""I.. f,om .he

dQ" '.' CQunyard

Secula r architect ure

Monumental secular architecture in Romanesque haly derived from the
same sources as those of religious architecture. The fifth.century Palace
of Theodoric and the early eighth-celllury Palace of the Exarchs in
Ravenna transmitted examples of Imperial palace design to both
episcopal and by builders of governing palaces. Their lower arcades
and upper-level galleries were copied 3t such geographically diverse
sites 3S the Palazzo della Ragion e in I'omposa, the Z,sa in I'alermo
(1164-80), possibly [he Pieve of Arezzo, and the town halls of Be rgamo,
Milan and Qrvieto, all built between the early twelfth and mid
thirteenth centuries. These Stm(lureS established a town hall type, with
a lower-level arcade supporting a glazed rectangular second-storey
meeting hall, which became widely diffused between the twelfth and
fourteenth centuries.
The unprotected arcade made this urban palace type inappropriate for
rural residences of emperors, kings or their vassals. Feudal strongholds in
Iraly, as in the North and along the Crusade routeS, tended, rather, to be
built of multiple rings of fortification, first around an entire senlement,
then around the castle, and finally forming a prominent tower, Usually on
hilltop sites, such as at Frederick II 's castle at Assisi, such fortresses
generally confOTllled more to the topography in their laj'out than to the
laws of symmetry. Frederick II was the only castle-builder at the rime to
develop as well an alternative to these rather crude expressions of defense
and power, in a series of symmetrical, centrally planned castles ranging

114

from Castel del Monte in Puglia (photo, top) to the Palatium Imperatoris
at I'rato in Tuscany, Both examples fuse the image of impenetrable fortress
with the iconography of Roman imperial pabces by situating classically
pedimemed portals between twin towers, just as at Diodetian's Imperial
palace at Split.
When the growing wealth of Romanesque Italian cities began to attract
rural lords to build near their marketplaces, the nobility imported their
rustic ('astie and tower forms and adapted them to entire blocks or sectors
of towns. The Tuscan [own of San Gimignano (photo, p. 115, top )
provides an example of how most Romanesque Italian cities would have
looked, literally bristling with towers constructed by ooth the nobility and
by powerful merchants emulating them. Even papal Rome had its share of
towers, occupied by its powerful families such as the Caetani at their Torre
delle l\'lilizie (photo, p. 115, right ).
As the civic governments of Italy's cities grew in wealth , population
and military aspirations, they began to compete with th e towerhouse
complexes of the nobility on twO scales. One was by constructing towers
of their own, often grafted Onto more urban public palaces such as those
discussed aoo"e, The other was by encircling their towns with city walls
protected by regularly placed towers and g.1I('5, which in many cases had
previously protecte<l only individual monuments in the cities, such as the
originally fortifie<l eleventh-centur)' cathed ral and palace complex of the
bIshop of Arelzo. In Florence, I'raro and numerous other cities, the
construction of city walls, in mOSt cases by the mid twelfth century,

OPPOSITE

CaSlei do:! ~lonlc IApulia!.

j\.~O\lE

Begun~.

12B

n Gi,n'gr>ano. Rn,dcn(Jal 10"'"" from

,he ,,,,clhh and ,h,,'c<:n,h un'un<$

I"LOW

Sectional dra""ng of a medoeval houSIng

,omplu, v~",.d from ,h. in ... r
courtyard

MIGHT

Rome. Torrcdclk ~J.l ... >c.l\cgJnnlngof

,he ,h;"... n,hun,ury

11 5

M,lan, PalauQ d<:lIa Rag'''''''. FiN! half

,h",c<=mh cen'ury. Fa~ade

of,h~

116

FlorellCe'J <ko~ly populared rown

ceorre. ,",ewed from .bo'e. Detail from a
foun,""nrh cenrury p.unllng

1>lIlan. PalanodelJ~ Rag>one. Equhtn"n

datmg from 1233

~tatue

coincided wi th the buildlllg of civic palaces and wllh the formatIon of

secular civic go,crnmems to resIde wrlhl11 them.
Thc moment most communes built cily walls their populations quickly
filled them. leading to densely packcd spaces and narrow strects Ihat
smed all the more ca,ernous due to the frequency of tower houses. This
busy. noisy, cramped and dangerous environment made the omamcnted
fa.;-ades and vast interior spaces of urban Romanesqu e houses of worship
all the more splendid. The aura of religious architecture was so powerful
that nearly all town halls of the twelfth century were built adjoining the
principal churches of communities, and were articulated with do~orations
adopted from chlJrch windows and portals. Thc common architc<:fUrc and
Interests of church and state arc elearly visible. for instance on the fa.;-adc
of Mtlan's Palazzo della Ragronc (photo. p_ 116). Between the ground.
storey arcade and upper-level triforate wrndows a single arch frames an
equestrian statue of Oldrado da Tresseno (photo. tOp right), the city's
podesta, or go,ernor, in 1233. The inscription reads: calbl1fQ$ 1<1 de/mil
uXII, ~hc burned heretics as he ough t to. ~ It was only with the TI~volution
of the mendicant orders, in the mid thirteenth century. that the
concentrated monumentality of the Romanesque city began to diffuse
throughout townscapes, leading to the spread of monumental arcades,
such as those in Bologna, along all major thoroughfares, and to the
multiplication of mendicant churches and piazzas disseminating a new,
popular piety with what was to Ixcome the architectural equivalent of the
,-erllacular, the Gothic.

\17

The hU"enly Jerusal.,,,. Detail from a

ceiling painting in the abbey church of
s,.,nt-Chrf (fra"ce)

""-'elopmenl5 ,n Sy" Ireland, Italy at><!

Nonhem EuroJ'C. By .he sllC.h cen.ury ,,",v
cI r SI",t><!~ ex.sted ,n.he Wesl_ One was
Insh tnon"'ic"m. where .he scale of
commun"'.. founded by monks s""h as St.
P~mck ~malned as small .s pos.soble .00
.he semngs rem<.>{e and dc$olare. lmh
"""'" ''''"",15m developed the poi", of
mooks COInJ'C""3 wlIh one .notMr ,n solfdcrual. bnngu.g upon them .he- CflllqUC of
wild Indiv,duait,m by St IlcncdlC' of
NUTSi.. St. Bcned>Cl's own
foundation rep<esenrs the Other strand.
Bmed>Cl cod>fied a rtlQrUstic rule which
regula.ed e~ry aspect of d.:iily life.
proVldmg" mil,taryl,ke orgaruza,ion .hal
guaranttt<! a p;ws life .nd "'pamy 10

'0

mon""'"

Th~

mona"ery

H.a v..., l~ Jerusalem

orly Clms.ian and med,e,.,.1 ".chnee.u~ and urbamsm den", .he,r ~mo',..e
strength from .he" capacity 10 express
'n rlhly ma"fl.ls .h. pr<.>m'''' and
dur~b,lny of . he huv...,ly ah.rlik n,.
first archi.c<:.uralexpl<ss;on of th ..... orld
.h.r de.,h .... as Sf. John .he Divine,
Inerary ducrip.ion of tl>t Heavenly
Je,u",lem in Revelation. He .ells of a
pl.c hatlS a. 0...... ci.y and nor" city,
hu,h wi.h wall found"ion. and gatrs.
yef fIo.lIng down from Ih. sky. bUll. of
durobk ma.er;al .. yrt of lransl"'rem
g.ms. nOf ol"'que Slone. n.., numl>tr of
gares, .w,h'e, r.vul Ih" .he ,m.ge is as
much a communi.y of apvsliu .nd 'nbc's
of brad as i, is ~ physical pbce. A, ,h.
",n r Joh" trlls u' .here is nOl a .empl.,
bu, Christ ,h. Lomb him",lf. Archu ... , ure IS no lo~r nee.... f)' In .h. cny of
",Iv,"on, and yet .he only ",ay to dcsc"br
Ih .. ci.y is in archnectur.l.erms .

The paradox of s . John .h. Divine

cchoes ,n th. archnecrur. of mon.s ... i...
up 10 lhe R.fom'L,,,ion. The firs,
mona ic ",nlem.n.s ,n Egyp' """re no
mO", ,han ,u",mbJagu of hermll
r.lre.rs, organized hy nothmg more .han
,he" prox,mny and II.Clr w.lls, whICh
were as much .0 keep hermIts in as 10
keep .he evil. of .he world our. And ye.
.Iready by ,he "m. of S. Pachomius,
,n hi' cotnobium of rho early fourth
cemury." more "rchirectu",1 orgamlanon
of buildingo at><! :ac1l"1fIe!O waS (]c..'elopmg.
Archuecture ",as.M mOSt .f/ccny. means
forapresomg al once ,he ,ndivJdual""re"
of each hermn and .h. gro .... ing .. nso of
(Ommon mission a nd neeJs which .h.
hermllS shored. They organized an ideal
ci,y for ,h.m.. h... divKhng .hemsc:lvn
,nto smaller groupo ,cc<)fdln~ to tr.de.
och fold had us own ."h,"Xlur.1 un",
wuh ICfI<'S of cells and a (Omll>o" room.
The lenSlon between ,ndi,,dual re ..e..
and hfe.n common I'<'rsi~led ,n mon~"ic

"",,-

.., r
""'''':../
.," ,

.'~"".

Abbey of Mome Ca..".o. Reconw"""on of.he monas.ery c. 1075 (afte. K. J. Oman.)

118

he ha'mo",ou~y. Bmedicune rnon.a"enc:s

became ""ses of ,'ab,l,ty, order at><! even
asnculrural and ""onurruo; producti .. "y
",""h," run-sh, d",Otic ,,'<)fld.
U"der Charlemagn nd I.<.>u,s the Pious.
IIcnedlCfine mon"Ste"C$ beca me .he
core of " policy of I'ttvangelizing .h.
(Ou""yside and organ"."'g agrICulture.
Ie",n'ng; and the " ,,,,,,ng of .he (Ourr.
The ck"re" architectural nprf'Ssion of
Corol"",an mona~ticism is in .he plan of
St. Gall. from around 820. which waS
Ii'erally " blucpri", for 1M conmuc"on
of monasteries .h.oughou. the Holy
Roman Emp"". The scheme is organiud
around" mus.signiflCan. ;"nov",ion, the
elo,,,,,,, .... hich bt-c:am he focal POI'" for
all mOll'''ic .",hiteerure sillce.
The .hree greal mon.stic houses of .h.
Roman..'!u. period wer. all based on .he
Corohng'." plan of St. Gall. The firn waS
,\\ome CaSSino. Benedict'. sonkmen. '"

Model of tM St. G.lle" monastery af,er.h. plan made~. 820

Cluny 111. monastery church and 1"''' of th. monasref)'. S<CIlon of model

Camp~gna ,n ,he s,x,h cen'ury. It w..

rd"l.Ih by Abbo< !k$ideriu$ ,n ,t>.,
elc'en,h~("1l'ury. 1.1"$01\$ from ,he ~arby
~"fa"ng ,own of Amalfi introouct"d
bl.mic pointO<! U~Ms .nd grom v.ults
,n,o the m,xtur. of euly Ch".It.n and
Lombard t'ad,lton! at the
One viS"or '0 Mon.e Cassino, in 1083.
was Abbo, Hugh of Clun y. By thIS tutlt
Cluny h.d .... bh,hO<! it..lf 3S onothe. of
.ho most 'mp<>nant "",n.>t'C ",n"'$
In Eu.ope. Whon Hugh ,,turned '<'>
Burgundy he began, by 1088, w build
Cluny Ill. It '5 'hrough Mon,e Ca.."l0
and Cluny Ill. .""rdutg to Ke,ut
Conan th .. ,nnovations in Romonesque
enginrmg techniques m.de the" "'''Y
across Burgundy and Fu"",.
By ,he la'. dc,.n,h c("1ltury'ho 5'ak and
beau.y of Mo",. Cassino .nd Clun,.,
mona".ri "'.re matched only by the
m.gnif..:rn<:. of monailte ltf. Monks
,...'" ... viced by lor.1s p.ovid,ng ,h.m
,..uh th.!xst ,n food and wi~. Th." sole
l.bo" were P"'ter. ,llumm.. ion and tho
chanltng of !".!tn<. The rei.lton of
wo,ldly to spi,itu.1 became so
unbal.tleO<! th ... al",.dy In 1075. the
firs, of ..."eo of Cluniac monk> flO<! to
e-s.abhsh. more ."".lte retreat. By 1119
POl'" Cahx,u.1I had apr'OvO<!
neW
monaSltc charte.. c>tabllshmg .he
CIstercian Order a, the .hird g,.. t
monasltc hou .. of Europe. named aft ..
,.... remote valky. at.oux. Th. !xs,
p...... ".O<! Cistercian abbey is Fon nay in
fr."", ,nO<! far from any u,b.>n entre,.
Iong a stream tlut ,ho monk. channeiO<!
for
power and
",nIl3l,on. The
uchnecturc "",hews "II figur""'e ucoss,
elcvaltng the laycnng of Slructu",1
.kme"t!, the quality of surfaces and
loints, and ,h. adm,ss,on of pur. whIle
light lu an uprcss,on <.>f par.di ... Th
.."" .... 'ion of a"""i" ... and ""'ng "ssu...-d
the ,tI.ulation of church and cloister from
,he probnc world, reslonng the ~"lc,
ment at
to the o.<knng pnnc'ples of
IIcned", and ,h .c~t..: isola"on of ,he
Egyp,,~n and Iri.h ,,",mlli.

"'e.

,he"

0"".

Founta,ns Abbey.
ru,ns

A~"31

"iew of'he monaStery

J.nT

Ide.1 plan of. Ciste",i.n mon.stery (aft ...

W.II'3unfd.!
I Sa""""'ry

l). .d8-'t.

Monks'd,,,,,

4 I",.. ltd, bmch<t

j Rood "' .......
6 b,l>r<><Itcrs'cholt

7
N.""".
8

Dorm,IO', ".""
Saw",
10 A""""um_morut"",
ltbr".ry
II Mand:t.um _""",
~

brnd...,forn.d,~
and ,..uh,"I! Krt
12 M""k" &,1<
13 l..y brnd'... &'"
14 Ch>1"1wu ...

Jj

Domt"<><Y "'P'

16 "'ud"<>num
17 M""ksh.>11
18 No"' ....
1~ Monh'I",1II<
20 W'""'''3 ".,....
2' \1;"<11
12 Monk<' .. f,ory
Pulp"
14 "ltd"
2S C<llo""Hon",I,,"I!

lj

26 1 ~,bfO'Itcrs"......,s<
21 Su.Iwu..
28 I... , bo-OI"" .. '
.. I<c,ory
29 I.... , "'0111<,,' lo!tln<

119

Bernhard and Ulrikc Laule

Romanesque architecture
in France

The establishm ent of Ihe French Kingd om after Cha rlema gne
After the death of Charlemagne in January 814, Ihe huge empire fell into
the hands of Louis the Pious, only 10 be split up in 843 amongsl his three
sons in Ihe Trealy of Verdun. Louis II received East Francia. Lothar gained
the imperial crown and the Middle Kingdom, which included a broad mip
from Friesland 10 Provence dividing East and West FranCia, Lombardy,
Friuli and haly as far as the Duchy of Benevento. Charles the Bald was
granted West Francia which, with the exception of the easterly areas, and
Normandy and Brinany in the north west, corresponds 10 the France of
today. He also received partS of what a~ today Belgium and the Netherlands.
By 875, howeler, Charles was able nOI only to obtain the imperial crown
for West Francia, but also 10 extend his imperial boundaries as far as the
Rhone, the Duchy of Vienne including the townS of Vienne and Aries, and
pan of the Jura and Burgundy including the towns of Basic, Geneva and
Besan~on.

These boundaries remained stable for a long period, and the young
French kingdom, whose: roots stretched lxack to the preCarolingian period
of Ihe fifth century, was able 10 consolidate its position.
lbe Roman occupation of Gaul had brought Christendom 10 the area
by the second century, and the Frankish kingdom soon had a dose
relationship with the Church. King Clovis I (481-510) converted 10 the
Catholic faith and was baptized during th e Christmas of 497. This alliance
of Church and kingdom was to prove its worth in the followingcemuries.
Sources in the ninth and temh centuries report the founding of numer
ous monasteries, whilst many towns saw the building of the new
cathedrals of the early Christian period. It must be remembered that these
churches were still in the Roman tradition: large baSilicas, naves with flat
ceihngs and transepts with semi--circular apses. The prOtOtype was still O ld
St. Peters in Rome.
The development ofRomanesquc - new spa tial forms in lhe choir and nave
Many of the early Christians of the Frankish Empire were now canonized,
and new saints were conlinually !xing created. Reports ci rculated of
miracles al their graves, which often lay within mona~teries or even led to the
founding of new ones. The faithful made pilgrimages 10 these mona~teries,
and imponant new pilgrimage routcs developed. The growth m pilgrim.
ages, which brought large numbers of pilgrims to the mona,teries, created
a need for lodgings and particularly for devotional objecls of all kinds. It
increased their income considerably, but required an efficient organita
tion. Ways were sought of directing the pilgrims so that those coming in
and out of the church did not cause disturbance detrimenlalto the liturgy
of the monks in the choir. It was below the main allar Ihal the saint's 10mb
would almost always be siwated.
From the middle of the ninth cenwry onwards, rectangular ambula
tories were created in Auxerre and Flavigny surOurain. These led around
the saint's tomb in the crypt, allowing the pilgrims 10 descend the stairs
from one side aisle and return up via the other. In both these churches the
ambulatory was extended to include a round or octagonal lady chapel
!xhind an aisled approach. Before the middle of the nimh century the

crypt at Saint-Philibert-de-Grandlieu on the Atlantic coast was e:,<tendoo

house the relics of St. I'hilibert, later taken 10 Tournus. The c.. ypt had a
rectangular ambublOry with echeloned chapels on its eastern ;Hm. The
first crrpt at Tournus, which was built in the rears after 875, nlust have
been similar. These fim ambulatories were graduall y adapted to the curvature of the- end of the choir. Earll' c:,<amples arc the choirs of ClermontFerrand and Saint-Maurice-d' Agaune. During the second half of the tenth
century the monks in Tournus erected JUSt such an ambulatory with rectangular radial chapels, which enclosed a chapel in front of the confessio
with a nave and tWO side aisles. The first fully developed ambulatory with
semi-circular radial chapels was the one at 51. Martin at Tours. It was built
around 1000, but largely demolishoo after the French Revolution ..
It was the monastery of Cluny and ItS priories which were to remam
Influential in the development of the nave o\'er the following c"ntury. [n
948, only a few decades after the completion of the first church. tbe monks
of Cluny began the construction of a second, larger church (Cluny II ). It
was not consecrated, however, until 981, probably because of difficulties
encountered in the conStrUCtion. Its form is only known from ex,:avations
.lIld written sources. It had a nave with two side aisles, and a prole<:ting
transept. It also had a choir with chapels in ~'(:htlon, the first example of Its
kind and one which was at fi rst widcl~' imit:tted. The function of the
mdividu:ll rooms has ne,'er been completely explained. The echelonoo
chapels in Cluny II consisted of seven symmetrically arranged apses. The
Cl!'ntralthree had a semi-drcular termination, and were sligh tly Sf:.tg:~roo one
to another. Their decp, probablr barrel-vauhoo forebays were cQlln<:(:ted with
tach other by colonnades. On each side of these: three chapels, and set back
slightl y, there was a chapel with a rectangular termination. Finally, on the very
outSide of each of these t~re was 3 mallapse on the transept wan. Theeleva
tion of the nave must have had two 5tore-)'s. Above the arcades was a barrel
vault without transverse arches. Small windows piercoo its base, making it
the first known example of a vaulted church With an illuminated vault.
Thus it was that by around the ),ear 1000 both architectural features
,haracteristic of Romanesque architecture had been developed. namely the
ambulatory with radial chapels and the illuminated vault. The latter was
then still in ils early stages of development, and over the following cenlllry
was to undergo continual improvement and perfection. It was nOI until
ilbout 120 years later thai the barrel vault was supersedoo by other forms of
vault ing. including those based on Gothic design principles.
Several buildings from the rears after the turn of the millennium ha\'e
ellher survived or are known about in sufficient detail: the greal basilica of
S3mHxnigne in Diion with ItS curious choir apex rotunda and the small
,hurch of Saint-Vorles in CMtillonsur-Seine, both in the terri!(ory of the
duchy of Burgundy; in northem France the basilicas of Montierender, Sainte
Ge:rtrude in Nivelles and Saint-Remi in Rheims .lud, in the deep south of
france in the former provinCl!' of Narbonensis, Saint-Martin-du-Canigou.

10

Burgundy -the problem of barrel vau lting

In 100 I William of Volpiano, the abbot of Saint-BCnigne in Dijon,
commissioned a replacement for the huge basilica which had been built in
535 over the tomb of 51. Bcnignus (d. c. 274). [n 989 the monastery of
Cl uny had been reformed, and il may be assumed that William of
Volpiano knew and appreciated the vaulted b:lsilica which had JUSt been
completed there. Nevertheless, he decided on an ~o[d-fashioned~,
unvaulted construction. This was panly because of lack of spaCl!'. but it
must also be remembered that Saint-BCmgne was al ready 500 years old,
possessed numerous relics and was a famous destmation for pilgrimagesin O1her words, a place of tradition. The result was an enormous basilica
with a nave and four side aisles, transept and a choir with five radiating
chapels. The central apse was, however, substituted by a huge choir apex
rotunda dedicated to the mother of God (figure, p. 122). It is only the
rotunda that remains of this construction datmg from the beginning of the
new millennium, as the nave was damaged in 1137 and 1271 and in both
cases was replacoo by more modern structures.
It is a three-storered rotunda with a na,'e and two aisles. The continuous central shaft opens upwards into a circular opening at the apex. Eight
columns enclose this central shaft, whilst there are sixteen between the
first and second ambulatory and twenty-four engaged columns on the
outer wall. Both ambulatories are barrel-vaulted. In the Oilier ambulatory
the semH:ircular barrel vault is interrupted m e"ery third ba)' by a groin
vault. [n the last storey therc is a smgle Wide ambulatory. vaultC"d with a
quarter circle barrel yault. [n the north and the south, SC'mi-circular
projecting staircases are added to the exteriQr of the rotunda. In the east, 3
small chapel is added, the furerunners uf which are said 10 date from the
sixth century and stood on the Gallo-Roman cemetery.
The atmosphere in this rOTunda is that of a giant CTypt and Ihe
impression of space is confu5ing and mystical because of the multiplicity of
ai sles and storeys. It would not be right, however, to draw a comparison
with the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem as there is tOO little harmony in the
building. It is more likely that this particular design solution was dictated
by the presence of the centuries-old tombs of saints and dedications to
patron saints. Similar situations are known to ha\'e arisen at other placC'ii
and, 3S With the example of SamtBCnigne, they were not imitated because
of the mdl\'idual nature of their solutions.
The ground floor of the rotunda was like all extensive crrpt underneath the whole- tranr.cpt and half of the nave. Here, in a prominent
position on the dividing line betwecn the transept and choir, was the tomb
of St. Bcnignus.
The nave may have had three storeys: arcades above square piers,
galleries, c1erestorr and n,u ceiling. Even this nave initially found no
imitators. The second church at Cl uny had shown that illuminated barrel
,'aults were possible, albeit with a limited width of na\'e and minute
windows. However, it wa s to be several centuries before Cluny, with iTS
third church, once agam daroo to vault the huge nave and four aisles with
barrel vaults over the clerestory.

111

Dijon (OX<-<!'Or), Abbey church S.'ntBCnignt. Aft~r 1001. Recon.>,,,,,'ion of

nave .nd e!'OS"seet;o" through ,h~
rotunda (abo,'.), Vi<w ,nlo rotunda

(bolow)

Vault conS ITUClions aft er Cluny II

Around the year 1000 Ihe bishop of Langres, Bruno de Roucy, commissioned the complete renewal of what was probably a Carolingian construction in Chatillon-sur-Seine. A nave and two aisles with four bays is
still standing, as well as a projecting barrelvaulted tran$Cpl and the
remains of a chevet with five chapels, also with Ihe original barrel vaults.
Toda y there is groin vaulting in borh nave and aisles, the former dating,
howcl'er, from the $Cventt-cnth cemury. Originally there mUSt have been a
barrel vault here, possibly w,th small openings at the base of the vauh. The
eXI"rior, which would once hal'e been very attractive with its clearly
demarcated parts, is dominated by a CTossing tower; but only the first floor
remains with its blind arches between fbtlesenes.
Between 1020 and 1030 the monks of Saint-Phili!x-rt III Tournus had a
new nave and aisles buill. [n I007f8 their church had been damaged by the
Hung.1Tian invasions, but was repaired again and consecrated by 1019. In
the mean lime the monks must have found their broad nave with iTS fbt
ceiling quite old-fashioned, and they decided on the construction of a
narrower nal'e with vaulting. The eastern parts were narrower than the
older nave, and so they began in the WCSt in front of the church with three
bays of a nave, which was adapted to the width of the choir. The nave
bays, with giant round pillars at their corners, were square, whilst the side
aisle bays were Ihe corresponding rectangular shape. When these first bays

122

were complele up to [he level of Ihe arcades, ;1 was decided to leave the
old outer walls standing, and 10 try to vault a wider nave. The narrower
bays which had JUSt been erected were to be<:ome the narthel<. Because,
however, the very long rc<:tangubr aisle bays were difficult 10 span with
groin vaults, the groin vaulting was used in the square nave bays and the
side aisles were covered with a quarter-circle barrel v3ult. It is possible that
the original nave project was abandoned be<:ause there was greater
confidence that they would be able to vault a wider nave. It is equal1)'
probable that the monks realil,ed that their bay diYlsions with square nave
bays was unsuitable for a barrel vault.
This experience was 10 !x-nefit the small church of Saint-Martin in
Chapaize, a priory which was independem of Tournus (photos, p. 123
below). The ground plan and shape of the piers, as well as the dimensions
of Saint-Martin, are virtually identical to those of the narthex of To urn us.
The bays on the other hand are so constructed Ihal they form transverse
rectangles in the nave and squares in the side aisles. This means that Ihe
powerful piers stand closer together. The elevation is of twO Storeys:
arcades, pointed vaults with small windows which pierce the barrel vault,
and groin yaulting in Ihe side aisles. Semi-circular responds over round
piers articulate the upper wall and carry Ihe transverse arches. In the
twelfth ccntucy the ociginal cound b~HcI collQP&l'd (Ihe uppec WQII$ Me
still remarkably sb ming even now) and waS replaced with the pointed
barrel still e"isting toda y. The Iransept tS as low as the SIde aisles and three
apses, the cenua[ one of which is larger, form the choir. Sainthbrtin is
also articulated on the exte rior by round-arched frie~es, and the high
crossing tower with two bell storeys, one over the OIher, is visible fmm a
great distance. In Saint-Martin in Chapail.C, built around 1030, shortly
afte r the narthex ground floor at Tournus, there is a clear sense of the
greatness and mfluence of a Cluniac church of the eleventh century. Today
it srands empty, except for simple TOWS of benches and a sma ll alt;1T.
The pretty little church of 51. Peter and Paul also has dimensions
incredibly similar to those of Cluny II and the Tournus narthex. This
church is to be found in Ihe upper reaches of the small river NOlOn, in the
area of Bur~und y now in Switzerland.
Gregory of Tours reported [hat St. Romanus and his brother,
Lupicinus, had founded a small monastery which aftcr an even rful hislOry
was made over in a will 10 Cluny in 928. It was not umil a centu ry lalCr,
after t".o smaller preliminary constructions, that a new building was
COIl5{Tllcted in Romainmotier under Abbot Odio of Cluny. With its nave
and two side aisles with round piers under round-arched arcades, it t'Choes
Tournus and Chapai ~e, and probably more direcdy Cluny [I. One e"ample
of an advance in Romanesque architecture is the broad supporting pieces
in the arcades. The aisles support baTl'eI vaulting which is pierced on both
sides by lunettes, whilst the nave has been rib-vaulted since the late
thirteenth ccmury. The lower transept, projecting only slightly, still has the
original vaulting. This explains the features on the upper wall, where there
arc traces of the arches which used to spring from the still existing small
corbels. It is apparent Ihat Ihere was a desire 10 avoid windows which
pierced the barrel vaults, and so the high windows in the transept are

BELOW

Chapa, ... (~o"....,. Lo'''' I . formtr prio ry

church Sam, Marfin. Around 1030.
Na'. and 'o ...... r from "'mh ...... ...
(kftl. na" . wall (right l

R<>ma,nmO".r (S,,',n. rland l. form.r

monas.. ry chu<ch St. Pc , .nd Paul.
Around 1 0301~ 0. Na,'.I""k,ng " ."

~nea,h broad CUTI'e<! undersurfaces which spring from small

on the upper walland pierce the rou nd barrel. These ar,;hes at the
same 'ime reduce the radius of the barrel by at least ;1 yard. Dccp barrel
fore bays, connected by two colonnades, were situated in fro11' of the semi
circular apses. The Inne r were altered in the Gothic age and th~'ir original
forms are only jus, rt"\:ogni1.ab1c. T he articulation of the exterior is typical
of the first half of the eleventh cen tury with its blindarched frieus
between flat Jesenes and a beautiful crossing lOwer with .wo s )reys. The
doubleslOre)ed narthex wit h its nave and two aisles with cruciform piers
and groin vaulting ov.. supporting ~ams in both nave and aisles dates
from around 1100. The upper storey has round piers with sculptured
IlllpostS. The ground floor has groin vaul ting throughou t, and in the eastern
part there is a small semi-circular recess which extends into the nav .
Around 1050 the monks of Saint philibert III Tournus had modern, u d
and vaulted their old lIal'e (photos, p. 125). The nave was w ider than
originally env isage<! when it \\'as construCTed between ] 020 and 1030,
making the ba)'s square. Narrow and very steep round arches spring from
strong round piers. T he ceiling is a round barrel vaul. with small windows
at its base. As in Chapaize. engaged col umns are fined 10 the wall abol'e
the imposts of the piers. which supported .he .ransverse barrel arches. in
alternatelr laid bricks.The s,de aisles were groinvaulted with the inner
cells towards the nave slightl y slop"'!: in order 10 SUpport the burd vault.
The na l'e has not sUfI'ived in this form as the barrel I'JUlt collapsed "cry
soon after its construction. Around 1070/80 the collapsed transverse
a~hes were renewed or rcpbced without alterna tely Ia,d bricks (the old

place<!

cor~ls

123

Payr,,,,, (Swillr.bnd) to",,,,. abbry

church. A.""nd \040/50. Nu,.I<><>king

.~,t

arches a.e therefore still rfi:ognizable} and the nave was covered as a
temporary measure with transverS(" barrel vaults. The impression of space
which resulted is extremely unusual, and must ha"e seemed so even to
contemporaries. Although the nave is certainly significantly brighter, as
the transver.;e barrel vaul ts are pierced by large windows, nevertheless the
continui ty of the space, the even progression of identical sections along the
na,"e, is significantly interrupted. Despite all the different anempt$ 10
explain them, the Iransverse barrel vaults at Tournus can really only be seen
as a solution to a particular problem. They found no imitations elsewhere.
Between 1040 and 1050, contemporary with the first na,'e vaulting at
Tournus, another large church was built in this mould; the second abbey
church at Payerne (figure, left). Odilo of Cluny cited Adelheid, the
daughter of Rudolf [] of Burgundy, as the founder of this tenth century
abbey. In her second marriage she married Emperor 0110 the Great and
since 991 had been the regent for her grandson 0110 J[] who was not yel of
age. It cannot be di scounted that it was her parents who founded the
abbey, for the gra"e of Adelheid's mother Bertha was at Payerne, where
one of the monks' duties was to pray for the salvation of her soul. The new
imperial monastery was subordinate to Cluny. The whole royal family of
Burgundy, which spanned the Jura mountains, had long had cloS(" ties 10
Cluny. In the second quarter of the eleventh centu ry and under the
innuence of Cluny, a new west frOIll was constructed for a building which
was initially planned to be narrower. The change in plan must have
happened quickly. A westblock with one bay was erected with the Michael
chapel in the upper storey, and the old tenthcentury na,'e was enclosed.
For this reason the north and south walls of the nave do not follow the
axis of the building. The square nave piers werc then constructed, and
powerful projecting columns added. Stepped responds in the side aisles
echo these projecting columns, Initiall y the crossing was planned for the
sixth bay, but finally it was built in the seventh. The final stage of the
building was the square crossing and the high projecting transept with its
chevet of five chapels. All the previous exam ples of this type of elevation
discusS("d either collapsed or were modified. This is the.efore the oldest
p.ese,,ed example of the barrel vault above high, slender arcades and
windows which pierce the foot of the va ult. As at Tournus, the barrel vault
has transverse arches. However, the transverse arches at Pa yerne are
supported underneath by responds, whilst at Tournus they spring from the
imposts of the round piers. These rectangular responds innuenced the
dccision to uS(" square piers with projecting columns instead of round
piers. This nave elevation is con tinued into the long choir and allowed a
double row of windows in the main apse, which makes the inte rior very
high and bflght compared to other buildings of that period. The exteflor is
reminiscent in its articulation and decoration of the other churches
di scussed, but has been modified by later additions.
The abbey church of I'ayerne is one of the last perfectly preserved
buildings of its type, and synthesi~es the experience of 3lmost a century of
Ihe work of the Cluniac architects. For the first time a consistent rhythm
has been achieved in the nave which, together with the smooth transition
from the responds to the transvcrse arehes, foreshadows the Gothic style,

124

ToumuJ fS;.<k>Ht loo", f. formtr abbc-y

,11=11 S;.,n, . PtIlLbm. An.,. 1020. N~".,

"bI ''''''''.. fr<.>m ..,."h~,," (ltn ).

"ay~

loolullAU'" (righl)

A dtdoa.llon I\aj J'''''w"",, fron, II.. yn.

I I ZO, " 'Iud! ",ft.. IO IM...-pair of 1M
~ul~rn ""n> ",'how ITIOK ......krn /""'"
".~", bu,II up OV~"M old VO<' .... p4n.

Tournu$IS,,(lnt..,. Lo"~I .
~ hu rch

fo.rut. abbty

S,. Ph,libtn. An.,. 1020.

Clo"'~r (kit), groulld pl~n (ngh.)

g""ly ol<k. ,han ,ht ""'" i. Ih.t

'U'VI"IIA nonh "',ng of ,be dOI>lers.
"how " 'o<k arada a" anlCUb,c.;I by
..,..,." J<1t\1<1n: .. I.a, tnponJ.. Abbot
Ardaln ...",laod To tnT heK in 1156, Ht"
~""'m'wonnI ,be booik"", of .... l1ouM
f\oorof,be nanhot" a .... 'hotnav~. a ....
waf b

.,. canonlud.

~~</

"ir~
. - ..

"1r

.~.-

_.
1 ..
.~

~ .~ .,

"5

I.a-Charil~-su,..Loire

(Nihre), for"",r
priory church omtc-Croix-NotrC'D~m~. ]056-]101. Int("nor VI("W of
Ih. choir nd ground pl.n

..
M
=' ==-=
r=
-r-=
r . .=~ C

r"!-:o.e

ee- ee- ee= 1t=

e- _
""

; .) ~

.=e=e=~~~
'
- e- e- e
.... ..
,

'~

.'

The models for th e third ch urch at Clun y

The nave of TOUT11US and the abbe)' church of Payerne had long since been
planned and completed when Hugo of $emur aKended the abbot's throne
at Cluny in \049. His new church of Sainte-CroixNOIre-Damc at La
Cha rite-sur-Loire was inspired by Cluny priory, but is nevertheless I'ery
much a product of its own age (photos, p.(26).
In IOS6 the Duke of Nievre foundcd a monastery which lay in a I'ery
favorable position on the pilgrims' route to Santiago de Compostcla.
Documents from 1107 and IUS have survived referring to a first church
in the style of Cluny Jl and a modification in the style of CI uny Ill. The
only parts surviving from the Middle Ages aTe th e transept (today wilh
pointed barrel vaults above a clerestory) with its squinch cupOlla, the four
outer apses of the chevet (which ortgmally had seven), an ambulatory with
chapels and a west tower. [f one knows those buildings which were
construCled under Cluniac lIIf1uence during the elel'emh century and one is
also aware of Hugo's ideas for Cluny [J[, these few remaining parts are
sufficient to imagine the original church.
[n [inc wilh Ihe customs of Ihe time, a chevet with seven chapels was
erected initially. As in Payerne, there were colonnades in the forechoir, a
two-StoTCY clerestory in the main apse, and the narrow, steep transept with
windows high up under Ihe barrel vault. Without doubt, the second
church of Cluny was the inspiration for La Charile. The ground plan of
Ihe nave, probably with four aisles, extended westwards with ten bays.
With its size it is clearly recognizable as the immediate forerunner of Cluny

126

Ne"c<s (Nih",), former .bbcychurch uf

o,nteEt .. nne. I06J-tO!17. Nave and
choIT

III. Similar to Cluny 111, La Charite must have had a three-storey elevation
right from the outset, consisting of arcades, blind triforium and clerestory;
it is not, as was mistakenly assumed, the result of a reconStruCllon in Ihe
first half of the twelfth century referred to in the consecration document of
11 3S . [t is surely unlikely that such a recently constructed building would
be rebuilt from the foundation walls upwards.
[t has often been asked why, in contrast to other abbots and bishops,
Abbot H ugo did not start the construction of the nell' church until he had
been in office for forty years. Apparently he wanted to reSI OUI Ihe
architeccural concepts for his great and ambitious new project, and, as we
shall see, in sel'eral places at once, before he finally felt able to show his
contemporaries the greatest and most perfect building in Christendom. [n La
Charite after 1107 it was only the three central apses which were replaced
by an ambulatory and side chapels and consecrated in 113S.
In Nievre, not far from La Charite, the building of the abbey church of
Saint-Etienne (figure, abo~e) started in 1063 and the consecration took
place in 1097. Nievre was also a significant station on the pilgrims' route
to Santiago and was also a priory of Cluny. It is therefore no surprise that
the building constructed in Nievre differed from the traditional type of
Cluny II. A nave and twO side aisles with six bays is attached 10 a
projecting transept with a square crossing, a semi-circular apse on each
side and an ambulatory with three chapels.
One foreba)" is missing. T he elevation once again has three storeys.
Over the comparatively low arcades Ihere are gallery arches of approxi-

S'l\n'.&noi'$u,Ii~ (l.o,,~,). 10""..'

ablxy .hurch Sam,&noi,.
Around I070180-m,d !wflfth C~n[U,y.
wesurn ",~w Qf nanhn (an'hu rch

S,"n!&noiHurIo,,~ 11..0"(1). fo'm~' ablxy chu,ch

S,"n,.&noi,. Ground plan (ltlt).
Cho" (abo"(j. Culumns of nanhc~ (bcIQw )

'Qw~rj

127

Cluny (S-06ne-<I-Loire),
f.mntr mon3"~ry church
Sainl PitrrC"-<l Paul
(Cluny Ill ). 10H9-1131132
Southern transept
Ground rl~n of wholt mt.
l"n"Con,lru,,"[[on of;ts st.1r
.round 1150

,
,
A

Monastery church

C
0

Lody chap.,]
Infirmary
Rrfr-ctory
1'.nlry

...--

.. -

,
L

"
N

"

Monks' k'ld,.n
LI~ k,,~hen

Cellar
Room..,f Iht~lmOMr
Ctmclery
Bakery
Gu."houst for
women
Gut,lhou,," for men
Slabl. and .tQ1"C t..:.>u$o<
1..o"m"

J2

Old church
OldCalil""
Chapter !>oUst
Parlour
Came ...

J2

.!vl

-"""':._-

___

Calefo~l<M)"

Wdl

.""
""
"
.,"

Cemetery chapel
F.."I.n~lon 10
donnll0ry(? )
Abbot'schapcl

I)Qrmnory

LlI,m ...

Nov"'.'e

,"

--- --

P.I~",,~oun

G.H.I HosplCts and >,.bl.,.

It" ...,

-- --

-_.

.-~-\

: -: {"'-

"'~"to',,_

.................

+ .. . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . ..: i;

- 4 ... .t;
tCS
,.... ... . . ~:f'
~

(~l

............

~1~

.~~-C"

. :';r~;:~lf" !7~'fI
\'" .&~:] W~!~1< _ .~k:-.\~~) : ':- it
"', 4,.:...---i!----f .
. j i~I':":" " ~ ;w.$H
'~.-.

t'

~ :~

...1 ; '

'l

{III
h i I .J

. .'

mately equal height, into whil:h large tympana are set, leaving only narrow
openings. A small window with a steeply sloping sill in each bal' forms the
clerestory. Evidently they did not yet have great faith in their vaulting
techniques. T he piers arc cross-shaped, but on each side of the square
centra! part, engaged columns are fined which In bOlh the nave and the
side aisles link up smoothly to the transverse arches and in the arcades to
the supporring arches. Groin vaulting is used in the side aisles, w-hilst in the
galleries there is quarter barrel vaulting which is supported by the n3'e
walls. The transept wings are separated from each other by a stlrainer arch
wl.idl ;~ lvwe. dl"" ~],e ~ 1v~.i"S "'~],~., A oet ,,( (i~e al.:1,c~ b,.~.. ks through
the wall above, a motif which is reminiS(:ent of Carolingian buildings such
as Germigny-des- Pres and one which was imitated and can st ill ~ seen
today in the Romanesque transept of the cathedral of Saint,CYn"--et-Saintc
Juliette in Nievre. On each side of this strainer an:h two rows of windows
pierce the walls of the uansepts. The choir also has three storeys, but the
high galleries have been replaced by sigificandy lower blimd arches.
Colonnencs highlight the high windows.
The exterior is different to elsewhere. Whilst it is still true Ihal the
composition of the building is predominant, and that was to rernain so for
the whole of the high Middle Ages, it is not the only determining feature in
a building. Small block friezes articulate the building horizontally and
surround the round arches of the ever larger windows. A 5<:t of blind
an:hes on short colonneues, a dwarf gallery, decorates the high wall of the
end of the choir, behind which is the vaulting. The crossing tower is low

128

and OCtagonal, whilst both the west towers were destroyw in the French
Revolution.
Although Nihre is an example of a pcrfe(:1 basilica with a clerestory,
Abbot Hugo chose the elevation with the blind triforium, si nce he wanted
a ceremonial, elegant architecture, and therefore a continuity of space
which was not to be broken by 100 many strong contrasts of light and
Sh'ldow. The wide galleries of Saint-Etienne were to ~ influenlial, on Ihe
other hand, in the churches along the pilgrims" route 10 Santiago.
After vaulting had Ix-en sucressfully eXe(:uted in 1097 in Nievre and by
1107 in La Charite, the monh of Tournu. tricd oul thi. tcchnique in the
upper floor of the three-bayed narthex. The side aisles were completed
with quarter barrel vaults as in Saim-Etienne, where there are twO windows
in each bay and a round barrel vault. The intermediate floor wasdispcnsed
with and the upper floor of the narthex may only have been built towards
the end of the eleventh eenlllry. At the same rime the construction of the
two splendid west towers was completed. T hese rise above the high front
and have become the symbol of the town.
It is more than likely that these two new buildings in Nievre and La
Charile encouraged the Abbot at 5aint-Benoit-sur-Loire to carry out a
moderniUltion of his church which daled from the first half of the tenth or
beginning of the elevenlh century (photos, p. 127). Saint-Benoil had been
founded in 65 I and since around 672 had been in the possession of Ihe
relics of 51. Benedict of Montcrassino. These relics were amongst the
nobleSI treasures in France in this period. Odo of Cluny (927-942 ) had

OunriSaOnt-c1-Loo~I.

formc.r mon.:I"~'"

church lnI-I'Itrn-rtP.ul iClun)' 1111.

E.... v", ... of church ,n .oo..,nth c:mIUry.

ulhosraph by Enulrgoc (after 17891.

Panl.. lI,bh(>lheo:juc NatlOfUlr .
..,...11 coJl~on of coppt< "ngr......g5

reformed thiS monastcry during the first half of the unth cmtmy. ~\"eral
buildings. repairs and modcrnitalions had followed upon each other.
before Abbot GUillaume ( 1067-1080) bcpn the conSlTUcuon of new pans
In the (';1st from 1070180 and, attM ume IImt. the erection of:l massio'e
fonlfied tower In the wnl of tM church. An ambulatory wilh only IWO
radial chape'ls and a deep forechOir bay was bUilt oO'er a crypt. This
ambulatory 15 nanked by two ehaptls. each wnh an eaSI apse and crowned
by towers. In front of the long chOir there IS a Proieclln8 transept wnh IWO
apses In the ea51 wall. Above the ~uare crOS'lng IS a dome resllng on
~uinches. As al Sallllttienne. the elel'allon of the choir has three sloreys:
arcades. bluld Irifonum. windows framed by colonl1elles and a round
b.urel vauh. The ambulatory and side alsln of the long choir arc also
barrel vaulled. In ils ground plan and elevallon II sirongly an ticipated the
chOir of Ihe third church at Clun). which had bun under conslrucllon
sirlCe 1089. II .s only Ihe Irans ..erse arches under the barrel of 1M
forccholr. wh.ch strongly aniculale and g,,'e rhythm to tM Inlerior. and
the absolute pe'rfection of that concept thaI art sI1l1lad:lng Mre. For that
reason Ihere can be no doubl that ,t was TK){ only the WIll of Abbot
GUillaume that was Instrumenlal here. Salnt-Benoil IS the third large
building on which Hugo of Cluny was tesllng hiS archncctural <ancepts.
Thc resuh proves the viability of thiS mcthod of pr()(:edure: all the det::uls
and motifs. alilhe shaping of the intcTlor volume are TO be found in the
~test buildings. ~ Yet no other church even approaches the third ,hurch at
Cluny in effect, pe'rfe-ction of execution, or conSistency of conception.
In 11 08 Ihe cast pans of Saini-Benoit were consecrated, whilsi the nave
was nOl com pleted unlil around the middle of [he twelfth cmlury. The
laller differs only slightly from lhe cholf. Tne slope' of tIK- ground was
cOlnpcn~led for by an area of wall between the arcades and blind
trifonum. whICh remained emplY. like the long chOi r barrel o'auITlng, 11Kvauhlng of the naO'e remained unaniculated and had only one transverse
an:h which was nOI complemented by any responds on the nave wall
Immedlalely below. The massive two-slorey west cnd of the .:hurch IS
enormously IIllprcssive. On the ground noor there is 3 hall opening in
Ihree dirCClion5 wilh nine haY5 and massive piers supporting groin v3ullS.
The church is above all famous for its c;lpilals and small relids on the
exterior. The uppe'r noor is similarly antClilaled, but is closed and has
three apses Slink into Ihe cast wall.
In 1089 Abbot Hugo (1049-1109) finally began the bUlldll\g of lhe
third church at Cluny. Already In 1095 POpe' Urban II was able to
consecrale Ihe main altar and three funher chapel altars. The final
consecrallon was completed by 1131 /32. The nanhex wllh liS nao'e and
two SIde aisles was nOI completed unlll 1225. However. by 1258 thc once
powerful monaslery was convened 11110 a SlI1ccure. In 1790 this was
dissolved and III 1798 the building was sold for demolition. This began in
181 1 and left only [he sou th arm of the transept. the choir capil als and a
few o ther indiVidual pam still slanding.
There was a naO'e and four aisles (IOtal length 6 14 feet, length 10
Iransept 242 fccl. transept 237 feet, height of nao'e 97 feet. width of nave
49 fttt ). eleven bays, a lransept wllh the same Width as the naO'e and wllh

IWO eastern apses 10 each arm, a long chOir. also wllh four aisles, and an
ambulalory wllh five radiating chape'b. whICh was nanked by a second
lower transept, also with IWO entem a~ to each arm. We know what
the church must ha"e looked loke from extensI\e excavations, a large
number of p,cture sources and. 1101 leasl. from both the churches Ihat
antiCIpated !1 and the chu rches [hat were 10 emulate II subsequently. Th~
det(ll ls. however. arc srillvery much a ma iler of debate.
T he elevution of the nave h.l d [hree storeys: 51;m arcades wi th poinled
arches. a blind triforium wllh three arches III each bay, and u clerestory
wllh a sitllliar pallcm. In the cas.c of Ihe laller. the arcades formed Ihe
frame for Ihe arches of the outer aisles and for Ihe windows of the inner
aISles. Rc:cesscd piers wilh selnl<1.n:ular or nuted responds supponed Ihe
trans,'erse arches of the pointed lunnelvaull and aniculated the mterior
o'olume e,'enly and harmomously. The square crossing was crowned by a
small blind gallery with a cupola. This In turn was surmounted by a ~uare
crOSSing tower. The steep tranS"erse arms. whICh extend m'er IIlne bays.
were each surmounted In the second and eighth bays by two towers over
domes on ~ulllches. l be elcvation of the two outer bays was Similar 10
thai of Ihe nave. Only Ihe tower of the southern transepl and the adjoining
southerly bay escaped demolilion (figures, p. 128 ). Towards the cast. and
adjOining the fil"$t transept. wert two choir bays which repe'ated the
panern of the naO'e elevation. AdjOIning Ih lS In [Urn was Ihe sond
transept w'lh anOlher ~uare crossing and a further octagonal lower above

129

P3",~-k--Mondial

(SaQne-et-l"ue),
former mon'5fery church of No",'Dame. Fi.. l half of dc~t,,,h ",,".ury.

Na'". and ell"" (kh). grounJ plan

ITlghtl, vl~of ex roor fron!
(below)

nonh~a"

--1 o.:L .." ..

f , :,
4.

0. 0-

I I :t ~

,-- = -=tI-

1 \.,

~: -.-.- ~

-=.~

o 5 10 m

a dom(' resting on squinches. In the ~ond transept ;t was only Ihe central
three bays which wcre as high as the nave or the large transep!. The two
adjoining bays on either side were low and must have had Ihe appearance
of chapels. The eaSlern Terminalion of the church was formed by a further
bay with the same elevation as the nave and the ambulatory, and wilh an
annu13r barrel vault and luncnes. Only flat fllIII responds decorated Ihe
wall between the arcades and the clerestory and there was no blind
triforium.
This church could therefore be divided into (\\.'0 zones: on the one hand,
the nave which bordered on the gigantic, but which was clearly Structured,
and on the other hand, the eastern parts With their incre<libly complex
iuxtaposition of a whole variety of spaces and structures. II was, of course,
the eastern parts which were reserved for the use of the monks. Both zones
were held together concepmally by the uniform elevaTion throughout.
The decoration must have been of a truly magnificent splendor. Apan
from the utterly beautiful capitals, which everywhere attracted the eye, all
the arches, windows and cornices were surrounded by sculptured orna
mental strips and all the responds were Auted. In addition there would
certainly ha"e been murals, carpets, colouring of all the architecture, huge
radial chandeliers which shed a mystic light, figures of 5:lints, incense,
golden hturgical v~StlT1ent., ~nd &It'~tn,"g golden Or ~ilver ornaments set
With precious stones. Above all there was the singing which must have been
such an essential p.~rt of the liturgy, e,'en at the time of Cluny 11, but cenainly
during Cluny lit.
II is necessary to have some idea of how the people lived in the early
and late Middle Ages in order to underst:lt1d the intoxicating effect of such
a multifaceted 1I"0rk of art which would have appealed to all the human
senses. light and warmth only came from the sun, as fi rewood and candles
were expensive and only available to the few. Music was unknown, save
for the shepherd's Aute and the Sllnplest songs, and pictures of any kind
only e",isted in monasteries. Colorful clothing was not permilted to the
ordinary people, and their living quarters were dark and gloomy. NO! even
the lower nob,lity on their country estates lived a much more privileged or
comfortable way of life. It is therefore nOI surprising that The faithful saw
in Cluny an image of the heavenly Jerusalem, and considered it all to be a
miracle.
No secular building of the period could even bear comparison with
Cluny. On the one hand, secular rulers were constantly obliged 10 im'est
large sums of money in soldiers and military equipment, and on the other
hand, the Church forbade the faithful from accumulating wealth or splendor. As 3 result, large and generous donations were made to the Church
and monasteries.
The third church at Cluny, much as it impressed its contemporaries, was
not em ulated by many. One reason for this was the founding of the
Cistercian Order which scorned pomp and ornamentation and returned to
simplicity and work. AnOlher reason was that although the question of
barrel "aulting had been solved and the form perf.-c:tcd, the future
belonged to the rib vault and the Gothic style. Already before the
consecration of Cluny 111, the perfect se"'panite vault had been built in

130

Anzyar..OIM; ts..6nHtIoo", I,
s..,n'f,CI'Ol"-n-S;.'n'e-~b ....
2nd I\.;Ilf of"~fmh lorarly ",..,Inh
em,uf)'.
Nayr wITh erouln~ lowrr tbdow).
"""r "'all trlSh, )

Caen, and belwten 1140 and 1144 AhbOi Sugcr H1 Sall\lDcnis ereeled
Ihe firs! GOIhic building. Nelenhcless. wllh liS Sirici slruCiuring of all the
p."ts and wuh liS constant re~I1I1011 of Ihe IxaSIC UIllI of measure, thl>
Ihmj monasl~ church al Cluny already possessed onf of lhe essenl1al
pro~nies of the GoIhlC.
The successors 10 Cluny III
NotreDame In Paray.lr.Mondia] (photos, p. 130) IS a minIature verSIon
of Clun y Ill, and 11 will come as no surpnse 10 learn thaI ils archllcct was
none other than Abbot Hugo of Cluny. Founded '" 973. the monaster)' at
Para y.lc-Mondlal came into the hands of Cluny 111 999, and Abbol Od,lo
consecnned a small church here in 1004, possibly the sallie ty~ as Clun)
II. In the first half of the ele\'emh century the su rvlVlIlg nanhe" wilh ItS
IWIIl tower frolll was added. In 1090 Abbol Hugo began the exisling
bUlldmg, a nave and two aisles wllh Ihrte bays. a prolcclll1g transepl with
apses. a ~U3Te crossing with a dome resting on ~ulnches, fo.ebay and
ambulalor)' wl,h radlaling eha~ls. The elevation of NOire-Dame prO\'es
liS descent from Cluny III, el'en if the laller was complelC:d considerably
eJriTer. Here also are to be: found arcades wllh POlllted arches on step~d
piers, thrte.pan blind Infonum and clerestory, POinted barrel vaulung with
,r;lnS"e'se archt'S. fluled r..-sponds, orn:llnelltal bands, a Sltep transept and
the absence of a triforfum m Ihe chancel. Nc"ertheless the silnilarity IS
restricted to the formal. The building has not been able to rm ulate to 3ny
"real extcnt Ihe tremendous sense of space and finely articulated elegance
of Cluny II I.
heer III II details, yel much cl~r m ItS effcct to Ihe prOtoly~ is 5ai1lll..:nare 111 Autun (pholo, p. 132). BIshop ~llCllne de Boige. who ""as an

enthUSIastic suppo rter of the Clunla~ reform and lilurgy, began thIS
building around 1120 to replace a canollIeal foundat ion from the ni1llh
cenlUry. 011 the occasIon of a VI$1t by Ihe po~ a dedicallon was transferred. although the relics of St. Laurus could IIOt be: brought 10 the
church u"ul 1146, when the naTihex was slill unlkr constTUClion. The
nanhex has a naye and twO aIsles and both 11$ hays correspond III Wldlh
and heIght to th~ of Ihe nave, whose seven bays eXlend eastwards. The
crossmg IS square, as are the transepTS. The lalter .squares are dll'ided III
1""0 by supporting arch<'"S which are extenSIons of Ihe outer na,'e walls.
Two forebays make the IranSlilon to the choir with thrte apses. 5allll'
Lnare therefore dispenses not only wilh an ambulato ry, bU! also with
transepts. DespIte the disturbing chapcl extcnsions. the i1llerior COllles
over as festive and full of vilailly. The rccessed p,crs support arcadcs of
poll1ted arches. On all four sides of the piers there arc fluted responds
allached, which in Ihe nave reach up 10 lUSt under Ihe tranSI'erse barrel
vaults. In the: blind triforium the mIddle of the thr arches is o~n, and III
Ihe ckrestory there is only one wmdow in each bay in contrast to the Ihree
al Cluny. Ab(l\"e eacb bay thrrr IS lxarrd \-aull1ng. AUTun slIll has very
Impona1ll Roman remalllS.SOIi IS not surpnslllg that Ihe claSSIcal
decoration of the responds and courses 15 very sculplured and calculated to
exploll Ihe effccls of light and shade, and that the ~pltals are mcredlbly
fi ne lind realistic. This clegant fesllveness of the interior yolume and Ihe
calculated abs<'ncc of the transepts 111 favor of a continuity of spacr arc the
aspeCIS of 5l11nt-La1.3ire which bllld II more closely wilh Cluny III than any
Olher bUlldll1g.

131

132

Autun (Ont-fl l.mre), Sa,m Lau re.

112()...1146. North w.JJ of na'"C
(op~". ), &found plan (right)

E"perim... malio n wilh groi n va ulting

Parallel 10 Ihe large buildings of La Charile, Sal11l-'tienne and Saini'
Benoit, which were erecled under the palronag... of Ihe monaSlerY:l1 Cluny,
Ihere were several smaller churches, such as SaimeTrinitc, SainteCroi" and
SainteMarie in Anzy.le.Duc. The construction of AnzyI ... Duc w.IS begun
in the second half of the elelemh century and probably nOI completed
until the early Iwdfth century (pholos, p. 13 1). It was a priory ,()f Saini'
Marlin in AUlun, and in its ground plan follows Ihe model of Cluny II: ;1
nave and two aisles, a projecting steep transept, an echeloned ch.oir wilh
five chapels with a semi-circular lad) chapel allhe main apse, thi,; being a
special fealure of AnzyleDuc. The elevalion docs, howner, lake account
of progress. On all four sides of Ihe cross.shaped piers there are engaged
columns. [n the arcades, Ihese carr}" Ihe underarch supports, whereas in the
I1.lve and aisles they CQmbl11e with the underlying responds to (arry the
stepped transverse arches. II is possible Ihal barrel vaulting was 'nt ... nded
here with windows al Ihe base, but the plans were subsequcmly changed,
and Ihe nave and aisles were groin vaulted. In Ihis way il was P<Jssible to
1"(""13in the genuine b3siloca crosssection wh ilsl putting larger windows in
the upper wall. This is also an unwilling I?) anticipation of th" Gothic
design principles.
The transept and main apse are barrel vaulted whereas the forebays of
Ihe subsidiary ap5C$, opening OUI 01110 the main apse, aCI as an extt~lsion of
the side aisles and are groinvaulted.
What had been obvious a century earlier during Ihe vaulting at
Tournus between 1020 and 1030 had now been recognized at Anzyle
Duc, namely Ihat groin vaulling in the nave solv ... s alilhe problems of Ih ...
clerestory. Nevertheless il is only a small group of buildings in Burgundy
which exploil this dis.:overy. The most important arc SaintLazare in
Avalon and SainteMadeleine in Wzeby (photos, righl ).
The nave of Saint-Madeleine at Vezelay was rebuilt immediately after a
fire had desITored it in 1120. Founded in 858 by Girard de Rousillon, Ihis
monaslery, like Cluny, was directly subordinated 10 Rome. In 1 104 the
eastern parIS of the Carolingian structure were replaced wilh a new
~ITucture, followed in 1120 by the nave which still stands loday. Together
with Ihe narthex which filS exactly 10 the na~e, Ihere are Ihirteen bays, twO
moTt" than at Cluny Il l. The elevation is diffeeI'm, however, and i,s similar
III appearance to Anzy.le.Duc. Crossshaped piers with engaged (olumns
on all four sides carry the underarch supports of the arcades and the
transverse arches of Ihe vaulting in both the nave and aisles. Square
mlponds demarcate the semi-circular columns from the wall and make
tnc bay articulalion clearer. A horizontal course, which follows all
tnc wall arriculations, marks Ihe lOp of the firs! SlOre)". In the smooth
"JII above th... re are windows, framed by Ihe wall ribs of the groin
vaulting.
Like AnzyleDuc, SainteMadeleine is groin.vaulled in bolh the nave
and atsles. Be<:ausc of the bigger windows the interior is considerably
bnghtcr Ihan wilh barrel vaulled nales. The transept which is ai,slcless is
only Romanesque in ils lower parts,the upper parrs belonging 10 the same
fIC"TIod as the Gothic ambulalOry.

Wulay (Yon",,), S,"n'c M~do:k,,,,,.

M'e< 1120. N,,c look,ng <a~.,,"ard~ w,th
Go<hic choir (abo,.), "iew ofcxf<rior
from somh w" t.ground plan (btlow)

-'"

...

~~

..,"..-

'"' .III.
l' '

..

--

-.

5 15 m

133

The ant;-Clun;~e mO"em..." under

Bemud ofO~jnaux
In the cOUrSC of over two CentUries 'he
monaltery community '" Cluny had
ach'eved &tn, wealth .nd, wlfh ,he"
third church, had clearly demonStra,ed
their power '0 all ,he world. In""lfahly
th,s drew ,he a"enllon of the cri,ic . The
mOst .elling of ,hem was Bernard of
Cla".aux. 11. scverdy cri,ici~ed Ouny

for "' opul~",,~. ,h~ d"',,"cllon. causW

by th~ num~.ou, pictures. and the con
IInual ma,oe$ whICh hpt ,he m<mh from
theor phym:al ..ork. JuSt as tl>< Abbo, of
Ouny had or>o:<' sought rcfonn, so ~rnard
wan,ed to rMurn .0 ,h~ OI'g'031 rules of
S,. ~nedlC'. Or~ n IJbor~. pr.y.. and
phYSIcal work. and .bsllne""e from all
luxury. Indttd from ~ny <keor.llon c.cn
of thcchurch. w~rc hiscrNo. In Burgundy
I>< founded four ntW mo03"~'iM.. tl>< fi"l

""rot

of wh,ch. Ciw, ux. g,,e 'he

to tht
ntW ordrr of SI. Beolict. ,he Ci"crci.n .
Only OtIc of ,I>c;c lou. IIIOIUSltnCS ha,
mamed If,or,snul.ppea ........,. Fomenay.
Construction 01 thIS mona .. cry chu.ch
bcogan after I 139. lkcora'lOO was ."",dy
dlSpensW with. In dchhcutc COnt..,t t<)
Cluny, Bern.rd of Cl.,naux r.,urnc:d '0
"mphclt,. and work. lio ....cr, tt. .. such
.. mpliclt,. n<'cd not <lep.,,e an '"te .. or of
It, impact is amply demonStr.red by ,he

church .. Fontenay. Following the t)p",.1

Cistercian ground plan. It con,,," of a
nave and 'wo
with eight b.ys, a
prol",,"ng transcp' with twO squarc
chapels On the Us'ern wan of cach arm
and" son\Cwh.. deeper .ngulM choir.
Square
lfh .fI.,hed column.
,uppo" the arcades of pointed arches.
Th. wall abo.,. " smooth and
unde<:orared and " SCp3t>ted fro", ,he
pointed barrel ~Auillng by a ""'pic
Corn",. The powerful "3ns~ersc .rch..
'If on scm,..,irculu r... ponds. Each uch
of ,he ai,le h., b tel vau]nng which"
perpe"d",ul~r to the UI< of the " .....
Each bay 01 the a,.I. opens OUt 10 t ....
next 'hrougb low conn.c'""g .rch.
Il,gb w,ndo"'' on
exteriOr walls a.
well ,,. the w,"" ,",'all arc tht only sourc..
of I,ght. Tho ..on. of ,he ,m .,or Sp"CC
truly embod,es the Cistercian rule" a
red""llOn of the bu,ld'ng 10 It. absolut
",.m"I. by ,.,""tlOg .an"y and "rI"ng
for d,my. d'gn,t} and soh.iety. lr IS only
,n tht d.OIr arca Ihat Ihtr. " an al,a.
w"h a fcwd""ora".e "~m'. ,,,,,ludlOg ,he
graceful and charmlOg Mado"n. of
Font.nay.
The pe",eful and equally empty doil'u
.Iso holongs 10 ,he Rom.:lT>csq"" Styir.
H.re also tht '"'p"CI rtSfS ."du,,,..,ly on
,he u~ of fcw forms and " $,ngl. n13te.;,1.

.,,1...

I"." ...

,h.

c
c
"
FOOlcMy.ground plan of whole "te

134

..

Fomenay (Core..JOrl. forlntr Cisterctan

monanef)". Founded ,n 1118. trallsferred
10 the prewnt <tIC In 1130. Church under
cOO,""","on from 1133.
Ime.,orol church (oppoSITe)
..esllront and choir from .xterior (leit).
v,eWS of clOIsTers (below)

Ni...,lk. (Belgium). s..,m ... c.,nrude~

SalntPierre. Around lOOO- t046.

Na'ewatt

Northern France -the absence of vaulting

In northern France a whole range of buildings have survived from the
first half of the ele" enth century. All of them have flat ceilillgs. Until the
end of the century barrel vaulting set dear limitations to the width of a
nave. The builders chose wide and high naves with large clerestory
windows and thus dispensed with vaulting. The church of Montier-en-der,
which was already complete by the year 1000, is the earlicst surviving
example.
The ~e3r 1000 also saw the building of a new church at Nivelles to
replace Ihe old complex StrUCllIre which had been destro)ed by fire (figure,
right). The double-ended church was consecrated in 1046 in the presence
of Emperor Henry [II. [t was divided into twO parts by (reconstructed )
strainer arches in the high and spacious nave. T he eastern area has four
bays of the nave, a wide projecting transept and a choir with a flat
term ination with subsidiary rooms and chapels above an extended crypt.
Like its predecessor this eastern area is dedicated to St. Peter, whilst the
western end of the nave, with its much narrower and shorter transept, is
dedicated to St. Gertrude. Extensive rebuilding in the twelfth century has
made the west choir into a complex structure with many storeys and an
inlperial chamber on the upper floor.
As with the two_storey colonnaded nave with it< flat ceiling, ,h ...
western transept is also virtually without ornamentation. However, in the
choir and the eastern transept there is a large range of blind arcadt'S and
recesr.cs typical of the period.
The same structure and spaciousness as at Nivelles are also to be found
at Saint-Remi in Reims, although the ground plan and elevation are much
more elaborate (photos. p. 137). 1be first church on this site, consecrated
in 852, had been built by Archbishop Hincmar to the honor of St.
Remigius. A new building was begun by Abbot Airard after 1005, and was
completed according to a slightly simplified plan by Ab!)(JI Thierry some
time after 1034. Modifications in the Gothic style were made in the
twelfth century, namely the responds in the nave, the pointed blind arches
above the galleries, the rib vaulting and the ambu latory. Subsequent
additions are probably also the Tympana on The slim colonnades which are
placed in the gallery openings.
There was clearly a very devoted following to ST. Remigius, and Abbot
Airard acknowledged this in his new building to the saint. The significance
of SI. Remigius predated the feverish popularity of the pilgrimage to St.
James which spread throughout Europe and established Santiago as the
most important goal for pilgrims. 1be interior mUSt ouce have ~n very
impressi'e: clusters of slender columns supported the arches of the thirteen
nave arcades, abo,e which were the galleries whose openings were almost
as large as the arcade openings themselves. High up above a wide empty
area of wall were th e windows of the clerestory. Above this was the flat
ceiling which must have been as colorful as all the walls; one has only to
think of Reichenau Obenell or the minster at Constance from the same
period. Bright light from the windows of the clerestory, galleries and aisles
must have flooded into the nave, whose heavy walls were lightened by the
large gallery openings.

136

The eastern parts are a real re\"elation. The aisles with their galleries
continue along the west side, and previously also along the front of the
,ery slim protecting transepts. On the eastern side there arc five
interconnecting chapels, four of which have stmi<ircular terminations.
This must be an adaptation of the Cluniac choir with radiating chapels,
which evidently must have been necessary as the galleries continued over
these chapels. In this wayan interior was created which was clear and yet
subtle in its impact. The end of the chancel formed a large semi<ircular
apse with a foreooy. A similar ground plan, although with a nave and four
aisles, was to be found at Orleans cathedral, the forerunner of Ihis
building and also dat ing from around 1000.
The church at Vignory, too, belonged to this category. [n the deed of
gift of 1050 it is described as having just been completed. but this must
only refer to a repair or a partial rebuilding, as nearly all the parts of the
unvaulted church would already have been finished in the first quarter of
the eleventh century.

RhClm$ (Ma rnc). S,"nl- Roml. lOOS 10

Nave wall (nghr).
ground pLl n lleh )
mld~kvcnlh (enlury.

:~

,-.

.~

:' .... i.,

oC1or

'::!

L.,

:.r;::
::

I~

The na,"e Itads directly imo the choir, only a strainer arch marking Ihe
boundary betWeen fht two. The windows arrallgl'd m twO wnes in the
gable over Ihe sirainer arch are an unusual feature.
The church consists of ... na'"e and tWO aisles, extending over nine bays.
Arcades of differing heights, and withoUT the under arches, rest orr unomamemed square piers. Above each of ti>ese is a p.lmlle1 opening WIth a sirong
column in the middle and square piers on Iht sides. The arches are not
grouped, resulting in a conlmuOU5 row of arches with alternating supports.
The clerestory consists of a large simple window in each bay beneath an
open roof framework. The architfi:ture is all reduced 10 thl: tension
between Ihe wall and opening. The almost complele absence of s<:ulptured
ornament and articulation causes the nave 10 aplXar archaic ancl aUSlere.
Atthe same time, however, the interior is surprisingly well illuminated.
The choir consists of tWO forebays wilhoul galleries or windows, a
semi-(;ircular colu mn capItal and a vaulted ambulatory with Ihree radialing chapels.

Articulation in the upper nave walls

An alternative style of wall articulation under flat ceilings has survived
at NOIre-Dame in Bernay (photos, p. 139). At some time after lOIS a
mon<lsterrehurch of relativelr modest proportions was erected there. It is the
oldest of a whole group of Norman churches with the same concept of
imerior design. To the vaulted east parts were added wide, unvauhed
na,'es and aisles with three-storey elevations and flal ceilings. It is as if the
flat ceilings were laken inl<) account, not only because of the light from the
clerestory, but also because the possibilitcs of developing the upper walls of
the nave had been re.::ognized. Funhermore with the opening up and
increased articulation of these areas of wall, it was not only the light and
shadow effe.::ts that could be exploited, but useful spaces could be created
in the upper storey, which could be reached by the increasingly popular
west towers. As in Cluny, this development would cerrainly ha"e had
liturgical justification, as il was almost alwars the prOlected use of a space
or object which determined its shape and form.

137

Jumi"ges (So:ine-.\bnllme), fonner

.bbeychurch of NOire-Dam<.
1040-1067. Nave.ground plan I.bovc),
west from (below left),
na,c in.erior (bdow righ.)

138

Ikrll<lY (Eu ), former I1IOMsr .. ychurch

of No,-D.mr, Around 1051 . nd
roJlowmg ye~ .... N..'e wall.ground plan

[n Bernay there are only small openings ill the dark roof strUClUre
complementillg the piers and arches below. Next to each window is a blind
recess. Above this is the clerestory and a flat ceiling, which was soon
replaced by a wooden barrel vault. The barrel vaul! was certainly regarded
as the finest type of ceiling. At Bernay it was chosen for the projecting
transept and for the almost exact copy of C[uny's chevet with five
radiating chapels. The small galleries in the tranSept walls and the choir
were used, but the windows were dispensed with for the time being. A
tower crowned the crossing. but its collapse between 1080 and !090 also
resulted in the renewal of the choir and transept. [n the choir the barrel
vaulting was abandoned in favor of a clerestory. The transept was also
gIVen windows and the barrel ,'aulting of the ceiling renewed ,
A significant advance in the design of the na,'e walls was achieve<! in
the abbey church of Notre-Dame III Jumieges {figures, p, [38}, whICh was
begun some time after [040 and cousecrated in ]067, Today it is an impressl"e and picturesque ruin surrounded by meadows, The richly articulated twin
towers, which so.1I steeply into the sky, are one of the earliest surviving examples of a twin tower fa"ade with a central gable, It was here that a
particular scheme of proportioning was used for the first time, in which
one square na"e bay was equivalent to two :lisle bays, and in which the
aisles were half the width of the na,'e. This scheme had been aln,ady used
at Saint-Remi in Rheims, but in that church there were originally no
responds which would ha,'e grouped pai rs of arches together to form a
square. In Jumieges t he~ responds were present, reaching from floor level
virtually up to the window sills of the clerestory, and at one tim.! supportmg the strainer arches. Also for the first time we find an alternation of
supports. The ~strong~ piers are square with four rngage<! columns, whilst
t~ ~weak~ supports are simple oolumns, Each arcade corresponds to a set of
three arches, groupe<! together in an arch-shape<! re<:ess til the second sto rey
~nd a single window in the clerestory. Abo"e this was the flat ceilmg,
The whole appearance of the in tenor space ,hanged wi th the introduction of responds, The na,'e no longer appeared so box-lik( alld the
openings were ~anchored~ more .securely. The responds forthermore
~reated a vertical counterweight to what had previously a[wars been a
~ery horizontal articulation. They brought the space together an,d divide<!
II tnto sections, each r~mbling the next, and reproducible tn an)' number,
Ibey also emphasized the vertical, a deliberate effect at Jumieges. for the
11;I,'e was mcreased to an unprecedented height of 78 feet (Cluny II I was
only 18 feet higher),
This building also had a proje<:ting transept and an ambul:lI:ory with
ud,atmg chapels, In the fourteenth ,emury the bller unfortunatdy had to
IlUke way for" new bUIlding which was allached directly to the west walls
oi the transept. T he ground plan of the first choir was excava ted and
Wlwn to have twO forebays with capitals, an ambulatory and th ree
r~d,atmg chapels, By all appearances, the elevation of the l1ave was
~-onunued in the choir, albeit with a reduced height, and its na"e and
Ioilleries had barre] vaulting, In the transept a sort of bridge o\'er tWO
rLiles linked the ganeries of the na,'e with those of the choir. 'This is a clear
kilC3tion that these areas were used.

On the west walls of the transepts there is an interesting feature. A

thick wall has subsequently been built in front of the illner wa[l, suggestillg
that ,'ault;ug had been planned. ]t is possible that this was an allempt to
reduce the width which the vault would have to span, Of greater
significance, howe\'er, for Ihe development of Norman design is the
passageway at the level of the windows, which was made possible witll the
building of the .second wall. In this way the concept of the windo w
passageway was born, It Ie<! not only to the abandonment of choi r
vaulting, but also to the breakmg down of the continuity of the wall
around the high wmdows,
The eastern parts of Jumleges were built o nly slightly later than the
chancel and transept of Mont-$;tint-Mi,hel. The const ruction of the nave
of Jumieges, on the other hand, JUSt preceded the nave at l\'Iont-S3i11lM ichel (photo, p, lAO ).
The builders of each church were fully aware of what was happening at
the other, l\ lont-Saint-Michel had a po[ygona[ ambulatory buil t over a
gig"ntic substructure crypt, bu t, because of the sloping terrain, the

13'

Mon,Sain,.Michtl (M~n<h.). form<r

mon~".ry church Saim-Michel. Around
1035 ff. N.v. walland wOO<kn b.rrel
vaul""g

ambulatory had no chapels_ There was also a transept, whi.ch, together

with the ambulatory, had the same elevation as Jumieges. The easten,
parts were moreover modified in the late Gothic style. The nave is more
richly decorated alld is not proportioned in the same way as J umicges. All
the piers are identical and the bays are oblong. One arch in the arcades
corresponds to twO gallery arches, each of which has double openings and
one slender clerestory window above. The strongly projecting responds do
not support strainer arches and extend to the edge of the wooden barrel
Iault. It may be that strailler arches were rejected bause the)' would have
reduced the light from the clerestory windows. Moreover, the vertical
articulation afforded by the responds was now (Xrhaps, considered
indispensable. Nevertheless, this makes the wCM.Klen barrel vault at MontSaint-Michel look out of place above the nave. The suppo:rting arch es.

140

supported by the responds. are absent here. Two different concepts of the
interior space meet here unintentionally; the older concept found in
Nivel1es and Rheims, and the newer one whose impact reSIS on powerful
vertical divisions.
The perfection of Norman archi ttttu ral ideas
Only a few years after Jumicges and Mont-Saint-Michel, the building of
the twO abhey churches of Saint-l::tienne and Sainte-Trinite in Caen was
begun. The architectural rivalry between these twO ehurches over decades
saw Ihe perfection of Ihe Norman style (figures, pp. 141 ff_ )_ The benefactors were William the Conqueror and his wife Malhilde. William was
laid to rest in Saint-l::t,enne in \087. It is possible that the monaSlery had
always been conceived of as his place of final rest, but Ihe immediate
reason for the endowment was that the marriage of William and Malhilde
was disputed by Rome_
The construction of both churches began hem'een 1060 and 1065.
Both have a powerful twin -towered west front, a nave and twO aisles with
a three-storey elevation, and an aisleless transept. The orig;Ilal chancel in
Saim-Etielln. had to mak~ way for a Gothic ambulatory_ Although
excavations have given no firm evidence. allalogous struCtures at Cerisyla-Foret (inspired by Saint-Etienne) and Sainte-Trinite strongly suggest
that it was a chancel with chapels III echelon of the Bernay type.
Saint-Vigor in Cerisy (photo, p. 143) also gil'es us clues about the
elevation of fhe chancel. Because the clerestory was su pposed to be m'olayered and include a passageway, as at Jumieges, there was no vaulting !II
the eastern parts. Above the arcades of the forechoir there must ha\'e J:,e.en
a double-arched opening ill each bay. III the main apse. which had no
articulation on the grou nd floor. these double arches were offset from t~
wall allowing room for a narrow passageway bem!een themseln::s alld the wall.
Both Wiles of ,he apse were illununated by windows. The forechoir. which
simIlar to the Ilave had a three-storey elevation. may have had sets of two
or three arches in front uf the passageway and willdows. More likely
would have beell a simple arch. which framed the willdow and pierced the
wall in front of the passageway.
The transept, also with a passageway in front of the willdows. has
survived intact. The conSlruClion of the nal'e began ill the years after 1070.
With the subsequent addition of a sexpartite rib vault, the original
appearance of the clerestory has been modified. The arcades have been
retained. however, together with Ihe almost equally large gallery openings
above. The piers in the nave are complex. consistillg of responds alld
ellgaged culunllls, and forming an alternatiun of ~strong~ and ~weak~
supports. The responds. which used to reach to just under the flat ceilillS.
also aiternate. but today now only extend upwards as far as the edge of the
vaulting_ The wide gallery openings may have had tympana above a
eoJonnene.
Tracery baluslTades would certainly Ilot hal'e beell used here. It is knuwn
that selS of three arches weT(' constructed in frol\l of the passageway.
The articulation of the wall, not only in the gallery area, but also ill the
clerestory, had, on the olle hand, made barrel vaulting impossible, but. on

C",," ICaiv3doo), form

mO"3Sf~ry church of Sa,nl'"
Tnn,,". Around 106(1,'65..ound 1120.
Wesl fronl wllh Iwo 10W~rs.
ground pian

Ihe other hand, had lent Ihe interior a whole new qualilY. The wall did nO!
have the ethereal quality of the bter Gothic, yet the articubtion in Ihe
clerestory is a clear step in this direction. The na\"e and the end of Ihe
chancel were now well-illuminated, generous spaces, whilst the arches,
whose nurn!J<,r increased in the upper parts of the cathedral, rested on
delicate colonnelles and were backlit by the IIlcTea~d strength of the light.
The story of the construction of its sister church of Saint-Etienne, Ihe
convent of Sainte-Trinite, is very stmi br. SainteTrinite also originally had
a chancel with chapels in a:helon, which was raised slightly because of Ihe
underlying crypt. As the nuns had to be kept from view, the main apse wllh
tiS two forcbays was do~d to the side chancels. Of the original structure
only the ground floor of th e long chancel with the blind arc-ading remains.
There must hal'c been JUSt such a row of arches in the main apse tOO, and
abo"e it simple windows and a barrel vault, whose cenlral transverse arch
tS st ill in place today. The transept may have been low, as is snggeste<! by
the northerly and somberly crossing arcbes.
Next came the na,'e (figure, p. 142J. In COI1lrast to Sall1t-EticIIM there is no
ahern ation of supports and it has a blmd trifOlium inSlead of galleries.
This significantly change<! the spatial propomons of the inlerior. The
present clerestory has been modified in tiS form, as the original althe tillle
of building ( 1075-85) must have been lower, perhaps Ihe same height as the
laleral arches of today's triple arcalures, which probably belong to the
origmal structure. The central arch, which frame<! the deeper-lying window,

Ca~n

(Caivados). forlM.

mona~t~ry church of Saint

t"tnrot. Around 1060165around 1 ]10.

West front wilh two low~"
(Idl},ground pian, .. ~ 101<)
1M na.~ (kiow~

may ha"e been JUSt as high, as it may be assumed thaI there wa s a

passageway in from of the clercslOry such as al Saim-Etiennc. AbOl'e the
clereslory would have been a (Ial ceiling, perhaps e\"en a wooden barrel
vault. Two towers form the west front.
It is quite possible that the barrel vault in the long chancel. which, after
all had a span of almOSI 24 feel, was soon threatened with collap~. At all
evems it was dism31111ed between 1100 and 1110. The long chancel now
had a double-walle<! derestory added, albeit wilh very low lateral
openings. The windows in contrasl are I'ery high. This elevalion was groin
vaulted. It was known from Burgundy, Anzy-le-Duc and Vezday Ihat
groin "aulling, which had, after all, bccn used extensively 111 Ihe aisles,
allowe<! a sigl1ificant increase in the size of the upper windows. This was
successful al Sainle-Trinilt, even o\"er a doubl e wall. The inlerior of the
apSl' was given an inn er layer consisling of twO s uperimpo~d column
arcalUres, causing Ihe elevation 10 be doublelayered.
Once the rib vaulting of the long choir had bccn successfully mastere<!,
it might be assumed that this form of vaul ting would establish itself
elerywhere. England, where William had been king since winning the
Baltic of Haslings in 1066, had led the way in experimenting with rib
vaulting si nce about 1100. The future dearly belonged to rib vaulting, and
betwccn 1120 and 1125 the idea was brought to Normand)', where it was
uscd 10 vault Salllt-Eticnne and Salllt-Trinite (photos, p. \42). It is one of
Ihe unsoll'e<! mysteries why rib vaults were sexpartile at the beginning.

141

c.~n.s,,,,,,lll;'''''''. s.,,,p~rti.~ rib

.aulung .bo>'~ .h..rd d~r ..!<)ry. Around

c.~n. Sain.t Trin"". s.,"p.rt"t nb

vaul.ing. Around 1120

11 20

They group tWO bays together and span them diagonally in what is
approximately the form of a round arch. A third arch, similar to a trans'
"erse arch, spans the nave and imersects the other two at a crossing point
in the cemer. The alteration of suppons in Saint-~ti~nne suit~d this Iype of
vaulting. indeed seemed almost designed for II. Sainte-Trin!le on Ihe other
hand had no alternation of supports.
The height of the clerestory at Sainl - ~ticnne, which was determined by
the height of the galleries, caused difficulties with the vaulting. The
transverse ribs intersected the OUler arches in each double bay. The whole
inner layer of wall was taken down right to the base of the clerestory zone
and a new triple arcalllre was plamJ!, thiS time with low and narrower arches
al the sides. Apparently they were still tOO high in the area of the transverse ribs, as subsequently bOlh the OUler arches in each double bay had to be
filled in with masonry. The result was the well-known asymmetrical clerestory.
AI Sainte-Trinite the initial silllation was more favorable. The
clercstory was significantly lower be<:auSl' of the blind triforium and could
remaifl the same apart from the windows which were altered. The
clerestory was extended upwards by the height of today's windows and the
nave was covered with sexpartite vaulting as at Saint-~tienne.
With the introduction of rib vaulting, the Norman architects had made
the great breakthrough which allowed them to vault their naves so that

142

they were wid e, well IiI afld presented an elevation with a variety of
articulation and openings right up to the ceiling. For decades they had
made do wilh wooden barrel vaults, linmed Ihemseh'cs to "aulting of the
eastern parts, or even abandoned vaulting altogether in order to break up
and lighten the uniformity of a plain wall. The dimensions of the na,'es gi"e
a clear indication of their intentions. All of them are oc'1ween 29 and 36 fcct
in breadth. far in excess of wh~t could be successfully spanned up until
1100 with :1 barrel vault. Cluny III was Ihe first 10 hr~ak thi s barrier wilh
the construction of a pointed barrel vaul! wilh a wid!h of about 36 clear
f~t.

With the two abbey churches at Caen, Norman architecture had

reached the zenith of its achieyemenr. Bolh Cluny 111 and !he churches at
Caen represen! the almost simul taneous perfection of an idea which
architects had been grappling wilh for more than a century.
After this period Normandy lost its way as an Inspiration for artistic
ideas and sank into oblivion. Its achievements were t~ken up elsewhere,
for the world lVas now on Ihe threshold of Ihe Go!hic age, bolh chrono
logically and architeclurally speaking. [! was the 1I~-de-Francc which was
to be Ihe cradle of the Gothic.
The few buildings which were built in Normandy afler 106510 1070
are the descendants of SainT-Enenne or Saime-Trinile: namely !.essay,

c..n~y.laFOref (Mancl>el. former priory

church ofS.mt.Vigor. Around 1080185.
Choir with aftS'". rranStpc. _ermal to ..."r

and ',",'0 "3\"" N~"

143

Tourn~i 1~lgiuml,ca,hc<lral.

From
1130. Nave and group of e3,r ,owe"

clerestory stai rs. The strong piers carry strainer arches, whilst the weak
piers serve only to articulate the imerior space.

Saint-Martin-de-Boscherville and Cc:risy-la-Forct. Espa:iall)' the last.

Saini-Vigor in Cc:risy-la-Forct, has retained much of its original char:acrer,
and is still surrounde<! by the same meadows and apple orchards (photo,
p. 143). II was indeed built as part of the priory of Saint-Etienne between
1080 and 1085, but in contrast to its mother building. it was ne"~r
vaulted. The chance!, a chevet with radiating chapels like that of Bernay,
has three storeys, as has the apse. The five ground floor windows in the
apse have no counterpart in the two choir b~ys where there is only smoOlh
wall with doors to the choir aisles. It may be that the arcades, which one
might have expected herr, were fille<! m later with masonry. In the second
level th(' g'lileries hal'e tWO arches in each bay and are continued imo the
apse as a low colonnade in front of a narrow passagewa). T h(' ci(,TCstory is
also doublelayered with three slender arches in ('ach bay, the central arch
being fractionally higher. The windows of the passageway hal'e been made
smaller by a subsequent change in the aisle roofs. The passageway continues
past the apse windows and it is striking that here ar Saim-Vigor the three
lel'els are all more or I('ss the s.ame he,ght.
The transept is very high and crowned by a tower. In its outer bays
there is a tribune place<! transversely over a central suplX>rt and groin
vaulting. Only one and a half bays remain of the nave. Their elevation
resembles that of the choir: arcades, doubJt- arches in the galleries grouped
together by larger arches, and rhree slim arches on columns in front of the

144

On the threshold of the GOl hic age

The cathedral at Tournar is a mixture of styles. On the one hand it draws
on Norman models, but on the other hand it is one of the first examples of
a trpical earlr Gothic elevation, that is, it has four storeys. The new
building, which su~rseded a church constructed in the early Middle Ages,
was begun III 1130 with the erection of the nave. Tournai did not, howe"er,
become a bishopric until its separ;uion from Noyon in 1146.
The huge nave aisles have the characteristic Norman piers with the
cross-shaped center ilnd engage<! columns. Once the capitals were complete
there must have been a change in plan. The flat TCSlX>nds and the ('ngaged
columns in the nave, which must have been int~nded to SUPlX>rt the
vauhrng shafts or the strainer arches, now carrr the outer arch of rhe
arcade, which is recessed with twO sub-arches. 111e g;.JlIeries above, of
equal height and width as the arcades, also have tripl e recessed arches, the
oute rmost being sllPlX>rted by a slender colonnette. The next level is the
blind triforium, modele<! on Sainte-Trinit", and si tuate<! abol'e the gallery
elevalion borrowed from Saint-Etienne. Small openings into the roof truss
interrupl Ihe douhle rec.....~d wal1~ under Ihe wall rib of the colo nnad e
which has" rhrthm double that of the galleries below. The windows of the
clerestorr are surprisinglr large. The nave now has a baroque groin vault,
but rT must originallr have had a flat ceiling. IT may have been the decision
to include galleries and triforium which motivate<! the builders to dispense
with the originally-planned vertical articulation and vaulting. and instead
to raise the nave to an enormous height. This was ret another step towards
early Gothic ideas, whICh since Suger's choir in Saint- Denis. had been
excJusivelr four-storer elevations, although they did include ,'ertical
articulation and vaulting. The nave at Tournai may therefore have been
one of the most important insprrations for Suger's Saint-Denis.
The transept, whICh terminates in an apse at each end. is therefore a
buildrng from the I'err carll' Golhrc penod, and,s doselr relate<! to the cathedrals of Soissons. Noron and Senlis. The cholT was completed between
1242 and 1245 and is a beaUTiful example of Ihe high GOThic style.
Pilgrimage churches and the Auvergn ..
Abom halfway bet ween the first assembly lX>int on French soil and the
Spanish border, a so-calle<! pilgrimage church was built along each of the
four greaT pilgrims' routes to Sanl!ago de ComlX>stela. They were the
churches of St. Martin in Tours, St. r.-!artial in Limoges. St. Fides in
Conqucs, and St. Saturninus (St. Sernin) of Toulouse. The most imlX>rtant
one was. of course, the church of St. Jam es in Santiago. Of Saint-Manial
in Limoges nothing has remained, and of Saint-Martin Ul Tours only the
foundation walls have survived. Founded around the rear 1000, SaintMartin in Tou rs was the oldest of the five great prlgrnnage churches and
the one with the earliest fullr-de"eloped ambulatorr with radiating
chapels. In fact. iT established the prO!Otype of the fiveaisled chu rch with a
three-aisle<! transept which was later repeate<! in Toulouse and Santiago.

Conquc'lAwyron). former abbey , hurch

ofSaimtFoy. Around 10$0--1 L30.
Exttrior "jew from the nonb (Itltl:
gtound plan; \\'all of n.,'c (nshTI

Thc transept aisles with their four chapels in the east are only the logical
cominuation of the ambulatory. They offered not only more space for
further chapels, in which devotional images could be displayed, but also
the possibility of an uninterrupTed procession which did nm '"terfere with
the closed-off area for the clergy in the sanctuary and in the central aisles
of the transep! and nave. Such a la)'out must have been highly welcomed
by the monasteries along the pilgrim roads.
The fil'$t beginnings of an ambulatory around the end of the chancel are
found in the monastery church of Saint-Philbert-de-Grandlieu dating
from the first half of the ninth century. About half a century later, the
monks from Saint-Philbert appear to have applied this chancel layout in
the monaStery church of Tournus. A fully-developed ambulatory with
radIating chapels. albeit recungular ones, was built thcre just aftcr the
ycar 1000 and has survil'ed until today.
There appears to have been a parallel development with regard to the
three-aisled transept and the nave in Tournus and at Saint-Remi in
Rheims. Since building work started almost at the s.~me time, it cannot be
established which was the model for the other. It would therefore be of
great interest to see the elevation. The early building date makes it highly
unlikely thaI the forechoir, the nave and the transept aisles would have had
vaulted ceilings. The church is most likely to ha\"e been a basilica with
galleries and a flat ceili ng, ' imilar to that of Saint-Rem;.

Around the ycar 1050, half a Century after work had begun at Tours.
the construction of a new church was startcd in Conques (figure, alxI\"e).
The church took o\"er eIghty )'ears to complete and is dedicated to Saint
Fides whose statue made frolll gold and jewels and dating from around
1000 is still an object of veneration (photo, p. 361]. The statue is one of
the earliest examples of largescale sculptu re in the western world. The
oldest p<lrt of the church is th e chancel area, and both its interior and
exterior constitute a highly complex and impressive work of art. A groinvaulted ambulatory with three semi-c;rcular chapels leads around the
three-storey chancel end. There is room for one window between each of
the chapels. The gallery has no sou"e of daylight and, seen from the outside, appears as a low, closed, semi-circular structure with a lcanto roof.
Above it. and below the calolle, is the clerestory which projects beyond
the wide lower storey and is articulated by blind arches outside.
Looking at the ground plan, however, it looks as if the initial intention
had been 10 build a chancel with seven semi-circular apses in echelon,
similar to those built in La Charite-su r-Loi re after 1056. But at Conques,
thi s plan must have been ,hanged ncn during the building work, for, in
order to deal with large numbers of pilgrims, an ambulatory provided a
much bettcr solution than a choir wilh chapels in echelon which were,
after all, intended to provide places of quiet contemplation for the monks.
The transept, tOO, muSt have bc<:n altered and nOw had the appearance of

145

T'ht g...1 pilg.ims rou'CS 10 Santiago de

Compostda

,.

*
*

OPPOSI'fE PAGE

Conqucs (A,'cy.on ). VIC'" of the v,lI~ge

ond ofthcchurch of S'''nl .... Foy fro", . he
5Outhc.st

- ----

<>

"

C ,

,,
<
0
C

".

,
C

Thc pilgrimage to s,,"liago de Com"",lc la

The /"~g~nd.. "u .." h.s u th.lt. ah Ih~
a"",tlt James waS behe.ded '" Jud<:a. his
di~ipl<s took his hody and Ittrrtly put U
on a bu.,. Thty ,hr .. oo3tdtd ,ht 0001
wahoul .ny oa ... c.osstd thc ~~ ond
reached the '''".." of Golici . Therr. Ih.
53in. '5 so,d (0 h.". bn 1...1 to .esl in a
"'Mhl. (O",h. ta.er, the tomb 01 Jame,
"'uS! ha,'c bn In'll<>tttn. p.oh.hl)
httau~ 'M wlml. pcninsub waS under
Moo.;,h occupa"on. h ,annot h.,'. hn
n accident thaI ,.. rtd;~O\try """"d.d
wnh th "",onquest of Spain hy ,h. "my
of Charlemagn., According 10 'M I<l:.nd.
an angel apre d to tlt.c he,nnt l'd.g,us
III 813, showmg h,m the 'lie of Ihe
apostlr's ,omh. When ,he hishop of J...l
Fla"ia (today Pad.on) h.3td uf ,his. he
had the SII. d"S up and did ;ndecJ find ,he
tomh. The ne"', uf the .t<J,"",0,.1')' of S,.
J.n\CSs gr'\'C added a tr.mendous ''''I'''IU'
'0 ,h. Ch"stl." ar",y's c.gt'm ... s for
h.nl . AIt.r c<n.u.ies of occupation Us
SIt. had to be f.ecJ, Ne,'crthdc ... thts

146

"

famous ca"'pa'gn suffert<J a ""g" .Idea.,

and SP'''' .em.",ed under ,\ \oo",h .ul.
for th ''''. be'ng,
Outing ,h. Ittond half of Ih. e'ghlh
century. ,he .elics mul' havc bcoon hrought
.0 s"m,~go d. Com"""eI". It ",-as no,
um,1 th.lum of Ih, milknnium. hvw.v,r.
Ihat the rood 10 Sanllago httan.,. accessibl. to p,lg""". N.vrrthcl ..... i, wok only
about 100 )'urs to esl3bli,h four maior
rout ... through Fr.", . along which .h.
p,lgnms from all pa'" of F.ance would
jom .vge.he. m ! ge groups. fuy would
,h,n mal<.( ,heir way .o Santiago. SlOppmg
f.. qu~ntly for pr .. yer. Tht fi~, of .h. four
road, was.he Vi. Tolosan" which ~t .. ttrd
m the .~" and lrd vi. Sa",,-Gillcsdu-G d. SamlGuilhemle[)t",rt. and
Toulouse, The Ittond. thc Via Podens;,.
ran almost parallel to .h. Vi. Tol"",n
I"flmg in Lc. Puy and ."nn"'g through
Conqucs and MolSsaC, "'hil>1 the third.
the Via I.(mov",~nsis, Slatted on V~lelay.
p.os",d 'hrough Lnnvgos and P~r,g"cux.
and iointd ,h. Via PodenslS at Ost.Nt.
Thc last one "';liS 'M Via Tu,ontns,s
",hich .....ed a, .h. Channel was' and
pa~ through Tou ... Po",r ... Sain ....
,Id Bo.deaux helorr ..ach,ng Ostab.,
",h... il .Iso loi ... d up wi,h ,he 'wo
.fo mentlon.d rood . The pilgrim' on
the Via Tolosana finally jo,ned Ihis m.,n
rou,e ,n Puente la R.ma ",h" all four
r"",cscomb,ned for the .est of .h. way to
Sanllago.
Within" ,'cry shon .ime. Santiago .It
Compos"l .. had ht-romc one vf the ,h.et
mos. ,mvon,,,, places of p,lgnm.1ge m the
whol. of Ch""end"",. Th. O\h.. ,wo,
Romc and Je"'j.lIl,m. had bcoon ,h. focus
for Ch,istian pilgrim. evcr since ,he fi."
centul')' .nd "'.... e dedicated .0 CI,,,,, ,he
Redc..n>cr and St. Peter. the firs, of .he
A"",'les. Fo. from beong first of the
S. James waS ,h. pat.on samt of
Spa,n and of thc poor. It WaS mostly the
I~ncr who unde .. ook ,he ariluvus :lnd
d.ngerous loomey.1t I.ed srvcr.1 month,
and led them o"c. hund ..d. of mil .. of
ro,l and p.",.tlOn. They could n..'c. be
.u vf a,,1\',ng al Santiago safely. k.
alo..., of el'e< secmg their homes 'S""' .
It ,he..fo .. comes .. no surp"'" that
,he pils"m. al50 pa,d I'is,., to othe. "'nlS
"" the w.y. king for ,h... help .nd
,",ung for. few d~)'. befv.. cv""nUlng
the loumey to Santiago. ~v. th" ", ')11. a
large number of mona ..." .. flouri,ht<J
along ,h. 'Ou,.at .h,s tlmc.

.""",b.

San Juan de OmS". drplClion of p;ls.im.

Toulou.., (I bUIc-Wron ... J, S;lIn,xmm,

I 08O-rnMl twdfth cmt .. ry. a..:..t,
tr~n"'P' and cnllral tow ... (ri&ht l.
ground plan. n,o..., "'all (~Iow}

+ . ,,-...
-. -0J:

.. . . .. ........o_e _. _....
.' , .<". 4 ~_~:"t'l~.
-- m +_. -.-.--.-(
o
..._'

~ ....... "
M
. -"~=:-7.=r.
0-00=0- l\-'.i
~ci:

148

20

0 _0

j -

CltrmonT-F~mlnd ( Puy-d~Domd.

O",;val (ruy-d ... DOn~l, /om,er

/orm~r

mona".ry church 0/ S"n.-Au",.mOl"c.

Vir ... from lilt ~....

rnon.!I<ry ~hurch of NOIre

J).m~-du Pon . Sianed around 11 00.

EaSI SI'011anJ cen.ral lOwer (below),

n.o,'c and ,h"",e13",a (OO"om)

an aisled pseudo-basilica, with the roof supportS of its wide side aisles
nearly reaching up to the eaves of the nave roof, The two-Storey elevation
of [he transept consists of arcades and high galleries divided into twO
st'Ctions. The clerestory was omined to make room for the bar,relvaulted
ceiling of the na'-e. The room is lit b)' the windows of the side aisles and
the galleries. The eastern side aisle makes a right-angle turn and continues
into the bay of the forechOir where it blocks out the clerestory.
The semi-i:lrcular responds of the cruciformbased piers support the
m:essed arches of the arcades and the vaults respectively. Thl: nave has
only four ba)'s and has the same ground plan and elevation as the transept.
Only the shape of the supports varies in e"ery st'Cond bay. A spacious
crypt, more or less echoing the ground plan of the chancel area, was
II1tended to house the relics and to display the monastery's considerable
treasures whICh has been preserved a[ Conques.
The experience gained at Tours and Conques was comhined and
perfected in the pilgrimage church of Saint-Sernin in Toulouse (photos,
p. 148). Building work Started in 1080 and was not completed until th e
middle of the twelfth century. The ground plan is consistentl) based on
one unit of measurement eve n down to the last detail. The side aisles
cOlltinue in the same shape around the nave and transept and continue
around the choir in the form of the ambulatory. The piers at the crossing
are breathtaking, carrying a bold tower conSisting of five storeys of
arcades, tapering towards the top, and finishing with a high balustrade.
The fivc-aisled nave comprised eleven bays, compared to the ten of SaintMartin. Viewed from the divided entrance bay between the towers, it
appears to continue into infinity.
The three-storey choir area is very similar [0 that of Con.gues, consiSling of arcades, gallery, and clerestory, and supported in thl' ex tended
bay by the side aisles that ex tend up as far as the beginning of the ceiling.
Additional features are the oculi which are se:t between the roofs of the
ambulatory chapels and illuminate the gallery above (he (;hoir. The
decoration, (00. is in a much mure lively vein, the elements articulating the
wall vary in shape from section to st'Ction, the windows have multiple
recessed ;ntrados aJld colonnel1cs, and the outlines of arches and imposls
are emphasized by ornamental friezes. Saint-Sernin, too, has a vast crypt, a
m)'sterious complex of spaces on different levels housing an immeasurable
wealth of relics. It is therefore all the more regrettable that tlie whole crypt
appears more like a museum than a place of devotion.
Between Saint-Nectairc and Issoi re - the mon asteries of Ihe Au,,:rge
Between the Via Lcmo~icensis and the Via Podensis lies the mc.untainous
region of the Au'ergne. There a group of monastery churche!; began to
emerge from the late eleventh century onwards that were inspin:d both by
the pilgrimage churches and hy the church of Saint-f:tienne in Ne,ers. The
most famous amongst this group of buildings are Saint-Nectai re, staned
probably around 1080, Notre-Dlme-dll-Pon in Clermont-Ferrand, dating
from around 1100. Saint-Austremoine in Orcival, also begun in (he earl)'
twelfth century, and Saint-Paul in Issoire, built around 1130 (photos,
pp.ISOff.).

149

lssoir~ ( l'uy-d~ DO"", ),

S.in, P.ul.

SI"I~d

around 1130. View of Ihe richly

nrna"",nled w311s of lhe ca.1 >eel;nn
(below ), <leuil of wall (bonom), ground
plan Irighl)

T here ;lrc Slriking similarities between the four churches. They all have
low ambu latory with fOllr radiating chapds and a d~p extended bay.
Above the stilted arcades of the chan<:cl bay is a clerestory, The ex tended
bay is formed by a wide arch and is probably windowless because of the
support of the barrel vault. The aisle less transept consists of five parts and
has two apses in the eastern wal1. It increases in height from the projecting
transept arms which correspond to the choir, via the two steep, diagonally
placed intermediate bays, towards the central dOUle. The effect of this
increase in height is, however, considerably reduced by the two strainer
arches framing the crossi ng at the le\"eI of the chancel arch. The upper
scrtion of the choir wall is broken up by a triple arcature. There IS no
doubt that this motif was inspired by Saint Etienne where the arms of the
transept, also in five sections, are separated by similar strainer arches.
Another such arch is used to separate the higher nave from the crossing.
T his nave has two storeys, with arca d~'S surmounted by galleries and a
barrel valilt, as in the pilgrimage churches. The proportions are different,
of course, and the triple gallery openings are low, SImilar to those of Saint
Etienne. Nevertheless, none of the bUIlders of the four monaStery churches
risked including a clerestory.
What is most surp rising, howel'er, is that there is no vertical wall
articulation. It had been a wellknown fcature in Normandy since 1040, in
Ne\"ers since 1065, and in Conques since the 1080s at the latest. In Saint
Nectai re, the oldest church of Ihe group, the absence of any I'ertical wall
articulation could Mill be explained by the fact that circular pie rs were
used. In NotreDame in Clermont Ferrand, however, there arc already
square piers with three semi . .::ircular responds, but none (acing the nave.
The responds are atTached only to the scrond pair of pie rs from the west
and end at Ihe gallery. A similar Si tuaTion exists in SaintAustremoine and
also in SainlPaul: in bolh churches, the pair of piers with the responds is
placed in the cemre of the nave, but ndther has a rranSI'erse arch under the
barrel vault. h appea rs that in all t hr~ churches a deliberate decision had
been made not to use any vertical articul at ion in thei r nal'eS, despite the
fact Ihal it exists in the side aisles. T he reason for this might be an aHempt
10 achieve a particulnr spatial effect, which caused Ihe monks to draw 011
IWO different sources and freely adapt them to their purpose.
The ideas underly ing tht construction of the monastery churches of the
Auvergne are very indiv idual and can be appreci ated more by analyzing
the ex terior rather than the interior, The chancel apse rises only a lillIe
above the roofs of th e ambulatory and the chapels and therefore appears
squal and earthbound. T he roofs of the Iransept arms are the same height
as the roof of the choir apse; but the effecl of the intersecting roofs o( the
eastcrn scrtion is imerrupted by the projecting cemral transept bays which
form a powerful. block like mass, from whICh the tower rises. This block
stands solidly betwcen the choir and the na l'e, and domin atcs the whole
eastern view, hs stepped arrangement, culminating in the central towe r, is
further emphasized by Ihe leantoroofs. This motif is shared by all four
churches. as is Ihal of the fOllr radialing chapels Ihal leave OUI lhe ct..'11tral axis.
Durmg the course of the cemury it was only the ornamentation that becMne
richer. The original Strllcture and articulation was, however, retained,
;I

150

Sa'"t-Neeta,,~

(l'uy-ok-OOme)_ form~r

mona~tc'Y ,hur," of Sa,nt-Neet., ...

St. rlcd uound 1080. Vicw ofth. whok

compact anil monumental rompln

lSI

Sa,nt-Savin-... ,..Canempt" (Vi~nne)_

1065180 and 1095/1115_ View through
,hec<.>lumned n.ve (1095/1115 ) onlO the
old chou ambulatory (1065180), ground
pl.n (rosill )

152

Cun~ult

lMame-cl-um<), NotreOom .

Around] 10001()...around I ISO.

F"~,,dt.

h.II-IH'" naw.lOw.r .bow 1M ....."h

a"l.

T he west of Fu nce
In the west of the Frankish empire, the region betWeen the lOIre and the
Dordogne, we find Romanesquc bUlldmgs of very differing characters. Two
main groups can bcdlsnnguished: lhe hal! churches and the domfflchurches.
The hal! churches
Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe (p hotos, p. 1521 appeaT$ 10 be Ihe oldest hall
church of the I'oltou regIon, with the choir and transepl daling back to
between 1060 and J085 and the nave to belween 1095 and 1115. The
church has a narrow, groin-vaulted ambulatory with columns, which is
adjoined by fhe, almosl completely circular, ambulatory chapels of
differing sizes, Ihe ones clo!il:st to the Lady Chapel being the largest ones.
T he two-storey ele'alion shows arcades on the lower level, with the
clerestory and the calone above them. Set in front of the choir area is a
three-part transept with a square crossing and an eastern apse on each
arm. In these features the building type differs Jinle from the monastery
churches of the Au,ergne. Entering the nave, however, the visitor is in for a
surprise: the groin-vaulted side aisles are just as wide and allnost as high as
the central nave with its high colonnades spanned by a barrel vault. Th is
barrel yauh is smooth as It extends from the east over the first six bays. [n
the [ast three bays, the vaul! is articu[ated by supporting arches which
made 11 necess,uy for Ihe ground pbn of the piers 10 be altered. T he SIxth
pair of piers from the east consists of " square core with semi-circular
attached columns, while the twO last pairs of pie rs ha,e a trefoil ground
plan. And whilst the responds on the nave side of the fi rst pair of supportS
extend as far up as the beginning of the barrel vault, the responds of the
two following pairs have their capitals all at the s;lme height. In the nave,
the capitals and the slarTing point of the vaulting arches are conne<;:ted by
means of a short vertical elemenT attached to the wall. Thus a wid e, wellilluminated space is created whose separa tion into individual aisles is hardly
noticeable, thanks to the width of the side aisles and the slenderness of the
supports. The extensive remnan ts of the nriginal painting on Ihe piers and
the vaul t give a dear idea of the lively chataCter of Romanesque churches.
The deyelopment begun at Saint-Savin is continued at the church of
Notre-Dame-Ia-Grande in I'oitie~ which was built probably during the
sond q uaner of the twelfth century. The ambulatory has three radiating
chapels along iTS polygonal exterior wall. Because " is only one storey high
it is fairly dark. Darkness also charaCterizes the narrow, proiccting
transept, wIth its crossing crowned by ;1 central tower. The na'e is
governed by different proporllons to the aisles in boTh width and height.
The cen tral nave is now nOTiceably WIder Than the SIde aisles and, owing to
an eXira secllon of wall above the arcades, distillCTly higher. T he barrel
vault no longer rccei"es its light from high SIde windows as in Saint-Sayin.
Instead, there is an atmosphere of subdued semidarkness. The supportS
are modeled on the sixth pair of piers in Sairlt-Savin: the square core has
hccn adorned WiTh semi-circuiar responds, with those in the ceOlral na'e
extending as far as the beginnl1lg of the barrel vault and carrying a
supporting arch. The nave of Notre- Dal1le-ia-Grande is governed by
different proporllons and thus illuminated differently. The more pro-

nounced rhythm makes its hall chaf<Kter far less obvious and emphasises
the central nave as opposed to the side aisles. This development is already
seen in the last few bays of Saint-Savin and the changes of the piers and the
introduction of the supports under the arches. It was to continue in the
churches of Chauvigny and Aulnay.
The exrrayagalll joy 111 ornamentaTion thaI marked the Romanesque
style of wesTern France left a funher exampk in Poiliers - namely Ihe
fa~ade (photo, p. 269). The whole wall surface IS a virtual pallern book of
architectural sculpture. Hardly a stone in the whole fa~ade has not
recei,ed of ornamenTallreatmenl. On the ground level There is Ihe mam
enrrance accompanIed by Three archiyohs and framed by IWO wide blllld
recesses WIth a Iwin arcade sct in each. The spandrels above are taken up
by figuratIVe scenes bordcred 3t the top by blind arcadlllg. Along two
zones the high central window is flanked by niches WiTh inset figures,
followed by a second frieu of blind areading which continues beyond the
higher central window. T he tympanum features ornalllental stonework
and a large oval afea containing a figurative scene set within an ornamental
framework. The fa~ade is framed by tWO round turrets surrounded by
compound responds. These terminate in a series of windows beneath a
high, conical roof. The re are fa~ades with similar anicula{ion in the Poitou
region, for instance in Civray (photo, p. 267) or 111 Echillais, bUT none
equals the richness in o rnamentation and figu rative sculpture of NotreDame-la-Grande.

153

Cunault (M3in~ .... Loi,~), N"'rt-Dam~.

,>.muod ! !OOII~round 1180. Vitw of
lh~ n",'~

I<'''''ardj; .a~1

One of the lightest and. at the saml' time. most Imposing hall churches
IS Notre-Dame in Cunault, situated very close to the Loire (figu res,
p. 153 and above). Notre-Dame was founded in the Carolingian period,
wh ile the present church was built during tlte first half of the twelfth
century in response to a pilgrimage that attracted ever more pilgrims.
Cunault was the SIte of the relics of Samt Maxenllolus, the '~ngagement
ring of Mary and dust from the birthplace of Christ m Beth lehem. The
immense complexity of Ihe layoUl of the building suggeSIS Ih", irs design
changed more than once. Building work started around 110011 110 with
the constrnction of the ambulatory with thr~ unusually large radiating
chapels. While the ground plan and decoration recall the choil" area of the
nearby monastery of Fontevrault. in Cunauh the clerestory in the choir
area was omitted, and the barrel vault of Ihe chel'et was supported by the
groin vaults of the side aisles and the ambulatory respectiveny. The first
change of plan seems 10 have occurred after Ihe conSlrucrion of rhe third
forechoir bay, and Ihe choir was completed with a fourth and deeper bay.
Adjoining thi s is a four-aisled nave with side aisles all of the same height.

154

The tWO outermost aisles terminate in tWO semi-circular apses. Had this
project been completed. the result would have been the 1110St unusual
Romanesque church imaginable. with a four-aisled hall of a height and
lightness otherwise encountered only in the late Gothic period.
However, this plan, too, was abandoned after a further two bays had
bef-n built, and the nave now possessed just two aisles. Up to this time,
between 1160 and 1170. the idea of a barrel-vaulted central nave had bef-n
considered essemial, so it followed thaI Ihe side aisles were lower than the
nave. But now the IaSI Ihree nal'e bays were rib-vaulted and Iherefore of
the same height as the side-aisles. These so-called Angevin vaults. built in a
dome-shape and articulated by eight very slender columns, relieve the
interior of all weight and sen.,.. of dirtion.
There are a small number of places in the church interior where the
remains of painted decoration from the Gothic IXriod can be seen. l'aTi of
the original decoration is represented by the strikingly beautiful capilals
which ha"c fortunately su rvived (he last few centuries with very little
damage and little need for restoration.

Talmo<lf (CbaKm~,\b"flmr f. Inrf

bdtgondt. ~'<sr q""rf~r of rlw r","flfrh
cmrury. Yww fr...." rMn .. (wlfh rho
AIl1nfl< tXtan brhlnd)

1S5

Angoulemc (Ch ... m~l, c~I"'dral of

SainI_P,C,,,, Staned around 1120130.
In"'ro' with <k>med vaulting (below).
ground plan and 'ichlydt<:orated fa~adc:
(right)

The domed churches

At the beginning of the Iwclfth century, Ihe west of France experienced the
sudden and unexpccte<l blossoming of the an of the domed vaul t. a feature
thm might well have had its origin in the Middle East. It is more likely, however, that the inpiration came from VeniC(~ where Ihe const.tJClion of the
domed church of St. Mark had IJ<,gun in 1063. Consecration occurred no
bter than 1094. The most famous domed churches of western France are
the convent church of FOlllevrauh, Saint-Pierre in Angoulr~me. Saint Front
in I'trigueux. and, in its renovated form, Saint-Hilaire in roiti(~rs.
Around the year 1110 Rober! d'Arbrissel was given som.: land in the
valley of Fontevrauh for the purpose of establishing a convent there
(figures. p. 157}. By 1117, the chotr area had been built. and e.n September
IS, 1119, Pope Calixtus 11 consecrated all the completed sect ions. Robert
d' Arbrissel had another chOir with an ambula tory built that included thrC('
chapels and was terminated in the west by a fi,'e-pan lTanSt;pt wllh twO
eastern apses and a crossing with central tower. An unusual feature of this
cholT is the enormous height of its arcades: they take up more thall half the
overall height. Alx}\"e them is a series of low, blind arcading. followed by
small windows Set beneath a tunncl-vauhe<l roof. The steep ambulatory is
spanned by an annular barrel vault. The original plan muSI have made
provision for an aisled na,'e to complete this east section. It is possible that
such a nave would have bc.-n identical in elevation 10 the choir area,
although it is more likely to have been a hall-type na,'e. The b .ter option is
supporte<l not only by the size and posittoning of the winclow.s but also by
the presence of the pier buttresses on the eXlefior nave wall which suggest
an interior compartment comprising eight b.lyS. It remains unclear what
caused this proiect 10 be abandone<l at a stage when work had already been
begun on Ihe cxterior walls. In any case, what was actuallj'built was an

156

aisleless church with four square bays spanne<l bj' domes resting on
pendentives. They are supporte<l by relatively low transverse and lateral
trans,'erse arches, respectively attached 10 the outside walls, and their height
remains IJ<,I0w the ape" of the tunnel vaul t of the choi r. The resulting na,'e
space is wide and sotl1ewhat oppressi,e. The dark pointing of the very regu lar
stonework appears clumsy, whilst the capi tals. on the other hand, are of a
vcry high quality. The side walls of the gro und floor are articulated by bli nd
areading, and abo,e that each wall has two windows flanked by
colonneltes.
The na,e of the cathe<lral of Angoulime (figures, p. 156} whICh was
begun around 1120/30 appears to be a faithful imitation of the convent
church of Fontevrauh. In contrast to the !aner. there is no ambulatory at
Angouleme, th e choir consisting only of another apse with three semicircul ar chapels. The tra nsept consists of five parts. The square crossing is
covered by an octagonal dome resting on a tambour. Extending outwards
from the crossing, there is a narrow intermediate bay with an eastern apse
on each side, the last feature reminiscent of the traditional transepts_ On
each side of the transept, this intermediate bay is followed by a square bay
covered bl' a smaller dome. Both transept arllls were intende<l to carry a
tower, but only the north tower was aClUall y bUilt: four storeys high. It
exceeds even the height of the dome.
T he cathedral's remarkable featllre is the fa~ade. Similar to the westfrom of Notre- Dame-Ia-Grande in Poiticrs, it is almost completely cO"ered
with decorati"e elements. The fa~acle consists of three storeys of differing
heights and is subdivided into five sections by means of half-columns.
These are linked by semi-.circular arches which in IUrn span smaller Side
recesses with figures. In no storey docs the height of the side arcbes
correspond with that of the central arch; this is a fa~ade wtth no hori:wmal

Fonl""rauJ. (Malll<'on-LooJ'(C). founded In

] I ]0. Ground plan and domed n"...,
(kft ).JCulplllred ,omb d'figIeo: RIChard
.he lJonhan and E.lanorof Aqulla.1I<'

From] ]89 .0 ]204, .k CO<I>Tn1 church

of Font ....... uJ. wa. Ik bur .. 1 $"e of ,''''
k<ngl
Pbn~nc1 dI'Tlu,y. II .ocal
of Sue of IU mtm~ arc I"HI 10 raI
""r(": Henry II and h" wlk Eleanor 01
AqulI~'II<' . k .. son RIChard .he lJonhean
and h .. "lIer Joan 01 England he .. $Of!
Ra)mood. and finally.he woOOw 01 John
of F~~nd, Is:obc.l~ of IIfIgOUJemo. Ongo-

01.""

!'ally ,''' rombs ...."." arranged In weh a

way .ha,.he ch,kir('n were alway, pb(w
at .... fcrt of ...... paren",. Tho poJlllon
of ,he bunal slIes In .he church ".
however. no long<:. known. Wha. hal
'emalned aJ'(C .he four buunful .omb
dfiptS of Urnty II, Rid",.rd .ht l.ionbtan,
Eltanor, and Is:ohclla.

Fon'.... raulr. bord', """ YleW oI.he whok

"'e (lcft l. kJ,chrn quan,," (.bQ,;,,1

157

P~"g""ux (DordogMJ. Sall,,- Fron .

From .round 1120. Vi~wof th~ dOnl ..

"OTfOM IlIGHT

S"nt-Front before the res'o .. lloll of II.

d<.>m.d roofs (pho.ogr.ph dallng from
,he ninc.n.h cen.ury )

,...

lid

IT
Sam,-Front,ground pion.
From around 1120

15 8

....

s. I-brks (V(m l.gro und pl,n.

From 1063

Po'tler. (Vienno ), Saml I I,la"o. Firs. hall

Qf lheek,cnlh century and from .round
11JOonward~. N3\e wilh double"1',.,.ey
d,,i.,on. of ,he inner ,ide.isl...

continuation. The clearest structural feature is the vertical divis:ion of the

lower level IIltO five parts, suggesting a five-aisled nave. It is tht:refore all
the more surprising to enter a well-lit domf"<llllterior.
If the two hall na,es of Fontevrauh and Angoulcme with their strings of
domes are not enough to convince the viewer of their VenNian influence,
then surely the cathedral of I'erigueux (figures, p. 158 ) must dispel any
remaining doubts. The cathedral is a large building in the shape of a Greek
cross with five domes. Built on the site of a small rectangular church from
the tenth/eleventh century which was destroyed by fire in 1120, it was now
a kind of anrechurch. Like St. Mark's in Venice, the cathedr:tl's domes rest
on pendentives set on shon barrels. The powerful piers on the corner of each
square arc pierced by passages which are either groin-vaulted or cOIercd by
small domes in the Vencrian style. Blind ornamental aniculating elements
run across the exterior walls. Abo,c, each exterior wall has a group of
three windows. The five domes arc each pierced by four windows. The
eastern end of Saint-Front has an apse on the nonhern and thc southern
arms of the cross, and a larger one on the eastern arm. A low fore bay
establishes the connection between thiS last apse and the castern section of
the barrel vault. Two levels of the apse are also decorated with blind
areading, the upper one containing windows.
WhM di<T;ne"i<he< "~;nr_Frnn. fmn'
Nbrk'< ;< th .. "l..g,..... of
decoration. Today, the cathedral of Pedgucu)\" is completely ba.re. Apart
from blind arcading along the exterior walls, it lacks responds, capitals,
decorated cornices and colonl1elles adorning the openings. Also :tbsent are
the columned screens which in St. Marks appear to divide th.: crossing
arms on the ground floor into three aisles. There is no trace of decorative
painling, an indispensable fealure of medieval churches. The five sections
of the interior are curiously lifeless, with arches and windows that sct""m as
though cut out of the walls. The combinallon of slereomctric shapes and
the absence of an y ornamenration suggests a product of the Revolutionary
style.
Our last exampl e of a domical construction in western France is the
converted church of Saint-Hilaire in Poitiers (photo, right). Dating from
the first half of the elnenlh cenlury, Ihe interior of the building was
completely reorg."lnized from around 1130 onwards, when an ambnlatory
with radiating chapels was added, as well as IWO new side aisles on each
side. The original narrow, proje<:ting transept With ils two eaSl"ern apses
remained, as did the upper walls of the nave and ItS wide apse.
In the na,e, trefoil plan piers were built which create aisles in the
fOTl11f:r hall (?), and support the transverse arches. Their spandrels comain
masonry squlllches whICh form the connecllon to the octagonal domes.
The latter follow III Ihe tradition of the earlier central domes. The piers
and the transverse arches of every bay are supported by two bridge-like
arches placed above one another. On account of the width of the domes,
the load-bearing piers of each are supported in eight places. Including the
four outer side aisles, the church has a six-aisled, basilica-type interior in
which diveTSC clements arc unusually combined. Whether or nOI this was
an improvised solution to a problem, Saint-Hilaire has no equal in French
ROlllancsque architecture.

"t.

II'
.
o

5 10m

. ,... -

,-I-

I.

-\

159

OPPOSITF. rAGE
Saln.-Ju~.HIt- VAlc:obr~..., ( H~u.~
G~tunnc).

u .e~Ifth ",nrut)'. V_

s.,.nr-8tmAnd-dC'-ComnunS<'S (HauteG..onnc). dQ,sln an:~dn

ftQfTl nQrth ...asr

161

S.inl-Guilhem-I~I>esen (I-Ierault).
fo,,,,,,r COflVem church ..,f SaontGullhem,
T.nth century, third quaner of the
d.,.nth century, around 1100. View..,f
the apses (bu;lt dUring dlffe.ent ",ages of
construction),the nave (cOfl>cc,aled In
the ,.",hcenlllry) .nd the "-csllo"'e'

,
162

OPPOSITE PAGE

Sa.nt-Manm-duc..nlgou (f'yrc..e.s
Ori.nt.I.,.). Supponed by oold "'IJllllllg
wall.,lhe moun"", monastery I. Sl\U"ed
in . picturesque 1"".I;on below Ihe
summit of the Call1W>U '" ,he 5Iern
f'y,en~.

SalnlMan",-due:.nlgou, ISOrI>ctry of
the ",.... ,Io",y church

SaimGuilhem\t.l)6(n IHerault),
fo,me' convent church of Sa,,,,Gujlh~on.
Tenlh antury.lh"d Quarte, oflh~
elevenlh ",ntury, around ] ]00. Cloo>le,
and na,'e from Ihe SQUlh

Ro u$sillo n and I'ro\'cnce

The second church of Cluny was JUSt under construction in Burgundy wkn
in the )'car 975 se,'en bishops consecrated a church in 5.1intMicheldcCuxa
which had bten established by Sc:niofred, Cornte de Cerdagne, The church
has a nave and twO side aisles and a "ery prominent transept to which
were ;utached fi,'e or seven apses in a Staggere<! arrangement, The central
apse was of rectangular shape. In the early eleventh century, its famous
bUilder, Abbot Oliba, arranged for the addition of a vaulted ambulatory
around the main apse, with three further apses on the east side. He also
had the nave extended and soon afterwards buih the round church of
NotreDamedeiJCreche in the eastern pan of Ihe site. In order to do
thi", the central ambuiJtory aps!', which had only JUSt been complete<!, had to
bt destroyed, The originally unvaulted ceilings of the basilicas in Arlessu ....
Tech (from 1064) and Elne (first quarter of the eleventh cenlury) suggest
Ihat initially the na,'e of SaintMichel would also have had a flat ceiling,
In contra 51, Ihe church of Sa;nt-MartinduCanigou is vaulted through.
oul. The church belongs to the monaStery established by Sc:niofred's SOil
Guifred and used as the family's burial site, It is situ<lled in a remote area
in the eastern Pyrcnees, below Ihe 9188 feet high Pic du Canigou (photo,
p. 16Jl. the building has twO storeys. The lower church NotreDamela
Souterraine has barrel.vaulting in rhe na,'e and aisles. Its na"e has six bays
of equal silt followe<! by another bay situated in between the aisles and
later bricked off, Finally, a groin"'aulted choir has aisles as wide as the

164

cenrer and three identical apses, Originally the supportS had three pairs of
granite columns which were enca.scd during the construCtion of the upper
church. Tooay, only the eastern pair SUrviVes. The lower church is
connected neither to the trapezoid.shaped narthex in the west section, nor
to the upper church of SaintMartin,
Saint Martin also has a nave and tWO aisles, all barrelvaulted, Two
bays of the lower church correspond to one bay of the upper church, but
the lattn is displaced more towards the east relative to the lower church:
the building begins above the second naVl" bay and projects at its eastern
end o"er the lower church by OIle and a half bays, The strikingly high and
broad arches under the barrel vaults are supporte<! by thick column shafts
with clumsily decorated cushion capitals, The interior is divide<! into half
by a pair of C1uciformbased piers with transverse arches. The space is
terminated in the cast by three semi-circular apses, the central one of
which is wider because of the broader central nave. There is no clerestory at
the base of the barrel vault as at Cluny II. It is conceivable that the omission
of windows was deliberate after the experience gained in the lower church,
A mass;"e bell tower is situated in the north-east, articulated by
beautiful blind arches similar to the ones in the ap.scs of the upper church,
[n the soulhwest there is the trapewid'shaped cloister which has been
greally altered by restorarion work,
The monaStery church of Cluny must have innuenced developments in
the soUlh quitl" carlyon and also encoUTage<! builders to experiml"nt with
barrel vaulting, A whole century before such a style had gained ground in
the west of France, a barrelvaulted hall church of the same type as SaintSavin.surGartempe or Cunault was bUilt on the Canigou. In the region
west of the Rhone, three further barre1-vaulte<! hall.type naves were built
during the first half of the twelfth century: in CorncilladeConnenr,
Carcassonne, and Marcevo1. East of the Rhone, this style had already been
taken up around the middle of the eleventh century, first in SaintDonal,
and later in SaintRfmydeI'rovence, Embrun, and Hyere.
The development of tbe reJtgious architecture of Burgundy took place
almost exclusively under the patronage of Cluny, That it ne,'enheless
provided the main impetus for developments in the soUlh throughoLli the
eleventh century is testified to by the churches of Quaranle and the former
Bene<!ictine abbey of SaintGuilhemleDCsert (photos, pp, 162-4). The
church of Quarante was consecrate<! in 1153 and, as in Cluny II, has a
bolTrdvaulted centra) nave with windows in the barrel ba.sc. Saint
Guilhem is situated in the Gorge of Verdus 3ud was established b)' Count
Guillaume of Toulouse, a comradeinarms of Charlemagne,
Between 1962 and 1970 a square erypl was excavared which presum
ably dates back 10 the late temh cemury, It might have btlonge<!to the aisle'
less church from which the first bay of the existing church and the twO tiny
a~s in the transept originate, It is likely that even the foundations of the
na"e su pports and parts of the transept are of the same origin,
Today the church of SaintGuilhem, consecrated in 1076, has an aisled
na,'e comprising four bays, and a I'ery prominent aisled transepl with
three: apses from around 1100. The na,'e has twO storers; broad
rectangular piers with responds on the sides facing the na,'e, and the side

AI<tb. I\,un$ (Aude~, former "-''''ent

church of Saon,~hbtl~. Firs' half uf,h~

twelfTh ""mUff. Na'~. ",,",ral n"~~,"1'S"
(kft~,c~l."or "CWOfTh. ap ..

aisles cany Ihe arcades wilh Iheir m:essed supporting arches. Abole the
arcades and under the barrel vault there are large windows. The responds
initiate the supporting arches of Ihe barrel Iaults and also serv~ as vertical
elements of articulation. The e:<terior of the nave is articulated by 3
rhYlhmicalarrangemenl of blind elements.
The windows uf the slIlgle-stOrey choir area are placed below a row of
wide blind arcades. The buitding work mUSI hale extended over a
prolonged period: whilst the southern aps<' slil! shows the Iypical blind
arches between Ihe lcsenes, the northern apse is articu lated by a low blind
arcade underneath the eaves into whICh small Windows are lIl:iCned. The
wide cenlral apse, su pponed by unusually strong pier bunresses, even has
large windows with flanking colonnelles. Below Ihe eaves is a ':ol1linuOII$
row of arcades through which one can .see the calolle. A similar blind
arcade is found in Saint Etienne in Nevers. The basilica-type elevation of
the nave wilh Ihe clueslory underneath a barrel va ull is also .-ecalls that
bllliding. There is, of cou rse, no gallery.
Burgundy was not the only influence, howeler: Ihe pilgrim churches,
100, occasionally left their mark on Ihe Roussillon region. When the
Benedietine abbey of Sa in Ie-Mane in Alel-les-B."lins received a new church in
Ihe firSI half of Ihe twelfth century, the Abbot Raymond decided Ihat the
!;Cven-bay nale should be built in the style of the pilgrim church, wh ilslthe
eastern Stion consiSIS only of one apse as wide as the central nave. The
building is now a ruin (photos, above). The piers, now largely altered, are

likely 10 have had cruciform bases, and between Ihem arcades and g.111eries
of more or less equal siu were sel underneath a barrel vault. The gallenes
must have been covered by barrels wilh a quarter...:ircle profile and had
brge wmdQws framed on Ihe ol1lside by colon nelles and ornamental
friclCS; ,here might also have been somc oculi. Apart from the double
entrance in the west, a recessed portal still exiSls in Ihe sol1lh. Allhe level
of the fifth holY from the west, high, slender slair turrets were 3nached 10 the
outside of the nave. These may also have been bell towers, since Ihe tOp
StOrey of the norrh mrrel shows traces of arcades to release the sound.
Ibe central apse has five rocesses Aanked with columns and three calotle
windows. The polygonal, triangular exterior is supported on the corners
of the lower storey by pier bunrcsscs. Between Ihem, Ihe broad,
rectangular forms of the recesses projCCt and carry a slender, tripartile
blind arcade o'er a smooth plinth area. The upper storey, behind which
Ihe calotte is siluated, is furnished wilh corner columns and a three-part
architru,e endowed wilh lUIish ornamentation.
In addition 10 Ihe "imported~ styles, the Roussillon region developed ils
olYn: the longitudinal nave. T his emerged during the eleventh century and
later spread widely throughout Ihe soulh, Ihe longitudinal nale. At first, il
did not ha,c a vaulted ceiling; e~amples are the churches of MonastirdelCamp (1064/87), Serrabone (end of the eleventh century), CauncsMinervo,s {after mid twelfth century~ and Sainl-Gcnis-des-FOlliaines
(consecrated in 1 I 53).

165

Mo".m'IQU< (s..""he's..lu Rh(m~).

former COl""",,, church of 1'>:OI .. Dame.
Around 1141)...1153, ")"p!. choIr and
.unsepl: from 1160: n..C and b.
1)"gon31 v><w '"10 the chou i'<>p I, "CW

uf'he woole si.e (bonom )

The btc Romancsquc slyle of Pro"ence

Llftle was built in the regio" east of Ihe river Rh6ne before Ihe twelfrh
century. AI thaI lime, Romanesque architecmre had reached ;IS lcn;lh in
Burgundy and in Ihe north of Ihe count ry wilh the construction of Cluny
III and Ihe TWO monaster)' churches in Caen. Ea~1 of Ihe Rhone, there was
no record of a church being colls<xraled unlil II OJ. The cathedral of AixellI',o,'enc. had ~n restored and now iI, 100, had an aisle-less nave
without vaulting but witl1 round-arched niches in the side walls. Almost at
the s..,mc lime, [he (adm'lIedl)' narrower} nave of Saint-Marlin-de-tondres
was panned by the first barrel vault. Thus the v"ulted aisle-less nave with
recessed niches was born. It was 1\ot until afTer 1200 that Ihe barrd vault
was replaced by the rib vauh, which at that stage in Pro"ence was still a
powerful and heavy StrUCture. Rib-va ulted aisle-less naves Call sti ll be seen
in Castellane, Frejus and Grasse.
In the south, the preferred Type of vaulting was the barrel vault.
Although it had been possible to barrd-va,,)t a basilica since the lat
quarler of the eleventh centu ry, II was nevertheless Sill! a highly
complicaTed Task. There are Therefore only four barrel-vaulttxl basilicas in
the whole of Pro"ence: Saint-Trophime and SainT-HonoraT-des-Ahseamps
in Aries, Saint-Victor in o\hr5("ille, and the cathedral of Vaison-IaRomaine, all d;lIing from The second half of the twdfth century.
An aisle-less na,'e is accompanied ei ther by a transepT and three eastern
apses, or, in the case of churches without a transept, by one apse. The
space WaS unsuiTable for an adjoining ambul:llory wiTh chapels. The on ly
churches of this type to have an ambulatory arc the church of the
monastery of Saint-GiIIl'S, which was subordinate to Cluny, and the
foundation crypl of Montmalonr. These interiors arc strikingly dark and
austere. Dark beca use the only places where windows could be situated
were the WI'SI wall of the na,'e and the apse, The austerity is more difficult
to explain. Admittedly, there were no column capitals in the nave and
ambulatory that could have been decoraTed; but ornamentation haS also
largely been omitted on the blind arliculating demenrs in The chancel area
and on the responds betw~n the niches. The interiors thus remaintxl
austere at a time when Roman architecTure experitnced its first major
Renaissance. The wondl'rful sculptu re made its appearance almost
exclusively on the porches and in the cloisters.
One of the many aisldess churches in Provence belongs to the former
monastery of Notre-Dame in Montmajour (photo, p. 166). The
foundation crypt. built on the rock face of the Mons Major, could be
reached only by boat until the marshes werc drained. The crypt was
consecrated together with the eaSt S('Ction s of the upper church in 1153.
The building haS a domed wnl'essio as In a central planform, with one
antebay in the Wl'St, and surrounded by a barrclv3ulted ambulatory with
five radiating chapels. In front there is Transept-like tunnel with two
eastern apses and an access ramp in The central axis. The walls are made
from large, carefully sll100lhed ashlars adorned with stone mason's marks;
bUlthere :Ire no responds, supponing arches, cornices, or CapiTals.
With Ihe exceplion of The :lmbulatory and th e chapels, the eastern
S('Ctions of the church follow the design of the crypt. Here, a wide apse,

166

SaimGabrld (Booc..... -d"Roont).

Cb.pd. Around 1200. Wt.,f,o"" wi.h

'''''''IIICt por~b
BOTTO M

Saln.tsl.l.rlts<k I~ Mer

(Bouchcs-du
ROOne). 1>llgnmagrchurch of lhe Holy
M.nts. Around 1170180. around 1200.
View from soulh. wesl

scmi--circular on !he inside and polygonal on .he ou.side, opens onto the
oblong crossing. Flat nbs in Ihe shape of a solid stone band articulale the
renoyated caloTle. The arms of the transept are lower than the nave and
the apse. They arc barrelvaulted and, as in the lower storey, have apses III
the east. T he building of the nave began around 1160, and only two of the
five planned bays were built. The bays arc articulated by strongly recessed
transverse arches which support the pointed b.1Trc1 vault that starts above
a narrow cornice. Aboye it, the recessed niches open up. Even the uppcr
church is marked hy an almost CiSlercian austeri!y; the apse alone is
decorated by a pair of columns with simple crocket capitals. Between I 19Q
and 1200 part of the building collapsed, so that the east stion had to be
rebuilt and the crossing vault modernized. The dois!er, which dates from
the last quarter of the twelfth century, used to house Important works of
Romanesque sculpture, most of which are today kept in museums. Some
beautiful tombstones can stili be Sttn in the galleries of the church.
The pilgrim church of the Holy Maries in LcsSaintesMariesde)a
Mer was built in the decade after 1170 and is one of the most famous
monuments of Provence. It, too, is a alsleless church wilh fiye bays and
wilh recessed blind arches af\icu latlllg Ihe e:<lerior walls (phOIO,
p. (67). A si:<th bay in the shape of a Ira pelOid leads over inlO the serni
circular apse. As early as 12()() Ihe building was extended 10 form a
fortified church. Battlemems were added abol'e the rnachicolation, and the
chancel area was crowned wilh a polygonal lOwer. The apSl' windows
were dosed so Ihat the already dimly IiI interior bc<:ame even darker.
Apart from the flat blind arches on the apse wall, the exterior of the
pilgrim church '5 completely deyoid of ornamentation. As a result, the
parapets, wilh Iheir banlemenls rising above the row of semi--circular
arches on the machicolation, and the closed Mkeep ~ abo\'e the apse appear
:III the more threatening. The apse and the twO adjoining bays had 10 be
raised so that the crypt, donated by Rene d'Anjou, could be accommodated.
Not far from Tar:lscon is the delightful chapel of SaintGabriel (photo,
p. 167). Built around 12()(), il is one of the most imponant Romanesque
buildings in Provence. h tOO has no aIsles and a poinled barrel vault. Its
interior is notable for its recesSI'd blind arches and lack of ornamentation.
The nave has three bays, short, chapel.like extensions in the east, and a
low, semicircular apSl'. The westfrOIll is remmlscent of a Roman
triumphal arch. The fa"ade is divided into 11'.'0 sections which correspond
10 the wall section and the vault se<:tion of the interior. The pointed arch
on the gable has an oculus sel in a framework of orna"'enlal bands
unitating classical forms. Around it at the four points of Ihe compass are
the Evangelists' symbols. A wide semi-ci rcular arch framed by an egg and
dart pallern opcns up underneath, frammg a slightly recessed portal
flanked by two columns and with a triangular pediment with a small relief
plaque. lbe apex is crowned by a lamb. lbe enlrance between the
columns also has columns, a tym panum with carved figures, and
archi\'olts; the door lintel no longer exists. A centrally placed flight of
stone steps leads to a platform supported br a wall. T his feature adds
further to the enchantment of Ihis beautiful west front.

167

Wn~<qu~ (V~udu~l, SlH'allw

""pu"err. EI~v~mh untury. Vi(w of ,h(
Inte.ior wuh ,h~ O<."ugona l wa,u ""sin
and ,h~ aha. in ,h(~ .., n'Jm

168

Mon .....""" lllou<hr$-duRh6nt], Oupel

of So,nle Croix, ~nd pL.n , ... gh.)

Qn,raUt Pbnntd 6uildi"3' in Ih~ Soul h

.,fF.an
A",;~P.()Yen.

Fn'IU. and RItz all ... ...,

bapuful Npc.lm<Il ''''pth d.1nng from
,he" f.fth and ~""h Cm'p.leO. '1,,1.. ,hc"1r
U'e'lOf " b.t.K<J on a S<j""K ~nd
pL.n. ,.....,
OClagon>.l. """h
noc .... and ambul~.O/'1f'J. Tht ~nltaUy
I'lannd bt"ld."A ""'. prob.abl) .Nil'
dUMg 1M ''''oJnh ~nruf)". arong
",,,h a K"""W apP'lauOII of the
~.uty .,1,L.t,ocal Ro",,,n fo.",. Thu~ ,he
,h.ptls bu,1t ,n Wn."!"", Ritux
M, .... n<m, and Mont .... ""'. aK em, ... lIy
planned. but u"I,k< the n.ly bapllste.1eO
d() ...... alJ foUow the u ..... gmund pL.n.
Tht oIdeo.f .. W.. aS<jU(" Ipho:Mo, p. 168).
S,,,d 10 ha..., bttn bu,l. ,n lhot de,,,,,.h
cmlury. "
Kprdtd a. a propt. hapIISf...,.. hs 1m""" (on ..... of a rta"llu
b. emlul spa bou, 20 x H ft, and
four 'I""' tb(, I'IOIth and soulhfactnc
~aK ~apcd. ",h']SIIb(,USI
and w"'tf"ins ...... are ",,",i-circuia .
Thf)' h.~, ''':IaRgulu nl"'ior caSIng
~1Id ar~ (\..:orau:d IRslIk wl,h a row of
blind .rc.... S<1 on col"mn,. The ba~,
,haf', and c:ap"al~ Were "ken f.om o,her
b",ldmgJ _nod Katmblw. An OClagona!
w.ler bail" II S<1 ",10 II.. floor of , ....
emlt.I,n"r..,...
Tht chaptl .,f Rlnlx M"..rvOl$ lp!wxo.
bo:lowJ ...... , bu,h bnwffI\ 1150 anod 1\75
and ...... vef)" ,nd,,..,!u.] ' .... r;l(1"'. h.
hotpc.~1 ~n,er consosu of four 'fUCl'
I....... pten .he...... 1lI(I ,,"h ,hlft c<>lu"",.
and II StI.round.-d by a fourtttn .. oJrd

'"'fnot "

CO_t'w

'm

ptrf"'IlOn. ,",'hoch had ""hw ... zmllh

by ,he t.,~ .",'df,h com"f)". I~k, ,he crypt
ab""r ch""h,
and "ppt. chu.ch of
~,nt,Cro'x is a pt.{ec, a,hl3. bu,ldlng ,n
",hlCh .h, poInTIng is ha.dly nOl",,,bl,.
Tht Cfnt.. llnl",Of .. high and S<jua.~ anti
hal four kno~. apses ,,"achtd 10 , f)f'K
arong t .... "'.,,~ .....:I,h of ,,,,h
AdJOln'ng , ....
apse i$ a S<j .... t
enlra"", haiL Tht unonumm.w fO(ImS
.tly for
grufice .. , dINt 00 .M
cornb",allon and proportlO"'ng 01 .M
a"h'IIU.al.Iemm ,
prcc'~"'" .,f 1M
Sl(InfW<)tk, and .M deta'~ An pno!x ......
"" yn h""ly dkni,'e fUlure IS ..... con
IInualoon of ..... "'""'to be."''''n ...... p6n
IOw,.d. IIw: con... l ~IfUClure, lnilnd of
be,ns by ,he tldge of 'he cu~. ,he hollow
moldIng IScon,,,,,,,d "".h he four .. d"
of ..... cu"" aK d.awn forward. by an 'nch
or SO 10 .uggest a G.eek cro. Equally
dtllghtful are ,he four gablG abo," lhe
1i<k1 of ,he
h ,he ,ntt.ItIRg
pddkbad rooband obelan.tm.

,n.

I"".

w".=

I.

,hot" ....

.n.

ambuiaw.y &-cor.,ed wllh b]"kl arc ....

... , on coIonn<1 ..... and spanned by
quan,....,ltd, barKI. Tht em.",1 ~ ..
e..,..1Ied by a dome. AI ....... , .... ,m,re
dupel Ii",",*ndod by an ""ndy alTa"",
mml of add",ona] ' .... ptlo and "':"'f)"
bu,ld"",. N("W pl..ns ,n 18J.~ addc-d a
.OW.... TO.he """'" ,nd ano<hn fou"ttn

,"dept .. den, chaptl$ opt",ng ou, OIItO

lhe ,mbub.ory. Tht hIgh q".II1)- cal',,~I
Include an A.. umpllon of , .... Virg'" by
thot ~b .." olCabnuny.

cu."" "" ..

Tht dupd of ~'n.e-Crotx I.. I- loo,,,,,JOU'

lp!wxo, a!Kn'ti .. a c:rmcterychapti b.t.K<J
a fourlOdcd apse. I. d,f(m from
""'-'SItU<' In ,I>( de&rtt of "rch","""",]

00

\lJ,

~,

...

--i

.,..l

~
RlC'ux M""rvoo' 1A udeJ, rounod church of
Arounod
1150-75. ln"''-- ~ocw and grounod pl.n

t:A~.umpcoon-<leNolr"CDa ......

169

Cistercian churches ;n the soulh of France

QuI<' cas,ng and e;<'ended bay . In f,on,

"f .h"" ex,,,,,d lh,.. part, p"'I,,",ng
"ansel" wllh h.rrd ."uillng and a
don..d centr,l cr<>s~"'g. The ."Ied na,'e
" hlghe, .ha" .he ,.ansepl. It " , panned
by a poin,ed b.rrd vault above
clcrNory, hu, wlthou. suppo,..nng arches_
Such arches a,c, howe .. c" used ,n.he .,de
a!>les under .hc qu.rter-ci,clc h.rrcl
vaulung. The ,esponds a..... m,-circul.,
'n shape and carry plain crock cap"als.
Secn from ,he west .h. ,'ansep, ,s hardly
no"ceabl. behind .he large- broad b~ade.
Si-n3nqu~ (Vaud~ .. !.
ch~rch

A",ong~ he

mos.

sp.~,ula'

buildll1g5
in h a"'c
a, h. C;".rcian mOll3~,.ri~ in ,he
fOOlhills of .he Alp. and .h. P}'r""otS.
They ..... ",. bo,l! in .he se<:ond half of ,he
.....dhh ""'o'y. S,m;[ .. ' 0 .h, .l'ghlly
olde, chu",h of Font.nay (phOl"', pp.
134-5). .he C... ercian chorehes of
P,ov.",,' arc "mplc:, clc:a,ly ..."".u,.d
'p3Ces made fmn> "onew."k of .h.
highest qualITY. Again a. a. Fontenay.
~ ,.ty f(lf .h....ff"",, largely on .heit
,dyllic ","ing .nd on ,h. ~"'. and
...,eni.y of .h. natute surrounding . hcm.
f,om

.h~ Rom'"."Io~ ~'iod

from] ]50.

former CiSlerci.n monas.c.y. Es bl,sh~ ,n ] ]48, monastery

Ilcfll, ..... 'ng ofdo,~.cr. and ,n.. tro.cou rty d ~ tlghll

[as! .ICW

Sinanq""
Th. mona~ .. ry of Sinanq"" w;os es bhshed In ,he ,emote v.ll.y of SOnancol. by
lhe 6>shop of Dv.,llon In 1148. The
con~"uoion of lhe chuh "",If began
a'Qund 1 ]50. and ". eaS!ern se<:"on is ,n
,he 'yplCal CiStercian l'ad'I;',". ,Ibe" in
,he .,yl. more popular ,n .he sou,h. The
''angular ch.1I1 .rea IS replaced by.n
.pse whICh IS a. w,de a he n.., and
,'luated beh",d , l"'nSv....... ,ch. Th
arch has a functIOn .,m,l .. 10 ,hal of an
c~'.nded bay. The SIde chapel. have
denloped "'10 apses ...."h "" " ,ngul .. ,
Silv.cone
Silva",nc (a .ilva c.nnorun>, ,...I wood)
is fi .., .... n.i.;>ned in .h~ yur ]030 ,n
cOIIn,ion wi,h a ",,,Icm,,,,. of lItrm,lS.
Morc .han a nlO.y passed, howevc"
before .h. Cistercian mOllaSlery W31
."abli.hed 'n .h~ v.lky of .he 1)urall.
The monaStery enloyt"d .he highe ..
p.O.""IIon and had Ono half-bro'h ..
of .he cn>~'or Konrad III . as 'ts first
abbot. The monkscam(C f'om Morimund_
Th. chorch wa, finally boil, aroond 1]60
and has .urvi,ed .Imoo. unahered. The
bu,]d,ng work laSled ....... al dad .... and
,he square cha""el wnh a",ompallying
'tangular chapels waS no, comple.ed
un,il 1191/92. n.e .ransep. arms wnh
h.ir po,n,ed barre]-vaulted cClhng ....cre
h.n bo,l!. follo ..... ed by ,he cross"'g
.panned by "b v301 . The na,'. muS!
'nlt,ally h..,. betn planned a h, ..
.,sled hasillCa with potn.ed bar,el
... ulllng ", nave and .,sles; ,hi, is
sugges.ed by ,b~ vauillng ,n . bc eaS'ern
bay of the nonhc,n .id. ai.l. and by.he
window in .h. upper w.ll of ,h. na ....
!lut the plalls We'" al.ered . ... ulring ,n
deeper Imoot squarc naw bay. wi.h
barrel "auhing 0.... r.....t trans--ef'Sl'
arches. Th. "de aISles were fitted wnh
po,med botrel vaults of va,ying dimcn

170

Secn from .he .. st. ho......,v~ i. is an

indiVIdual 5'ructu.. cncomp".,.ing .h~
n~ . . .nd ~",omp.nted by side-aisl .
n.e extended hor,zom.1 sha~ of .h.
,ransep' IS eff.,,c1y b.oken ~p by .he
w,de apse.
The ....... te'" pa" of ,hIS church. oricnted
north, Con,a,n, a dehghtful do", ..
bounded by .he o.hc. mona.tery bu,ld
"'g5 wh,ch. in ,he" un.do,rw:d s,mplici.y.
also folio ..... Cisterci.n ,,,,dillun. Tht
eXplion is ,he ch.pter !tou ... vouhed.,
a 13'erda,e.

s.ons who .. apex IS .h,ftod ...ongly

towards the n.v~. The chorch was no.
con>ple.~ un,,1 about 1230. Agatn here
is wry lillie ornarncn""OII. ahhough ,he
support,ng arches of ,he barrel vauh. and
,he arcades 'es' on h.lf-column. w"h
plin.h. and crock.. capn. I,. similar '0
.he a, .. n~m(Cn. a. Si-nanquc. In k"p,ng
wi.h lhe ....I' down gr.dien. of .h".
towards nonh h~ 1,,'c1 of .h hr... i.les
has also betn '''W.ed ,owards .hat
"d. This cre es .he ,mpress,on of
dosed-off ruon>sconn"".ed by w'ndo ....-s.
Th.y allowed .hemselves h"" of
dc.:ornlion on .he nav~ en"ance with i.,
mul.ipl. ,esses. bu h. columns no
lon~r exiSl .
L,ke ,he monastery build,ngs. . h
do,stcrs date back '0 lhe se<:ond half of
.he tI"rtccn.h ""'ury.

Silvacane ~BouchcsduRhoncl. former

CisterCian mona .. ery. Es.abh.hed .round
,h. m,ddl. of .he ,welfth ntury,
monastery church from] ]60 .oaroond
1230. Sou,h w.1I of,h. na", (opposi.~),
SIde aISle and na", (left)

f omcfroidc
S'I".. I In the foolhliis of Ihe I\.entt.
"'mh-....e" of Na.bonne, lhe monaslery
of Fontefroilk w~s fOllndl 'o,,'~rds ,he
end of Ihe ele'~mh cenlury by Aym.ry 1.
Vicom'e de N .. bonne. In 1146 " joinl
,h, ,h'n young Cis".,i.n O.lkr. The
money for ,he huildmg of .he be,uliful
mon~"uy church was d"",a,I by
Ermengarde. lhe granddaughle, of ,he
founder, In 1157. An ...11 p..,udobaslhu wlfh five h.),s and a ".n"'pl
con$ls"ng of .hree $/juarcs we~ bUlh.
OpenIng on.o ,he .un",p' are a poly_
gon.1 central apse wilh 3n utended b.y.
IWo sm.ller chapels. and Iwo ,ide ~pses.
also of polygon.1 shape. A POIn.I barrel
.aull spans ,he 1\3,'e .nd is flankl by lhe
qll."e ... llcie barrd V~UI'5 of ,he SIde
..sics, The Ihrtt tran"'pl bays and Ihe
Utrn(il bay of lhe apse, on lhe olher
hand, .Iready h.ve quadripartite fib
vaul"ng, ,ince ,hey were no, mmp!etcd
unlll ,he early ,h'1lttn,h century. By ,ht
second h~lf of Ihe Ih,,,ttn,h cenlll'Y. ,ht
dOlster 8"1I."cs, the ch.pter h.lland lhe
do,m"O<f were hUIIt, )S well OS lhe
buildlllg for Ihe lay brothers ,n , he we ..
alld Ihe eleganl .bbot's chapel III .M
<ou.h..,aslem pa" of Ihe .huh. The
row of chapds on the $Outh s,1k 1$ 311
adduion from 1M I.te Gothic pe,iod.
As In all CtsIC"ian churches. lhe apse
and 'M e""ndl bay are considerably
low... h." ,he na,e. ThIs opened up the
J'OS,ibil"y of p,o"d,ng additional lighl_
ing f,om .he cas. for ,he$( n.,'cs w,re
rd.uvdy dark on account of ,he" qua,;b .,hc. dev.uons_ In , he c....." wall of

Fonlcn.y Ihc .. a .. five ,,,,,nd- ...,hl

""ndo",,,, foUowmg lhe )inc of Ihe .holl
pcdunen . In FonlCfrolde, on the exher
hand. ,hi, group of windows has
d",-doped 1Il10 a fi,e-p." lracery
window that takes up Inc whole of Ihe
upper wall .bo,'. Ihe forechoir bay
1pho'o, below). The choir i..,lf is also
mo .. complex. A. $il ...",nc, .he choir i,
in .he pure Ci" ...,i.n .rad""'n. h~""g

one .Imos. Ioquare ,oom. wh,le a.

Sinanquc and Le llIoronet Ihal space i,
seml-<:;rcular, In com.a , Fomfroide
bo>~.s , choir di ... dl In.o an extended
b.y and " po1Y80n~1 apse. Here. one
becomes distinctly awa .. of a gradual
..Iuauon III lhe austere 0" <;3n Slyle,
whIch had fnund perfecl model", lhe
large-Kak and ~"algh. ~"UC'ures of
Romanesquc ""h"ec,u ...

Fon,efroide (Aude ) former Cis'er,ian

monastery'. Foundl MId d 'enlh
cenlury. Monastery'church from 1157.
Aetlal .. ew of.hesi (,npl. Nave ofth.
.hurch (helow left), c!o;.... utly GOIhic
period (below righl )

I..: Thoro .... (Var). fo, mt,Ci ..ucian

mona".,y. Foumkd in 1136. monas.ery
church 1150160 to a,ound 1200. Vicw of
navoward. e~"

l e Thoronn
Ix.p; Ihc f:lo .h.1 buildmg wo.k on
.he founh
monu"ry in sou.h.,n F",nc. bq;all I."r. u Thor.,....
wa, actually com pined .~rlicr .han
FontfrOld . 1M church and mon~st.ry
bUlld,ngs ar.
,mburd wIth .hc
.nd,nonal Cos.e ... an "mpl",,,y and
d,S""Y' Founded In 1136 by Raymond de
S,un.-Cilks. Com d. Toulouse, ,hc
mOlla".ry was fi'" ."u."d nur
Tounour and mol'ed
present
between 1150 and 1160. \'('ork on .hc
church and monastery bu,ld,ng mul'
h.,-. btgUII ,mmc.;l,",dy "ftcr ,he mov.,
and was <om pined around 'M t.at
1200. Sy 1514. only ",.n monks w ...,
IclI al I..: Thoron ... N...nMks., .h.
chOIr waS .. bu,h '" .h. b...oq"" .. yle a.
Ih. btgln"'1lg of .h ,gh'ttnth century.
The p<eScn. Slale of Ihe bu,ld1llg" durlO
Ih. r<SIora""''' w",.k by Rev",,!.

Ci",,,;,,"

..,II

.0 U,

Ol"

Thc w,de, squat ",,"tr.1 na,'e os flanked

by lI.flOW ,i<lc aisles. Th. poln,.d ba.rel
'oouh conlln""S across ,he ,ro ,nS $0
Ih., Ih. I...",or transept arm I'PC" lik.
,h"pcl. "n. ched to il. S.anding in Ihe
n.w . 11 ",ne notic .. arc Ih hghll)
h,gher .rcades 111 .h. 1 a...,a. The apse
boh1lld Ih. e.os'!Ilg ,. r<.ded by an
,xlrndcd bay wh",h also has. poin"d
b..rrd vault. F",ur chapels wi.h <.angular e",lng opt'n ... ul ill ., .h" .. pt
urn . The church m.. rior i. w.n 101
d .. p". th ... bo,ng no dut"S'<>ry til lhe

a.

nalc.
enough hghl ,~n ...... 'h,ough
,h. wind"w. ,n ,hc main ~pse bo
sou,h.,,, 'ide ai,I . Ihe "o'e... wall, and

alx,..,.n. ~pse.

The pbm, oor...,l.vaulted d ... " .... in ,h.

""nhcrn ...... ion of ,h. church .r. un'
usually larg h." ,ide. mta,urtng 142
ftt . Th.y u. sU'f(>undcd by .he monaS
.~ry butldtllg. accordtng to ,he usual
pan.,n. 1My, '00, ar~ Ulher .Ulte. e.
wi.h the $OI~ exception ",f lhe chapter
oou .. til ,h. uSl wh,ch wu flbvaul.ed
.1 .la.e. s'age.

Vi.w aero .. ,he do""r ,...wards . h.

chu..:h (Iefl). clotS.., wi,h pumproom [Ix",om Ich).ground plan of
,h. mon~' .. ry

173

Secular buildings

O~roS'TE

"The keep - a ~idm"a1 b .. ild,,.. aDd

symbol of power,n I'" h.... Middle AI"
AI I'" end of I'" fir.! m,llenn,um, "' a
I''''''' "... n a rompletdy _
M)1t wa~
& .. t\optd ,n F/'UKh ~I~,o." archi'K'
fU~, OKuLa. archutclu~ .IM) Sort 0111 on.
""w I",h. Un,,1 ,h..
1M castJc.
and ~,~ of 'M ru~ had ronS'S'N
..... 0\1, of S<K311ed moIl~ ,ha' .. 10 '"l.
cOCl1(;I1 moun.d> of .... nh combonrd "'"h
Iffqlub. woodm mcloou~ .... l1s. Tho
,,"""en >m '"
esw,ltn".laml
have hocn hUlll u.lu .. vely from """.
dllrabk nu'en~ls. ~:"c " on. have
d,,,,,,,ve.ed , ... founda"o"S of mul,,
OIorcynungula, ... oodtn or "m"""
f... mcd build",&, on ,... pla,f"'m, of ,he
monos.
A.ound ,he yt'at 1000. wood wa.
""'''''''ngly ",placed by .1"'" for ,he
cons"",lIon of ,he ... ",.. (\tn"al ,o"'e",.
On 'M one ha nd. ,he rc'(In fur ,h ..
chang<: mlghl have been lhe de'If' fur
1;""'" OKu" IY: .""nSN b........ w"e
lIottded '0 ..."h"and 'he evcr-S'..... "4\
dange .. of ,n.p.oved ... ar and ,ltgc 'Khnlquos. On ,he ",her ha"d.,herc wa, .1...,
"chang<: III wcKly wh"'h enabled 100""
d",,1 rulers 'u b,,,1d "one towe ... n..rcf..,.., ,he k... p b<o,.".. not only. 1",,,(!Cd
rnw,ltn .. ol bulldUlg bu, .1100 I .ymool 01
pow ....
Tho e.rt .... , enmpln found ,n I'u,""", a'e
,he kp of 1)ouo'Lafonlat""\Ia".....,
Loirc, d>""" from ........ nd 950, and lhe
k... p of F.. ll 1"...... Coun' of AnjOU, In
l ..;ongn~ wh",h hili ....emily bttn daled
to 1017. Both.rc .tclangul.>., .."h IMIt

' ... GE

1'.ov'll$, culit ",,h 0<"1"11"",,1 krcp from

Iht ea.ly ...... Ifrh ",nrury

'<IT
G, ...... lEu",), c=it. Shdl-kp from the
o ly """Ifrh ",n'"I). kerpa ...... nd 1170

""nod.

.nd rt'Ct.ng"Lar k"'"" (onnntled 10 be

""'It
the .hlt1Ctf1m and, Indtcd, unlll""II ,nlo lhe fiftCtn.h """'ry.
One of 1M str.ngesl "'",fic.III"'" II 'M
kCtp uf ~Iuud..n (Y~h..es. pholo.
bottom left). It was bu,lt by Amaury
III. Stlg,,"ur of Mon.fun and
dvrtux. ,n .M Ii... qua"cr of
I"'<lfrh centllry. I,. mo Of Ins sq"arc
"'I.m.... space wnh bevelled edges ;s
cnclo$c-d by a circle of ;H(ftul.. sh31'<',
.. h",h mu"vc, ..,,,,i..,,,.ul responds
~rc all3ched f,c;IIJI,h. four
uf .h.
' '''"pOSS. One of lhese lowe .. llke res
ponds has sp"al II3"'a .... S",h a
"allca.. wllh;n .he .. all wI< s'lln of
enonno ... Pf"Ol!.l"CS', not only b<ou.. "
was (on.'."' .... I. btl! .Iso bocau ... " wu
ea, .... f.... lhe noble lo.d. and lad..,. .u
kerp aw;oy from ..........m ..... Now he
,OO'Vld",,1 fIoon .....,'" 'ndcpcndtn' of
ont another, and .ado '0<Im (ould bot
reached ...
,,"vlne ' o C1'OS$ another
~. Tho prmy btforU of ,he ..-rond
floor probably express lhe '''''"'''.anu
dnorc fur hurndlncss and eXclus,v,ty ,n
,..... noble qua"o .... Tho ground floor,
100. has ..... 11 """",.ngs - p<Ob;Ibly an
mdlCllllon lhal ,he kerp of Houd.n mus'
onet h.~ betn protKle-d by """"roun
walls.
n.. ......Iopr...'" hcun a. Houdan w~s
ronnnued by the kerp of .ompn
U:SSOIlllt} whICh ""lI' buIlt betw",," 1130
and 1150. II 1$ La,d 0111 on a q ....... foIl
pbn, 50 .hat o""h of ,,. four IOwen of
Ifm,<,rcuJ.. OK. ion lakes up .he O"IIte
...;d,h of .n ,nteriot sqtl;lrt:. Tho result
was kCtp wnh five " p3rnooms ""
...... y florn- and wnh several splt.l
a ",.1 ~13'e w"h,n 0 I"wer. IT
'so h.."",vo douh.ful whe.ht. ,he: qua",'
fOlI.h.1'<' wa. dcfe",i."ly .dv.nt.S""""
Th. round and polyson.ltow.... which
IInICe .he m,ddl" of .ht ",ntury had
betomc no Ins ,mpunan. Ihn ,h.
rt'Ctans"I.. 0.... "".0 more .dvan.
ug<:oU" Another kerp ..."h OC1agun.1
srouOO pl.n alld four ... nu..,;rcula.
100000 .....S buIlt al .oughly IM .. me II,."..
a, 1M k",p of G1$OI'$: 'M Tour ces.. III
I'",VI'" (photo. p. 175).

.Iu-oud>ou.

domn,,,,

u.m1C

.h.
'0

PO"'''

utl"""lIy Ih,n ,,oU. "'ppofled by

.esponds '!lached 10 lhe ,,.lIt al fqlulu
,nl"vals. Renl research h.~.no"'T1lhal
bo<h kCtI'S wert: ,n'I",l1y uS<.'<l mo", ,.,..
"",w,Itn"ol rather .han &ft-nsi~ pu~
.nd Ihal lhey ,,"'ere only for"fied a ...... nd
I~ yt' 1100 ..hen I'" wi<Kiowo "'-~re
wolled .. p and ,M ...all$ mnfc>m:d.
"'ouoo 1070. Itumboud d H.. nd III
Bund (Alher} had a kCtp bu,ll xcord'ns
IO'~ $I""" pI.n. bul ..-"h much more

p.onou""ed (","foed ,ha ..... ( . A 'I"'"

mcu"''''11 .ooul1.0 x 27 fm '$ enclosed
by "'alls 6'1, fn.t IhlCk. eact. w~ll hal'IIIJI
four n.II po..- bunrcMn al1xhed '0 11$
extCnot. Of 1M ""8'n~1 fi..., >!orcy .. only
.ht town. ~ h;.s vaulled oolong.
wh,l" 'ht
ha.,. n ""I,IIP
resllnS on Iht exl...- ..-aU, whICh
bt-comt .h,nne. I""",rd, 1M lop of lhe
bu,Id,,,&- Tho ,nhab"an" p<Ob;Ibly llsed
ladde .. 10 gel from ~ S'l0f<')' '0 ,~
..." ,. Two enl'~ncfi; ,,"'ere placed on , ...
se<:ond and'M .h"d fIoon. I\clow lhem
arc bum hoko"'SICS"IIJI rh;.1 llItre nit'"
Iu..., bern woodm I"s..p'.... ys ami
"hlCh could be .... on flte and
Ih.own off III an .mcrgencr.
Gu,ll.>umc It Rou" 11 . 1100 A,d 10 ha,e
hcun bu,ld,ns 10."(",."",, m G,..,...
(f. ... o) dunns Iht 1.>.. yt'MS of 1M
elcl'~",h "",ury. Today only 'IS htgh
motte rcm .. ,,. ound whICh II.nry
PlanlJ.geM' (H.nry I) bu,lt nng. uf w.lls
.nd (rownrd w"h ",helJkCtp" .n ,he
O3.ly .wolflh ',,,,u'y (phow, .hov.). The
shelJkrcl"." ,he "''11, ..... 11. on Ihe
pl.I.au of lhe mones. "",re "'~n,ed by
.he Anglo-Sa~oll$ and ...... 001 .. '&Iy
u,..,] ,n F ",. NOfm.ny 1M shelJk...""
hou,..,] .M ...,denu.1 and domesllC
qu." .... ,he ahles and . he chapd. In
Gi....... ho"",~.. Henry II buIlt an
"",agorul krcp ....... 00 1170 whICh
provides a SJ)f'CIacular crown'IIJI fe.lure
for 'M ~"if; woU tlf<'lts. Roth lho
wllkerp and 1M kerp.,1' ullC1lia.ed by
po..- bu",nosn.
In ICml of defen .... ,hn%:l&y, ,he:
IntrOO"" ..on of 'M cif<'it Of ,he onagun.
.. al G"""". ,eprc:soonlN I"or,rno.. "
d,m,n;"ed 1M blInd !pOls Ih.II ex",ed
around 'M COl'"nt"n of I I'la""ula.
&r.ru. byou" and off.red IN .p.ac:o"'"
."I<k by p.",.cults. In .pne of lhac
.dvanlages. 'ht "f<'.. b. fo<m ""...,.
b<omc f.. lly .... blishcd ,n 'u own "SIll,

"'M' "'''''''l''

."adct

I luud.on Iyvd" .... ), krcp. ~,rsl " ... nerof

.he ."",lfll'11lury

"bou.

""",SC$,

OPPOSITE PAGE LEFT

S"in,An'onin, .own house of .h.

Granolhe-! f.""ly. Xcond qu .... rof the
, ..... elf.h "mu.y. Fron, lookrngOllIO ,he
" . . .1

OPPOSITE PAGE RIGHT

Au"..... fo,m bishop,palac . Around

1120f2S. Gallery wIng

Druyesles1Ie lies FOIlI. Inos (Yonne ~,

castle. Begun ",ound 1200

$.e, on " hIgh "nd ""1' ",on. 1M.... I~ "

~ua !ub.rr"'lUrr m mrlllg 61 x 61
I... and supponrng .n. k.. p .nd lhe
'0""" which aremaii.ve ., ground floor
buIldIng Iho
Ic'.1. Aoou. halfway up
extenor w~ 1l ...... dcs. makIng .oom fo' a
d.u,nsi,. p'$<.3g. It.ding ,h.ough ,he
IQw .... A Sttond dd.n",e pa''''g' u~
'0 run along Mhind 1M b3tllomonts on
,h. "'I' .I1Q"y. In"d . M we .wo
do",.d ha lls. Again, ,,,,h. conrplrca,.d
',youl, comi>ling of so m.ny pan_, .aises
he queslion of Ihe offccI"'eness of 1M
bUIlding', defense. The Tour Cisar WaS
bnlli.nlly prO'<CI...l by walls .nd moa' ..
nd ,h. mOtte m."", ,hal i, wa ai~ far
,00," .h. 1"'01 of .ny .lIach... How
eve., Ih tyle ofconstruc"on of Ih.laner
muSI su",ly also h.ve had somethrng 10
do wllh Ih. d.sire fo' p'esllg"
Th. qua'refoil ground plan was 0""
mo.e ,ak.n up a' .he end of ,h. 'welfrh
cen. u'y in Ambleny. I I..e, howe"." a
sttal!;h, '''elCh of wall 'emains fr
be' ....... n ,h. semi<ireula r lOw.", lhe
whQIe (omplex con,is.s of larg (ar.-

,h.

176

mos.

fully !moo,h...l hI.... hs Wilh

heps. " was mode.mzed In lh. late
M,ddl. Ages wh.n .h. k.ep w.. ,...lISco... ,ed as a ,esidemial bUIlding. Today,
lh. keep of Ambleny IS" " .. rr rUIn. Th.
beglnnrng Qf
dfth e.n,ury $Ow
fundamen,.1 change in rhe building of
easrles in F,a...e: .he .ndosu.. w.l1s.
which for e.ntu.ies had, e... lostd
'.rrain of ".egula, and a,bltrary ..... pe.
lIee.n,. narrower and rnore 'egular.
Around .h. y.u 1200. lh .. >l1'le ...."s
rntrod",...l rnlo Fra ... e by Iwo bUlldrngs:
Ih. Qld l"uvre rn Paris and ,h. c",rI. of
Druyes-ks-llellcs-Fo"''''I'It$IYOIlne). comml<liion...l by King l'Ilil,p,,' 11 Augu"e
and hi. rou,in Pi.... 11 d. Councnay.
,.spec\lvoly. WhIlst 1M Lou"re of ,h.
carll' Ih'''<en,h ccnlUf)' IS ,od"y kno ..... n
only from ."ea.a,;on. and, Qld pictu.es.
D.uyes-les-llelles-FQnl~ines "ill .xi,1S as
a piCfU'esqU' and Imp'CS$i,. ruin. sr.
high up "n a n",uul .or;:k ledS' (phOlO.
aoo"'~. The come" of ,he ~u"re
"rIK'u," a," P'O'<CIed by ~;reuJa,
lOw'". lhe hing quaners ....'... si.u"ed

,h. '. .

aoove ,h... up rocHace " ..... Iook,ng ,h.

,'alley. Unu,ually for ,h. pellod . h.y
extended along .h...... hol. fronl and had
"gula,ly spaoed Iwinopenrn&>.
The mIghty gale\O .....' wllh U, poInted
arch ..... ay :lnd pl,r buttresses In the Centre
of .he .,...... $Ide has .u,v,,'ed almos'
imaCl. In eom.as o ,h. e ... IO$u" w311
the g" ... o ....... ;s buih from hlgh-quali,y
a,hla ... A, ,he lOp. " ... min3'es in
11l3chrcol:!IIOflS set abm" muillply m:cssed
and mouldedco.MI .
ThIS ll'pe of fo"if"'311011 ,.marned in
,onSlan' use In F.. "". for mQr. Ihan twO
"'U"CS. lhe only changes Mlng In ,h
d.c{)t.non of 11>0 Ii,,ng quane".

(II 15-llJ61 on th~ ~3" w311 01 a bUIlding .hal had pr~'",ou.ly

on ,h".i'~.
On. 01 tn.. ""St.pr<:'SC""~ .~amplcs 01
Rom~nrsqu i,y orch,,~,urc " .h. IOwn
hou .. 01 ,h. G",nolh .. famIly m SaimAnt"",n. datmg IrQm ,n.. """ond quart
of .h",dl.h ..,n.ury IpholO, Ielt). The
.hr-'fOrey fa~~d. h.d .hr distInct
\e,cI . On 'he ground floor. potn'~
archcs "!",n ou, ""0 uulted hall. On
.h. """ond floor, .h. wh"l. WIdth 01 .h~
b~<k" tahn up by a w",<low SCI ,n a
from~""ork of <klica" moldIng. S,m,lar
'0 .he ,~hntqu. used 10 dOlste .... 'he
d"'lsl<>n InfO .hr ..."on, IS .ch>(v.d hy
'wo p,m; wllh ",!"'.imposed f>gu ..... Each
... tion has thr ... ,w,n coion""".. w;,h
richly de.:oro.ed capII.I . Th~ '''1' ""rcy.
fin,lIy, has 'hr ,win op,,,,ng' ,,hose
outh"", arc tr~<~ by ,IfI"gcou.....
Wh,l,t ,ho .rch"e<I"r. of ,ho Rom.n
..que pe" od locused m;mly "" rch~.tOus
and ....
b,,,ld,ng.. II wa, .I!IO
beco","'g aware of ,h. Ie<hnolog>cal
'ash whoh II coul<l perform: ,hore ,s,
fo. cumpl" ,nc famno. kll.h,n In
,he m"n'I,.,y of Fon.evrault (photo.

.,ood

"1,,

Town . csidenccs 01 ,he bi,ltops and Ihe

nobili'y
In Ihe ei.ies., the ddensi.'e poIen,;.1 of
,nd",dua] houses w ol noconSC<jue",,<.
R.. lter , h~n de>'elop,ng part",ul budd
Ing 'ype' . rchll~.u" would ,once",,,,..
0<\ tho de.:o .,,,,,, of thot f~ades.. resultmg
moK,urICcn, f"""'geI fe.,u,,"8 ."",des..
11"11.".. and .win opemngl.
'!any hau .... haw suflered badly nut
only from Ih. pa,""J!C of time. bUI .I!lO
from ,h. ",'o.,UOn efl"", of 'he n,,,,,, ..",h cen,ur). nd of,en only p;I'l$ of
,Item h.". survived. Th. former p;llac< of
,hot bl,hop 01 Au"."c, lor eumple, .un
ha d.lighllul'fC~d. (photo. '01' .. gh.).
alhe" holow , sonlewha' disfiguring
....!ustrade d.llng from the n1O'tecn,h
cen'ury. Iklica,e '''','' colon",,"cs wllh
Ia","" and ",,,ed .han d"""",;on carry
.... m....:ireul a.ch .. "'"h hollow moldIn~s d~o .. '~ w;.h Sfone baU . ThIS
~",.de IS part 01 g:.ollcry wIng bUIlt
by .Itt h"hop Hugu .. de Mon,,,,gu

p. 157), bu. there or I!IO m,lIs, Cln,l ..

Imckworh. mm<s. road and bri<lgcs. It
IS ,n th.If natu.cth .. ha<dly any of .hese
<on ....><: ..on' we .. hUlI,.o I.... wllh the
exc~plion of .Ite wooden .nd >lone
h"dgcs wh>ch h.," urv,v.d here .nd
thcre. at lea" p,..".lIy_ The bes,known
Romon.sque b,id&" is the 1'"n,S.m'_
IXn~,e or .h. Pont dAvignon. Ug.nd
h.. II .hat hUlldlng wo.k o n II was begun
hy Satnt Bcn~,,, who w.~ I.. d '0 'CSt 10
1185 In .he chapel 01 S;\ln . NlColas
wh,ch .. ",uated on ,hot """ond p,er 01
'he h"dgc. Durmg. h.~"y mllilary >I<go:
,n 1216 ' he h"dge w.s scnously
danl.ged and w". rebmh 31 shghtl~
'3Isc<lle,el. Further repai .. " .. r. c."ie<l
ou, In , he fif.... n.h century, hut lrom .h.
sc."enlcemh century onw.rd, {he hridge
hu httn m<onlple,. All .ha. ",m.in<
now arc 'h= WI<k. O.t arehes .nd three
1'..... Th.huflal chapel 01 S;\ln. IIcnnbe
"'''h ," polygon.1 .pse and b.r",l
,".ul.w n,ve SC, on one of .h... p.....
The chapel ",as dlvld~ "'to ,wo s'orey'
Iate.d.,.

I.

,n

A"igll"n. Pon'-!>olml\tnt,CI. Around 1 ! 70175

177

Bruno Klein

Romanesque architecture in
Spain and Portugal

H i~torical backgro und

In Spain and POrlugal, the origin and de,'elopment of Romallcs.quc
ardlltt'Cture took a cOUr$(' different from that in most otber countries of
western and central Europe. The historical background was different
there, a~ nearly all of the Iberian Pen",~ula had been under Moorish rule
since 7 11. It was not umi l the Romanes.que period that the ~Rt'Conquista ~
- the reconque~t under the Christian banner - achieved its first great
success. The movernem staned in the Asturian mountain region which had
never fallen completely inlO l\l oorish hands. In 924, the kingdom of the
Asturias became the kingdom of Leon. and later of Castile and Le6n. The
Re<:onqu ista developed also in the Franco.Spanish border region of
Catalolli3 (from 795) and also in the kingdoms of Navarre and Aragon.
The local rulers there managt"d to turn the conflict with the Muslims into
an issue which in"ol"cd the whole Christian community. These efforts
found their most significant expression in the organization of the pilgrimagt"
to Santiago in Galicia, a Journey which m the te11th and eleventh (cmuries
was still ad"ocalCd as a kind of crusade; the first crusade to the cast, 10
Jerusalem, did not staTl out until the year 1096. [n the [ate eleventh
century, after the immt"diate threat posed by the Muslims had bet-n
eliminated, at least from northern Sparn, the journey to Santiago took on
the characteristics of a proper pilgrilllage. Pilgrims made their way 10 the
gra,'C of St. James in the cathedral of Santiago ill order 10 solicit the
Apostle's intcrcession for the salvation of their souls. now that th is
salvation could no longer be achieved primarily by the uSt" of weapons
against the Moors.
It is true that the consolidation of a Christian Spain initially depended
on the military success against the Muslim t"nt"my. From the eleventh
century onwards, howe,cr. the military effort was Increasing[y supported by
cultu ral developments. The few, widely spaced hospices that had been set
up along the rOllle of the pllgrimagc in order to provide a base for the
ITa,-eleTS on their dangerous and arduous journey to Santiago soon grew mto
sizeable selliements. The local rulers encouraged this development further
by means of active population policies, which meant that they granted
extensive privileges to immigrants who were prepared to senle there.
l'ara[[c1 to this development, a series of religious reforms were introduced,
culminating in the introduction of the Roman liturgy 10 replace the local
Mozarabic one. A number of monastic comnlllllities took care of both the
mental and physical we[[being of the pilgrims, while their spiritual needs
were met by the constTl1C1ion of Ilew religious bui[dillgs.
The dcvelopmem of Romanesquc architccture on th e Iberian Peninsu la
must be seen in the context of the historic and cultu ral developments
occurring 31 the time, whICh can be only bTiefly and roughly outlined here.
T he proximity of Al-Andalus, the southern. Muslun part of the Iberian
Peninsula, 3S well as thc Re<:onquisl3 and its immediate aftermath, all
brought their illflucnce 10 bear on the development of an archife<:tural
sty[e which was independent only at its outSt"t. It soon came more and
more nndt"r the influence of an archita:tural culture shaped by mainland
Europe, and by France III particular. By the end of the twelfth ccntury, it
showed pronounced regional tendencies.

O"IWO, Monle NU.n<o. San

1.11;0. ""d nll"h century

~hgud

<k

Oviedo,

MOnl~

Naronco.

P.I"c~

audnoflum from Ihe lime of KlnS

RamlrO 1. (842-850)

Of course this does not necessanly mean that archit.-.::ture 111 twelfthcentury Spain lost any originality by following foreIgn trends" bUI that
Spain became increasingly integrated into a broader European context
whilst not losing its own identity.
The conflict between the variolls Muslim rulers in the south, whose
basc was at C6rdoba, and the Christian rulers in the north, brought about
a cultural division of the Iberian Peninsula into two parts: evidence of
Romanesque architecture is therefore found only mthe north, w:hile m the
sOUlh Muslim architecture continued to be cultIvated, in some parts until
well into the fifteenth cenlllry. Whilst it is true that the fiercely contested
borders gradually moved further soUlh. the starting point of Romanesque
architecture, however. must always be looked for in the extreme north of
Spam.
I're-Romanesque architecture
Only fragments have survived of the earher Christian archirecrure in
nonhern Spain from the time of Ihe kingdom of the Asturias. The most
significant monuments are found near the old capital of Ovi('do: here,
King Ramiro I (842-850) built a palace complex with audience chamber
at the MonIC Naranco (photo, top, right), which was extend<ed by his
successor Ordoiio J with the construction of:l church, San Migu>!l de Lilio
(photo, tOp, left), Buth buildings feature a remarkable wealth of architectural articulating elements, such as pilaster strips. blind ardes, and
corntces, and many ornament;\1 shapes in relief, While the palace audience

chamber is unique for its period, the church - only pariS of which ha'-e
survived - can more easily be connected in typological terms with other
contemporary churches. The maUl space is subdivided into several shon
aIsles. The tr:lnseph. which hardly prOI"t beyond the width of side aisles,
is adjoined by rectangular, cell-like chambers used as side chapels and 10
house Ihe altars.
Before long this building style underwent 3 decisive change, triggered
by the emigration of the Christian ~MozarablC~ population in the
Moorish pan of Spain. comin!; under increasing pressure and movin!;
northwards, where their innuence brought about the development of a
new architectural style. This was characterized by the fusion of older local
tradiTions with Moorish clemenTS which, in turn, still contained traces of
Roman and Byzantine style. This type of ~Mozarabic~ archtleclllre had
existed at an tacher date in Al-Andalus. Presumably. the most impona111
examples were situated in Toledo: none of the works there have, however.
survivcd. Instead. there is a whole series of buildings extant in the
Christian north of Spain in which the earlier Asturian style is mixed with
novel elements. While the churches tend 10 be ba<;cd on a snopler layout,
Ihey are endowed with arcades and apses with horseshOt arches and central
domes. Thc older Iype of the square-ended apse often remains IIltact. but
only as an OUler wall-<:asing surrounding a horseshoe-shaped interior
cham ber, and there is an increasing wea1th of architectural ornament.
Suon afterwards, this building style followed in the Christian areas of
the Iberian Peninsula was replaced by Roman csque architecture.

179

One can hardly describe this process as a gradual change from

the old 10 the new - it was more like a complete break. One reason
for th is was probably the culmination of political el'ents in the
late tenth century. The Moorish ruler Almanzur ~the victorious~
conquered parts of the kingdoms of northern Spain, and in 985
dest royed Barcelona, in 988 Leon, and in 997 [ria Fi3via, Ihe future
Compostela, where a church had already been erl~tcd above the
tomb of the Apostle. However, before long A[m arnur hllmse[f
suffered a defeat ncar Caiantaiia1.or, and soon afte r his de;Ith in
] 002, the once powe rful caliphate of Cordoba disin tegrated into
!>everal small principalities called taifas, which one by one fell prey
to the Reconquista. So, in a sense, a Mtabula ra sa~ had been cr'eated
at that time for the construction of new buildings, which we,,: now
to be built in the spirit of a strengthenl-d Christian identity. Almost
simultaneously, a reform within the monastic order beg;~n in
France, ltd by the Benedictine monastery of Cluny. In lta[y, too.
efforts were made 10 reform the Church. The architectural reStllts of
these efforts can be seen in a widespread return 10 early Chrlstran
building forms.
The development of Romancsq ue style in Catalonia. Aragon and
Navarre
It was almost as a matter of course that the first buildings in the new
style were constructed in the Catalonian region on both sides of the
Pyrenl>t:s. Formerly under the sway of Charlemagne, this region had
been independent since 865 and was ruled b)' the counts of
Barcelona. Its proximit)' to the Christian mediterranean count ries
of France and haly made it a natural me[ting,pol for the Moorish
and Christian cultures. Mon.'Qver, the counts of lIarce[ona had
obviously found :I way of pe;Kcful communication with the Moorish

kingdom of C6rdoba. During the tenth centur)" the counts probably had
pay dues 10 Cordoba. After the Moorrsh IIlvasion at the end of the
Centur)", however, which was soon followed b)' the decline of the Moorish
empire, the situation was reversed, and the counts of Rarcelona were able
to demand allegiance and tribme from the small Moorish principaliti~.
The abbot Count Oliva Cabreta of Bedah' and Cerdaiia p[a)'ed an
important political role, which was also to ha'"e great impact on architecture, at that stage of Catalonia's economic development. Like several
others of his official colleagues, the aristocratic prelate had traveled 10
Ital)' where he had encoun tered the new reforms. He was abbot of twO
monasteries in Catalonia: Saint Michel de CUX3 situated in the French
Roussillon region, and Santa Maria in RipolL Adaptations following the
new style were carried out on both churches. From the year 1018, Oliva
Cabrcta was also bishop of Vic.
Toda)' no more than a ruin, Saint Michel de Cuxa was one of the most
important building complexes in the Motarabi, style datmg from the
tenth centur),. Oliva Cabreta commissioned major extensions both eastwards by the addItIon of a new chancel area, and also at the west end by a
new fa~ade with two towers. At Ripoll, there was anoth.er church built in
the older style which had been consecrated in the !ate ninth century. In the
course of the tenth centur)", that building had been extended twicc and had
finally ended up featuring a fj"e"aisled hall layout with a matching number
of apses. Even when he was alread)' BIshop of Vic, Oliva Cabrera had this
building altered again, Ihis tnne arranging for the construction of a broad
transept that would termina te the nave and aisles. The apses - whose
number had now risen to se,'en - were joined to the east wall of the transept (photo, below). T he re-consecration of the church finally took place
in 1032, the S.1me year as the diswlution of the caliphate of COrdoba.
[t nllght appear as if the shape of the church of Ripoll was arrived al
more or less by chance and graduall)', by the series of alterations and
to

RIpoff ( pr""lnc~ <>f Gtronaj, abbey

,hurch "fSanra Mari . New[y

,ons""rd

In 1032. ""stern oe<"Iion

wllh 5e"~n apses. gfQund plan

ISO

San,

p~",

dt Rodts (pro"""c ..,fGo:rona!,

.bb.,y,u,n$

aOTIOM
San! Pert de Rodts: onteroo'f)f the
monastery church con5e(:r.'ed in 1022,
prOI",,""gcolumns moun'cd on hlg!>

plin'hs

extensions described. Nevenhelcss, we can assume that the work <lone In the
ele\'enth century was largely the construction of a new buo1din~: in which
only a few foundations. :I few pans of wall. or a few capitals wt:re rcuSl.-d.
The layout of the new church is remm'SCCnI of Ihe Roman-carly Christian
style: the five-aisled hall layout, unusual in itself, and the addition of the
prominent transept had brought the church in line with the Constantlnian
basilica pattern of Old St. reier's in Rome which had the s.1mc ch~lfactcristic
fc;uur.-s. These were repeatedly copied throughol1l the whole of the ~ I iddle
Ages. though" should be noted that their o\"Crall number is so small that in
evcry single instance one must assume a special dircct relationship to thc
church of Old St. Peter's in Rome. I" Ripoll. thai relalionship was embodied
In the person of the dient who had traveled to Italy. What is, how,:ver, of far
gR"ater imponance to the history of architecture is the facllhal Santa Maria
In Ripoll was :I building which represented a dear move away from the
traditional regional models in the Iberian Peninsula.
After Ripoll, very few Mozarabic elements were integrated into the
new type of architecture which was now dominated by Roman forms - or

lSI

;0,

T.hulJ Ip'O,.rI<;f .nU."bl. Son

Cltrl"lfnte. Con:lUtM In IllJ

.orrOM
Sc...,~ {frarl<;f, EaSlfM

Pyrmcnl,

Ncxrt D~rI"If. c.o..-UtM.n 1080.

UltnSOI)II rompltoM.n L15 I

at least such forms as were then aSSOCiated wuh thmgs Roman in tm:
widest sense. [n other words, with the work In Rlpoll, Spanish architecture
reioined the mainstream of European style from which it had become
more and more Isolated oWlllg to the special status and political
development of the [benan Peninsula. Given the great SignifICance of the
church at Rlpoll. It IS all the more deplorable that today - after repealed
acts of destruction, particularly durmjl: the nineteenth century - the
blllldlllg remallls no more th .... a halfhearted. poor quality pastiche.
This IS not the case vo'IIh the monastery of Sant Perc de Rodes {photo,
p. 181 ) situate<! III an IIl1preSSlVe SCtling high abo,'(' Ihe sca. Consecrated in
\022. this building is also m a Slate of rum today. Nevertheless, it has
retainl-d much more uf liS original character than Ripon, the ,ietim of O>'erresturatlon. Beyund us prolectmg tr.lnsept arms, the threeaisled church has
an ambulatory fbnked b)' chapels. The \'ery high side aisles with their
barrel vaults prop the VJlIlt of the ccntr.tl nav<' which IS supported on strong
1r.lns\erS(' arches. Th~, III turn, sprong from pro]C'Ctmg columns loc;llW
one ab..we the otner in double rows on "ery high plinths. Further projC'CTIng
columns on tne square pler-renals support the arches of the arcades, the
overalll"C'$ult belllg a 'cr) Ihrcc-dlmcnSlOIlal structural form. IXspl1e thi ....
the upper wall sections ~n.d tm: chancel arca {whose arcades arc carncd not
by columns bill by p,[aSieTS whICh apptar 10 ha"c been COt OUI of Ihe sohd
wal1l arc domUlated by flat wall surface.
The vanel)" of allthcsc elemcms is also reflccled in their stylistic origm.
Thc columns placed one on top of the other demollStr<lIe Ihatthc builder
of Sam Perc de Rodes was famlhar wllh the Moorish architccture found in
the south of the counu). where Ih.s mOllf could be siudied abo"e all in Ihc
mosque of Cordoba. The br.I!.;!nl K u[pllng of Ihe capitals also pomts III
that d,rC'CTIon. The :l!nbu[;lIory, on the other hand, is an element1argely
unknown Jnd vcry rarely cmplo)'ed m Spamsh Rumanesque arch,teclure,
and ItS OTlgm must defimtcl) be regarded as I'rench. The SJme is Ilkcl)' 10
apply 10 Ihe shape of Ihe p'ers with thClr diagunally placed pro]C'Cting
shafts, The basllocall spallal construction, on Ihe other hand, as well as
aligning conlpartm~nt~ uf different height along the central aXIS, IS a
feature typical of MOl.lrabic ~rchitecture, IUter all. the barrel vault with
Irans'erse arches h.ld already been known 1Il AstUrian architecture of the
mmhcenturr
We can Iherdore appreciate that 5;lIIt I'ere de Kodes docs not folluw
Ihe Roman panern anywhere ncar as closel)' as the slightl)" earlier bUilding
of Rlpoll. [t becomes ob ...ous, ne"cnhelC'Ss, that Ihe Cataloman clienls no
longer looked for msplr.tllon only from loo:al sources, bUI Ihat Ihey self
confidently tned to amalgamate highly demandmg clc~ms from very
differenl regions. E,'en III ItS vaSI Kale, Ihls church bUl[dmg far surpasses
an)"lhmg Ihat had been bUlh beforc an thc coumry, and competes ","h
olher bUlldangs an soutm:rn Europe.
AI that lime, Catalonia e>:perienced an e>(uemel) fecund period of
arch"ectural aCII'"). JIICSted by a number of extant buildings which,
hoW('ver, cannot all be dliCusscd here. The cathedrals of Girona, and
espec13 l1y thaI of Vic. nl USI huwever be menlloned. The laller was
consecrated in 1038. while Bishop Oliva who, as we know, had a great

IS)

Cardona 1prov",c. of lU,colonal. San

]029-(. UMO. Vi.w f,om northoa~l. GrounJ pl,n

Via~.

[=
,-.~
rT:--~

--

II - : - . ~

interest in archi te<:ture, was in office. Unfortunately only few remnants

from the eleventh centu.y ha\-e su.vi,'ed from both buildings.
However. the particularly impressive church of Sam Vicem; in Cardona
(photos, above and on p. L85) has fo rtunately been preserved. BuiLt
between 1029 and around 1040, even the ground plan of this building is
distinguished by an unusual regu la rity and clarity. There are three more or
less sqlla r. bays in the na,'e behind a narthex which supports a gallery.
[ xtending from the crossing are short transept arms with tall apses. The
chancel area. co rresponding in width to the transept arms, is situated
above the crypt and is likewise terminated by a large apse. The building is
co mpletely vaulted: a dome set on squinches rises above Ihc crossing;
chanccl, tunsepl arms and cenlral na,c are all covered by barrel vaults
which are e<:hoed in The side aisles by three small groin vaults in each bay.
This feaTUrc had been unknown in Spanish architccture before this date.
Walls and pic rs arc decorated in a nOI'el kind of relief work. T he interior
walls of the chancel are ho llowed Out with a series of deep niches which
have stepped openings rather than being directly CUI into the plane of the
waIL. Where two recesses conjoin, they are separated by a slender respond
supporting a blind arch above both of them. The 5.1me subtlety employed
in the design of the wall relief can also be observe<! in the western sections
of the church where no niches are intcgraled into the wall. T here, the main
picrs of the nave and aisles al first appear 10 have been Cut OUi of the solid
wall. They do, ho wever, have imposts added on their narrow sides from
which spring the stepped arches of the arcade. Along the arcades there are
double-step ImpoSIS, with the lower ones ending juSt above arcade level,
while the upper ones support the stepped Transve rse arches of the barrel
vauLt. A similar construction occurs on the side aisle faces of the arcades.

184

OPI'OStU
Cardona. San V;~.no;. Nav. wllh ~h.",,01
(topkfl ).
wa(( of ""m,. ( n.. (rop ,ighll.
cro"",& (oono", Idl l.
"d. 31>1. 100110," nghl )

The eXlerior of Ihe bUIlding is marked by lavish archttl"Ctural dccorati"e

elemenrs such as pilaSler strips ~nd blind arches.
The slepped arrangement of wall relief is one of rhe main slylislic
features of European Romanesque architecture. At that time, the principaL
concern was no longer the mere fill ing together of indtvidual spatial
compartmen ts that were hardly iuucuLaled in themse"'es, but the addItion
of some architl"Ctural d~"Coration. The aim was to devote JUSt as much care
and a!tention to the design of the spatial boundary, in other words, the
wall, as to that of the sequence of chambers.
Traditionally, Ihis new form of wall articulation is ascribed 10 masler
builders from Lombardy who were active in CatalonIa, and who arc also
mentioned in wrillen sources. Indeed, similar forms arc found around the
sanll" period in northern Italy where they must be regarded as a further
de,'elopment of the earlier 1I)'1,antine and early-Christian architecture in
that regi01I. T hese influences from Lombardy should, however, not be
overrated, for the corresponding richness in form and shape emerges in
Ca u lonia only shghtly later than in Italy Ilself, and Ihere underwem nOI
only parallel but also indi,'idual developmem. II is Iherefore natural 10 see
the specific layering of relief in Cardona in the context of a general renewaL
of thl." repertory of form that can be observed in many places in southern
Europe during that period. After all, e,'("n the inno"3ti"e wal! treatment
which pLaccs Cardona on a par wIth other foreign examples cannot hide
the fan that in typological lerms the buildmg IS grounded within dIe
regional architecturaL tradi tion. This is demonstrated by such features 3S
the high side aisles and barrel vaults supported by transl'erse arches,
already known from Sant Perc de Rodes. bur not usually employed in Italy,
From now on throughOut the elnenth and Iwe1fth centuries,
C.1Ialonian architecture on both sides of the l'yrenees remained largely
faithful to the models it had found, with only a few exceptions. T his is
demonstr;ned by Ihe church of Serrabone (photo, p. 183) on the French
side. but becomes much more impressil'ely obvious in the rebuilding of the
cathedral of La Seu dUrgeli. begun in 1175 (photo. p. 186), Here. the
might)" nal'e flanked by very wide side aisles leads to projecting transepts.
Each arm has two small apses CUI into its eastern wall. Furth("r extensions
of the transepts. maintaining their overall width, providc a massive lower
on each side. The church the refore has an east wall whose continuity is
broken only by the apse. creating a monumental effect.
We arc already famlhar with the Sifucture of Ihe naye and aisles from
the example of Sant Vicen~ in Cardona. There, too, cruciform piers
support the groin vaults of the side aisles and a barrel vault wi th transverse
arches above the nave.
Here. the nave vault springing is a litde htgher than at Cardona, leaving
room for small round windows above the arcades which provide direct
light for Ihe nale. The dome above the crossing and the barrel yaliiting in
the transept are also familiar fe atu res. The way III which the apses have
been integrated into the eastern trausept wall is, however, completely
original: since rheir height is less than half Ihe height of the uansept wal!,
there was enough space left abo,'e the apses for windows below the
springing leyel of the barrel vauLt. These openings high up in the wall are

'85

u Stu d'UrgellllieidalUrid~),
cathedral. From 1175. Vitw from the
east. Ground plan

San Salvador de l.eYR (provin of

N"'''Rj, monastery church ron~rated
in 1057. Ground pl~n of the CT)'P' (. ,gIl.).
imerio. viewof thecrypt lbelow)

its ornate group of windows above are also reminiscent of the same Italian
bUIlding. and maybe even of S. Abbondio iu Como dating from the late
eleventh century (photo. p. 84). it is unlikcl). on the other hand. that the
unusual layout with two massive towers on the extended transept arms
was modeled on the Italian cath~-dral of Aosta. It proves, rather, that e'-en
at the end of the twelfth century the Catalonian church of Saint-MicheldeCuxa (photo, p. 182) on the other side of the Pyrenees was regarded as
the aspirationalmodcl for the cathedral of La Seu d'Urgci, since they both
share the same piau. To thIS extent it is out of the questIon to suggest that
Catalonian architecture in the eleventh and twelfth centuries conSTituted
all Moffshoot~ of the so-called Lombardic architecture. After all, despite
any connections with Ital)' which can be proved, Ca talonian architecture
remained independent in the form of its buildings, while any corresponding feJtures apply almOSt exclusively to surface de(t)ration. Another
typical example is {he church of Tahul! (phOIO, p. 183 ) which was
consecrated in 1123. All Ihis goes to show clearly that Catalonian
architeCTure took iTS inspiration not merely from tradiTional regional
models, but was also capable of integrating other elements.
There was no comparable wide-ranging architectural devclopmCIlf in
the proviuce of Navarre situated further to the WCSt although there, tOO,
SOllie new buildings wcre constructed.
The most significant amongSt them is probably the mOu3Stery church of
San Salv<ldor de Leyre (figures, p. 186) which was also used as the burial
chamber for the kings of Navarre. The kings of Aragon had a corresponding
burial sitl."" in the Monastery of San Juan de 13 I'etia (photo, right ) with its
impress,,c SClling beneath a large It-dgc of rock which provided effecTive
protection from the Moorish troops. All that is left of San Juan de la Pena
are a few ruius, and the building had uever been on a particularly large o r
ambitious scale. It was different in Leyre: the building there has a uave with
single aisles dalmg from the thirteeuth century, with au adjoining three-

much largcr than the small apse WIndows that seem like sli t windows by
comparison. Seen from outside. the transept gives the impression of
lighting a pabce-like upper storey of the church. The design of the large
main apse is also unusual. The princtpal o~ning has the usual recessed
arch articulation, but at the far end is an o~ning into a three-quarter
circular cha~1 sel within the solid wall, which features an arrangement of
niches and a domed vault. T his is hardly noticeable when viewed from the
outside ~ause the cent ral chapel can be recognized only by one tiny
window_ Above it, a much larger one with deeply recessed re"eals provides
light for the main ap!oe. By looking at the exterior wall structure of that
apse WI' can clearly see that the master builder, Raimllndus Lambardlls,
was familiar with the architecture of Lombardy: the minor articulation of
the wall cylinder by means of several pilasters endmg at a cornice
surmoun ted by a dwarf gallery strongly calls 10 mind the correspouding
~tions of S. ~'Iichele in Pavia, Italy (photo, p. 85), which was probably
built in the second quarter of the twelfth century. The west front of La Sue
d'Urgell with its three deeply recessed entrances abated at ei ther side, and

186

S3.nJUln de I~ l'cna (prUVIf1tt ofHu..,;ca ).

Eknmh and ,.... df,h umurlC$. Ruin, of

,he mo"""cry

aisled chancel area consecrated in 1057. The crypt underneath counts

amongst the most peculiar monuments of that epoch: it is sima ted exactly
under the twO eastern bays of [he church aOOIe. Under their narrow, single
sideaisles the crypt also has corresponding ~isles, but the 5tion situated
beneath the wider central nave has two aisles surmounted by the familiar
MOl.:lrab" tunnel vaults with transl'erse arches. Their thrust is in this case
not transmitted directly 10 the floor of the crypt, but they rest o n very slender
and extremely shon columns with "ery broad and prominent capitals. At
fi rst glance it appc-ars as if the floor had been raised considerably at a later
date, so that the columns seem to have sunk imo it. A closer look rel'eals,
however, that here we sec: the result of an altemptlO combine two systems of
archLlecture that are o bviousl)' difficult to reconcile. On the one h,md, the
builder did not want to do without columns and capitals which were ahl~I)'S
resa rded as ennobling elemems. The vaulting. on the other hand. was
necessary to carry the floor of the upper chu rch. Moreover. a completely
vaul ted building was considered panicularly ambitious and pTCStigious. It
was not possible to hal'e a less pronounced vaul t due 10 the fact that the
barrel vaults cOI'ering the space are carried by arches separating the nal'e
and the side aisles and stretchIng from capital to capital. Admittedl)" some
crude attempts were made to imitate I'aguely Classical shapes in the
ornamentation of the capitals. There is, however, no trace of any
understanding of an architecture b<lsffi on the rules of antiquity, which
would ha l'c demanded completely different proponions.
During the Moo rish raids In the ninth century, the monastery of Sol n
Salvador de Leyre was used temporarily as the royal residence and as the
seat of the bishops of l'amplona. Even after that it retained its religious
and political importance until well into the eleven th cenlll ry. Under the
reign of Sancho Garces 111 (1000-1035). king of Navarre and Arago n, the
rules of the orders of both San Salvador de Leyre and San Juan de ta Pena
had been reformed according 10 the exam ple of the powerfu l French
monastic center of Cluny. lbis demonStr~ tcs clearly that The Spamsh
provinces west of Catalonia, encoumged by their rulers. began 10 model
Ihemsclves more and more on the French cul tural example. The pilgrimage
to Sa ntiagode CompoSlda was largely responsible for thIS. T he journey
was organized along rigid. disciplined lines, unusual for Ihe "hddle Ages.
What the pilgrims encountered along the way - including, of course. any
architectural features - was imbued predominantly with French cultu re, It
is for this reason Ihat the buildings discussed in the follOWing pages - in
contrast 10 those in Catalonia - are distinguished not so much by Italian or
- Lombardic- elements. but rather have to be considered in the context of
contemporary French archileCt ure. Far from suggesting thai Spanish
arch itecture at that time was a mere offshool of its French coun terpart.
this obse rvation is just a reminder thai its course developed in ;\ direction
different from that of Catalonian architecture.
Architectural features along th~ pilgrims' rout ~ to Santi ago
The closing )'ea~ of the tenth cen tury saw a new sense of piety amongSt
the pop ulation reflected in the ever-increasing significance of tM pilgrimage to the shrine of St. James at Santiago de Comp05tela. Ini tially Ihe Apostle

ha d been hailed as a legendary fighter against the Moors. Grad ually,

however, the journey became more and more attractive as a pure
pilgrimage from which those taking pa rt hoped 10 gai n forgiveness of thei r
sins. In some cases the journey was imposffi as an act of penance. Apan
from the factlhal. excepl for the Roman examples. the shrine of St. James
was the only one of an apostle which conld be reached wi thin Europe. its
attractiveness was strengthened further b)' seveml reports of miraculous
e\'ent5. A number of contemporary sou rces provides us with information
abou t the nature of the pilgrimage. the most imporla11l being the so-called
-Pilgrim's Guide" dating from the second quarter of the twelfth Cenlllry.
Not only does it mention a whole series of Romanesque churches and
shrines of saints, but it also gil'es a rela tively detailed description of the
route itself. Admi ttedly, detai ls of the individual stages of the journey are

187

"umtr <k lo R.,na (prov,ncrof Navarrt).

Ilridgton I~ p,lgr,m,'l'OtIlr dating from
I~ laIr Lhbcmlu.y

somewhat sketch), ob~lously In order nOI 10 deter potential pilgrims from

the undcrtakmg. Four mam routes stancd in France: in Saint Gilles in
I'ro~encc, m Le I'uy. m Vhelay, and in Tours. and groups of pilgrims from
further eaSI met Ill' along Ihcse routes. The three "'!'Stern ones joined
together before they reached the I'yrenrcs and crossed the pass of
Roncesvalles lOgelher. The easlern routc was the only one to cross the
Somport before 10lllms Ihe others III Puente de b Reina (photo, abo~e).
From there, the combmed rOUle led on to Sanltago In Galicia,
The course that the polg'llns' .oad took made it quite natural for
French influences to find expression in some of the architectural features
alons the Spalllsh section of the route. 11us appears to have bun a quite
d.:liberate de\'elopment, and for two reasons. On the one hand, il was to
ensure thaI there would be 50me fam,liar features for the French pilgTims
who u;l\eled to a foreign country In ord.:r 10 see the shnnc, and who are
likely to ha"e accounted for the maJority of the pilgrims to Samiago. On
the other hand. the policy of ellCQuragmg foreIgners to settle along the
"Cammo~ was someumes promoted by granting special privileges, Again,
these werc taken up mamly br French settlers, somc of wh~ colomes
la5ttd until the end of the r.hddle Ages. The fact that occasionally an
almost Identical arltsltc style can be d.:tectcd III the W('!itcrnmost corner of

188

S:o.nJuan <k lo Pdio (pro"'11 ofHIW:SCI).

Twoc;>p,t;lls of I~doil:""

Galicia and m various places m southern France is Therefore surprising

only at first g13ncc, While this observation applies primarily to sculpture,
it was much the same with the archit ecture.
I'opular in France a5 well as In Spall! was the so-called ~p,lgrnnase
church,~ a type of bu,lding that included an ambulatory with chapels,
proiecting transept and lall galleries ex tending up as far as the barrel
~aulting of The na,'c. F.xa mpl~'S north of the l'yrenecs are the churches of
Saint-Manial in I.imoges and Samt-Manin m Tours, boTh of which were
destroyed In the aftermath of the Revolution. Sainte-Foy in Conqucs
(photos. p. 145 ) and S:IInt-Sernm in Toulouse (phOlos, p. 148) have.
however, survi"ed. In Spam. the corrcspondmg archItectural style is
cxemphfied m the calhedral thai marked the destinallon of the pilgrimage
to Santiago - the cathedral of S.,ntiago de Composteb itself. Correspondl"nce of architectural styles docs nOi pro"e that the same archltecu
and bUlld.:rs were alwa)'s acme III different plaC('!;. This would ha~e bttn
,mposSlble SImply because of the different dates at which the various
churches were bUilt. and there arc also qullC' obvious differellCC'$ In some of
the delJl ls. h docs, howe\er, 5C'Cm unlikely ,lat one building would ha"e
bttn constructed without knowltdgl" of the other. Rather than manifestations of a homogeneously propagattd archlte-ctural Iype, the so-called

s...nuagoik Compos'da (GalICia),

S'uund pbn Qf.~ ~,kdr~1

pilgrimage churches muSt bt regarded more as evidence of a highly mobile

sociCl)' In the regions of nonhern Spain and SOUlhern France whose cullUre
was codetermlned 10 a hIgh degree by [he pllgnlnagcs.
II is generally assumed [hat the ceremonial laying of Ihe foundallon
SlOne of the c:lIhcdral of Sallllago de Compostcla was a ioirn performance
by the BIshop Diego l'e13ez and King Alfonso VI (sc:c ground plan on the
right; pholO. p. 190). They arc also dep"ted together on two capitals
found 10 [he lady Chapel of the chancel. The o\'er:llliayout of the church
follows the buildiog plao established at the IImc, wnh the exception of the
west elllrance which will be dIscussed latcr. In thc initial building ~Iagc:s.
progrcss W.IS slow and sometImes mterrupted altogether. due to a series of
problems. To start WIth, there were difficulties with financl1\g the buildlllg.
and then BIshop DIego I'clael was arrested 10 1088, While Santiago was
without iu splTltualleader, DIego Gehlllrez held Ihe position of adminis
uator of the duxese se\eralumes. but he was not ordained bishop until
the ),ear 1101. I'arts of the sllil ul1finlshed cathedral ,aught fire dunng a
rc\'olt by the inhabitants of Sanllago against their bishop 10 1117. Dcsplte
all this upheaval, II had bc:e-n posSIble to ronse<:rale the chancel 'hapels
durmga peao;c:ful spell 10 1105.
Inll1ally, the bUlldlllg prOject was led by a man Cllled &-mardus.
I'resum:lbly he was the: adnllll1str.1I0r of the project, whde the actual
archllect must ha\e btc:n the ~nllrab,hs magIster Bc:mardus senex who
drew up the litfimte plan whICh hIS successors followed. This layoul
futures a Ihreealsled church with a transept. also Ihrtt-aisled. and a
chancel area around whIch the s.de aIsles were arranged 10 form an
ambulaTOry. AlI:lchcd to the outer wall of the chancel arc five chapels, the
central one being square-ended as opposed to the apsldal form of the OIher
four. Two ch:lpels are also placed on the easrern wall of each [ransepl arm.
Situated m the ccnler of the sanctuary is the high altar. and below il the
n)'pt where the actual bones of the apostle were kepI ..... hich reprC$('nled
the real destmation of Ihe p, lgr"lI~. T he whole buildmg is fitted with tall
gallenes, even the mterlUr fa~ade~ of Ihe promlllent transept. Thus thc
mrcrn;tl elcvatlon of the cathedml shows two levels. Accordin!: 10 rhe
aforementioned ~Pilgrill1's GUlde,w the cathedral IS reminiscent of a
palace, rhanks to its g.ll1eries. The central aIsles of both mam church and
transepts are spanned by b:lrrel yaulls strengthened b)' Iransverse :lr~hC'S
whIch spnng from the p,crs.
The cathedral of Samlago de Compostda is nOI only the largest
Romanesque ,hurch bUlldmg In Spam, bUI also ranks amongsllhe blggesl
m Europe. But OOPIIC liS monumental dImensions. Its archllecture IS
dlstmguishcd by partlcutarl), slender articulation of the individual
demcnts. Th,s becomes especlalty apparent whell .t is compared with
French buildmgs of the: 5:lme archlleclural type. The p,ers are relati\dy
Ihm and hIgh. w1lh cruclform.plan piers alternatmg wllh ones .... hose
cr..... iform plan has rounded quoinS: th~ ha\'C clTcular phmhs, whllsl the
IT ..... iform pIers are supportcd by square oncs. In Ih.s way rhythmIC vanCl)'
IS mtroduced InIO the arcade which helps to avoid a sense of monolOny
""hm the vast bUlldlllg. The pIer faces all have engaged semi-circular
responds from three of whIch sprmg Ihe trans\'erse archcs of the sldc alslcs
W

.....

C . o i020 M
0': ~~ .. u.u . ...
S

..~.. :: r
'-GUc:
: = =:.~:: .......
c:.: :

.....

and the malll arcades, .... hilst the fourth onc rISes up as far:ls the base of
the vault, Intcrrupted onl)' by a narrow cornICe. The 1:111 main arcades are
echoed al hIgher level b)' the g.ll1ery arcade: paired columns placed one
bthmd the other are used to subd .. ide them inTO twin openings SCI wlIhm
a sll1gle blind arch.
Ltgilt IS admmed onl)' \Ia the Windows of the side aIsles and the
gallenes ;lIld VIa rhe centraIIO"er. wh"h means that II docs not dircctly
illuminate the mIghty na\'e of th .. l'hurch. The: space therefore lies m a
diffused semidarknrs~ whIch prOVides an C\'en morc effcclil'e almosphere
for rhe comrolled architectural artlculallon. The chel'CI alone has liS own
rmg of Windows, .... h"h must hal'c made a ma10r cOlltribution TO the
almost my~I1~:l1 IlIu"lInallon of the sanctuary and of the shnne of Ihe
martyr. &cause of tater alteral10ns the origm:ll dayhghllng afTangemenlS
can, unfortunately, nu longer be reconstructed completely.
The eXlerior of the cathedral has :llso been sublCClroto a series of changes.
lIere lhe rebulldll1g of the towers 111 the eIghteenth cenlury should be
mentioned, and the contemporaneous rearrangemeot of the forecourl.
Except for lhe transept gables, all [he nther parts of the cathedral ha\'c
been almost completcl)' obstruCll-d by latcr additions. The moderll visitor
fO fhe building IS therefore all the more impressed and surprised by fhe
powerful 1I11Cnor. Ongmally. fhe skillful overall de~agn had been visible
also from the oUlslde. Thc walls of Ihe north and south fa~dcs with fhe.r
hlgh.le\eI galleries arc aTliculated by robust blind arcades nOI unlike plain
aquedoci construcllon. whdst Ihe cast r-nd wllh Ihe chancel appears Tlcher
and more delalled. AI low IC\'d Ihe chapels arc domm3ted by frequem
r~ponds IIIlerspersed wuh deep. molded wllldow openings, whilc fhe twO
upper SlOre)'5 or the chancel arca are enclosed by blind arcading. 10
contrast, the eastern walls of the wide: transepts gi\'e more of a flat
1II1prcsslon, apart fronl Ihe chapels. Thr- large wmdows at the upper lel'c:1
suggrst Ih:lt " mlghl hal'e served as the model for the: cathedral of La Seu
d'Urgcll which was not built until the late twelfth century.
Thanks to the dl\'ersu)' of 115 exterior dccorauon, the pllgrtm to
Sanl1ago W:lS able to comprehend e\'cn from afar the individual signifi

189

OPPOSITE
s;'nnagt.>deComl""'td. (Galicia).

cathedral. ~irst $t.g~of build'IlJllI01S-<.

IllS. Vi~,," .Iong tn. southern tran .. pt
to the crOSSIng (kh). Central na"~ (right)

cance of the v;muus elements of the cathedral. The transept gables,

designed along the lines of triumphal arches, played a spial part in this.
the northern one more than the southern one, which was not completed
until bter; for it was through this side that the pilgrims. approaching from
the norrh, entered the building above the shrine of the apostle. According
to a pilgrimage leadcr's rcport, Ihere was a for~'Court with shelter and a
large fountain decorated with lions in which the pilgrims wash,~d before
entering the sacred slle.
Thc cathedral of Santiago is without doubt the olllstanding. Roman esque church in Spain whose architecture demonstrates the close!.1 links 10
French architecture of that period. Coupled with this, it sho uld b-e realized
that. despite its undoubted significance on a purely Spanish In-cl, $.lntiago
also plays a very important international role. Situated bctween the I')-renean
mountain passes and thc pilgrims' goal in Galicia are other churches. some
of which had bcgun 10 Ix built e\'en before the cathedral. Blit. unlike
Compostela. these churches mainly follow regional building traditions.
The most prominent amongst them feature a number of noticeable stylistiC
similarities which again apply not only to the architecture itself but also to
the sculptures.
The first large-scale rdigJOUS building the polgrims on the other side of
the Sampart pass would come across was the cathedral of j.1C:l (phoro.
right). The town had been the capllal of Aragon before iT could be mO\'ed
further sOlllh to Huesca during the progress of Ihe Reconquista. Despite its
dose proximity to France. the kings of Aragon seemed 10 find it meeessary
to promote this town by granting special privileges 10 new senlen-. The bill
of rights of Jaca was later transferred 10 other cities.
E\'en today, the exact date at which the cathedral was bUIlt is still
disputed. There are sources which Stale that construction had already
begun under the king of Aragon Ramiro I who died in 1063: that year 5.1W,
at any rate, a solemn consecration ceremonial in which several bishops
participated. On Ihe other hand, we know that substantial buildlng works
had been commissioned by Dona Sancha. Ramiro J"s daughter wbo died in
1094. Anempts have been made to account for the time discrepancy by
su~esting that the earlier dates referred to the eastern sections of the choir
and the transept, wh ile the latcr dates apphed to the na\e. which was
completed in a somewhat Inodified version as compared to the' origillal
plan. The architectural sculpture in both the supposedly older and newer
sections is, however, ~tylistically so indistinguishable that it is difficult to
believe that the individual pieces could ha"e been created over such a long
period of time. It is therefore more likely that the rela!l\'ely s~~al1-scale
cathedral of Jaca was subjected to a far smaller amount of foreign
influence than the large cathedral of Santiago. Thus it appears that at
jaca an earlier architectural style managed to snrvi"e what was probably
a somewhat hesitam start to a building program which only gained
momentum towards the end of the project.
Thus, the layout of the choir and the transept - whICh docs nm project
bej'ond the alignment of the aisle walls - basically ~till follows the earlier
Mozarabic ~tyle which had already been adapted in the early R01llancsque
architeCture of Catalonia. One of the characteristic features of this ~tyle IS

Jac~

(Ar.g01l).cothedr.1. 1036 (l)-af.cr

1094. N.vc with gothIC ,aults

the flal central dome similar to Ihe one we h,wt already seen at Cardona_
At the 5.1me time. the e"terior articulation of these elements already ~hows
many similarities 10 the cathedral of Santiago. In contrast, the nave
arcades alternate between robust piers stepped on plan (li ke the ones
known from Cardona} and slender columns with exquisitely carved
capItals. Such an arrangement was unusual in Spain at that limc. Owing to
the rather uncertain hiSlOry of the building. it mUSI remaUl the subject of
Spulation as to whether this kind of arcade should be interpreted as an
allu sion 10 the much less pronounced one in the cathedra! of Satlliago lin
both buildings there are also circular plitllhs), or whether it was the other
way round. wilh Santiago adapling the model of jaca. It is perhaps more
likely that the large-scale building should have sen'ed as a source of
inspiration for the smaller one.
The comparison between jaca and Cardona. which was built about half a
century previously (photos, pp. 184-5 ), provides ;I good opportuniry to

191

If-l'T

IAtrr( (provinct of Hursc~ ). c~~dc.

l"cnth,hinttn,h

ttn'u"~

O"I'O~ 'TE

(prm'inct of ralrnci~ ). S.n

Befor. 1066 (?)- ahcr 1 ]00.
Vi .., from southwest ('op ). nal. ~nd
eI",,, (bouom koh l, VI C W from south .... ~'
(bonom ,,~h, )
fr6n"SI~

~Iartfn.

illustrate the entrenched building trndition of the ehllrch of Aragon, and also
highlights more clearl)' the innovations. To start with, the pil:rs in both
churchl'S al'f" so similar thai on Ihe Sides facing the centrol na\'elhey even have
the same killd of redundant projecTing pilasters which simply stc'p part-way
up the wall. The question remains open as (0 whether or not Jaca was at one
time meant 10 ha\'e a harrel vault similar (0 the one at Cardona or at Sant Pere
de Rodes. It is, howe,-er, important to remember that, in contmst to those
older buildings, the piers of Jaca have additional, very slender proje<;;ting
columns. These contribute to the unity of the building's architectural design
and do not appear to be ~added on, ~ again in contrast to Sant Pert~de Rodes.
It IS no longer known what the rnalll apse of Ihe cathedral of Jaca,
reconstructed III the eightttnth century. looked like in its original state.
What is fairly certalll is that II would ha"e been the m(lSI lavishly
decorated part of the church. lis design was probably similar to that of the
fortified chapel of Loarre. This chapel forms part of a castlt: bUilt in a
commanding position high up on rocks between Jaca and Huesc;!, whence
it overlooks the plain .. xtending towards the south (photo, above ). The
olde&! part of the complex is perched precariously on a Stcc'P rocHace
dropping awa)' towards the west. In the thirteenth Century an outer ring,
consisting of walls with ten towers, was added to the castle, defending il
from the sourh-easl.
The nalUraltopography made any strong fonification on the western
side appear supernuous, while, seen from the east where the ground rises
more gradually, its high walls gi"e the castle an even more powerful and
massive appearance. Integrated into that part of the complex, the chapel
takes up the south-eastern corner of th .. castle. Steps unde'meath the

'92

ch~pellead

to;1 reccssed portal and through it into the main courtyard of

the castle. Above the portal one can see Ihe rudimcntary remnants of a
figurati"e frieze depicting a scene from the LaSI Judgement. In order to
t',tn out the different levels between natural rock and chapel floor, it was
also found necessary to construct a small crypt.
The religious building takes up an unusually large proportion of the
overall ca~tle complex. The main element of tht' chapel consists of a semicircular apse, a square, domed bay, and a short na,.. ending in a diagonally
placed west wall. Closer analysis reveals Ihal this single space was
conceived as a reduced version of a nlulti-aisled buildmg wilh transepts.
The side walls of the central bay, whose dome rises above doubly-recessed
squints, slightly overlap those of the apse. A deep bteraltransvcrse arch
further suggests spatial depth. The short nave is spanned by the cuStomary
barrel Yault resting on blmd arches which are also supposed 10 gi"e the
impression of leadmg into Side aisles. The chapel of Loarre can therefore
be regarded as a version of Jaca reduced in size but certainly not in art istic
ambition. Even the sculpture on bOlh buildmgs was probably produced by
the same artisl. [t is unusual 10 find such an obvious and extreme delight in
ornamentation in the chapel of a castle which in all other respects appears
so austere. This poses the question as 10 Ihe overall function of the whole
complex. Certainly, defensc against the ~loors should no 10ngt'T have been
a major isslle ,II the time Loarre was built. It seems therefore more logical
to assume that it was intended more as a prestigious residence where Ihe
kings of Aragon could demonstrate in highly symbolic and effective terms
their military commitmem to the Reconquista as well as their religious
obligations.

l.eOn. San 1>Kloro. Church ronsutnlm

11.9. Int ..nor '_Io""r.k ""<Sf.

Ground pI~n
O'I'O~tTl '~GE

1.Mn. Sa .. h.ldoro, Pantffln de los R.yes.

A...... nd 1063 - 1100

+.

... .,.,
'"'"

-..

Oi - S---;; m.

If you tTJ"d from Jaca along the pilgrims' roUie further towards the
south for !iCv~ral da)'S, you come 10 the church of S;an Martin in FronllS'il
(phOIO, p. 1931. The building is said to ha ..e been started before 1066 by
Dona Ma)or. the widow of the kmg of Navarre- Sancho Garces 111 el
Ma)or. There ;ne, howC\"er, so many strlistlC fealUI"C$ bOlh in the
architecture and. partlcularl). In the KulplI.lre which corrt'Spond wllh
th o!iC found III later churchl'lo - for example Jaca. Leon and Santiago Ih at 11 !iCems hard 10 helle."e San ,"' Iartin could have bttll compleled
before Ihe turn of [he cemury. Of course the problem of liS datillg has no
bearing 011 [he eV;llu3tioll of Its quality. Built 10 a symmetrical plan, six
bars risc under three barrel-vaults. Adjollllllg them flush.gabled transepts
lead to Ih~ Irlple.apsed east cnd. The arcade elevallons could almOSI be
reg.lrdcd as a reduced wrsion of ,hal III the carht"dral of Sanriago: the
shapes of the pillars and thc ",lUll Arc Identlt.Cal. but the considerably
small er church of Fr6mista dOt'$ nOI ha"c an upper le"el gallery. It would,
howe"er, be wrong 10 consider Ihls churt.Ch onl) ,n the conlext of the large
cathedral that reprcsc:nted the pilgrims' desllnal1on. and thiS view IS
supported by a comparISon with San! Pere de Rodt'S. There we already
have a '"ery Similar arcade deSign. al lcast III essence, excepl Ihal two
projecllng colulllns are placed above one anOlher. where in Fromista a
slllgie respond is carried up as far as th e tran ~verse arch. The ex terior
massing is handled in a ve ry harmonious manner: small round turrets
terml1lale the wt'St f::urade. while Ihe crossmg IS surmounted by an
octagonal lOwer adjOllled by th e group of apses wnh their richl y worktd
su rface reliefs.

'94

All the buildings along Ihe p,]gruns' roule we ha ..e looked al so far
were royal foundalions. or al leasl the king was mvoh'ed in the ceremonial
laymg of the foundation Slone. whICh gl\cs us some idea of Ihe Ii ..ely
mterest which Ihe rulers of the variou~ klllgdoms of nonhern Spam took in
'hem. After all, nOI only did they hope 10 gam economIC prospertly (rom
Ihe "ast stream of pilgrims. but ob"iously rhey mUSI also ha,'e expected
dividends, both dynastic and splr1lllal. Ihrough Iheir promillent church
foundauons. This can be secn most clearly at S.~n Isidoro III LeOn, the lasl
malor bUlldl1lg before one reaches Santiago.
The Romanesque church (p hoto. lOp left ) was erected on a site where
SCI'eral o ther churches had sivod before il. The last of these h.ld been bUilt
during Ihe reign of Fernando I, the first king of Leon and Casule, and hl$
wife Dona Sancha, Ihe daughter of King Alfonso V of Leon. Its purpose
WJS 10 house the relics of St. ISIdore of SeVille which Fernando I arranged
to be broughl from there. I'Jnly excavated foundalions suggcst that Ihe
church "as origmalll' a pbin thrtt';lIsled bUilding wllhoUI ,ransepIS.
[mmedlately ane-r its consecration, m [063, the kmg died. In the followmg
)'ears [)ona Sancha had the so-called ~PantcOn de los Re)"cs- bUilt 10 Ihe
west of the church siu (photo. p. 195). The Pamc6n. Ihe burial monument
of the kmgs. IS toda)' the oldcst part of the bUlldmg complex. B.1sed upon a
3 x 3 ba) ground plan. the supporllng colurnn~ 111 the Pantffin h~\'e free~t;l1ldl1lg colulllns 10 Ihe east and clustered shafts 10 the west. T he bUlldlllg
C;lp"vates Ihe visilor not only by liS findy articulated wa lls and .. aul ll1lg.
bill also thanks to its exquisitely ca rved COlplials. The VaUlTS and lunCHes
arc also decorated with frescoes.
The PantcOn, III liS capacity as royal and dynastic bunal site. proves
Ihal Ihe rulers of Caslile hoped for the ~Ivli"on of thelT souls by choosmg
to be buned so close to Ihe greal Spalllsh ruler. Another import~nl
considerauon must have bt:cn the IIllercessiolls Ihey expected fronl
pilgrims on their way to S;anllago. This "'as presumably the reason why
soon after the complellon of the PantcOn the actual church. too. was
rebUilt from Kratch by belOg transformed 11110 a large, completely .auhcd,
alsled basilica with transepts. terminafl1lg 111 3 triple 3pSe. In 1149 the
chu rch was consecrated in the prcscllce of King Alfonso VII and several
bishops. amongst them the archbishop of Santiago. We know the n~me of
the m3Sler bUilder rt'Sponslble for the last stage of constructIOn because we
ha"e hiS ep itaph on the southwestern corner of the church where Alfonso
and hiS SISler S;ancha had him buned.
The new building of the church of San ISldoro IS wider Ihan the older
Pantc6n which had to 1,Ike mto account Ihe dllnensions of the narrow
buildmg which had prcccdt"d the new ch urch. It cannOt be cstablished wllh
absolut .. c"rlaint)" whether the central nave W.IS imendt"d 10 have a flat
celhng. This possibility, at any rate. Sttms 10 be md icated by Ihe arcade
design in the nal'e, where there is a su pporung wall respond only for
alternate transversc arches of the barrel vault, whil,l the IIlIerllledl3te piers
present a Aush face 10 the nave. With this arcade design, it could be s':lId
that in uSC'nce S;an Isidoro follo .... ed the example of Ihe already familiar
cathedral of Jaca. el'en though Ihe sequence of mdi"ldu3l columns IS
different. In any case. the projecting transepts and Ihe distincti"e apsldal

Sahagun (province of LWn). San

Lorenro. Twelfth ~ntu'1" View from the

SQu,h

terminalion ~m 10 have more in common with OIhu, more closely

si tualed buildings, such as the no longer extant monastery church of Santo
Domingo de Silos (con.secraloo in 1088) which was re\'~aled by
excavations, or by the old cathedral of Burgos (begun in 1075) which is
thought to haw! had <I similar groundplan. II can Iherefore be assumed Ihat
such buildings. with projecting transepts but without ambulaTOries, ar~ all
reduced versions of the plan of the C3th~d r31 of Santiago. The fact that
close Imks exisled between Santiago and Le6n is further emphasized by th~
portal sculpture of San Isidoro whICh shows great similarities to thaI of
San tiago.
Regional styles in the mid tw elfth cen tu r)'
The analysis of the buildings di scussed in the prevIOus chapler shows Ihal
the churches and chapels built along the pilgrims' rou[e TO Santiago were
linked to one another in a variety of ways. They form a group of I1I111sual
homogeneity which clearly .sets them apart from the other Romanesque
buildings in Spain. [t is, howe\'er, also important 10 remember that
the Romanesque style of the pilgrims' rOUte constitutes the second
phase of this strle in Spain. It had been preceded by the group of buildings
in Cal3lonia and was followed mainly by the churches located further
sou th.
The latter are distinguished by an increasingly regional approoch in
[heir archileclllre which mo,'e5 funher and further away from Ihe ~imer
national style~ of the pilgrims' roule. Panicularly Impressive examples of
this are the brick churches typical of Sahagun, known in Spain as
~sahaguinas,~ The original model was presumably the monastery of San
Tirso in Sahagun (photos, opposite), Situated about 40 miles from Lc6n,
this important monastery was one of the main stages on the pilgrims'
journey. [n the eleventh century it had been reformed undcr the influence
of Cluny and aplX'inted not only the archbishop of Toledo but also
bishops in the other dioceses of Leo" and Castile.
Sahagun was also the place where the Roman legionaries Facundus and
I'rim;tivus suffe red their maTfyrdom. The orig[[}al namc of the church
~De SanclO Facundo~ was changed 10 ~Santfagund~ and finally became
~Sahagun,~ This name was then also given 10 the villagc that developed
around the monaster)', In tile twelfth century the monastery was rebuilt,
but today liltle of it remains. In contrast, the church of San liT50, also in
Sahagun. has survived in remarkably good condition, even if extensi\'c
restoration work has been necessary. h cannot be established with
cert ~ inty whether this is the same church mentioned in a document from
] ] 23, although it is "cry unlikely that thc conSTruction of San Tirso began
later than this. The building was st~rted with the main apse, the lower
sections of which consiSI of dressed SlOne.
Brick was not used um,l a heigh[ of about ten feel above ground le"c1
had been reached; from thaI STage on it was used almost exclusivcly. The
origin of this practice was presumably The ~m01.<1ri fes,~ the building
workers who had experience of I\loorish architccture on the Iberian
Peninsula where brick building along Classical lines had been practiced for
a long time.

19'

Sahagun (pro"n,,, of Lffln), S.n Ti....,.

T,,elfthcentury. Tow", ",con>lrucl~d
.flOT 1949. View from nonh ....". (1~fr),
VIC'" fr"m nonhust (righl )

When looking at the church exterior it becomes obvious that the

original intention had been an apse similar to Ihose of the other churches
built along (he pilgrims' route. In olher words, it would ha"e been
articulaTed with projecting shafTS. Howe"er, a change of plan occurred in
the upper brickwork s.."ions, and the result was a richly articulated
panern of rows of semi-circular arches placed one above the other. A very
similar feature is found in Ihe impo>ing tower, the original of which
collapsed in 1949, but Ihe reconstru"ion closely followed th.! original
design. Whal is unusual is ils poSition: it is nOI placed abo"e the crossing,
u the church has no transept. Instead, Ihe four-storey tower with its
pyramidal-shaped base rises up from a narrow, barrelvaulted extended
bay of the apse. Its ground plan is therefore rectangular and aa::ounts for
the faCT that, seen from the choir end of Ihe church, the lower almost has
the JPpearance of a fapde.
SM Lorenzo in SahagLm (phOIO, p. 196) looks very similar and is built
completely in brick. Ltke San Tir5O, it has a nave and brood aisles with
three apses in from of a narrow extended bay, Whilst the apses have
horseshoe arches, pointe<! arches can be seen in Ihe chevet. Both clements
mUSt be regarded as typical motifs borrowed from Moorish architecture
which was 10 influence Sp;lin's Romancsquc style increasingly in the
following lears.

The R01ll;!.nesque architccture of I'ortug:al may also be considered as a

"regional develop1llent.~ The nonh of the country, roughly as far down as
the river Douro, was re-convened to Chrislialllly fairly soon after the
Moorish occupation, whils! Ihe actual Reconquisla did nOI lake place
unti] the reign uf King Ferdinand I of Castilf" and Leon. Alfonso VI ga"e
his son-in-l3w Henry of Burgundy the province of Portug.11 as a fiefdom,
and Henry's son Alfonso Henrique cominued with the Reconquista. /\fter
the victorious bailie against the Moors near Ollriqlle in 1139, he assumed
the title of king of l'ortugal, which a few rears later was recognized by
King Alfonso VII of Castile and Leon. After further succf"ssful ballies in
Ihe Reconquista, the buund;!.ries of modern l'orlugal were eslablished in a
treaty with Castile in 1297.
In the twelfth century, l'ortugal was only one of several kingdoms on
the Iberian Peninsul;!. which, because of its connections to the ruling honsc
of Burgundy, partly looked lowards France for ils cnlwral developmenl,
whilst;!.1 Ihe s;!.mc tllne matnlallttng tiS slrong links wtlh Castile and LeQn
and particularly with its netghbor in the north, Galicia.
lbis is quite obvious in tiS religious architccture. Portug:al's greal
Romanesque cathedrals in Coimbra, Evora and lisbon generally follow
the same basic pl;!.n, a plan th;!.1 can be regarded ;!.s a slightly modified
"ersion of that of SanTiago. The westblock, usu;!.1Iy designed as ;!. west

197

~,nbra (Ponug.I ). catlledral. Sun of

ronsrruct;on . round 1140, con."",.lw
III 1180. Extrrior ,'.cw o f thcch.,...cI

ur. (lop )....eot fronT (bonom Ielt ), n

",'."or (bonom fight'

front with {\IIO towers. is adjoined by an aisled nave with galleries above
the side-aisles and a barrel-vaulted cemral "al'C. Situated further eaSI is the
aislelcss transept with a (en{Tallow., and a group of three apses arranged
in echelon. The cathedrals of Braga and Porro have also survive<!, bUI they
hal"c been so extensively altered by restoration or rebuilding work thaI
they no longer rcflecllhe original design.
After a prolonged construction period, the old cathedral of the former
Portuguese capital of Coimbra, ~St' Vetha, ~ was finally completed in 1180
(photos p. 198, sec also ground pbn on p. 199). Although it $terns natural
to assume that th~ construction of the church began around 1140. that is,
immediately after the coronation of the fi rst l'ortuguese king, there is no
evidence to supp<->rt this view. Seen from the ou tside, its compact
appearance and the ring of battlements surmounting the nave walls give
the building the character of a fonified church. At the same time, the choir
area is richly decorated with aflached semi-circular resp<->nds along the
walls and a number of carved figurative corbels like those commonly
found in the architecture of buildings along the pilgrims' roure. There
might also be a connection with buildings found in the Auvergnc region 111
France, for example with the church of lssoire: the high walls of the
transept cominue on their eastern side underneath the (entnl tower where
they are imerstcted by a gallery, a typical fearnre of Auvergne regional
style. The centre of the fa"ade at Coimbra is dominated by :1 mighty, two
storey entrance p<->rch with the deeply recesse<! main entrance on the
ground kvel and a window of similar des1gn above It. The interior shows
clearly how close the connection is between the cathednl of Coimbra and
the churches along the pilgrims route: It seems like a copy, on a reduced
scale, of the cathedral of Santiago.
Very similar in construction and design is th e cathedral of Lisbon
{figures, p. 1991. Its construction had begun as early as 1147, the year in
which the city was reconquered from the Moors. and it was built instead
of a mosque. The cathedral was, however, not completed unti l the thi rteenth century. The master builders Tesp<->nsible for the construction arc
thought to have been Robenus and &rnardus. The former might be the
same Robenus who had already worked on the cathedral of Coimbra.
Only the nave and transept remain from the onginal building which, in its
character of a fortified church, followed the ]'ortuguese tradition typical of
its early Romanesque style. The massive twin -towered fa"ade was not
completed ul1ll1 the fourteenth century. It is conceivable that th is cathedral, tOO, was intended to have a projecting double-storey portico in Ihe
center of the fa~ade. But ;t was soon integrated mto the main hne of the
fa"ade by the addition of flanking towers. The large gallery in the
cathedral of Lisbon is subdivided by double arcades. Compared to the side
aisles, it represems a much lower Storey which appeJTS grilled off because
of an arcade of slender columns. As with the cathedrJI of Coimbra, here,
tOO, a connection with Issoire in France comes to mind, for there this motif
is u$td in a $lInil3r way.
In contrast, the piers are highly unusual: stepped and with three
circular supports on each narrow side, they finally merge with the multiple
recessed and richly molded intrados of the arcade. AI best, the sculptured

198

Liobon (ponugal). c.th...! .. 1. SIan of

ronstructlon In 1147. ~'est fronl

.....
.... . .

~.
:.

-L . . ;

Lisbon.ground plan of tho cathedral

COImbu. ground plan of the calh.dral

volume of these: piers could be compared 10 some German churches of the

laIc Romanesque period; bUI it is too far-fet(hed 10 try and eSlablish any
d,recl Jinks here. It is more reasonable 10 think of connections to Ihe
Spamsh cathedral of Zamora which will be discussed laTer; but (,"en Ihere
the piers and inuados are far plalller than {hose al lisboll.
An earthquake in 1340 (aused The collapse of {he ROlllanesqwe choir. It
was replaced by a new choir bUll! in the high GOlhic s{yle. But that TOO was
devastated by anOlher earthquake III 1755 so that Yirtually all {h~lt ren13ins
are ruins. Parts of the damaged b<;ade also had to be rebuilt at {hat !Ime.
The youngest member of this group is the cathedral of Evora:
construct,on staned in 1186, and the (onsccnuion look place in 1204,
even though Ihe church was nOT (omp1etoo at that stage. It IS very sImilar
11\ design {U Coimbl<l, ex(cpI ThaI Ihe nal'e IS more elongated and COII\prises sevell bays, as' opposed (U six in Lisbon and five III Coimbra. The
proportions of Evora and deli.ils su(h as rhe rose windows already amicipate the Gothic style. It is therefore all The more remarkable that 'Ihe young
kingdom of Portugal continnoo wilh this historical building style umil well
into the Thirteenth cemur).
Meanwhile in Spain, Ihe tendency towards regionalism now also made
Itself fell in the somh of {he kingdom of Leon, namely in {hose re:gions that
had been snal(hed back from {he Moors onl)' a short time previously.

There. the cmhedrab of Zamora and SaLimanca aud {he (;oliegiate church
ofToro were built around the middle of the twelfth (enTury. All three have
a number of features in common, al{hough the simiiariues between
Zamora and Toro are particularly striking (see ground plans of both
churches on p. 201), Both Zamora and Toro have relarively short naves
and twO wide aisles. [n the east {here are transepts that projeCt slightly
beyond rhe straight row of {he side aisles and are siruated in front of a
group of Three echelonoo apses. Only ,u Toro has this feature survil'ed m
its original STate.
The cath~'tIral of Zamor,. is the oldeST of Ihese churches (photos. p. 200,
and ground plan on p. 20 I). [IS construction began under Bishop Esteban
ill 115 1, and The (onsccl1l{ion took place ill 1174. Here, around the middle
of {he twelfth cenTury, we can see the beginning of a process of archi{ec{ural
emancipaTion, a breaking awar from the forms traditiollally used in the
kingdom of Loon. The structure of the Ilave piers became more complex,
achieving a much more sculptural effect Than in rhe earlier buildings.
The view from Ihe side aisle dearly illustrates rhe naTure of Ihe
innovalion al1d highlights {he distinctions with the older churches, 111
principle, Ihe rt.,(langular or square core of the pier, such as is found in San
lsidoro in LeOn, in Fromista or Santiago. has been retained. As in the
aforementioned buildings, that core continues up il1lO the na,'e wall or the

",

7...;"nora.,"lhed,~1.1151-1 1 71 View
frQm soulh.wesl jlth). InlCflQ' >!ewof
""nlrallowcr jrigh. )

groins of [he vaults of the side aisles, together forming a homogeneous

spatial unit. Sculptural clemcnts arc also added, in this case, horseshoe ..
section columns SCI on high plinths on the fronl of every pier. T hc central
column is stronger than the lateral ones. Together they support the
trans"crse arches and the arcades and almost completely conceal the core
of thc piers. lu the lIa'e, the cemral responds act as supports to the broad
trans,crse arches that separate the individual bays, whilst the responds on
the sides lead into the ribs of the groin vaul t. The whole space is thus
articulated bmh by a flat OUler shell and the underlying three .. dimensional
framework. Instead of the barrel vault usually found 111 the earlier
buildings, the rib vault here means that the ceiling is also integrated il1lo
the overall spatial articulation.
Of course, this innovation did not find nnmediate acceptance, as can be
seen in the collegiate church of Toro (photos. pp . 202-3; ground plan,
p. 20 I). Started in ) 160, the church ofToro is very similar to the cathedral
of Zamora in its ovenlll la)out, but II1stead of the more modern groin
"ault, the central nave is covered by the traditional barrel .. vaulted ceiling.
Bur interestingly, and in contrast to Zamora, groll1 vaulting has bttn used
in the side aisles of Toro, and each of the two western bays e,cn features
an eight .. part rib vault .
Thc third building hclongiug to this group is the cathedral of
Salamanca (phmos, pp. 204-5; grou nd plan, p. 20 I). In the early sixteenth
ccutu ry a new building of monumental proportions had bttn constr ucted

200

immcdiately ne:<t 10 the original one. and although the north wall of thc
latte r was dcstroycd to mak e w'ly for it, the rCSt of it remaincd undam ..
aged. Siuce then, a distinClion has thereforc been made in Salamanca
between the new c;\lhedral, the ~Catedral Nueva, ~ and the old Romancs ..
que one, the ~Catedral Vieja. ~ T he starting date for construction work on
the old one is unknown . The building is first mentioned in a document
made in 1152 by King Alfonso VII and dealing with the building workers"
pay. It is likely, however, that Ihe const ruction of the ~Catedral Vieia ~ was
started before that date, f"\'en if for stylistic reasons the major part of the
work was not carried out unlll .he second half of thf" twelflh Century and
building was not complcted until the thlrtt'Cnth cemury.
A cursory look at the ground plans of the .hrl'C churches suggests that
there are few similarities between Zamora and Toro on the one haud, and
Salamanca on the other, for the lalter has a nave that is considerably
longf"r and has more bays than the IWO other bUIldings. The transept is
also relatively more prominent . a fealllre that is reminlscf"nt of ,,en earlier
buildings such as the aforementioned churches in Sanllago, Burgos or
Stlos. Another significant faclOr in thIS context might be that the building
of Salamanca Cathedral was begun before Zamora and Toro and was
therefore designed according to 3 traditional plan.
]u the interior, on the other hand, Ihe similarities immediately be<:ome
obvious. Not only has the calhedral of Sabmanca been constructed
throughout with groin vaulls; it also boasts the mighty. pointed tTllnsver5e

Zamora,(alhed,al. 1151_1171. Sou,h

fa,adeofrra"",p' wuh Iht P""rla <ltl
Obl>po" (lii,hop' Enlran.co)

arches in the nave, juSt as at Zamora. Moreover, at Salamanca they form a

particularly prominent sculptural feature in the cathedral interior be<:ause
of an eXIra respond. The diameter of the piers was also increased:
powerful, cruciformbased clustered piers rise from round bases (s imilar to
Ihose at Santiago) and projfi:t so far imo the nave that they <llmost seem to
obslTuCl it.
The transi tion 10 the new building style can be apprfi:iated more easily
when looking 31 S,1n Vicente in Avil3 (photos, p. 206}. Commissioned by
Count Raimund of Burgundy and his wife Urraca, Ihe construction of the
oosilic<l of San Vincente was begun before 1\09, and it was erected above
the tomb of the eponymous manyr and his sisters. Its ground plan is almost
identical to that of the old cathedral of Sabmallca, with an elong.md nalc
and aisles. a projecting tran sept, and terminating 111 the east with a group of
three apses arranged in echelon. This layout shows that Avila was origll1ally
intended to follow in the tradition of the great religious build ings along the
pilgrims' TOute. There was. howcver, a prolonged suspension of work on
the church after the ~ear 1\09. When construction work was finally
resumed, probably not before the middle of the twelfth century, a change of
style occurred that can be clearly observed in the nave. The piers are much
more massive than those of the earlier buildings, and Ihey rise up from
mighty round bases. Half-columns are attached to Ihe cruciformbased
pie rs. It is unclear what kind of ceiling the church was imended to have
when th~ piers were built; what was evemually built is an unusually richly
molded fib vault that corresponds 10 the system of vcrllcal building
elements anached 10 the nave wall. The central half-column supportS the
transverse arch, and the fbi responds at the sides support the diagonal ribs.
Capitals placed between the tvOQ facilitate the skilful transition from the
rl.'Ctangular edge of the picr to the diagonally placed rib.
The same device is found 11\ French buildings of thc late Romanesque
or early Gothic periods, for examplc in the Cistercian church of Ponllgn)
in Burgundy.
After analyting the imeriors of these buildings, it would be inexcusable
simply to ignore what the churches of Zamora, Toro and Salamanca havc

~
~ I

"=~

:
~=.-

r-.-._
,

I'

II

"

,I

"

Ca,hcttral of7..amora, ground plan

.;: -~-l
.II
.II .C
,

.=
I

Col1rg,a,~church

ofToro. ground plan

Onhtdrnl of :alaman.c ground pl.n

201

Two (provine.: of Zamora), coliegia.e

chu"h of San. a Maria la Mayor. Slane<.!
in 1160. Inlerior view of (enUll lOwer
(lOp), nonh enlUne.: (botlom )

OPPOSITE

Toro (proVIne.: of Zamora), colkg.oa,~

church of San. a M..ia la "'hyor. S.ant<!
in 1160. Vltw from Ihnou.h

most ostensibly in common: their crossillgs are each surmounted by a

peculiar circular or domed tower known as ~Cimborio,~ the origins of
whose shape arc difficult to explain. The oldest of these towers is probably
the one at Zamora: it rises above pelldentives that lead from the crossing
square to the circular base beneath the dome. Columns set on high plinths
are placed on this roulld base and support sixteen ribs thai intersect in the
centre of the dome. Between the ribs arc vault cells billowing backwards
like wind-filled sails. The lower ring of columns is interspersed with deeply
re<:essed windows sel withlll a richly molded framework. Seen from the
outside, the central tower appears even more articulaled, be<:ause, unlike
in the dome interior, Ihe ring of windows does nOI continue ulliformly.
Instead, there arc additional turrets on the diagonal axes and arehite<:tural
features on the longitudinal and transverse axes, each crowned by rows
of miniature arcades with domcs or pediments. All these features
contribute to making the exterior of the central tower appear like a greatly
magnified example of micro-arch ite<:ture, such as might, perhaps, be
found as a baldachin over some figures, or in a work of art produced by a
goldsmith.
And yet this lavish exterior articulation is more than mere decoration.
It also fulfils a number of structural functions, since the small corner
turrets project exactly above the pendentives in the interior. Thus, they
help absorb the sideways thrust of the cerl\ral tower, while at the same
time neutralizing the diagonal thrust of the dome.
In Toro and Salamanca, this type of central tower was modified by the
addition of an extra storey, so that there are twO rows of windows
underneath the domes of rhese churches. T he archite<:t of the collegiate
church at Toro, however, simplified the rich articubtion evident in Zamora,
his model, by omittillg the pedimemed re<:esses along the longitudinal and
transverse axes, and also leaving OUI the crowning features on tOp of the
flanking turrets on the diagonals. Moreover, these turrets were set apart
from the cemral circular rower by means of a diffeTeIll de<:orative style
that also varied from storey to storey, with the result that the walls of the
central tower now have a far more dominant effect than those 3t Zamora.
In Salamanca, on the other hand, Ihe architect kept closer 10 Ihe original
model, and paid particular anemion to the window recesses along the
main axes (omitted in Toro ) and their lavish and detailed decoration. They
therefore represclll some of the major factors contribuling to Ihe
formation of real fa"ades on the four principal sides of the central tower of
Salamanca cathedral, named ~Torre del gallo~ (Tower of the cockerel)
after its crowning weathercock. The circular corner turrets are clearly
subordina ted to these fa"ades in lerms of height and sculpmral
ornamentation. looking at th e tower's interior, one notices a slight
increase in decoration from the bollom to the lOp sections. Here we find a
return to the system used at Zamora, namely that of multi-layered wall
articulation. Bur th e relatively simple inner ring of colums at Zamora is
now transformed into :1 number of mighty responds with thrtt-quarter
circle profiles that firmly clamp the twO SIOTCyS together.
In contrast, Toro remaills much more restrained alld makes do without
addi tional architectural elements that would link the two arcaded circles

202

Sol.manea, old <:~lhedr.l.lkfor~ mid

Iwdhh ""nlut')' ~ t.rly th,n""nlh ctntut')'.
!"tUlor of """" (Op~l~ p.St I. Chaned
.nd "Torr~ dd Gallo" sn from 1M
""uthuS! (lchl. tntrrio. VltW of 1M
"Torr. del Gallo" (rtght)

together. Neuher does It have a dome Itke those found at LJ.mora and
Salamanca, with Iheir Slrongly molded ribs and billowing vault cells. The
dome ofToro is a simple hemisphere wilh slender ribs nor necessary for its
actual construction.
These: three very striking cemral towers constitute special CJ.scs within
Spanish Romanesque architecture and ha\'e therdore been attributed to a
regional development. Only one other tower of this kind, al/xit with
modifications, has been built since, namely in the Portuguese town of
Evora. It ~ms therefore paradoxical that at the same time as classing the
towers as a product of regionalism, scholars have uied to find prototypes
for them throughout the whole of the Mediterranean region, citing possible
models in Byzantium, Amman or I'alcrmo. On the other hand, there are
undeniably formal similarities with the architectural style of tht: region of
Poitou in France, where comparable examples of such sculptural articulation can be found, for instance at Notre-Dame-Ia-Grande in Poitiers
(photo, p. 269 ). These possible links to France can even be supported by

hlstortcal faCts: KlIlg Alfonso VI (1071- 1109) of Casule and Leon was
married to Constance, the daughter of the COUnt of Rurgundy. Also married
to COuntS from Burgundy were his two daughters Teresa and Urraca, the
latter temporarily holding power after her father'S death. In 1170, more or
less the exact date whelt the central towers of Zamora, TOTO and
Salamanca were built, Eleonor of Aquitaine beeame the wife of Alfonso
Vllt (1158-12 14). Although it is conceivable Ihat at that time a new influx
of French artists came to Spain, this possibility should not be given too
much credence. What appears like an unusually rich language of form
within the Romanesque architecture of Spain had long been a tradition
there. Elements similar 10 those observed in (he aforememioned central
towers may already be found in earlier bui!dillg~, most notably the upper
storey of the soulhern (ransept fa~ade of Santiago Cathedral.
Of particular interest here are the ~multi-faceted~ arches, that is arches
whose supports are not continuous but form small arches in lurn; these
can be ~n on alllhrec cenualtowers discussed, either in~ide or oulside.

205

Avila, Son Vicente. Con~tr"":t'Qn Slatted

before 1190. maIO ,on5lruct,,,,, period
2nd half of the twdfth ""ntury. View
from ,he sou,h

A"ib, San Vicentc. Ground plan.

Infcrior o f na" ~

Santiago also manifests the tendency towards wall artkulauon of a

markedly detailed and ornamental character. At Zamora. in p:lrticular, we
realize that the central tower should not be regarded as a feature on its
own bUI should be seen in theeomext of other sections of the cathedral. It
becomes clear that the tower is by no means isolated in architectural terms
from the rest of the building. A tendency to the generous use of ornamentation is already obvious in the southern transept fa~ade (photo, p. 201)
incl uding the ~ Puerta del Obispo~ (the bishop's door) and a multiply
recessed w'l11 relief. The archivolts of the portal consist 01: perforated
voussoirs, like those used in Moorish architecTllre. The f1ured columns
flanking the portal and details such as the inset rosettes are, on the other
hand, elements that evoke Classical antiquity and as such were also
familiar feaTUres of the Moorish style.
On the fa~a de of the church of Santo Domingo in Soria (photo, p. 207)
this kind of ornamentation was suhjected to a somewhat tighter control
and all obviously Moorish elements were eliminated. Here, there are no
decorative details, and yet the west wal! of the church is dominated by a
double row of arcades, almo,! ornamental in char;\cter, and is broken
up in the center by a large recessed entrance featuring a large number
of columns. The other po rtals of Zamora and Toro also follow a similar
layOut. The type of portal which projects JUSt slightly beyond [he
outermost wall level, and which has two figures of saints set in the
spandrel are;\s nex t to the arch, turns out to be the mod e rni~ed ,"ersion of
an eJ. rl ier type of portal, the kind that was found along the pilgrims' rOUle,
for example at San Isidoro in Le6n.

206

So" S-anto Dom,ngo. F.... d oflwdf,h

nlul)' (1). W~s, fronl

Again, II is probably pointless to look for concrete examples of French

architecture that might have exerted their influence on this design, for that
would be to ignore the significance of the regional traditions of Spain
itself.
It would, nevertheless. be unwise to exclude altogether the mfluence
which French architecture might have had on these buildings. However, we
must look for it, not in the decor<llion of the bUildings, but rather in the
deSign of the interior, which in its dear and almost succinct articulation
seems to owe much to modern French archllecture. Worthy of mention are,
above all, the rib vaults, prepared SI) logically by the piers; hm of course
there also are the ubiquitous pointed arches. Most of these elements used to
structure the space are fairly simple in their cross-sectional design, with
featu res barely more sophisticated than recessing. In French architecture,
such plain forms are more often encounteroo in bUildings of the Cistercian
Order. The first Cistercian monaStery in the kingdom of Le6n was founded
in 1131 m Moreruela, at the wish of Kmg Alfonso VI and his wife 5.1ncha.
The Cistercian Order was a strictly organized religious order that spread
throughout most of Europe in the twelfth and early thirteenth century, and
whOst members livoo accordmg to strict rules. This does not mean to
suggest. however, that the CiSlCrcians alone could have been responsible for
the reintrodU(tion of French stylistic elements into Spanish architecture, a
cross-fertihsal1on that had first occurred in the yean; aker 1100 via the
pilgrims route to Santiago. It is more appropriate to regard the Cistercians
alld their peculiar building style as merely one (albeit important ) factor
amongst many that explain the very far-reaching adoptioll of French
culture m Spam at that tune. Spain is full of examples of this stylistic
transfer.
Internationalization ven; us regional tradition
Whilst the dera ils of the process were, of course, far more complkatoo than
the following simple scheme suggestS, it may be maintailled that the
adapt ion of rhe French sl)'le in architecture occurred in three: maIn stages. In
the ini tial stages, Ihe international cultural climate that existoo alollg Ihe
pilgrims' route repeatedly allowoo elements of modern French architecture
ro take root in Spain. This developmenT mUSt cenamly have been supponed,
if not planned, by the monaStery at Cluny. Cluny, after all, was not only
colllmittoo to the pilgrimage to Santiago, but was connected to Spain and
I'ortugal by a network of mOllasteriescovenng the whole Iberian Peninsula.
Presumabl) the Cistercians were The second important reason for the
Imks with France, so evident in terms of architectural hIstory. In the course
of the twelfth century, they were gradually gaining the trust of the population for their care regardillg the salvation of the souls of the dead. The
Cistercians were therefore encouraged to settle, above all by the fulers of
the various kingdoms who then entnastoo them with the placing of their
bodies in their final restlllg place. As menlloncd abo'e, the Cistercian
Order was governed by very strict rules, with all the abbots of the
individual monasteries meeting once a year in Oteaux for the General
Synod where the rules were reiteratoo. The spread of the Cisterc ian
monasteries all o,er Eu rope meant, of course, thaI a constant alld lively

exchange of ideas took place between the cenTre of Ihe order in France and
its subsidiaries abro.1d.
Apart from the religious orders, there were other groups which were
inTerested in the promotion of all IIlternational culture on the Iberian
Peninsula. These included the orders of knights whose principles were
based on French culture, and who were a I)'pical phenomenon of the age
of the Crusades. It must be remembered here that, as far as Spain was
concerned, the knights' first prioriI)' was Ilot the recovery of the holy sites
in [he Middle East, but the re-conversion 10 Christianity of the population
of the Iberian Peninsula. All the members of these influential knightly
orders were part of a large, international class of noblemen, even if
individual members had strong national interests.
Finally, we must nor forget [hat since the end of the twelfth century, the
early Gothic building sl)'le of modern France had also begun to be considered
exemplary for purely aesthetic rea suns. Anyone who wanted [0 commission or build an ambi tious church project could therefo re hardly ignore
Ihese: new French models. Admittedly. there were no actual models of
Gothic architecture in Spain before the early part of the thirteenth centufY.
But the so-called ~Iate-Romanesque~ style had been increasingly infiltrated
by Gothic clements ever since the final )eafS of the twelfth century, especially in The east of the country.
We ha,e therefore established that several reasons for the increasing
acceptance of French architecture came together at the same time on the
Iberian Peninsula.

207

To"",r !Portugal ), TempIMchun:h.l.ace

cwt'lfth cmcury !after 11871). Exconor
aoo ,ml.'nOr VICWI ofcMcin:uI~,..pl~n
build",,!;

Th~ reasons were nOI all releval1110 Ihe S;lme degree in olher European
countries, so Ihal their R01l1ancsque styles Mlhe end of the IWclfth cemury
looked dlfferem. BUI even in Spain, Ihe archi tecture of thai period C3n nOi
simply be ex plained in terms of French influence. This is shown by the
example of the cat hedral of Za mora: ollr analysis has demonstrated that
the striki ng style of thiS building was the re$L1lt of a number of quile
different, oflen specifically regional architectural developments.
The cathedral of Santiago itself remains the principal example throLigh
which to study Ihe confroOlation wnh non.Spanish architecture along the
pilgrims' route. ConStruclion work on the cathedr:ll was halted aroLind
11 25 after $evere disturbances 10 the city and confrontations belwttn the
archbishops and Ihe k'ngs. II appears Ihal the first opportun,ty to resume
work on Ihe slill mlSSlOg nave bays of the " 'estern seelion and on the
fu~ade was provided Linder the rule of BIshop redro Gudesteiz ( 11 671173). Whilst a COOlT3C1 was Signed wilh C011SIruction workers in 11 68.
the work IS I,kely to have bttn resumed earlier than that. It was necessary
at that lime to beglO construction wllh Ihe crypl.like narthex which
extended from Ihe westernmost nal'e bay as far as the ra .... de. Th,s
construction was nccdcd m order to e,'en OUI the diffeTCm heighl levels
between Ihe floor of the main church and Ihe terrain sloping towards the

208

west. In the lower church of SantIago, the novel French lechnique of Ihe
rib vault was put into practice for the first time. Some elements, such as
the corn ices which lead around the capitals, make a similar appearance in
the early Gothic archilCClUre of Burgundy. Above all, the choir of the
abbey church of Vhelay comes to mind, start ing point of one uf the
main pilgrl1l1s" routes. The style of the chu rch of Vhclay is further
reflected In the entrance porch of Santiago, the " Portico de la Glona H
(portal of glory; pholQ, p. 298). Several sources name the builder
responsible for this porch as Mateo. Since 1161, he had worked in Galicia
as a bridge bUilder. " Hponteador,H and it appears he was still ali ..e
m 1217. Abol'e the lower chu rch, Mateo built a two-storey entr:loce
poT(h wllh an addluonal narthex betw~n the lowers. Today, IhlS ground
floor nanhex IS all that remams, as the cxterior fa~ade L1nde,...ent
considerable allCral10ns m the $e"enlCCTlth and eighteenth ccnturies.
An Inscnpuon mforms the viSitor Ihal the doors were ready 10 be put
into place III 1188. The portal is famous mamly for iTS sculpture. which
IS among the mOSI SlgllIficant work of ItS kind of the lWeifth CCnlury.
From an archnCC1ural poin t of view, the porch is a perfect e:<ample
of Ihe respond. rib sySTem de"eloped in France since the middle of the
century.

So many shafts are clustl're<! aroun d the pie rs that thl'ir cores can
hardly be rewgnizl'd. Nevertheless it would app<!ar wrong to classify the
Portico dl' la Gloria as a work of the early Gothic period, for Matoo
obviously m~de efforts to adapt his porch to the older parts of the
cathedral. To th is extent the historical fomls are at best modified, but not
fundamentallyaltl'red.
The Spanish orders of knights were closely conn~"Cted with the
pilgrimage to Santiago. After all, the Christian ex pu].;ion of the Moors was
fought under the banner of the Apostk James. Hl' had been revl'roo as the
personal leader of the Reconq uisla ever si nce having been creditoo wi th
bringing about victories in more than one successful bailie against the
Moors. Thl' Qrdl'r of the Hospital of St. John of Jerusalem had established
a branch in Spain in 1 113, and the Templars had arrived in 1118. Despite
thdr international status, both thcc ordl'rs of knights were strongly
influenced b)' France and French culture. Other ordl'rs of knights representoo
In Spam were those of Cabtrava and Alcantar~, and later in I'onugalthe
Order of Santiago aud the Order of Christ as successors to Ihe Templars. A
common chJr:lcteristic of the older orders is that Ihey not only integrated
elements from France and the regions Into their architecture, but also
allempted to imitate sites in the Holy land. A truly mternational style was
the result. II is no coincidence that a number of very charactenstic bUild
mgs constructed by those orders sprang up on the Iberian I>eninsula d urmg
the twelfth and the early thirtec-nth centurr, the very period when it was
dominate<! by a strong international clullate.
The largest of th~ churches is at Tomar in l'onugal (photo, p. 208;
ground plan, p. 211). [n 1159, King Alfonso J Henriques had given a castle
to the Order of the Templars in honor of their contribution to the
Reco nquista. The castle's stralegic posi tion was, howe"er, so unfavorable
that it was soon moved to its prtscnt site. All that has survi,'oo from the new
fortification are some ruins and the ch uf(h. Today, il stands in the center of ~
Castle of the Order of the Knights of Christ, the main part of which was
bUilt between the fifteenth and the scventec-mh centu ries. From 1318, the
Order of the Knights of Christ had taken over the Portuguese possessions of
the Order of the Templars after the latter's dissolution in 1312.
The Rom~nesque church, known as "Charola, ~ d;lIes from the second
half of the twelfth century. [t consists of a centrally planned building with
sixteen sides and with a free-standing, octagonal chapd in its cen ter. The
observer wi ll be pllt~led by the contrast between the fortified style of the
exterior and the elegance of the interior: the chapel in the center does not
hJve massive walls like the chuf(:h exterior, but consists of slender arcades
wi th richly molded piers on the lower floor, and a Steep window storey
above it. An optical link is established between the two storeys by
responds, attached both on the inside and the outside, and from which the
nbs of the vaul t risco These meet in the center of the building to form a
5m:lll dOllie, while the ribs on the outside of the chapel lead il1lO the
surrounding walls. Since the laller are sixtcen-sidoo and the central chapel
IS only octagonal. vault ribs in the shape of solid stot\{' bands run from
each corner of the oUler w:llls TO The interior wall. O nly everr second rib is
also connected to a respond, whilst the intermooiate ones terminate on

corbels a bo,'l' the narrow windo ws of Ihe upper storer of the central
chapel. Despite the fact that generous layers of ST\lCCO were applied to the
in terior of the ~Charola~ in the early sixteenth centur)', its original
archi tecture c,m still be satisfactorily appreciated.
The peculiar layout of the church as a centra lly planned building with
all ambulatory leading around a chapel in the center might have come
about because the building was intended as a copy of the church of the
Hoi)' Sepulcher in Jerusalem. A copy in the Middll' Ages did not have the
same meanlllg as it docs today: It did not have to be an exact reproduc tion
of the original, but was intended rather to remind the viewer of certain
basic forms of the original. In this respect. the centrally planned ,hurch of
Tomar was entirely adequate. The church was built by the Templars, who
had founded their Order in Jerus.alem in order to protect the holy sites and
their pilgrims. It therefore seemed natural that they should try to (,:Tea te a
copy of Jerusalem in their most important base in I'ortugal. Moroover, the
p<!riod 11\ the late twdfth cent ury when the church of Tomar was built
coincides more or less with the loss of Jerusalem to the Arabs in 1187, and
also with th,' unsuccessful attempts by the participants in the third and the
fourth Crusades to reconquer the city. It is therefore quite conceivable that
the ~Charola~ was in tended to remind the visitors of the lost sites in the
Holy La nd. This assumption is further strengthened by the fact thai at that
"ery Time, more and more COpies of the chu rch of Ihe Holy Sepulcher
appeared.
The ~Vera-Cru~~ church, or Chu rch of the Holy Cross, near Segovia
(photo, p. 2 10; ground plan, p. 2 11) is closely [inked 10 the ~Charola ~ of
Tomar, both in terms of the date of its cOnstruction and its design.
Consecrated in 1208, the ~Vera-Cruz~ was most probably built by the
Order of the Canons of Ihe Holy Sepulcher. As in Tomar, there is a central
chapel su rroundoo by a circular ba rrel-vaulted ambuiatorr. T he two parts
of the building are, however, of dodecagonal shape so that there is no
discrepancy betwec-n the inner and the outer wall circles. [n addition, the
Vc ra-Cru~ church has a chancel with th ree apses at the cast end, and a
heavily recessed entrance U1 the west. It can therefore be considered both
as a building with a centrally planned larout and as one of linear planform. The chapel placoo in the center of the building is not as richly deco
ratoo as the one at Tomar, but its design is more complex. T he cha pel is
built over a low, crypt.like lower storey and can be reached via a double
staircase on the west side. Si nce the cha pel walls are almost solid
throughout, the only light sources for the chapel are the windows placed
high up, where Ihe chapel pierces the roof of Ihe main church. The chapel
itself is crowned by a small dome supported by twO pairs of parallel ribs
that do not inte rsect in the center.
A similar vaulting system can be seen in ano!her cen tr~lly planned
building along Ihe pilgrims' rou te, namely at Torres del Rio in Navarre
(photos, p. 211}. It cannOI be established with certainty whether the
chul!;h there used to belong to the Tempiars, although it is certainly
dedicaU'd to Ihe Holr Sepulcher. Unlike at Tomar and Segovia, the
octagonally laid-om building has no central chapel. BUI compared to the
former buildings, this church is distmguishoo by its relatively lavish

209

;0'
Sc-goY'3,

V~raCrul,consra .. d

in 1208

~OlTO.\t

!;unate, 'm:ular.plan bu,ldmg

ornamentation, both of the exterior and particularly of the interior, where

its system of vaulting brings out;l truly unusual magnificence.

Instead of IWO paif$ of parallel ribs as in Segovia, Torres del Rio has
four pairs which support th e dome, the ccnler of which is crowned by a
lantern, The sculptural articulation of the vault is completed by a number
of additional ribs that spring from the responds in the corners of the
building. The large windows in the upper storey of the outer building are
reduccd in the inner building to tiny gaps which allow in only a small
amount of light and which are located al The base of the crossing ribs.
[n Torres del Rio it becomes particularly obvious JUSt how eclectic and

international Spanish architecture of the Twelfth century could be. T he

church of Torres del Rio has a centrally conceived ground plan and is a
church of Ihe Holy Sepulcher and, as such, mUST cenainly be Sten as a kind
of crusade against Ihe Arabs. Nevenheless, Ihe builders freely combined
the decoraTive STyle tradi tionally used for the ex terior of the churches
along the pilgrims' rome with a dome modeled on the second mihrab of
the mosque of Cordoba. The church of San Migu el in Andaluz near Soria
might have functioned as a possible intermediate stage in this development, since it has a similar dome which is thought to have been built a
linle earlier than that of Torres del Rio. Buildings following the example of
Torre~ del Rio can be ~een in nearby Eunate (pho.o, bottom left), and in
the Hospital of Sallu-BlaiSt on the French side of the Pyrenees, also
situated on Ihe pilgrims route.
Whilst all IheSt centrally planned bu ildings are repreStntative of a
particular trend within Spanish architecture during the Stcond half of the
twelfth century, they were generally of less importance than the buildings
erected by The Cistercians. Ever since the laST third of the twelfth cenTUry,
there have been numerous examples of their novel building STyle all over
the Iberian Peninsula. During this pe riod, the oldest Spanish convent in
'\' oreruela builT its convent church (photos, p. 2] 3).]t is not certain whether
th is was the building menTioned in records of] ]68, especiaHy since it was
1I0rma( practice for Cistercians to build the eastern sections of Ihe chu rch
first to accommodate the choir monks. This part would also be consecrated earlier than the western parts of Ihe chu rch. MoreTlieia is, however,
unlikely to have been built much laTn than the above date. It was probably
bUilt at much the same time as the Portico de la Gloria of Santiago,
anolher church influenced by Burgundy.
All thaI remains of Morerue1a are some picturesque TlIlnS. Nevenheless,
they give a dear idea of what the building must have once looked like: the
cruciform layout included a nave and IWO aisles with nine bays, and on the
other side of the transept there was an ambulatory with rad iating chapels.
Allhough very rarely used in Spain until then, Ihe above layoUl is drriled
directly from the French mOlher convent of Clairvaux. At lIIorcrueia the
inclusion of Ihe ambulatory with radiating chapels must obviously have
caused some difficulty, since the Qutcrmost of the seven chapels are placed
so dose to the transept that tbere remained hardly any room for the other
chapels normally included in Cislercian churches. Two transept chapels
were added in spite of the space problem, but they h~d to be kept unusually
$mall in order nOllO interfere wilh Ihechapels in fhe chancel area.

210

Torr... dod Rio (I'rov,nc~ ofN.v>rn).

o.urch of , ... Holy Srl'uk"' . End of
..... )II~nmnll of ,h,"...."h CnllUry.
Xl~'oor and ,m~nor v ...." oh ...
corcubr-I'lan bu,ld'llII

o
o

"

00

"!'I-~~
...
"

Tom... T~mpllr church.

Groundp!.n

Segovoa. V:!eru .
Ground pbn

Torm dod Roo. o.urch of ....

Holy Srpuk..... G<ound pl.n

211

Sanl.. CKU. (rro .. nc~ ofTarr.gona~.

Cim",'an chun:h. 1174_1211

OPPOStTE PAGE
Moreruda (rro\"1lK~

of umora). ruIn.

ofl"" CiSler'.. n church, After 1168.

Views of I"" chancel !nlerlM (lOp). V,",W
of chancd and n.v~ from <outh~"st
(brntom)

only modern features were th e lX'inred arches of the b.ure! vault and the

fib vaulting in the side aisles.

The overall design of the choir it~lf is based on Ihe pattern traditionally used in Burgundian architecture even before the time of the Cistercians.
At Cluny. for example, the low chapels are covered by semidomes and are
auached to the higher, rib-vaulted ambulatory whose only ligh t sources
are the tiny windows set above the chapel openings. An arcade uf columns
with pointed arches leads from the ambulatory IU Ihe interior choir.
The Jailer has an upper storey with windows which SIMI above a cornice
that is engaged with the corbels undernealh the dustered vaulting
shafts. These compound vaulting shafts rise up between the semi-cirx:ular
headed windows and support the ribs of the semidome vault above the
choir apse.
AI Moreruela, Spanish Romanesque architecture achieves a hilherto
unknown quality, both in the over:llliayout and Ihe detail of the extremely
subtle design of Ihe choir. Such an achievement would have been
impossible without the French influences described earlier. J'a radoxically,
any contemporary models in France from which Moreruela mlghl ha"e
drawn inspirallon have all been destrored. The Spanish abbey church
thereby allows an appreciation of early French Cistercian architecture, a
pleasure no longer possible in France itself.
The nave and transept of Moreruda are far less well presen'ed than the
choir. bUI C"an nevenhe!ess be reawnably well reconstructed, both sections
wcre covered b)' barrel vaults supported by tranS"elSe 3TChes. Although this
type of conSlruction may hal'e been directly derived from French Cistercial1
church building, it had been traditionally used for cenTUries in Spain itself, The

The architectural syStem employed at Moreruda was used once moreprobably onl)' a very short time later - ill the Cistercian monastery of
Poblet in Catalonia. founded by Count Ramon &renguer IV of &lreeluna
in 1153, There are two main differences between the tWO buildings' the
bays of the na,'e at Morerucla are more compressed, so thai it has nine
bays compared to Poblet"s se,'cn, Furthermore, the ambulatory at Poblet
has only five radiating chapels, SO thaI there was enough room to furnish
the transepl wilh chapels of the same siu,
Of somewhat different appearance is the church of the Cistercian
convelll of $.lmes Creus (photo left), which is also in Catalonia and was
established in the year 1150, As. at I'oblet, it relied on the support of Ihe
countS of Barcelona, and, <lfter their alliance, also on the kings of Aragon.
Both monasteries house numerous tombs of COIlIUS and kil1gs al1d were
extended in the late thirteenth and early foutleenth centuries to include
residential quarters.
[t seems that the convent had chosen the wrong site, and had to mm'e
twice before building work on the prtsent church could Sian in ] 174. Ii
was finally cUIlsrated in nil. The clong.lIed nave and tWO aisles
comprise si); bays. It is adjoined by a "cry narrow transept wlIhout aisles,
011 the east side of which there are four rectangular chapels and Ihe large,
equally elongated choir without ambulatory, The ground plan of thts
church is therefore roughly compar<lble to the German Cisterei<ln con,'etl!
of Maulbronn (photos, pp. 68-69). The interior, however. is anything bUI
typical of this order. The indIvidual ba)'s and aisles are ~parated by
mighty cruciform piers, The outermost front verucal responds are bevcled
off 011 the nave side (a feature often found in Cistercian architecture), so
thaI further up they can carry the powerful pointed transverse arches,
Extending between these arches are groin vaullS with broad vaull ribs in
Ihe shape of solid stone bands thaI Slart immediately above the corbels
without being illitiated by responds. No olher features aniculale the twoStorey wall which has arcades and a clerestory. so Ihat the effect of the
church interior on the beholder is one of austerity and, at the same time,
extreme monumentality. The same impression is conveyed by the exterior
of the church with its solid massive wall. A number of buildings belonging
to the original com'ent from the Iwelflh cemury arc still present. amongst
them the hex<lgonal pump-room with its SlOne-band rib vaulting. the
chapter-house. and the dormitory. Begun in 1191, the dormitory was
designed as a continuation of the southern transept arm and fealures a
rising beamed ceiling set above a row of pointed strainer arches. It mighl
well have been Ihe first of a number of similar buildings thai were 10
become a ,har;!cteristic fearure of Gothic architecture in Catalonia.
The earliest and arguably the most impressive example of the !;ate
Romanesque style in Call1lonia is the church of Sames Creus. a Sl3lelnel1t of
succim monum~n11llity. The orher two main examples are Ihe cathedmls of
Lleida (Urida ) and Tarragona. Both these churches show a remarkable
degree of tradition in their style. considering Ihat Ihe period of their
construction continued well into the thirteenth century - a time when Fr:mce

T~,,~gona,cath<:dral.l:Icfor.

1174-fourlCCflth century. C.. hedral and

clOIster Sn from th. nonh~aSI

Ta""sona, c3,I>rdrai. Ground p!.tn

was already bUlldmg cathedrals that were the very embodiment of the
high Gothic style. The strongly seulptural articulation of their interiors
puts L1eida and T.1rragona in the same [radition as Zamora, TOTO and
Salamanca.
A dated epi taph on the exterior of the choir of the cathedral of
Tarragona (photo, p. 214) suggests that building work must have begun
before the year 1174. However, the church was nOI compleled until Ihe
fourteenth century. The l~st indicaTion as to the possible appearance of the
original design IS Ihe cloister in the north-east, since all the western partS,
including the fa~ade, were built in the later stages. Plain walls with little
articulation, and windows reminiscent of embrasures make Ihe calhedral
appear like a fortified caSlle, creating an effect similar to [he POrtuguese
cathedrals already discussed, or the abbey church of SantI'S Creus. In the
cloister, on the other hand, there is a singular fusion of differem elements
and prlominantly finer, almost filigree-like shaJX's. Whilst as a whole, the
cloister bears all the hallmarks of late Romancsque arch,lenure, some
individual columns and capil3ls arc clearly oorrowings from buildings of
the Classical period. The detailed roseltes aoove the triple arcades, 011 the
other hand, and also the frieu of multiple arches ooth betray their
Moorish origin.
The aisles of the nave cominue on the other side of the transept and
terminate in apses of differem si1es. Uniformly covered by groin vaulting,
the building is arti(Ulated by powerful picrs, each with a pair of columns
of thrcc-<juartcr circular profile anached to the front side. These attachl
columns support the transverse and the arcade arches, whilst the more
slender responds attached to the corners lead over into the diagonal ribs of
the vaults.

214

The old cathedral of Llcida (photos, p. 215; ground plan, see aoove) is
situJted high 300ve the town. Although it was begun later than that of
Tarragona, the building was complecl much earlier, namdy in 1278.
Durmg the War of the Spanish Succession, it was com'erred into barracks.
This was in 1707 and was illdd used for this purpose until 1926. As a
result, the church interior was not subje;;ted to the type of alterations
suffered by most other Spanish churches, and is therefore much easier to
Jnalyze. Restorarion work on [he cathedral of Llelda did not commence
until 1946.
The history of the building is well documentl. According to a
commemorative stone, the ceremonial laying of the cornen;tone took place
in 1203 through King Pedro [I of Aragon and Coun t Ermengadus of Urcel.
It is further known that Bereng.uius Obicions was res(Xlnsible for the
building administration, and that Ihe architect was Petrus Decumba.
Lleida was nOi re.::onverted to Christianity until 1149. and the cathedral
was built on a site lhal had formerly been occupied by a mosque. This
might explain some puliarilies with regard 10 its layoul. The position of
the doister in the west, in front of the church, is remilliscent of the outer
court traditionally found in mosques. The unusual overall width of the
church and the relatively short nave (comprising only thr bays) are duc
to the re-use of the foundation walls of a mosque with its traditional broad
layout. On the other hand, it should not be forgotten that there was a
tradition in Catalonia of churches with projecting transepts, such as at
Ripoll and La Seu d'Urge!l; this feature was moreover found in the
churches along Ihe pilgrims' routC.1t is no accident that the side entrances
of the church at L1eida, with their corbel-decoratl (Xlrches, are
reminiscent of the older porches normally found along the pilgrims' roUle.

Urioh. old c.thedraL 1203-78. V;"w of

thcutr,ior from lhe $OtIlh-wcst (top ).
1nr."orof n~"e (bonom)

Lleida howe"er lacks the recesses in the Moorish style which would flank
the entrances of these churches.
There used to bf, five apses all increasing in depth towards the cemral
axis. Now, only two of them survive in their original state, allowing us to
appreciate JUSt how thick the walls of the building are. The piers tOO are
enormous and are fitted with coupled columns on the from thall suppon
the mighty trans"erse and arcade arches, similar to the arran!;ement at
Tarragona. At Lleida, however, the transverse arches are atraded to an
additIonal supporting element, the edge of whIch is further slr\!1Igthened
by a respond placed next to the one which supports the diagonal rib. This
arrangement means that the piers of the cathedral of Lleida have one extra
step compared to those of Tarragona. As a result, they project further our
into the nave, whilst the walls, despite their thickness, appear .lS though
they had been stretched betw~n them. A simibr effect had al ..:ady been
achieved in the cathedrals of Zamora. TOTO and Salamanca. Their imerior
spaces moreover share another feature with Lletda: the clerestory wrndo,,'s
are set above a cornice whtch is linked 10 the capitals of the piers. As ill
Salamallca, the capitals at Ucida are endowed wilh extremely rich
sculplural decoration.
All these Catalollian cathedrals of Ihe bte ROInanesque period clearly
have close affinities to the French G<>thic STyle regarding their structural
articulaTion and rib vaulting. Individual elements such as the rose
windows, for example, are further clear indications that the Gmhic style
must have bttn known in Cataloma. Nevertheless, these buildrngs cannot
be classed as MGothic," For one thing, th e structure of their .... alls and
vaults is not based on the system of support and load; the pow',rful piers
tend to fulfil an optical functioll rather than a static one. The reduction of
wall thickness, on the other hand, had made much greater progress in the
architecture of the high Romanesque period, as is shown by Sam:iago. !r is
more appropriate to view these Catalonian churches as part of a regional
Iradit ion, enriched by modern stylistic elements, rather than as a
transitional slyte. hld~d, the transition frolll Romanesque to Gothic style
was nOI a gr:t.dual process in Spain. The new architectural style did not
really Slarl there umil well into the second decade of the twelf!lh century,
but when it did arrive, its impact was immediate and widespread.
The fiT!lt examples of the new style were the cathedrals of liJledo and
Burgos, almost exact copies of certain Gothic buildings ttl France.
Its arrival also coillcided with the final settlement of the conflicts
surrounding the succession to the throne. These conflicts had flared up
again and again during the e!C\'enth 31ld twelfth cellturies, causing
continual splits within the country. Only the three kingdoms of Portugal,
C.1\alonia and Aragon, and Caslile and LeQn now remained. The kings of
Castik and Leon attempted to introduce an autocratic and oentraliud
government modeled on the example of France. The new stJlle of the
Gothic cathed ral served as a seemingl)' adequate means of (,'xpressing
their ambitions. All these developmentS he ralded the beginning of a new
era, one that turned iTS back on the traditional, regional and also
international values that had been the hallmark of the ROlllanesqjue period
in Spain.

215

Heinfricd Wischcrmann

Romanesque architecture
in Great Britain

Bdort tht Norman Conqua-t

Ont facrs conSlderabk probltms whtn trymg 10 produce an oudmt of t~
English Romanesqut. Research III tht fitld is stili unsatisfactory - despite
tht efforts of tht British ArcharolOgJcal AsSC/C;aflon sinct 197.5.
Although tht term ~Romanesqut archi ttcfUrt ~ was coined by William
Gunn as tady as 18 19. tht ttrmlnology used in Britain to describe tht
Romanesqut is stili undcveloptd. Gunn's term has not bctn univers.1l1y
acCcptl-d, and English authors fluctuate betwn ~Norman~ and ~Anglo.
Norman.
In addItIon. H IS d,fficult 10 dat e the start to the Romanesque period
In Uruam. The first decades of the new millennium, under the rule of
Ethelred II (978- 1016), were turbulent, and those churches that were built
have 1110rt in common wllh late A~gI0.5axon architecture. Political
unrest, such as the invaSion of tht Danes In 1013, and the economIC
shortages aSSOCIated wllh II. tvidcntly prnented Britain from Immediately
adoptmg the styles of the early Romanesqut ptnOO, which started on the
continent al t~ tum of Ihe millennIum. Tht Dants wtrt led by CanUlt.
who was king of England from 1016-1035. He made England Ihe centtr
of hiS northern kingdom, bl11 bUilt Imle. His most important foundaflon,
51. Edmund's in Suffolk, was consecrated 10 1032; It has ytt 10 be
excavated. The church was probably III Iht stylt of Aachen's palannt
church.
A ntw wa\t of bUilding staned durmg the rtlgo of King Edward the
Confessor ( 1042-1066). In 1050, Bishop He!"('mann of Ramsbury wrOlt
10 the Popt, saymg that England was gammg nC'w churchts day by day,
even on Sitts whC're noll(' had stood prtviously. From about 1045, long
btfore Iht Norman Conqutsl of 1066, mode!itly-sfud Anglo-Saxon
churchts without alslts ~an to be !"('p\3ced by buildings wllh aislts and
round archts, attempu 31 vaultmg. several sectIons atlht taSI end, towtrs
over Ihe crOSSlllg and WtSt end, and eXlernal ornamtntation conSISllng of
blind arcadts and series of round archts.
CanUfe ditd without an htlT 111 1042, w Ihe crown passed 10 Edward,
son of Ethtlred and Emma. d,mghrer of CoUJlt Richard I of RoueJl.
Edward had grown up in txilt in Normandy, and, as a rtsult, was f~m i liar
wllh the culture of weslern France. I-Ie brought continental bishops and
archile<:lural styles 10 Britam.
DeSpltt unreliable wurets and numerous undated bUildings. tht
mfluenct of Iht contment on Enghsh early RomantsquC' can be traced wilh
va rYing degrttS of confidence 10 four examples:
After a visit to RhC'lms m 1049, Abbot Wulfric built an octagonal
ambulalOry In Canterbury, tht oldtst monaslic cenler in England; II was
siluated between tht old Ptltr and Paul church and the church of 51. Mary.
The budding was nOt compleled after hiS duth m 1059, and was
excavated al Iht ~mnmg of Ihls Ctntury (figurt, p. 217, left). Adding a
ntw secnon 10 revtred old bUildings IS a typically English tradition, Ihough
the moods were continental: St. BoEmgne In I)ijon and Ottmarshtlm. In
5htrborll(', Dorset. Bishop Adfwold II (1045-58) bUill a ntw church TIght
agamsl tht old one. ",hich continued 10 be used. It has 10 be said Ihal we
know lillie more about It than thai" had :I massive wtstern lOwer and a
M

Ca"'~rbIlfY. bbty

church. Ah~r 1049.

WulFric',oclagon. ground plan

Londoo, W"I,mi""er Abbty.

COnscc .... t.d 1065. Church of Edward
lhe COnIOSs<:>r.ground pl.n

disrinCli"e portal which led tnto a sou th-facing portico. In Stow.

Lincolnshire, the crossing, which is separate<! from the na"e and transept
by four arches, and the transept arms still remain of a collegiate church
built (C. 1053-55 ) by Duke Lwfrie of ~lercia. The strong relief of rhe
arches at the crossing, and the way the church is composed of individual
cubes, sho ..... the influence of the continental Romancsque style.
The fi rst truly Romanesque Bri tiSh building was conunlssioned by none
other than Ed ..... ard the Confessor. From 1045150, he had variOus old
buildings (next 10 his london residence) belonging to the Abbey of 51.
Peler (founded in 730140) demolished and replaced by a Iarge.scale
building (figure, p. 217, right). It IS possible. with reference to;l contemporary description, pictures on the Bayeux ta~stry and a few
excavations. to produce the following r.-construction of the building; the
twO towers 3t rhe WCSt end connt'Cted to a nave with twelve bays and an
alternating system of supports. a ptojecting transept with a tower over the
crossing and tribunes in each arm. and finally a choir with chapels in
echelon. The length of the nave alone ( 140 f~t ) is enough ro demonstrate
Ihe royal claims of Ihe bUilding; it copies the churches of Normandy. from
which Edward had jusl rerurned. NOTlil: invaders had sellied there
from 911 onwards. and from the beginning of the eleventh century they
started building a series of large churches to demonstrate their power and
daring.
lbe most Important early building in Normandy was the abbey church
of Jumieges; It was begun in 1040 by Abbot Robert Champan, the very
man who was made Bishop of London by King Edward in 1044. then
became archbishop of wnrerbury in 1051. and returned to Jumieges In
1052. Champarr was probably responsible for rhe identical rle"ations of
the monastery church of Jumieges, now in ruins, an d Westminster, of
which only the ground plan rema ins. Both churches were anempts 10
realize the same goal. a monumenTal vaulted basilica . The church of
Jumieges and its successors were decisi~'e in the creation not just of
Westminster, where England'S monarchs ate buried. but of the majority of
high and late ~ Anglo-Norman ~ Romanesque buildings in Britain; because
of thiS, the rcader is referred 10 the in-depth study 011 pp. 140ff.
It is likely that King Edward's Westminster Abbey, wh ich was consecrated in 1065, was not the onl)' pre-conquest building to exhibit clear
signs of Romanesque influence. Romanesquc thinking is reflted in
buildmgs in places stich as Winering in Notlinghamshire, Wareham in
Dorser. and Great I'axton in Cambridgeshire - though that influence is

rather more visible 111 the th r~-dllnensional subdivision of the supports

and walls than in any clear articulation of the different sections of the
buildings. They suggest that there was Inore than just the one example of
Romanesque in Bmain to work from.
h would seem S(""nsible 10 date the start of English high Romanesque
from the Norman Conquest. From thaT time, people who commlssione<!
buildl1lgs adhered mo re rigidly to the recommendat ions of Goscelin de SI.
Berlin, who came to England in 1058, ~lf you want to bUIld something
better, you have 10 start by teari ng down what is already there. ~ The new
bUIldings were ~n13g"ificent, marvellous. extremely long and spacious,
full of light and also quite beautiful. ~
The episodes of the ConqueSt - though not the background to it - are
narrated on an epic scale on the Bayeux tapestry, a piece of nee<l lework
over 240 fttt long, though just 20 inches wide. Colorfully embroidered
pictures tell of the preparations for invasion and end (the last section is
missing) with the Battle of Hastings; e"ents thaT happened concurrently
are depicted as occurring in sequence. The scenes arc amazingly vivid and
full of figures; each one was created using various colors of wool on a
bleached ca nvas. The style is the same throughout. figures being presented
in outline, skilfully composed but without any allempt at producing a
sense of perspecli,e. The detailed Latin leXI was probably wrinen for
William's half-brother, Bishop Odo of Bayeux, by the ~CaJlIerbury
School.'" an importanl cenler of book illumination. It is an extraordinarily
wide ranging source of information on many aspecTS of culrural
history. such as architt'ClUre. weapons. warfare. clothes and mllilary
equipment.
The Bailie of Hastings and irs political comequenccs
The background 10 the Bailie of Hastmgs, one of the great turning points
in English history. is quickly dealt With. Edward had no children, and , as a
consequence. the question of a successor was very much o n his mll1d. He
exiled his father-in-law Godwin, and at the same time. in 1051 , named
William of Normandy as his heir. When Godwin died in 1053, he was
succeeded as earl of WesS(""X by his son H arold. In the s,1me year William,
the designated heir. married Matilda, daughter of the count of Flanders
and a descendant of Alfred the Great. This connecTion supported William's
claim to the throne. In 1064 Harold (Godwinson) was captured by
Wi ll iam and was force<! to swear 10 Sl1ppor! his claim 10 the English
throne; rhls IS one of the most importa11l scenes on the tapeStry.

217

Whether this u,uh was actually made or nOI, Harold clearly did not
consider it 10 be binding. When Edward was on his deathbed he named
Harold as his heir, and th e laller was duly anointed king in Ja nuary 1066.
William appeaud to have little prospect of disputing his possc:ssion of the
throne. It was an enormous amount of luck combined with exceptional
energy that helped him gam victory. He declared war in tine firm can
victiun of the justice of his claim, and with the mural support of the pope.
Two further eventS aided him, the weather and an invasion bJ' the king of
Norway, who Harold successfully fought at Stamford Bridge. On October
14,1066, William met Harold at Hastings.
Harold fell in battle, and English resistance against the invaders
collapsed. William was crowned at Ch ristmas 1066 in WCstmilnster Abbey,
Edward's neW building.
'Ibe viCtory at Hastings did not bring with it peace and StXurity for the
invaders. The Normans remained an army of occupation fo,r more than
five years, and met with considerable problems in the nurth of England
and Wales.
AI first, William attempted to maintain the type of state and government system that Edward the Confessor bad set up - and to do so with thc
co-operation of the AngloSaxons. But this attempt was frustrated by
localized revolts and the demands his followers made for appropriate
rew ards; in its place, an authoritarian system gradually eme rged wilh a
cen tralized royal houschold, feudal aristocracy, a Great Council and a

218

reformed Church. The emphaSIS of WiIliam's poliCies was on continultyan example is his fi rst decree to the dty of London, giving the assurance
thaI KiT is my desire That you should retain your laws and customs as they
were in King Edward's days.~ But he also intended 10 record and organize
the new wealth and property that he had acquired. This was done by
means of the famous Domesday Book. which was a systematic description
of the country carried OUt between 1066 and 1087 by tral'ellmg corn
missioners; it recnrded the properly in each manor and every county.
(t is unlikely that Duke William (J (crowned William I) Turned his
thoughts to building churches much before ] 070. T he priority was to
build and man as many castles as possible, they were needed bOlh 10
combat military threats and to safeguard his regime. But Will iam was not
the only person in a position to commission buildings. He had placed a
varicty of noblemen in positions of power in England, and they intended
to have a say in the country's future, whether as StXlllar or church
dignitaries. The pre-Conquest noblemen were replaced by the Continental
invaders. By the end of William's reign, a mere 8 percent of land was still
owned b)' Anglo-Saxon noblemen. A fifth of the land belonged to the king,
a quarter to the Church, and nearly half to William's relatively small band
of followers from Normandy, Flanders an d Brittany.
The church hiemrchy underwenT the same process as the aristocracy.
Normans being given positions formerly occupied by Anglo-Saxons. With
the agreement of the pope, William the Conqueror removed Stigand as

OPPOSITE
lIoyt"" Ta ..... ry. 1101,1. set""' around a
............andM'1ey (Iopl. H..old ._an".
an o,"tI btfon' w,num .M. hr ...,n htlp
hun p,n d.t English no"," (bdow).
Wooirmbroodrry on )".ttI. l'lroshi 20
"",hn.lrnglh........, tMn 140 1M. From
Ion to 1082. Tar".... r... dr lIoytuK.
W"h .hup'u) pnmw.>on oht... 'OWn
oillo,.,u!{

archbishop of Canterbury and repla"ed him in 1070 with LanfTanc. an

halian who had been a truSted advisor of William's ever since his time as
Abbot at Sl. Eflenne (St. Stephen's) ,n Caen, the church Wilham had budt
to be buned m. unfranc Un,ted the Enghsh Chu rch ;and reformed the
mon;aSIl'nes. The Normans now controlled Ih ree church provinces.
Rouen, Canterbury and York. In 1070 Thomas of Bayeux w;as made
archbishop of York, and a rcsult of thiS was cont mumg conflicts for [he
primacy m England. The moSI Important part of Ihe reforms was [he
movmg of several b,shops' sees and a new version of English canon l;aw.
Revisions 10 the dioceses had SI;arled during the reign of Edward the
Confessor. Loofric's see had bt.-en moved from Crediton to EKelc r in 1050.
In 1070, londOn's ecc1esllISIlcal council shifted Ihe see of Elmham 10
Thetford, and then to Norwich. In Ihe sanle year, the see of Lichficld was
moved 10 Chester, Selsey went to ChIChester. and Sherborne to S;alisbury.
Finall y. In 1072. RCnl1glUS also moved his sec, from DorcheSler [0 Lincoln.
While he was revlsmg c;anon law, Lanfranc discovered a cunous
arrangement: four English calhedrals were governed by monks. They were
Canterbury, Sherborne. Winchesler and Worcester. Monks at several o ther
cathedrals "'cre beong encouraged 10 adopt a community life similar to a
monaStery, wllh vows of celibacy, domllfones and refectories. A monk
himself, Lanfranc was m favor of makmg monks bishops. Three more
cathedrals received monaSilC consmutlons; they were Norwich, ruled by
Herbsl. Rochester. rulc:d by Gundulf, and Durham, ruled by Wilham. Bu[
Sherborne.ISiJhsbury rejected Ih,s ;arr;angeffiCnl. It was decided that
Chiches[~r, ExetCt. Hereford. Lichfield, Lmcoln. London, Salisbury. Wells
and York should be governed by cathedral chap[et1 or canons, a system
comparable to Ihat III Normandy; these mne c.athedrals w~re known as Ihe
MOld Foundal1on. M
Each of these cathedmls was led by four prelates (dean, precentor,
chancellor. treasu rer). Th~ position of high-ranking clergymen wi thin
England's system of governmenl was abundantly clear: they we re directly
subordi nate 10 Ihe archbishop and, bemg powerful feudal lords, were an
Important part of the country's nll litary struct ure.
By 1080, Wulfstan of Worcesler was the sole remaining Anglo-S;aKon
bishop. All the rest - wnh the exception of Giso of Wells, from Lorrainewere Norman eilher by ancestry or educalion. All abbots of [he [hiny-five
Independent Bencdlctine monasteries Ihal existed in 1066 were r~placed
withm [he fit1t s.x ye;ars, as they were hosllie IOwards Ihe conq uerors.
Desplle some mlSlakes, the m;alomy of abbots that William appoinled
won high pralSi'; they oncluded Paul of Caen III St. Albans, Simon from St.
Ouen m Ely. Serlo from Mom. SI. MIChel in Gloucester. and Vi(;o lis from
Bernay in \'(.'esfnl1nSler.
Engl ish high Romanesq ue
However mU(h the Church and .tS archllecture may have changed.
Wilham's pnom)", and lhat of h'i Norman followers, was nonetheless
conl1nuIIY. Norman nlOnaStcry ;and blshop's churches. which had seried as
the modcls for F.dward the Confessor's WeslmlllSler Abbey, continued 10
mfluence Bntain's brge-scale buildmgs un\ll well mto the ""'elfth century.

This IS confirmed by the followmg chronological summary, coveTing Ihe

penod from the fit1t monumental Slone bUlldlng. Bailie Abbey, to the early
GothIC revIsion of Camcrbury Cathedral.
The firSI church Will.am lhe Conqueror bu.1t was Baule Abbey in
Sussex (figure, below). lie founded .. Benedic"ne monastery shortly after
1066. on the Slle where he defealed Harold; Its church, which was begun
by 1070 and consecraled in 1094, did nOI survive [he Reformat ion.
Whether Will iam mdced swore an oath on the eve of baule, as legcnd
would have It, to bUild a monastery if he were victorious, or whether he
was attempling to atone for Ihe bloody invasion he had started, is not
clear. Whatever the case, [he abbey was a rn~ans of safegua rding Ihe
Co.l~l;al region which he had just conquered.
\'('1' are fam iliar wnh Ihe ground plan of the church, its al[ar placed
above Ihe spot where KlIlg l1 arold was k.lIed. It had an aisled nave, was
over 240 feet long, making.t as long as monastery churches in Normandy.
and was almost cetlamly a galleried basilica like Its Norm;an coun[erpans;
II had a l1;lnsept wuh apses and - probably for the first lime in Bro(;oin - an
ambul;atory wl[h radiallns chapels. The abbey was generously endowed by
i15 founder. and before h.s death he bcqueath~d ;t hiS cloak, relics, and a
portable altar he had taken wllh him on h.s c;ampalgrlS: but he was nOi
buroed there. Wilham, the founder of the Anglo-Norman kingdom. "'as
buned III 51. Ellenne III Caen.
HIS defe;a[ed opponent, I larold, was buroed beneath the high allar of
[he church he had founded, Waltham Abbey III Essex, [0 doe notlh of

"
21'

London; it was begun in 1053 and consecrated in 1060. The ground plan
(fig "r~, top) of its antiqua!(~d church (a continuous transept and single tiny
apse) was revealed by excavations some years ago. It is quite likely that the

..

--

plan of the church, which Harold showered with relics and gold

1 .J.~cJ.. "L
)

fT II

W.hh.m Ablxy (Essex). o,n>rared

0

>Om

1060. Ground plan

L-

I;

Q-o
,
.~

,.~

1.

"""'I""

t.
o

>Om

",

Cant~rbury

"m

Elev.tlon of the nave and SIde "slcs, I:

"'""". condItion, II: unf.anc's limes

Guhed 1. Compl.d h.,f.>rr

1089.lIoill by Lanfranc,groun<i 1'1311

.1."

!.......

0'- "': -----"

C,nte,bury. St. Augo,,;",', Abhty. Nt"" Abbc:y of Peter and 1'.,,1. !'I,med l>etwrm 1070
and 1073. BUlir by Abbot Srotl3nd. ground pl~n

220

ornaments, was deliberatclj' oldfashioned, showing the influence of Old

St. Peter's in Rome, or St. Den is in Its archaic appearance - a reaction to
the MNorman izing influence of Westminster Abbey.
T he first monumemal buildings of the English Romanesque were bu ilt
from 1070 in Camerbury, the city where St. Augustine had become
England's first bishop in 601. From the summer of 1070, lanfranc, an
[talian, was its archbishop. In ] 045, he had left Pavia to become the prior
of the monaste ry of l.e Bec. William sent for him to take charge of his new
monastery in Caen, and then promoted him to Camerbury. In the period
around 1060/63, Lanfranc started, and pos.sibly even deSigned, the largely
preserved church where William was buried. I-Ie applied its form to his
new cathed ral, Christ Church in Kent, whose AngloSaxon predecessor
burnt down in 1067. We are familiar With the ground plan of this church
(figure, center), which was completed before La nfranc's death in 1089; the
original north-west tower was replaced when alterations were made to the
cathedral in the early nineleemh cemury. A fa~ade with two towers was
connected to a nave with pillars and eight bays, a three-part transept with
galleries in the projecting sections, and a five-part choir with chapels in
echelon and a crypt undcrneath the main apse.
The elevation can be largely inferred: groin-vaulted aisles flanking a
thr~'t'-storey na,'e (arcade, gallery, clerestory with a walkway and three
windows in each bay). The galleries in the transept were also supported by
groin vaulting. The groin vaulting in the aisles on either side of the choir,
and the barrel vaulting in the upper storeys of the outer apses suggest that
the intention was to vault the main choir. There was no evidence for
vaulting above the nave and side aisle galleries, and as a result it is unlikely
that there was a stone barrel vault over the nave itself. Given previous
failed attempts to vault the nave (in churches such as Caen), Lanfnnc
almost eeruinl)' decided to usc a wooden vault in the transept and nave; it
would have been a visually quite adequate $ubstitllIe.
An important rival of thi s cathedral was The rebuilt Abbey of Peter and
Paul. which was built by Abbot Scotland (1070-87) outside the east walls
of the city (figure, bottom). This was where 51. Augustine had founded a
monastery in 598, hence its later name of St. Augustine's Abbey; it was
used as a burial site for the first archbishops and the kings of Kent.
Scotland was the first Norman abbot (from Mont 51. Michel ), and started
on his large new build ing between 1070 and 1073. It was not only a few
meters higher than the cathedral. but even copied its basic shape (fa~ade
with two towers. columncd na,'c and aisles without alternation, projecting
transept with apses, though no tribunes) though it replaced its chapels in
echelon with the rather more extravagant solution of surrounding thc
choir with an ambulatory and radiating chapels ovcr a spacious crypt.
Clearly. thc requirement to venerate the relics of St. Augustine had
suggested a choir wiTh ambulatory, a form which Scotland was familiar
with from Mont St. M ichel. The ground plan of the church, which was

.... nroIn C:;r.'hW,~L I07J/74-1092.

Cnnull"noflht WttI f~,~<k, b.,,11 by
Rnn,pus (dct~lIl. sround pI~n (bonom)

.~

~.

Old 5.lrum (SalIsbury ] Cathiral.

CompletilO92. Reconstruction of lhe
t~lerior VIeW, ground plan

statement that Remigius had built a church ~in loco forti fortem, pulchro
pulchram, virgini virginum. ~
T he people building churches at this lill1e II1USt h~ve felt a pronounced
need for security. This view is suppoTled by {he transfer of the episcopal
see of Sherborne and Ramsbury 10 Old Sarum to the north of Salisbury,
carried OUi in 1075 by Bishop Herman Ihe Flemmg, formerly the court
chaplain 10 Edward Ihe Confessor. HIS new cathedral (illustra tion, left)
was not built in the town, bill on a broad hill 111 the shadow of a large
Norman castle - meaning that even water shortages were an acceptable
trade-off for safelY.
The cathedral wu completed in 1092 by St. Osmund, but fi"e days
before it was due to be consecrated it was destroyed by a Storm, The
foundations, which were excavated in a field in 1912113, show that the
building had !iule in common with churches in Normandy, posSIbly
because of the person who commissioned it. A cross-section fa~ade was
connected to a nave and side aisles with pillars; the t","sept and towers,
destroyed from 1538, can be made 0111 111 the ruins which wen~ excav~ted
in a Canterbury meadow, and liS elevation would have been similar to
models in Normandy, and the slightly older Canterbury Cathedral.
The next English successor of St. Stephen's in Caen was the AngloNorman calhcdralll1 Lmcoln which, like so many of ils contemporaries,
was extensively rebuih dunng the Gothic period in the Early English style.
Remigius, who had previously been the almoner at the monaStery of
Fecamp, was made bishop in 1067. In 1072, as part of the reforms made
to the dioceses after the Norman Conquest, the bishop's see of Dorchester
on Thames was moved to Lincoln; the cathedral was built on the fortified
Lincoln Hill, above the River Witham. The Cathedral Church of SI. Mary,
which was STarted in 1073174, was completed by 1092, when it was
consecrated. As Remigius died on the eve of the consecration, it was
undcruken by his successor, Robert Bloct. All that remains of Rellligius's
building is the central section of the fa~ade (photo, p. 221], built of hewn
stone, and with narrow openings that look like the arrow-slits on a castle.
Because of excavations, it is possible to make a reliable reconstruClion of
its appearance: a two-bay fa~ade wllh twin towers was conneCled to a
nine-bay colu mned nave and aisles, a projecting transept with tribunes
that was initially in two scClions, and a choir composed of five chapels in
echelon. The reClangular sides of the side a~s were a common feature in
churches in Normandy. The cathedral llself must ha"e been a galleried
basilica. There is evidence to support there being groin vaulting in the side
aisles, underneath the tribunes and in the four outer chapels in echelon.
The cemral part of th e choir w,IS probably roofed by a barrel vault. The
transept and nave would have had wooden vaults. Nothing is known
about the shape of the crossing tower. In 1911, John Bilson quite rightly
praised the building for its "logical precision, clearly defined struClural
organization, and feeling for monumcnla! forll1.~ Its mOSI remarkable
section was the fa~ade area, shape<llike a triumphal arch; if Ihis section
was really - as R. Gem suggested in 1982 - originally conceived as a
fortified church without toweT'!i, il would explai n Henry of Huntingdon's

222

51. Albans C.thedral. Hrnford.hirt.

St. Alb."s Cathedral , I krtfofd.h".

F.xtrrior virw with Rom."rsqufcross,ng
tow

N.,r

..

n,

lk
IDDD!

-.

Roch ...... CalhedraL BUIlt by Gundul!

[J

5,. AIM"., mon3<ICrychu.ch. BUIlt bf

which are remarkably similar to Murbach in Alsacc (cf. p. 55), were

followtxl by five apses in echelon.
Rochester Cathtxlral in Kent (photo, p. 222 and figure, iX){1om left) was
started b)' Bishop Cundulf (l077- 1108) S(X)n after he was made bishop,
together with a Bentxlictine com'ent; it, tOO, shows that defense was still an
important consideration. h is possible that Cundulf, who camc from Le Bee
like Lanfranc, incorporated an older fortifitxl tower which filled the area
between the northern transept and the choir of the new cathtxlral.
We know the basic shape of this building which, like its Anglo-Saxon
predecessor, was dedICated to SI. Andrew and was the secondoldest bishopric in England (foun dtxl 604). The two west bays of the groin-vaulted
crypt remain, together with the walls that separa ttxlthe three aisles of the
rectangular choir (83 feet). The small eastern rectangular chapel probably
contained thc relics of St. I'aulinus, one of Rochester's seventh-<enlUry
archbishops. The transept projecttxl, and it is possible that a tower stood
over a square bay in the south transept, as 3 counterweight 10 the fortifitxl
nonh tower. The interior decoration of the two galleried aisles and nave
was ahertxl in the middle of the twelfth century; like Old Sarum, it ends
with a cross-section fa"ade. There is conspicuously little similarit) to the
ground plans of St. Etienne in Cam or Christ (burch in Canterbury _ el'en
though Cundulf worktxl alongSIde Lanfranc Oil both of those buildltlgs.
11 is easy 10 explain the clear dependence of the abbey church (a
cathedral since 1877) ofSI. Albans in Hertfordshirc (photos, alxwe), built

Paul

223

L..."don. Whlt~ Tow~r. From around

1078. Int.rior of S<. John's Chapt"1

Whu~To".r.cr.... -

stClIon wuh 'hapel

224

at the same time as Rochester. on William's chu~h in Caen. In 1077,

lanfranc sent the monk I'aul of Caen to the town on the River Ver near the
ruins of Roman Vt""rulamium; it was here that Sf. Alban, the first British
martyr, was beheadt""d in about 304, and a Benedictine monastery was
founded hert"" in 793 by King Offa of Mercia.
Using bricks from the Roman ruins that had been gathered by his
predessors, Paul built strongest Anglo-Norman building still extam.
over 41 0 feet long. large parts of Paul"s basilica still stand: it was a church
with pillars and ten bays, a "ery wide tran sept and seven chapels in
helon. As in Rochester, the aisles on either side of the choir chapels did
nOl open into each other. The uSC of plastered brick masonry may go some
way to explaining why the nave and aisles. with their stepped arcades, low
galleries and clerestory with one window in each bay, appear to Ix- so
archaic. massive and ponderous. The sober intt""rior would have Ix-en
softened by paintings, however. like the chapels. the side aisles wt""re
grolll-vaultcd, and the central choir chapel would have been barrelvaulted. The prolting p111ars In the na\'t"" would probably ha\'c supported
the chords of a woo<lt""n vaull. Because of the enormous thickness of the
walls, there is every reason to believe that the original phn W<lS to vault the
nave with stone or bricks, bUl that this was nOt possible because the nave
W<lS tOO wide - even the galleries are nOt v:Julted. The open galleries of the
nave are replaced in the transept by low doubl e arches in front of a narrow
passagewar, underneath a high-a~hed clerestory. The crossing tower,
which is crenellated like a battlement, is the only such eleventh century
tower remaining on an English church; it is likdr that the original plans
include<! a fa.;-ade with twin towers. Thechu~h was consecrated in 1115.
The might}" White TO\\.'er (photos, left, and p. 250) fulfils many roles: it is
a defensive structure, residence and prestigious building, and at the ~me
time the srmbol of William the Conquerors rule of London. It also plays an
important part in the history of England's Romanesque sacred buildings.
Gnndulf, the bishop who already had experience of building in Rochester,
had the White Tower constructed for his king from about 1078, and
personally equipped the T:lther bare St. John's Chapel for its function as a
privatt"" chapel; it can be identified from the outside: a semi-circular
projtion a( the southern cnd of the ea~t side of the building. It occupics
(he third and founh storers of the bUllding. It is an aisle<! gallerie<! chapel
without a derestor)", with round pillars and an ambulatory, and its
dimensions (55 feet x 31 feet) are roughlr equivalent to the choir in a large
chu~h such as SI. Augustine's in Canterbury. Particularly noteworthy is
the stone vaulting throughout the chapel; the nave is barrel and the aisles
groin-vaulted, and the galleries are covered by semicircular vaults. This
chapel delnonstrates on a small scale what the Norman architects were
attempting to achieve: a building made completely of SlOne, in this case
without light sonrces in the nave. Given that the nave in the Tower was
only 15 fect wick, the fact that tht"" builders decide<! against adding a
clerestory shows just whal bad experiences eleventh-centurr architects
l1\ust have had III their allcmpts to put stone vaults on larger basilicas.
York Minstcr (illustration, p. 225, top) is second only to Canrcrburr.
lis a~hbishop controls fourteen dioceses. He is the ~Prim3te of England, ~

York M'"'t~r. Ikgun around 107'1 (1) by

Thoma. of 6.)~ux. Recon'truction from
the no"h~ .. t.ground plan

Winch ... tcrCalh~dT31. Nonh.rn tr."sopt

ann. mt."Or V>CW

the north Side aisle) have made it possible to reconst ruct the exterior,
which would have been divided by tall blind niches and several rows of
windows.
York Minster remained very much an exception. In Winchester,
Hampshire, Bishop Walkclyn (1070-98) of Rouen replaced the last AngloSaxon bishop, Stigand. Walkclyn, who had been the king's chapiain, startro
work on a new cathedral in 1079 (photo, Ixmom and figures, p. 226); it
was built ~a fundamemis, ~ from scratch, and shows that the Normans
were using Canterbury as a model, thollgh with some differences and
embellishments.
On a hill above the River hchen, Walkclyn builr what was at the time
the largest church in northern Europe. until Cluny Ill. Its very length of
533 feet was an expression of the importance of a cit)" which had
witnessed the coronations and funerals of kings and was the dest ination of
a pilgrim TOlite (0 the gra"e of SI. Swithin. In 1093, the Benroictine monks

25m

but the archbtshop of Canterbury is the ~Prtmate of all Englnnd.~ The

minster, in the center of the city that the Romans called Eboracum, has
always been a cathroral; there was ncver a monastery here. York had its
first bishop in the fourth century. At Easter 625 Btshop Paulinl'" baptizro
King Edwin of Northumbria in a wooden church; in 634 he was promOiro
to be the city's fiTS{ archbishop.
T he laSt Anglo.Saxon cathedral to stand on this sire, St. Pf,ter's, was
destroyed during the last Danish invasion of 1075; irs replacement was
begun by Archbishop Thomas of Bayeux (lUlll-I IOO) III about 1079,
and the first stage was completed by the time he died. York Mmster must
be viewed as a rival of Canterbury Cathed ral, and rhat would go SQme
way to explaining the peculiar shape of the 366-foot-long church, which
Derek Philipps excavated between 1967 and 1972. Lik e Angers
Cathedral, it had a mighty, 154 foot nave that was over 58 feet wide.
Over the projecting tran sept was a sturdy crossi ng tower and it had stair
turrets to the east and apses; the long choir had aIsles and ended 111 a
semi~ircular main apse with a small crypt underneath. Sections of this
substructure , which was o,'er 5 feet wide, can be viewed undetTleath the
crossing. The lower courses of stone, bootied pieces from Roman
buildings, were bnilt on an oak frame. The present-day pillars ill the nave
stand on the foundations of the Romancsq ue nave, so the cath(,dral built
by Thomas had a lasting infl uence on the newer Gothic build'lng which
was started in about 1215. Remains of Roman esque walls, com plete with
their original plaster, and the painted ashlar of the crossing tower (above

225

Winch~.. rr

Ca,ht<lraJ. Begun 1079. BUlh

by W.lkdyn, r<on,,,,,,,,;,,n, ground

pl.n

from the nearby Old Mmsrer were able ro move into Ihe completed cast
section. In 1107 the crossing rower collapsed, but was soon replaced wilh
Ihe aid of stronger pillars. Repairs also had to be made in the bays of the
transept, most noticeably to the capit;lls. The church W;lS completed in
;lbom 1120.
The fa~ade, which was guarded by two towers, was connected to a
nave and aisles with eleven bays, whIch retains its lare Gothic cladding up
to the gallery. The most impressive part is the transept, incorporating new
continental ideas. It was redesigned in abom 1085, giving it side aisles, ~
that the aisles to either side of Ihe nave continued into Ihe wings of Ihe
transept. Towers - IWO at ei ther end of the transept - were intended 10 be
temporary alternatives to a crossing tower. It was clearly modeled on the
galleried transeptS found in pilgrimage churches such as Toulouse and
Santiago. The choir, raised above a powerful crypt in several parts. al~
had side aisles. The cud of the choir was surrounded by a seml-circular
ambulatory, and an ;Ipse-like Lady Ch;lpel W;lS attached to its rect;lngular
termination. A rhythmic alternation of pillars and columns, together with
vertical supports in front of the strong w;llls, suggests th;lt a stone barrel
v;lult was planned for the central ;lisle at the beginning of the choir. The
idea was abandoned in abom 1085, at gallery level.
The transept (photo, p. 225, bottom) was almost unlOuched by the
Gothic alterations made at the end of the twelfth century (whiCh started
with a retro-choir); it gives one the opportunity to experience at first hand

226

the imposing power of these large high Romanesque buildings. Massive,

sharply stepped pillars flank openings on three le,cls that become progreSSively lower higher up the building: a sunken arcade, gallery openings
with small columns and tympanums, and ;I clerestory which contains
certain irregularities, a reSult of the small towers which were planned for
either end of the transept. The transept is reinforced throughout, indicating that it wa s supposed to be vaulu'd. T he arcades from the side aisles
continue along the from sidc of the transept, but on the other side ;Ire open
tribunes which support the ;unbulatory v;lulr.
Soon after 1079, Robert de Losinga (Lorraine), bishop of Hereford
from 1079-95 and brother of the builder of Norwich Cathedral, decided
to rebuild his cathedr;ll of SS. Mary and Ethelbert (figure, bonom phOTO,
p. 227). A church on {his site, built by Bishop Ae{helsl3n (IOI2-56), had
burnt down in 1054; despIte being repaired, it clearly did nOt mCCI
Norman requirements.
The ground plan and elevation of {he east section, which was
consecrated in 1110. followed wh;lt had become a well-worn pattern in
England: a na,c ;lnd side ;lisles were connecled to 3 projecting transept. The
cast w;lll of the ~uthern transept arm remams. Its construction (blind
;lTcades, triforiUlns and clerestory with paSs.1geways) shows that the
building was re-planned and changed on several occasions and that - like
pilgrllnage churches - a barrel vault may well have been planned for the
galleries of the original central choir aisl('. The oldest parr of the cast wall of
[he transept is the outer area, from the clearly visible vertical line between
the different sections. The gallery bay bordering {he crossing is old in its
form, bill was cvidently restored in [he twelfth century, prob;lbly after the
crossing tower collapsed around 1110 (which al~ made it necessary to
repair the choir). The remaining three bays and two storeys of this choir,
which had lavishly stepped pillared arcades. low galleries and broad
,ertical supportS in {he centr;ll ;lisle, would ha,e been roofed eilher by
means of 3 barrel vault or- more likely - by a groin vault o,'er a clerestory.
Groin vaulting in the nave would have been an early exampk of the
modern form of four.point vaults, earlier ones bemg Speyer 11 and the
choir of the Trinit': in Caen. T he eastern towers over the fi rst bays in the
side chancels are al~ reminiscent of Speyer. Bishop Raynelm (1 107- 15)
was responsible for the planning of these sections, ;lnd on his tombstone
hc is referred 10 as the ~fundator ccclesiae,~ The nave and side aisles - {he
round pillars in the ground floor are still Rom;lnesque - were not
complefed until {he rule of Ro bert de Bethune (1131-48), and the church
was consecrated in 1142 and 1148.
Htrdord Cathedral, Begun

aTt>uod 1080. Built by

Robert de Losmp.ground
pl.n

OPPOSITE
Hereford C.tht<lral.l'.ost

w.1I of the ",mhern

Irall~pl

Bury SI. Edmunds.. abhey. Ikgun

aher 1081. Tower above In.

enlw"e hal! (r;glll ), grwnd plan

of In. mona" ., churd (kh),
.,iol view of Ihe . bbey (below )

In the 1080s, several Important monastery churches were begun, quite

apart from the cathedrals of Worcester, London and Gloucester. Unfor
tunately, it is precisely the most remarkable ones that fell victim to the
Reformation.
Some informative ruins (photo, top left ) remain of the 500 foot long
abbey church which Abbot Baldwin of St. Denis (1065-97) had planned
for the wealthy BenedIctine establishment founded in 633 near the grave
of St. Edmund (d. 870}. the last king of EaSt Anglia. The project to build
Bury St. Edmunds in Suffolk started soon after 1081. This was the year in
which William th e Conqueror released the abbey from the comrol of the
bishopric. It is possible to make out the ground plan and - next to one of
the crossing pillars - even the beginning of each Storey of the church's
ruins, which are spread out Ol'er a large green area.
A transept with a SIde aisle to the east and chapels, a three-storey gatlerie<l
nave and aisles and a 247 feet wide west transom WIth three towers was
connecte<l to an ambulatory with radiating chapels. which in size even outdid
its model of St. Augustine's in Canterbury. It was possible to move the rdics
of Edmund into the new building as early as 1095, and the entire complex
was finished by the end of the Century. On the occasion of the transfer of the
relics, the monk Hermann (Mi,aalla Eadmllndl) praIse<! the marvellous
vaulting ol'er the new choir, which he comp.lrcd to the temple of Solomon.
Doubtlessly a major factor in the decision to build the new church was the
desire to increase the number of pilgrims coming to St. Edmund's grave.

227

Ely c..lh~dral.lkgu" after 1081.

StructUil' of ,he na,". waU (topl. ground

plan of Simeon"5 buildIng (.,ght). low~'S

and na,'t and aisles from ,h. south-easl
I""nom)

~'

............
.
...,=.............. ;",__
~
I

4:',--"

jM

OPPOSITE

Ely C"hNral West fa,ad.

:
.om
One can still gel an idea of what the west front of Bury looked like by
examining Ely in Cambridgeshire (photo, p. 229). The wide fa\"ade of Ihis
cathedral, which was dedicated to Ihe Trinity. was eVldenlly buill in dirc.:.:t

competition with Bury. A monastery founded in the early Middle Ages -

by Sr.

Elheldred~,

the Queen of Northumbria who died in 679 - waS Ihe

starting point at Ell', as il W,IS at Bury. With the aid of the monks, King
Wilham was able 10 ddeal one of the last pockets of Anglo-Saxon
resistance in the marshes around Ely. In 1081, the office of abbot was
conferred by William upon Simeon. a Norman who had been prior of
Winchester and was the brother of Bishop Walkdyn.
Simeon started work at El y soon after he was made abbot, and the
onginal building remains, eXCept fOT the crossing and choir. Like St.
Albans, the choir had aisles and thre.: storeys, and probably terminated in
a scml-circular apse. The transept, as al Winchester, had three storeys. The
mighty (>Crogon over the crossing, buill between 1322 and 1344, disturbs
the regularity of the slim Norman bays quite considerably. The ea,t stion
was probably compl<.""!ed when the relics of the monastery's founder were
transferred in 1106. In 1109, the church was elevated to the rank of
cathedral, and the Breton Abbot Herve becamc ils firsl bishop.
The journey from Ihc high to the late Romanesquc period can be made
hy p.",in& fTnm the nl<ll'<I """'inn, Ihe <;nllih ~rm of Ihe tr~n"'pT with II~
pl~1II storeys without responds (alternating system of supportS in the
ground floor. gal1eries, triplets (windows with three lights) with a
walkway, the latter probably built after the crossing lowcr collapsed in
1111 ), via Ihe northern transept which has a clear vertical sl ruct ure due to
elcmclIIS placed in frOIll of the pil1ars, the nave and side aisles with thirteen
bays (a lternating syslem of supportS in Ihe arcade slOrey alld gallery.
triplets with a walkway. phOIOS, leh), to the fa~ade. The walls of the open
west trallsept arms, dating from the late twelfth celllur)', arc richly
decoT3too wilh seqnences of blind archcs. The nave is magnificcnt; though
it took a 10llg lime 10 build, il remained remarkably true to the original
design. The hori:wntal sequence of its storeys, which are proportioned m a
6:5:4 T3tio, is broken by th e narrow responds which, illstead of the broken
woodell ceiling, almost certainly supported a wooden barrel vault. As in
Peterborough alld Norwich, this is high Romancsque articulation of a
building carried out 10 a beautiful degree of perfection. The exterior of the
nave and side aisles is more lavishly decoratoo than the interior, and
includes a sequence of blind arcades.
Bcrmondsey Abbey in Surrey (figure, p. 230, top) was a Cluniae priory
like Lewes in Sussex and Wenlock in Shropshire. Its eastern stion, which
has only been known since recent excavations were made, is curious and
11l1til now was difficult 10 interpret, just like the solutions 10 building the
choir in Rocheslcr and York. Thc building had a transept wilh four apses,
and it was (onn('(:ted 10 a sanCluary Ihat was a good 65 feet long,
surrounded by five apses on the eastern side. The church, which was
probabl)' begun in 1082, was an unusual succcssor to Clunr II.
Onl)' stions TCmain of the monastery church that was founded in
1083 by Roger de Mommorency for Benedictines from see~. The three
bays ill the nave and aisles, built around 1100, have round pillars and the

228

Ikrmondsq Abbty.
Ground pl.n of Ih~
eaSlern sectIOn

usual tympana in the galkries, but the clerestory does not have a walkway
in front of the windows.
The Cathlral of St. Mary in Worcester (p hoto, below) is es~,ially
informatile where the continuous relationship between architects in
Normandy and Norman architecTS in England IS concernl, and it has
~n quite unjustly ignored in publications on the Euro~an R'~manesque
period. While the large building, built of reddIsh sandstone, is largely
Gothic, important sections of its Norman prlecessor (crypt, base of the
fa~ade, arches, responds) still remain. The town was made a bishopric in
680, and the thl""n church of St. Peter was under the care of secular canons.
St. Wul fstan (1062-95), who was the only AngloSaxon bishop to remain
in office after Ihe Conquest, demolished the late tenthcentu,ry church,
which had ~n built by St. Oswald and subsequently damaged by the
Danes, and startl work in 1084 on a church, the large size of which had
become necessary due to growing numbers of monks. By 1089 the
building work had progressed so far that the clerics were able to move
from Oswalds old church into the new cathedral. After the translation of
the rdics of Oswald, Wulfstan had the old buil d in~ demolished; it
probably stood near the present na'e. Wulfst an kept records that show
that a synod took place in 1092 in the crypt which he had! built and

dedicated to Mary. In 1095 Wulfstan died, and despite statements to the

contrary by William of Malmesbury, it is unli kely that he lived to see his
ca thedral completed. After a series of fi res in the fiTS! half of the twelfth
cenTUry, a collapsing tower in 1175, and the completion of the two western
nave bays towards the end of the twelfth century, the cathedral was finally
consecrated in 1218.
Wulfstan's building had aisles and a transept and ambulatory with
polygonal radiating chapels. Because it was the most distinguished church
in the diocese, it is likely that it was not JUSt the clerical, but also the
artistic center of the ~Severn Group~ in the west of England. Being the
head of this group, to which the Benedictine monasteries of Great Malvern
(c. 1085ff.), Tewk esb ury (1087192), Gloucester (l089ff.), Pershorl""
{1092ff.J and Evesham (twelfth centu ry) belonged, it is probable that it left
Its mark on the remaining sections of the younger members of the group,
enabling one to theori:te about its elevation.
The twO Storeys of the original choir eleva tion that remain in
Gloucester (figure, p. 231, bottom right) can be used by way of
comparison for the choir elevation in Worcester. An abbey had existed in
Gloucester since the seventh century, and in 1088 the church that was
dedicated 10 St. Peter If1 1058 burnt down. As Abbot Serlo (1072-1104)

g~

~.

--I

.,

"

-<

t -t
....

.J
'"':t
.,
.,

lo
r
r
r-J.

Worcester Cathedral.ikgun 1084. BUIll

by Wulfstan. ground plan

WorttSttr Carhed .. 1. Crypt

230

Glo""emr CalhedraL Ekgun 1089. V;"w

of nave lowards {he .aSI

laid the foundation Stone of the new building in July 1089, it is safe to
assume that he was working to a model.
St. I'eters in Gloucester - a cathedral since 1540 - is an aisled basilica
with a transept, ambulatory and radiating cha pds. T here is a crypt with
several aisles which extends for the emire length of the choir, JUSt as in
Worcester. The polygonal main choir has arcades over round pillars. The
ambulatory is groin.vaulted, and above it are barrel-vault~-d galleries.
Their round pillars originally had four semi-circular responds, of which
three remain. Those facing inwards disappeared when the choir was
renovated during the late Gothic period. T he first two storeys are the same
heigh t, and above them is a late Gothk clereSlOry. The aisle-less, five-bay
transept with chapels to the east is Romanesque in its ground plan and in
parts of its elevation. Compared with the choi r, the nave and side aisles
have a completely different devation now. Above round pillars without
responds, pseudo-galleries open out Ollto a walkway. The derestory was
rib-vaulted ill the thirteenth century, but underneath this are dear traces of
its former shape: stepped triple arcades, walkway, central window. T he
side aisles arc rib-vaulted, and the exte rior walls ha,e alternately three and
five responds.
T he galleries of the two re maini ng Romanesque storeys of the choir
provide important information for a reconstruction of the former superstructure. They have semidomes, which must have been intended to
support a vault o'-er The central choir. There are six possible solu tions for
the superstructure, and if the intention was to "ault the aisle with stone, it
is likely that the third storey was a triforium with a walkway, with or
without tilly windows.
Such a soll1lion would have aPlXared qUite strange to anyone brought up
on the French Romanesque style. But iT is the very one that can be proved to
ha,e existed in two other barrel-,aultL-d buildings belonging to the Severn
Group. They are the churches in Tewkesbury, Glouceslershire, and Pershore,
{Hereford & Worc<'"5ter, photos, p. 232). In the eastern Stions of both
churches were vaults o,-er the central aisl~, covuing gall~ries and a lriforiulil
and walkway; th is was a three-part elevation, nOt the four-part one that Jean
Bony reconstructed in 1937_ Th~ transepts ofTewkesbury and Pershore used
10 be barrel-vauh~d '" Slon~, and give clues to the elevations of the choirs,
which in both ca~ no longer exisl. As both churches belonged to priories
Ih at were subordinate to WOrceSler and Gloucesler, they probably had
corresponding elevations at the first stage of planning, but the intention to
use stone vaulling failed, probably because of the width of Ihe nave, despite
Ihe novel elevation. Worcester and Gloucester were presumably replanned,
and the stone vault was replaced with:l w()(j(jen vault with girders, the only
form of roofing that corresponded to the desired spatial effect.
It is easy to reconStrUCT the transepts in Worcester and Glouc~ster. Both
of them, li ke the better preserved tr;lnsepTS in Tewkesbu ry and l'ershore,
had one aisle and fi,<e bays. They had two-storey eastern chapels and
toW~rs with staircases at the corners. They had a Ihree-slorey elevation
and stone vaulTS were planned, and possibly even built.
There are very sparse remains left to aid a reconstrucrion of the
R Olliancsqu~ nave and side aisles in \X/orcester_ They do, however, prove

1~

Glouce" ... abMychurch. BUilt by s"rlo.

grOtlnd pl.n

Glo""""ler bbeychurch.llu,h by s"rlo.

eleva lion of IhechOir

231

T.wkubu'1' (Glouc ...,... hl~). form.r

.bbeychurch. \'('.., t..~.de

.... .. .-

_IJ .. ~ .
~

rI..
:;r~

T..... k... bury.

ground pl~n
(ab<we), elevation

of n.,'. and choir

(rigb.)

232

P.r~ho ... , monal".,. church. F..al' .... 11 of

,h. wuth ".n,..p'

that Worcester did [lot simply have round pillars Itke Gloucester and
Tewkesbury. The elevations of their na,'es and side aisles are quire
different from the eastern seCTions of the buildings, and have excessively
high arcades and a low triforium and walkway; the triforium had started
replacing galleries from about 1110, as they were no longer considered
structurally or liturgically na:essary.ln GloucesTer, COnStrUCTion work was
started bter, and around 1120/30 the openings of this intermediate StOrey
were grouped in the center of the arcade beneath; this clearly shows that
the intention was to use what, at that time, was the most modern form of
vaulting, namely the sixsection rib vaulting that had ~n im'ellted in
Normandy (sec photos, p. 142). It is probable that the plans in Worcester
were changed to an alternating system of supports in the nave and side
aisles, in order to avoid the obvious break Ixtween the substructure and
vaulting evident in Gloucester.
Due to the combination of vaulted galleries and triforiums with walk
ways underneath a vault, the $e"ern Group O(cupics;l special position in
the English Romanesque period. The main architcct of the Group must
have been aware that a stone vault could nOt Ix exccuted over a basilica's
elevation if the sp;m waS mOfe than ten meters. 11 can only have been
possible to realise his solution to this problem in smaller buildings.
The bishop's chapel in Hereford, which was demolished in ]737. had a

H~r~ford Dthedral. Bl$hops(hapel.

R.-construCllon by Dnnkwattr

Lons"ud",al '<lion. ground r.lan of

upper $'O""Y (.bo,~ I.h). Jo1,rOlmd plan of
low~r Slo""y (""low "'h)

similar splem of VJlillS 10 Tewkesbury. Contemporary sources relfer 10 il as

Ihe successor 10 Aachen's palaune chapel, and It was a [WO-SlUrey centralplan building (figure, lOp left) erected by Rishop Robert of Lorraine
(1079-95). It can easily be reconSlruclCd: Ihe bonom slore), was similar to
a crypt and had a groin vault supported by pillars, and above it W:IIS a bright
superstructure with a vault and a l:entral tower in the nave imd se:mi-domes
in Ihe side aisles. The relationship between this l:hapel and the ch:lpel of St.
Emmcram by Spe)'er Cathedral and the Church of Our Lady in t he palace
at Goslar pro\'cs tha, Ihe archm'cts' clients had tturodua:d Sadi,m and,
possibly, Bu rgundian influences to Britain by the late elevenlh century.
Astonishingly enough, neither the two Norman bishops Robert and
William, who had bccn appointed by Edward the Confessor, nor King
William's first bishop Hugh de Qrival (1075-851 started work on a new
version of 51. Paul's Cathedral in London (figures, bonolll right). It was
not until an e"tensive fire in 1087 that Bi~hop /-.Iaurice (1086-1107) was
given the opportunity to do this. Another fire ttl 1133 led 10 rt:storation
work on the church which had probably bn completed before "1127, and
this lasted right tl110 the second half of ,he twelfth century. T he l:,utlim:s of
Ihe ground plan of the predecessur to today's Baroque butldlng arc known.
The cathedral had a hall crypl, and above it prohably an ambulaJory with
radiating l:hapels, sUl:h as that at Bury, Connc:<:ted to it was a tra,~sept that
projc:<:ted unusually far, and a nave and side aisles with pillars whkh were
powerfully arriculated by means of twelve bays: its condition, compl(Cte
wilh galleries, clereSlory and GOIhic rib vaulting, was rc:<:orded by Wen~el
Hollar in [he SCl'enteenth cenlury. If small square towers did indeed nank
th(C crosssection fa"ade, Ihey would nOI have been added unt:.1 Ihe lale
twelfth l:entllry.
In the lasl de.:ade of the e1ev~nth c(Cntury, work was started on some
Cluntac monastery churches, as well as Ihe cathedrals. An example is the
priory chuTch in Castle Acre, Norfolk (photo, p. 234; figure .. p. 235),
which was begun soon after the priorys foundation in 1089 by William 1
of Warenne; si" bays of Ihe nave and side aisles, and the fa"ad(C (middle of

the twelfth centllry) with its typically English sequences of blind arches,
sltll stand. The l:hurch of lewes Priory in Sussex (figure, p. 235) was also
st;lrted after 1090: this was another priory founded by William I of
Warenne, in 1078181. The church, which has bn e"cavated, was a
successor 10 Cluny Ill, begun in I 088, like iI, the English daughrer-house
had two transepts and an all1bulatory wilh radiating l:h'lpels.
The first cathedral built during this decade was Chichester in Sussex
(figure, p. 235). The cathedral, dedkated 10 the I-I oly Tnnlty, was pari of a
bishopric founded around 681 in Selsey by 5[. Wilfrid, a former abbot and
bishop of York. In 1075, the dedsion of the Counl:iI of London to 1l10ve
the -village sees~ to dties led to the b1shopric being shifted to ChIChester
(Noviomagus), Stigand was the first bishop (1070-87) at this new site; he
probably started work around 1080 on a new building to repJal:e the
church of St. I'cter's, which was used on 3 temporary basis. That would
e"plain why this large building, of which large partS survived thc Gothic
mod(Crnizafion (despile a fire in 1187), appears rather oldf;lshioned. The

London. St. Paul', D,h.d.. 1. Butl! hy

Mauric . ground plan I"'hl

OPI'OSIT~

GIS!I~ Acr~ (N<.>rf(>lk~,

fOf11'l(r Clum""
prlorychurch.lkgun 1089. W<"S' b(adc

cathedral was commissioned by Bishop Ralph Luffa (I090f9 1-1123), and

William of Malmesbury reponed that Luffa built '"a n(>vo.~ The eas tern
sections (ambulatory with three chapels, aIsle-less transept with twOstorey east chapels), which were staffed soon after 1091, and thl: four east
bays of th .. nave and side aisles, were probably compleled before the
consecration in 1108. The elevation of the choir, whlcb can ~
recomtructe<!. is ,mp.man! in the history of the bUlldmg's d .. velopment. It
was only 16 feel wide, meaning that it is posSible that a stone vault, such
as the one in the Tower of london's chapel, or 111 Winchester, could have
been intended; this suggestS that the building was planned durin~: Stigand'S
time as bishop. The vault would have been supported by the arcade of
pillars in the ground floor and the galleries which were streng,:hene<! by
stone arches. In 11 14, the town and cathedral were destroye<! by a fire,
and the e1eventh-centu ry remains are still visible in the cro:.sing and
bordering transept bays. Luffa resumed work on the bUilding. H : built the
lady Chapel, a nal'e arranged as a three-aisle<! b.lsilica with pillars, eight
bays, a powerfully arllc ulated, Ihree-storer elevation (the a["(:ades, the
unvaulted galleries and the exterior sides of the trirle-arched clerestory are
still Romanesque) and a fa~ade with twin towers (consecra ted in 1184).
The redd ish sandstone building dedicated 10 St. Werburgh near the city
walls of Chester in Cheshire (a cathC<lral since (541) was extensi'vdy renovated in the Gothic style from the middle of the thirteentb century.
Previously there was a collegiate church on thIS SIte, bUilt soon .lfter 907.
In 1092, Hugh lupus. earl of Chester and nephew of William the
Conqueror, made it an abbey uf Benedictine monks. Bishop Richard of Lc
Be<: (1093 - 11 17) starred work on a new buildll1g, of which parts remain
on the north side of Ihe cathedral (wall of the side aIsle, north transept),
but It cannot yet be rC1:onstruCied.
There is 110 way of categoricall)' dC1:id ing where the new i<lea of rib
vaulting first appeared, whether Worcester in the 1120s or Gloucester
after the fire of 1122. Bolh examples of rib vaulting - and also the one
which we can assume to h3\"e existed in Lincoln _ predate that of Durham,
which continues 10 be- wrongly connected with the date of 1093.
Durham Cathedral was built next 10 the bishop's castle at the highest
point of the city within a loop of Ihe River Wear; it is one of the purest
embodiments of Norman architect ure (p hotos, pp. 236-27). [t is the
symbol of the Normans' strict safeguarding of C1:desiastical afl1d secular
power, a symbol of authoTllY for their subordinates alld a basti clII against
Scotland. [t was preceded by a monastery church, which was begun by
Bishop Aldhull in 993 and consecrated in 998; the relics of SI. Cuthbert
(d. 687, bishop of Undisfarne) were kept there.
The present large-scale building - a basil ica w,th aisles. and an
alternatmg syStem of supportS, porch to the west, fa~adc with twO towers,
transepl with twO aisles, choir and ro:tangl1lar chapel at the east end,
replacing the three Roman esque apses - was begun by Bishop \l:rilliam of
St. Carileph (Gu illaume de SI. Calais, \08 1-96) m \093, and the work
was continue<! by Ranulph de Flambard (1099- 1128 ). The cast section
was probably completed br 1104. and that is when the rehc! of St.
Cuthbert were transferred there. [n about 1128, the church was completed

fi'<===[J

000

000

0=

I1P rc == = , lL~=V

Cast!' Acr~ (Norfolk),

former Cluma, priory
church. Ground plan

UW<"S Priory (Su""x),

monalMry church.
lIt-~un .ft.. 1090.
Ground plan

ChlCh<"S'er Ca,h~dral.
Su..u.lkgun around
1080. BII,It by Luff..
dev."nn of 'he chOir

235

Durham CathMr.l.llegun 1093. Vitw of

nav.toward"M east (lth ), vi<w from
Ihe west (opposlle)

with the addition of galleries, a clerestory, groin vaulting in the e;lSI SlXlion
and probably a wooden vaul, in the nave. There is no justification for th e
frequently expressed opinion that the rib vaulting was planned and built

from the outSCt.

Rib vaulting the nave was not
~

~im'ented"

until J 120/20 in Normandy

Sf. ttiennc in Caen to be precise. The earliest plans of this church had

intended the monumental basilica to have a stone roof, but 31 the time the
width of the spans mean! that it was not possible to realise these plans
with a stone vault; rib vaulting meant this was now possible after all.
William the Conqueror's mortuary church had an alternating system of
supports, which is why Ihe first example of monumental rib vaulting,
which corresponded 10 its system of vertical building elements, is in six
sections. In Durham the four.part rib vaulting lacks all reference 10 the
elevation, and was qUite evidemly added later (from 1128133 to around
1160), being put up on consoles o,'er galleries wi th conctaled butrressing.
During the course of this, the clereSlOry was modified, and th e interior was
gi"en a more lavish decoration in keeping with the late Romanesque
style. Naturally the ribs in the side aisles, such as one sees on many
occasions in England. had groin vaulting pushed underneath them at a
laterda!e.
Another thing which speaks out against the early dating of Durham's
rib \aulting is the facl that this type of vaulting was not ret known in the
buildings (such as Norwich, the choir built by St. Anselm in Canterbury

,
, r

~
r

,
I

II, "

I
I

20m

Durham C"hM,.1. View from the no"h

[right), ground pl~" (William 015.
Ca"leph'sllUildmg)

236

1rII--=- -=-

f"2- : ~

~.-.-.-.-.-.-.

::;~'.~ . ~:

.. rf-v

~~:r

NO<WK:h DIh..'<luL &gun 1096.

C"",nd plan ofH.. btn dr Lm,Rp'.
budd,ng. new from ,t.. ooofh-wa{ (left).
lIrucru't of m.: ""n walls ,n ,h_ wnn
(cemer ) .;..w "I choir ' ....... ds , ... ull
Inp.)

Calhffir31, ~nd Pel('rborough} SI;lIIW shonly befoK and after Ihe tum of
the century. Rather, Norwich and ]'(,Ierboruugh both finally decidtd
against attempting 10 vault Ihe n3\'(\ Instead, theIr designers pelffltd the
'aquwucl system' of the na.'j' walls. This pre-COIhle structllre, which
rcmovt'$ allth. hcavmc$S from walls, finds ItS mOSt magnificent '!1<pression
In Ih~ bUIldings.
The bIshopric of EaSt Angha probably dales back 10 a set: Ihal was
founded In Dunwi.h, Suffolk, by SI. Fdlx of Burgundy around 630. [n
aooul 955, It was combined wnh Norlh Elmham in Norfolk, and Ihe sec
was mo.'cd [0 Thetford In 107S. 11 WU nOt until 1094 that Bishop Herbert
de Losinga (1091-1119), who had preYiously bn prior of F~~amp and
abbot of Ramsey, moved to Norwich, which was safer. Losinga had
eyidently bought hiS office fram Wilham Rufus, the a"aricious son of the
Conqueror. !-Ie had a part of the Saxon cily lorn down and slarted work
on a mighty new buildmg In 1096 (photos, p. 238). He !i,'ed long enough
to Stt the east sections (3 thr~-storey choir With ambulatory and three:
chapels. alslc-kss transcp", and firsl double bay of the nave) completed.
The sanctuary, like thaI al Ely, 's strlkmgly long, and the elevation follows
that of St. Ellenne In Caen In other respecls: the arcade supported Similarly
high, unscparated galler~ and there was a walkway In from of the
clerestory and a triplet. Double responds in from of the galleries show that
the structure was stab,I,U"d by stone arches, like Durham. The 1.ue Gothic
nb "aullmg, m !It\"Cral sectiOnS, was probably predcd by a wooden ,auh.
The supporu m the ground floor are COnSPICUOUS: they swmg out 10 the

238

cast and ""est like segmental arches. as if round and edged p,lIars had bn
merged. A IYPic;J.lly English feature is that the cast and w<"St sides of lhe
tran!ltp! (whICh has liS ongmal two-storey chapels) arc different.
By the lime he died, Bishop Eborardus (E\"erard de Montgomery,
112 1-45) had completed the na"e, fourtten bays long, and finished it off
wlIh a Simple cross-section fa.;ade.
We w,1I pass oyer the mediumsi1ed monasteri<"S built around 1100,
whICh arc well worth Sttll1g: they arc LlI1d,sfarne in Northumberland
(l093ff., phOIO, p. 239), whICh is now in ruins bill which was rebUilt wllh
rib vaultl1lg at the II1SI1g.1110n of the Benedictines in Durham; Christchurch
I'riory in lla mpshire ( 1094) which has laIC Ramanesque patterned arcade
spandrels and was founded by Ranulph !-1 ambard, bIer bishop of Durham;
Binham Priory In Norfolk (c. 109 1ff.), of which JUSt one hall remains and
whl)!lt pomlcd roof suggesls ,hat lhe upward thrusl of the double responds
must hale supported a h,arreJ vault; the mlghlY arched walls of Colchester
Priory m Es!ltx (c. 1095ff.), whICh was the firsl Augustmian !ltnlemcnt m
England and IS now III rUins; and the tWO Romancsque na'"e SfOrc-yS of
Wymondharn Abbey in Norfolk (I107ff. ), which was founded by William
de Albl", as a daughter-houS(" of SI. Albans.
The archll~turJ.1 climn of thesoc yeus musl hal'c bn the choir of
Canterbury Cathedral, of whICh only Ihe outside walls slIlI sland (phoro.
p. 239 ). The bUlldmg was begun m 1093/96 by AnS("lm (1093-1109) and
hi! prior Emulph ( 1096--1107), and evenlually completed by Pnor Conrad
(1108-26): ,hcy replaced Lanfmnc's three apses with a choir $0 long Ihallt

L,nd"r.",. (HoI)" Island). ru,nsof'hc

monas'.rychu"h

Cant.rbury Ca'hedral. ChOIr buill by

Jkgun 1093196

An~lm.

239

C.mbridg~, HQly S.pukh ... Bq;un

amund ! 120. V..-w fmrn th ....."
lbelQw). CfQ.. ....,noo. gfQund plan ""d
types of arch,ttur.ls<ulptu .. (loft)

WWf.'I'<

nearly doubled !h~ lengdl of the cath~-dral.lll the east was a transepl with
two chapels in each arm, and an ambulatory with two langenliall)' conncere<! radiating chapds as weI! as:I rectangular Lady Chapel; they were
built over the extended crypt and were able 10 house numerous new altars.
The elevation of the extension, which was consecrat~ In 11)0, would halle
been round pillars supporti ng a weak!)' lit g.1l1ery and a derestory with a
walkway. Gcrvasius of Canterbury WTlfes that the ceiling was painlcd.
The most remarkable of the few central-plan buildings in England is
the round Ch urch of the !-Ioly Sepulchre in Cambridg... (pholo. 3bol'<,:),
which was ~gun around 1120; wt do not know why it was built. It is :I
copy of the Chu rch of [he Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem, and while it was
renovated by the Cambridge Camden Society from 1841, its forms are
nonetheless trustworthy. Eight round pillars surround a central space
which is roofed, via unvaulted galleries :lI1d round arch windows, hy an
eightsection dome. hs powerful ribs ha"e as liule in common with the
original plan as th= in the ambulatory.
Apart from renovations to choirs such as those in Old Sarum, Wiltshire
(c. 1110-30) and Rochester (II II-H), the first third of the twelfth century
also saw the start and e;<lension of several imponam monastery and
bishop's churches: in Waltham Abbey, Essex, ,\ new building (IV) with an
ambulatory and transept was built between 1110 and 1160, and the

240

galleried na\'e and side aisles still stand, complete with th e patterned round
pillars and arcade arch .-s that were influenced by Durham. The transition 10
the Gothic period can be seen at Selby Abbey in Yorkshi re. The choir with
chapels in echelon, which was staned around I [00, was later replaced by a
\atc Gothic building, but the Romanesque aisle less transept with its low
crossing, and the two cast ba)'s of the na,'e and side aisl.-s, still remain. From
rhe second double bay onwards. individual Gothic forms appear in a quite
bizarre shaJ'C'. We only know the outlines of the ground pbn of the monastery
church at ChcTlsey in Suner. which was bUIlt from 1110 onwards. And little
more IS known, other rhan the twO mighty rowers over the transept arms, of
the cathedral ch urch in ExCler, Devon, which was begun in 1114 by Bishop
William Wardwast (d. 1137) and consecrated in 1133.
The churches of Chertsey and Old Sarurn, as well as SOl1lhwelJ
Minster in Nottinghamshire (photos, p. 241) which was begun by
Archbishop Thomas II of York (I \08-14) as a collegla!e church, and
Romsey Abbe)' in Hampshire (photo, p. 241, budt c. 1120-1250 for
Benedictmes), arc amongst [he earliest buildings !O have rectangular
chOIrs or ambulatories. This type of ambubtory, which appears to be an
invention of [he English Romanesquc pe riod, call be traced back 10
continental ambulatory cryptS of the late Carolingian period. The best
prcscn'ed is the choir of Romsey Abbey, which only lost its probably two'

R.,.,....y Abbty Ubmpotur.l,

(, 112(l...1250, G"",nd pbn, .... os. f~~do

Southw.1I Dt........ I. Nonlllghamsh,,,,,

SOU,h ....... D,htdul, N_lIIgh;1msh,,~.

liqun 1108-14, V ........ of n..... to ....ards

, ....a.,

Ground pbn. YI"nI: f~do

rt . .-.

"...

..-\
, p ....,

.~

'" : u

"1: U
1
.~

storeyed cast chapel. The na,'eJ of the twO coll~gJa{e churches arc
varia nons of ,he Enghsh high Romanesque period that are full of
char;l(ter. In Sou'hwell, thrcc storeys ,ha, decrcaS<! m he'gh{ (arcade with
round p,llars, gallery wl!hou, a tympanum. round wmdow behind a
walkway ) suppon a wooden "auh (!). and the s,de aisles h;n-e an early rib
vaui ling Ihal is mscned on conJ,Oles. Romscy also has Ihe Iypically B"ush
-aqueduci S)"Slem - wllh three Slore)"s. and another wooden vault! While
Southwell aVOids any .en.cal emphasIs. In 'he finl bay II looks as though
the maSlil\'e round pIllars ""ere mlng Ihrough 10 Ihe gallery. crealmg a
-colossal order- such as Ihat In Oxford or Jedburgh.
80th bUlldmg, belong to Il group wh,ch Ilrouod 1110 replllccd the
stone "aulls planned ,n ,he cle,'enth cenfUry with wooden vaullS; they
dlstmgulshed themseh'es by means of theor alternating systems of supponJ

.- !!i"~ ~
a. .

00

oj
'I . .oj,,.

j.

t:J .I,I ,,
'

~.:!~

and mcreasmg usc of decorallve fearures. as well as Ihe repeated lalcr

indus ion - {hough only m Ihe side aisles - of Ihe increasingly bshlonable
nbs. The type of fa~adc also changed: Romsey has a croslHecllon fa~ade.
wh,le Southwell has eltg:tntly proponioncd Iwin towers.
The most ,m porr;!n l large bu,ldmg (478 fccllong) at Ihe end of Ihe high
Romanesque penod IS Pelerborough Abbey In Cambridgeshire (pholo.
p. 242). It was suned :l.round 1118. cievated 10 the poslUOn of cathedr.ll
In 1541. and Ihe Bcnl'dlCune abbey's church was dedicated 10 Peler. Paul
and Andrew. Abbot Jean de SCc-1. (John dc Sa,s, 1114-25) replaced Ihe
ongmal church. which was oon<;ecralMm 972 and burnt down in 1116:
Ihe monastery wu founded 5honly after 65J by ruda. kmg of Mere",. II~
perfectl'd the pattern sel by EI) and Norwich and -durmg the penod when
the early Gothic had siani'd In France - managl'd, 10 a large extent, to

r ... rborough C;,uhrdral.

Cambridgeshlre. flegun around III S.
V;'w 01 nal'e townds the east

10 20 m

" 'I ill: if-"'=-- -

J[ , r
Ground plan of jean <It

242

s.'.

b",ldmS

0.S!01" lumb"dsosh"t), chur<:h

K~n. burj;h. wnh cros,;ns IUwor

oi SI.

dlssoh'c thc walls as well as illuminate the imerior. By 1143 the choir,
wh~ thrtt aisles ended in apses and which had an alll~rnallng system of
supports consisting of octagonal and round pillars, was readr: the ribs ill
its side aisles were added latcr. The main twin-shelled apse. which governs
the sequence of storeys in the choir. is extremdy Important, and it has
wmdows in all three storer s. The dOl1ble-aiskd tran~Pt, which has Ihree
store)"S {as in the choir and nave, arcades. gallenc5 with rympanums and
trjoles}, has a proper screen composcd of responds and cornices across if.
Abbot William de Waterville {1155-75} also surted work on the na,'e and
side aisles, which did not have an altcrnatmg system of supporlS or vault("d
g.1.lleries, and work was finished by Abbot Benedict ( 1177-99) before
1193, in accordance with the original design. The polygonal broken
wooden ceiling in the nave, which dates from the thIrteenth century. was
almoSI ccrtainly preceded by a wooden barrd vault. The western side of
the church is Gothic, and would have been completed, with liS little corner
towers and the gigantic niches reminiscent of lmcoln, by the time the
building was consecrated in 1238,
The English high Romanesque period concluded towards 1135 with
the end of the reign of Henry l. Henry's mam work was the abbey of
Reading, in Bcrkshire, which has disappeared. exccpl for a few remains of
the transept at the end of Forbury Gardens. The monaslCry was founded in
112 1, and its church, which Becket consecrated in ] 164, is where the king
was buried. Cluniac monks came from lewC"s to guard hLS tomb in front of
the high altar.
One can gct an idea of this ChUTCh by looking al leominster I'riory 111
Hereford & WOTCeSter (figure, bottom left ), It was a daughterhouse of
Reading, and was an austere aislcd building wllh a transepl, cross ins
tower and radiating chapels, built aflcr Henry I gave the Anglo-Saxon
foundation to the mOrtUary church he hJd had built in Bcrkshire. Only Ihe

l.n>",,",.cr rm,.~ IHtrdord &:

\I:'or<OSler l, ground ploo

1.on do n. fo,,,,er ,bf,.,),hu r<:h oiSI.

!);"holo",. w. Ground plan uf lhe,ho lt
and 1"''''''pI

I1;1V", which had a lavish Stepped portal, and the northern side aisles
survived its dIssolution in 1539.
The priory church of St. Bartholomew-the-Great in london (figure,
1'.243, bottom right ), which was buill in 1123 by Rahere, a fa vori tc
of Henry's, also had an ambu13tory an d radiating chapels. Rahere had
started a pilgrimage 10 Romc, and when he became ill "owed 10 found a
hospital. He was the first prior and died in 11 43; it is unlikelr that he Ii"cd
long enough 10 see [he completion of the church, which was looked aftcr
by the Augustinian Black Canons. The alsled choir, with its sllIrdy rou nd
pillars, g.1.llery and clerestory, is impressive.
From the outside, Wimbornc MinslCr in Dorset looks completely
Gothic; but inside are significant remains dating from the decade s after
] 120. The nave IS reduced 10 IWO storeys, and the round pillars are
covered with late Romanesque chevrons. The Church of St. Kyn "burgha
in Castor, Cambridgeshire (photo, above ) IS dominated by a magnificent
crossing tower, the only remainmg Romanesque section of the building; its
crossll1g pilla rs are decoraled by SOllle low relief capitals.

243

P3"ixbourn~ ( K~n' l . RomantSqu(

chur<h. L.st third of t~ twdfth ntury.

The English late Ro manesquc period

The English late Romanesque JXriod runs roughly concurrentl) with the
reigns of three kings, Stephen (1135-54, Stephen [ of Blois), Henry II
(I I 54-89} and Richard [ (I [89-99, Richard the lion-Heart ), though the
Gothic style amved in England during the reign of Henry II with th e
building of the Temple Church in London around 1160. No large scale
buildings were erected during the late Romancsque. The period was spent
adding decorative features to the large churches [hat had already been
started (sud as the western end of E[y) and in building a few sma!!
treasures.
Amongst the more impressive are the parish church of Kilpet:k in
Hereford & Worcester, which is a hall with a square choir and apse and a
lavishly deconucd south portal dating back to around 1150 (photo,
p. 323); the former Augustinian priory church (Christ Church) in Oxford
with its self-conscious[y d('(orated arcades; the nave and aisles of Worksop
I'riory in Noninghamshire, which has an alternating system of supports
consisting of round and polygonal pillars; the lavishly figured south portal
of the nave of Malmesbury Abbey in Wiltshire; the Structure of the walls
(dating to 1160/80) of the rectangular chaptcrhouse of Much Wenlock in
Shropshire; [he chapterhouse of Bristol Cathedral; and the Lady Chapel of
Glastonbury Abbey in Somerset which has interlaced blind arcades which
also appear, around [200, til the church of SI. Cross Hospital on th e
outskirts of Winchester. Prime examples of this latc Romancsque delight in
ornamentation arc the portals of the small churches in [ifley, Oxfordshire
(phOto, p. 245, top left ), Barfreston, Kent (photo, p. 245, right ), and
I'arrixbourne, Kent (photos, pp. 244 and 245, bonom left ), dating from
the last third of the twe](th century.
Cistercia n abbc: ys
While Englands cathedrals and Benedictine mOflaStery churches followed
the pattern of churches in Normandy, from 1120 the Cistercians imroduced the influences of a different French cultural landscapc to Britain. By
[[60, the reformed order already had fifty-one abbeys in Britain. Wh ile
the majority of the churches ha'e beefl destroyed, in most places it is
possible to re<;;ogni7.t that the churches and monasteries (photos, pp. 246-7)
were modeling themsekes on Burgundian Romanesque buildings. During
the period of St. Bernard of Clai rvaux (d. 11$3), fivr modd monasteries
were built which formed an ideal (Fontenay, see photos, pp. [J4-5) that
most of the Cistercian buildings in Britain attempted to emulate. Their
churches had either three (Waverley in Surrey, founded in 112S ), five
(Tintern Abbey in Gwent, founded in [[J I, or Roche Abbey in Yorkshire,
founded in 1147), or se,en (Rievaulx Abbey in Yorkshire, founded in
1132, or Fountains Abbey in Yorkshire, founded in 1135) rectangular
apses, transepts and an aisled na,e. They had no towers, ,ery lillie
ornamemation, were discreetly articula tcd, but - as far as we can tcll were, in contrast to their French models, rarely vaulted in stone. The sober
peace of these ascetic buildings can no longer be proJXrly eXJXrienced in
Britain, as all these churches have survived onl y as picturesque ruins. In
Tintern and Fountains, Kirk~tal1 in Yorkshire and Buildwas in Shropshire,

244

Ilfley (O"lord.h,~), wol Io~.d~ of Ihe

Ronu""S<ll>< church. LoSt Ih",j oflh~
Iwelfth ""nlury (lOp)

Barireslon IK~nl), Romanesqu<church.

La" third 01 Ih~ tw~lfth "'Ury. &,.rio,
view (lOp) and <It"il of Ih~ porl.l
(bottom)

P.",xboum~ IK~"' ). Ronu,,~squc

church. lXtail of an 3<ch"'olt (bottom)

245

Fountain, Abbty

IYo,hhi'~).

fo,,,,,,,

Ci't~",ian mona't~ry. Founded In IUS.

Xt~,io, and im~,io, views of th~ ,um, of

the monastery chu.ch.

246

OPPOSITE

R'rvau!x Abbty IYo.kshor~). fo,,,,., Ci"~r<lan

monast.,). Founde<l In 1132. bn~"o, ",~w, of th~
'ema,n, of 'he w.lls and ,..., monaStery ell"",h

Cubtl (I .. landl, Cormac's Ch. pd,

Byland Abbey, ground plan

1127- 34,

, :'
, ~~~~~~
SO

--- 1"'
....

-10

--.. --

r--.-~

p~

[ 1 [ - -_._--

fao;ad.

m.

tow~r

~:;;:~'C

.
.

ri
F T

CIoi&lerS

iJ

1-

_~J

the hallmarks of the Burgundian Cistercian style are the ground plans, the
shapes of the pillars, the pointed arch arcades, ,md th e deanl)" Cut stone.
Frane .. was also the inspiration for the poimed vaults in the sid,: aisles and
choirs, Ihough Ihe pointed vaulting which is typically found in the
windowless naves of cominental Cistercian buildings does not seem 10
have found favour. The naves appear to hal'e had wooden roofs, Ihough
Kirkstalland Buildwas had ..arly rib-vaulted choirs,
Those Cistercian buildings that were started in the late twel fth century
- Byland in Yorkshire, Roche in Yorkshire, Furness in Lancashire and
Jervaulx in Yorkshire - show that the strict archttectural rules of the first
half of the century were being relaxed in Britain. Byland Abbey (figure,
p. 248, top left} had a transept wilh aisles, and an ambulatory, and Roche
Abbey was showing signs of the Gothic style from the region around Laon
as early as the 11705.
While rural parish churches kepI to Romanesque models umil around
1200, the rebuilding of the choir of Canterbury C.lIhedral follo.wing a fire
in 1174 led to the first large-scale building 10 follow continental early
Gothic models, such as the cathedral in ~ns, in all its details.
Sacred buildings in Wales, Ireland and Scoiland
In comparison to the impressive se<juence of s.lCred buildings in England,
the churches of Wales, Ireland and Scodand playa rather more modest
role. Not enough buildings have survived in any of th ..se countries for one
to be able to reconstruct a c1 ..ar development in style. Norman influences

248

aTe visible everywhere: such as the dreary nave and side aisles of the Welsh
cathedral of St. David's {I 190-98}, which is nestled in a hollow.
Worth mentioning in Ireland , which was part of the Norman kingdom
from around 11 70, are the barrei-,'aulted hall of Cormac's Chapel {112734} on the Rock of Cashel {photo, top right}; Ihe ruins of th .. Cistercian
abbeys of Mellifont (only Ihe foundation walls remain of the ,hurch which
was consecrated in 1157) and Jerpoim, which dates from the second half
of the twelfth century; the slender, 93-foot round tower of Ardmore; and
the calhedral of Clonfen, whose portal is studded with numerous heads. The
conlinued existence of the small stone churches belonging 10 the early Irish
monks is demonstrated by St. Kevi n's church in Glcndalough, which is a
tiny SlOne building with a steep roof and round tower.
The most important Romanesque churches in Scotland date back 10 the
reign of King Oavid I (1124-1153). The Benedictine abbey of Dunfermline
in Fife, founded around \070, was the burial place of eleven kings and
queens. The arcades of the three.storey nave and side aisles of the church
(illustration, p. 249, bottom), which was consecrated in 1150, dearly copy
Durham, and its exterior reminds one of models such as York (built
by Bayeux}. Equally latc Romanesque ( I 180-1200} in style is the mighty
ruined lOwer at the western end of Kelso Abbey in the Borders. which was
founded in 1126. In the countryside nearby, Ihe monks of the reformed
orders built Ihe "Border Abbeys, ~ magnificelll ruins from the twelfth
centory, which were a SOurce of inspi ration to Romantic painters. The
Cistercian s founded Melrose in 1136, the Augustinians founded Jedburgh

JcoJburp. At.bty ~xod~nd ), formc:.

A"l!utun",n monaloltrychurch.

1-1""".,..,. foundc-d.n 1138

on 1138 (photo, fOp ) and the Premonsu~to'nS'3ns founded Dryburgh in

1140; the Cistercians' abbey $('ned as a model for tho' OI!l.!r order5'
bUlldongs. The ground pbn'i of the churches and their ondivldu:1hty show
that thert: can hardly ha\'e been a ~ScotoNorrnan~ slyle. That is also
shown by the fcw rCnl;lInmg Rornanesque 5ti ons of tho' calhedr.ll of 51.
Andrt:ws. which was staned 111 11 60170; liS chOir, on an ambillous prolCCI
for Ihe far nOrlh, was '":lulled 111 SfOne.
Secul ar building~
M,ll\ary conquerors such as the Normans had to pay more allenrion to the
building of forllficallons (castles, C,ty walls) to prOleCt Iheir pule of the
cilles and countrySide than to building castles to God. T he:, cO"cred
Bmain, 111 particubr ,ts soulhern coastl ll1 e 3ml cities, with mon'UnlCnlS 10
[heir Imlilary 3r1SIl)Cracy. Thrse are 111l1mld;ltIng demonstranc,ns of the
sovereign's powcr, and the element.!1 force of their appcar.lncc .ser.cd to
perpelUate the system of rule that had been on,poCd on the country. It IS
possible to 'nle'prC'l the sacred bu,Idlllg! as the e:<pression of Ihe ullIly of
~rcgnum ~ and -s:l.cerdouulll~ thaI the conquerOr5 d'Clatcd, III whIch case
the dtfenSI\'e bUlldongs art: clenl)' the an:hlll'Cture of power. Altl:rnati"ely,
If one conslden Ihe Romancsquc churches 10 be representations of the
social and religIOUS world order. as .. tranSct'ndcnce of Ihe real feodal
world, 111 whICh conqucst b) Ihe sacrt:d and worldly po....er of Ihe in\'aders
'5 "Iewed as S0111Cthlllg wonhwl111e, then the fortifications, which were
ofren buill and gO"erncd by bishops, arc the safeguards of mien in a
foreIgn land, and po5ll1onS from which II was poss.ble f{) excrcise
economIC, po],ncal and cullural control over the namcs. OrdcrK:Us Vitahs
(1075-<:. 11421, who was a Norman h,slonan from SI. Enoul, rccogmud
that 11 was the castlcs hl~ count rymen built thaI enabled Ihem to settle
permanently In England. ~The Norman fortificallons called castles, ~ he
wrote. ~wert: unknown In Ihe English provinces, and Ihat is why the
English - despite theIr courage and pugnacity - were able 10 put up linle
rt:siSlance to tllelr enenlles.~ And the AngloSaxon Chronicle of 1137
compbllled: ~They werc burdemng the unfortunate COunlry folk wilh
forced labour at their caslil'S. Once they had finished bUilding Ihem, [hey
filled them wilh deYlls and bad men. ~
The ear llC5t forlificalioM which the conquerors built in England were
the so<-cal1ed ~earthandflmber~ castles. EXCavalions have shown there to
be twO rnalR types, dallng mainly from Ihe lare elevcnth and twelfth
cemunes. ~motle-andbalkyM caslles and ~nngworks. ~ There were far more
mottcs (as the firsl vanC'ly was named. after ils most Important fc:aturt:, an
eanhen hIll ) m England and Wales (about 750) than ringwor'ks (a bout
190), but 11 IS not clear what mfluenced thiS. Rmgworks could certainly be
bUilt milch mort: qUICkly and cheaply. but moneand-baileys could be
defended wllh far fewer people, Moneandballeys conSIsted of four
5\lons: a usually art.flCial mound, abour 1610 J5 f~1 hIgh, a woockn
lOwer on tOp of the mound, a dllch and walls, and one or more outer
courts (baileys). whICh were prOlecled b) earlh walls and pa1i!>ada and
which contamed the livmg quarters and stables, Contemporary pictures of
soch mona arc on the: BareuxTapc5lry (phoIO, p. 218): it nOt only shows

Dunf"",,h~ A~ (Scoxland~

fur .....

monast"'Y church,
reconstruction of rxlenor. M""".ctty
foundc.l.n 1070
IImnlK'l'll1<'

249

l.ondon, Wh,te Tower. From arQund

1078. Extenor "I~W

I.EFT TO RIGHT

Go,ho Il incolnsh".).caSlle I~yout

Abmger ISu rrey l, mOlle and mwer
Ashley IHampshlre l. (;rcumvallallon

,- ..

thl." raising of the mone at Hastings, but also vIews of mottl's at Dol, Dinan
and Renncs in Brittany and Bayeux in Normandy. Well rcsearche<!
examples arc Cotho in Lincolnshire (illustration, p. 250, lOp right ) and
Hen Domen in M011lgomeryshire, which was probably built by Roger of
Montgomery from 1071. The wooden structures on the mottl's varied
considerably. Some were simple lookout lowers. such as Abingl."r in Surrey
(illustration, p. 250, lOp right), while others were fortified resIdential
towl."rs with more than one storey, such as Rhuddbn in Clwyd.
The ringworks also varie<! in si1.t and shape. Most of them ,llere circular.
They consisted of ditches and waHs which were fortified with wooden
paJis.ldes; Within were various buildings. Ringworks were- not invente<! by the
Normans, for Ireland has numerous exal11ples dating back to the sixth ccntury.
An illUSlration of Ashley in Hampshirt' (p. 250 top righl) should be suffICient.
In numeruus cases, the Normans placed Iheir strongholds within older
fortifications: sometimes in Roman forrs (Porte hester in Hampshire,
figure, p. 251 lOp right ), or in Anglo-Saxon villages such as Pleshey, Essex.
In Ihe IOwns and cities (York, Norwich, Lincoln etc. ) whole quarters were
destroyed 10 make way for their fortresses.

250

.~

As in France (sec pp. 174ff.), SlOne buildings were used as well as

wooden lOwers. While SlOne donjons (residential foTtified lOwers ) first
appear in France in about 950 (Doue-la- Fontaine, Mainc-et-Loire, Lange~is,
lndre-ct-Loire), they were not built in Britain until William fin Oshern
construcud a great rectangular keep in Chepslow, Gwent, in 1067nO.
There is, as in France, a large series of remallling examples which
enables us 10 mice Ihe development from square or reclangular keeps
such as those in Canterbury (figures, p. 251, bottom right ), Carlisle and
Hedi ngham, Essex, via round keeps such as Conisborough in Yorkshire
{photo, p. 2SI } and polygonal ones such as Athlone in Westmeath, to the
taHlowers with many rooms of the bte Middle Ages, such as Tattershall
Castle in Lincolnshi re. Well-preserve<! examples include the White Tower
(phUIO, p. 250, left), which William instructed the Bishop of Rochester to
build by the River Thames from around 1078 as a fortress, palace and
place of go'-ernment. The same talcl1led bishop, Gundulf, is thought to
have built Colchester Castle in Essex. The exterior decoration of the
[(}Wers, with niches, series of blind arches, arch friezes and portals, copied
that of Ihe churches - compare Castle Rising in Norfolk. The same
Jrchite<:IS were probably responsible for both groups of buildings.
We know of numerous Romanesque residences from royal itineraries
and descriptions (Inver Forest in Staffordshire), bUI very little actually
remains. A royal hunting lodge was excavaled in Wriulc, Essex. T he
country seat of Caslle Acre, in Norfolk, met with an unusual fale. A lightly
fortified Iwo-family house dating from the late eleve11lh century was
turned into a keep several storeys high around 1140150. The oldest
remains of an aisled re<:langular hall, which serve<! as the SlaTting point of
the lord's residence, are preserved III the Norman castle in Leicester. The
wood frame construction d<lting from the middle of the twelfth century is
surrounded by stone enclosure walls.
There are hardly any Romanesque town residences still in exiSlence.
Two examples are Moyse's Hall in Bury St. Edmunds, Suffolk, and the
bishop's palace at Ashby de la Zouch in Leicestershire.
Romanesque secular 3rchit~tnre ende<! in about 1200. As on the
Continent, foreign influences (such as buildings in the Orient), new
archi te<:tural te<:hniques (rib vaulting), new methods of attacking and
defending buildings (proiecting towers and arrow-slils 10 enable archers to
shoot along the sides of a fortress) and increasing demands (for prestige
and comfort ) altered the face and interior of these buildings.

eon"bowugh. c,rcut donjon. f",n,fied

w,th 'ow.~. 12th century

Porr.h""cr Cas,I . t:,.,uncl pion

rom

c..",..buryea"k.
b,enor devation. (top) .
ground pIon of fi~t floor (bottom lefTI.
ground pIon of sond floor (bottom
righT)

251

TrundM,," c.:nhll'd 1. Threo-...alOfl

.. fUCt'un of ,t.. ",.. II. of ,lit nonh
Ir.n~arm

... p<no<l ,n Sc;o~dinA" "

TIlt h'MOO)" oI.",hn""tu,. In Eu,,,,,"" <".n
"'" .. mplr "" .x..:nbtd ,n kfm> 01 ,ho
.h":Iural hm 01 wnftt1> E.. rope.
1'0. .....
a' ....... ,ho ....... "'JI"
,,f .ho non ...... and """.. I
1:'.. ,.".,... R""",nn.q ...
oJoouk! "" 0011
.."h, Unlon .. """d)." .. ",,, p<MihIo .... h,n
,ho .:onfi.... of ,h ....... Ullll' 1Uu<-.1 ..1Ih.ho
Onhod.,. bu,IJong< 01 ""....." IOu'",,""
(s".1>o ,~I>"<1ot1 ... IIo.olg...... Rom.no ,ho
Uk ... "".nJ Itu" ......0' "I.ho U .. I,I.
Tho Ron.. _

_<OIl.

rnmI'''_

",it

,'l1li' ,n,,,_.

Dunn~ ,ho n'll"ol

\,.I<I<"", M (; ..... ,. ,lot "",htd,.k 01 R,""
(~,p.lll, Wpld<,builr ""' ....... , I soro
.nd Illl n.Itd pu.n.d ............. h
" " '. . . . . t ,ho ..... md. borly Gothl< nh
.. uh~ .,<round IHO) and \Co""'" 1"",1,
......., <hunh 01 lun.l ... S...dm .nd
(,n..ned ...... nd 11 SO. only.hr .,1Jc,J e'n"
,un ,,-..I .Iot ' ....(4:h'" .......,...""" 01
18641""41 ,n J",1>nd \Onr ",",il,n,- much
unJn- ,lot mfl<KnC< 01 1_.... Rh,,,,,,'h,, ..,-1M Rom"K"><IIlt ....,., ..... of ,ho ca,htd,.1
of A.hu. on Ju.bnJ Ie. 1100-12501.... h.. h
" ",,,,",,I,
1<400 ,n ,ho GothIC ,,)1<
r...."""k.ohlf, ., " ,ho Ile<>rJ"" ... ,hu"h

.nd h.... k

.f,.,

R,t... C... hod",1.

,,-.U

~,""a,1Ofl

ol.t.. na..

,of R"lK'fed ,n Z,,~I...oJ 1b..~I"~ b.u" of

...... llrom 11;,()1. modrInl on chuhn on
1..om"',J!. ,ho u.. ........ n ,h~n"h 01 s.,...,
,n I",-~"nd 1b.... I"'~ "'lIh '''''''''P<, ~ft.".
111,11, .nd .ho f"'''''"",",,, cent,al pia"
....It .hun;h ~. t<alundborg '" Z.~land
!tit"..... r, H1. "","om left, 11-0.'901.
TIot wdlkno'.,,, round rtr ..rdIn .."h
.........1 "Qf<')" .ko d... .. fTom ,lot _ - '
...1101 ,ho ...,.Ilth ,Yn ....,, ,hoy ...'.... I>orh
pta...... 01 ",...,h,p .nd <l<kn.i,.., ",""IJ,nll'
Four 01 ,h....... ,h.. =tUm .,. on ,ho
1II.o,,J of IIomholm IN)l ... Okkr<. Ny""kn
anJ o. .. rI""~~'I.
The c.....h .. PC""" warrtd I~ .. ,n tho Nonh,
f,om .he.... 1100, .ho I>ncl< "",htd ) 01
R...k,ldr HI Z."land Iii""". p.1S!. b<.oc,,,,,,
'"ltl, ... h"h III....... AMaIon ... J WAned
<, I 1":'0.

t>m .....,k
In Dm.....'k. ,lot I("""'nnq .... p<no<l dod

"*

"'" hcy;In ......1 .It...... ''ok...

180010Ml1 ,,, .... rd. ,lot nod 01 ,ho ........... h
Un"I.hm ..-OOJ ~ Iwn ,lot only
"",IJon~ """ ..... 1, bu, a h>. poon. "'OIW'

=''''1''

"nd "'h"", ..... '0 "" .ho

tnOft .... .,.

, .... porl 01 ........1 kHlf;'. .... , ~nncd

,n ,lot form. 01 non ...... F.... """. ".01.
<.oth", .. ylt. It .... " chun;h ","h pi........
r<rb< .... ". prtd<....-...x...Iuch Iu. be....
oo;.o ....-.I.nd " "'"', ..........,." 104O.nd
10~4 OJ Dtnm..,l, ;;~ "OIW' dm"h

It

"..~ll~1~'
... ......

,lot ronl .ru,. "I ,ho """n ...... , Thrrxtrn...

Wh,,".hr A. ..." ... ,..,,"" of OrnlTY,k ... J

\",.drn .... cl ..... n ",,,"pined fran, ""',...."
(""' .... n) m ,lot mn,h .nd , ."h
1.... 1 01 Nn',,"~ dol nOf .,." um,1 'hr I..,

.. 1O't<i".."I, ""tOlIndod hr an

"''''''''.

trn,h <rn.ury. I, ".s no< lin,,""" " .. "ll0JO

.. "h ,,,", 1.11 "f Ol.f II ,n ,ho ban," at
S"k ...... d ... 110 .Iso rnonne<l 'hr 'OU"'ry
.It.. " ,hun por'IOd,'" cl,,,......,.
1M ,..'0 ""'" 'mportant .0,loodr.>b ,n
''''''''Y _ . mtICh '0 Ih~,'" and ( ...........
R""",_ ... .";ho ...,,,,,,. Sr .... flF>' .....
... "rd~. 11}(1 by.n F............... "h"h
" .. ht.1ot ~,sItd ......... "'",,,.11) F. . . .
,,,,,nd ",llI ... ~. 00.. 'M ru'nN <~.hod ..1

010",,10 o/lLmaL The l1.ou......J d>oo, of.M

:0; ....." " Ca,hrd ... 1 ,n T..,.,dht,m Ip/>oro. p.
212. 'Of' "fIh'I... h"h .... ""rttd on ,lot
" ...... h <.n,ut) .nd " ,ho Iongtst ,hunch
,n :).;ond,,,.. '. U47 ffftl. """...,.<1.-.1 ,,,an

"'''.!I'M! M''''"'''~ rho V"" "I ~,. Ol.f fJ.

10 !ill, " Ii ... m'm ..... ~t of ,ho Church 01 ,lot

II00 r S.pukh.. ,n Jrru<.>km and ,ho
C.porll" of CIu,Itm..alV'<''' Aac ...... All th...
.........'n. of <;,t, Mory" o..,,,h ,n ,lot
'''''''''not) 01 ~. fonnrtlr Fu",,,
<an ,w"h, " ,ho b.,~ "".... lth."...,. .. ..,
f;o,; ..... w"h ". tWO
T... " .dd"..,...1
<Iou"' ....... onhy 01 ........"'" from ~mon~
'hr nu"",""" ..... ll "OIW' chu,d.... bu.k
"""'If .fr.... 1100.n ,lot Gamlt Akcn '"
Oslo, Ti....,I ... cl and ,lot II""" o.uh ,n

,.... ......
... tl.:l

N...... ~

Kalundbotg.
VOl" fruc" K"k .
GrotInd plon

'_<n.

V,l,"~.

'n.. ........

<pItnd,cl """",,,,",,,,,,, chat

N,,.,...-.y ",.<It ." "and",",v,.n an '" ,ho
Rom''''''''I1lt porn"" arr thr 18 (of "n~"
".lly 1<>OOlp ........'ed .....~ chun'hr. bu,l,
,~ 'hr ....... 'h .,J , ...d l,h ,."'OJ .... su,~
,hun"'" a,. I""" of "'oo<I<n ,hUfih
lou"J ""Iy In """hrm E.,rope, ,hry ,.... ....
R""k,ldt: Ca,hod .. l. Dmnu.k. Eb."on,
1175-(. 12040

252

O.t~rl~nk~r. 0".. La" Kirk .

Cf(Ii~oon aooJ ground plan

"'"',I, .... ~ urngh, plonh "UN ber"... n

toundod ,........ po<t< ...

h"'" rear:hcd up '0

.".<11

...Ik nd .......... 1 hoi. of douhlf

The ""'" n,.~"""'.n1
.",mpin a", ,hr U, .... i/'~u, . p. 151,
IIofton, fIght. e. 11.101. lorn .."h ".

.1"""" ,,,,,f..

p"m,.-.I ,,,.... ,,_Ifth , ...,"')'....IJrgcd

16}(11, .nd ..""",lly Iko<gu"d (p/>oro. p.

2n. I<fr. e. 11$01 .."h '.. obhoral.

, "ng< on ,ho """... .nd ",bin 01
J,.gon nd
~ry
"..,11
... runIC ''''''''proon .nd ... 1<.... of doublt-

...... """

lit"'"

moe,'" ..

,.... _
hrau"ful .....u.....1 """,to,
",""I.l,,. ,n '>c.ndtru, .. '" K"'f, IUk"".
11.11 ,n fIcorJIrn ...'h"'" ..... ~pItoed ,n
1261 u"n~(;.,ch", form.

S" 'Irn
n.. only r.maln'ng .u, hurch i, S"'eden
.. lhe ... ,her pl .. n ~hu",h ,n H.darM on
V'''''gOlI.nd. do,,"II from around 1500.
A rubble church " ... bu,h '" S,s.una.
UppLmd. wh"h " ... ,.he .. a' of" b,.hop a.
a roral <o.m from around 1100. II OS no<
n>on "'I>nher .heclUC"lro.m
ofS.. P.r
" . on f.".he b&,hop', ,hrch.
n..rnurch ofHuuby on V'''''SOlt.,o.d Wa'
l.rS". and .100 ,nuatM a. a .0y.1 <oun,
" ha, bn ... lkJ .he "c ... dle 01 SwM ..h
"rch"..,.ur. " bo<.u .. on .he rly ''''dfth
n.ury a su," church wMg lrom ..,mnd
1020 wa, plocM "'nh "
chor<h.
Another brg< <hurch was .he ca.""'ral ,n
Sbra. V....rgotl.nd. wh"h ..... r.pl.nnM
on .. , ....1 o< ... ,"ono; nsc.yp' d.... h.ck '0
,he .1<,.. n.h n.ury. lI.he church on G.ml.
Upps.;ol . of "'h"h .he ,ho .. and cro... n5
... m.m ..... lIy W... f.om c. 1110." "'OIold
he .h. old< .. h.. I>op, .hu",h on .he coun.ry.

""n

"OIl<"

In 11 ~5 - ,n "'har " ... Dtnmark " he t1n""

-,he " _loon. of ,he .."hM."l of I.und
on MallIWJh... ...... <on..-r",M. 1"h
t.."ld,,,& " baSIl",.... "h .n ahorn''''1g
01 '''ppon'' p'OJ1mg "an.. p'.
<1>0 .. and I.,ado ..."h twon 'Ow'rI. and .....
he&U" (. 1110 bt K,"II 1' ..1. (] I04-H) and
A...... he I,,, r<hhtsl>op Id. lLJ4).1t is
'mpo....
Nonl" suc"..."" '0 ,h.
,mpn.. l <a,hed .. 101 SPCt".,. The pow,rlol
.. 1..1 of ,he oo,,,do of .ho .pse .nd .h.
many
of.he h.II.lok. <ryp. under
"..,h lhe .It nd '''"''''p' ... magn,/i
fit. Dnp'" .he 1''"!l<ly rcnoV>1M v.ult.
.he 0 ..... 11 dl1 of .he n.. nd a".Ie. "
on< 0/ ....... >gfoabit h.. mony.
A .''''"'1 of 'nA.....,.... ... n be d ect<d on
S"M .... ah ",".". . . . .h. n>d of ,h.
..... Ifth awry. The C ..,cr<o.n. ,n, roduc.d
BU'"!l"ndlOn mon.I."'ry byoo,"
Alv .....
'n o..1"f3O<1Ind (rounded In 1143 by
Cll,...... u ....u". "f.he <hurch ,,,,,o<cu d

'r"""
mos'

.h.

n'

.01,,",".

,0

,n 1185 rnn,"nl 0 Nt"dol. ,n Smlland

(.Iso f""nded m 1141 .nd '" r",n,l .0
Varnhem 'n Va"ergorbnd (founded ,n
Il.S0 a, " d:tughtcr.hou .. 0/ AI
tcbu,l. after a /ire on 1234 nb ul d
),;,,,10<> ..."h n~ ....Ils ""'"8 on p,lIarsl
.nd.o ROrrI.I ,n Gotland (d.ugh' ... ho .... ol
Nyd.IJ founded ,n 1164. no .. ,n ru,n.l.
Th. mend".n. o.cl... i"'r<>nM b.i<k I.ont
"""hem (".~rlJUny, a m... n..1.h......1$ /i",
uot<l on .he grom raul.M hall of Guml.,..
,n M.lmuhu .....h"h w .. """"",... M ,n

Lund Ca.hedr.1. Vi .... from .M ""rth

1.11><:....,). gI"und plan (below)

USt

"r..

11~1I'!Jl.

Finl.. nd
SOU.h ...." F,nland ..... no! con,.".d "n,,1
abou, 1150. In 1156 H.n.ik. ,he 8..1>op
01 UWS.la. Wb k,lkJ "'h,1< undr"akon&
m",oonart W01"k. "nd wa. buned on ,he
prM..,...". 01 .he pr ... n. .hutch ,n
N""""' ........ Finbnd proNbly dod no! n:ceI'"
m","onary b"hop,i< u""1 .10< .arly .hll
r~".h ~n.ury. and ,he fi ... normal b,shopri<o ""h ..., 'nTurko.da,es ba<k '0 ]176.
NOn< <>f iTS .... ub, and _rod wo<><I<n
RolJUn<>.q"" build,ng< ha U ...... M . .\1""
01 " ...On< bu,ld,ng' I.he ... are
125
nl<"<l .. ,.1 "on< chuh.es) .re bu,l. 0/
,,,bb1<. ",..... ng .ha h<y ba," \"Cry Ionlt
d,ff".I,.o
",nammU'..,.., .nd a",
d .... Th.. pn<ltc ...o 0 .he ... ,,,,,,.. 1 ,n
Turku ...... Rom.n<>.qu. ""OOden chuh
d.,,"II front , he fitS( half of rhe Ih,"~n.h
"'""ry. The <huh.es 01 Al..nd have
r he. Ronun<>quc arp' ....""" .xamples
ondud<- .he rough
h.1I ,n Ibmm,,land. d.,,"II from ,h. 1.1" fo .. r1on,n
mury, and .he $'on' .. cnsty on fin"",m
(..-rood half of ,10< .h,rtttd.h n.", y)
... hich " . p.n 01 a wooden <h,,h.

.boo.

.hcrrfor.

"OIl<"

Bo'"!l,md.

Of,,. church

253

Th~

Ro,,"J><'<qu< period;n c.-n ..,1 Europe

Tht Rom."""l'" p",..d p,oducN ' ..... <.1

,mpo".n, hu;ld.n~, rn <c"".1 Eut<>p<.

Tht,.. a.<. hown<r,.., f.w ,n ca<h

".. w.lI, """"8 ""

'oun<~'

(HunS'ry. 801><mIJ, P"bnodl, .nd the

hu,ldtllgo " .... , I>< rulr of ,uch d".. "",
InHU<nC<$, th., It i$ ", ctly l'O'"blc
r<Con<lru<t .ny Independent denlop"",nt
m ,h.e.c- c""""in;. 11><.. a.c al<o ""
unmi".kablc ch.,,,,<,, .. ico ,h.. mogh.
Ic.d 0". to cI .... fy b",ldlngo" Ilungari.n,
8ol><m,a" or Polish Roma ... "1 .....

'0

Hunp'y
Tht Arpad Pulc (;.i... (972-9'91) .ncml"N
an .malgam."on of.1>< M.gyar
,n'"
a "'....'8" ...,," h" '001\ ~t.pl><n I 1998_
1038) ...... '0 ",cctt<! ...,hcr<.1>< f.,I><. h.d
fa,IN. Hc wa. ~",.... n<d ,n 1001. OI'S''''ud
h" c"'""ry ,n'o .dm,n,,"''''' C","11,,,, .nd
...cd 'wo archbo,hop''''' (f.szt<<goml
C",n Md K.I"'.... ). Thc 1ltn!1C"'" order
""'. brough' to r .""""balma f""" Ilohtmta,
Thc Rom.n Cathol .. Church ",pl.eM tl><
G.... k Onhodox Chu"h .h" h.d 1'",,-.,11
until th .. "m . Stcpl><n fOl'rmd ,onIlIIoo.
WIth hts r.rtghbor$, In putlCul.. th()';t in ,he
.....", ... hlCh '0 !Om< dtgJ... <xpl.,n. ,I><
"rung mH ..."... uf !Ia...".n .<><1 ('.... m.n
.rch"C'<,utO on Hung.ry, rly Romanesq .. otyk. Not until ,I>< _<MId half of
,I>< twdfrh ~n'ury d,d 1t.I",n .nd F ",h
,nll ... ntt< p",dom,u,c.
Tht Hunga".n ~ Iy ROO13nC"l'''' archllC'<'ural .. yk <xp.~seJ It..lf In num.."".
fo.m,. Th< round chur"h of f...zt<<gom
nod Vazpn'm (5,. Geo.ge'. Chapell ha,..
b...n ."".'alM .nd p,,,,,",bl)' d1,c b.Kk ",
tl>< lat. tenth 01' < Iy .Ie",nth cen,u,in;.
"Il>oo< ".. Iy b,Wop', .nd collrgr... chu.
d,n ,ha, h bn c" ...... d wtrt hall
<hurch .. ""II""U' ... 0 . .1''' '>f - u,ually _
buil"", "'"h th,~ .pses uch .. ,I><
",thod..1 ,n Sdk>f<hOn-;i. wh"h wa, bu,l,
f",<<><oo."o", and '01"1 fu""ral;, 'to rUIns
orc beh,nd ,I\<- b"hop" ",I.ec nd tht

.r

. ....i

'--_.L..i
Pk. Cuhed",1 and I"wc.,hurch (lch).
ground pl.n

254

t'" )...

'''c.

,,,bn

.,.--").,

"",n' fur ,I>< Rom."""l1lC church ,,/ S.

Cc .."., (1018-1141~. All that ..""""' of
,I>< I." .. 10 douhk ... nd<J ba,,(,ca ","h
,.~
p,II ....."d t",o t"".....
...... "..,.,.nod of.1>< n3"c) i h. "'..'c."
cryp . From 1)41. Gni..no ,",.. 101.. 1 wn
"bu,lt ,n 'ht GOIh .. yk. hut lIS ,mpr>nan'
h"",l'<" <100.., dJ"ng from .... <tOOIId h.lf
of t'" twolfth cen'u,y. a .. from , ... older
Ron"'"nq ......,101 1.
1\0,,,..... 70 .nd 91"', M....,ko I bu,l. ,I><
OI'is,nal church at Pusn:in on ......... 0
"",,,,,,n,,,1
In 99.
r ... " .
.. nonrud. the .eI"" of 51. l1:'otcih (Ad1lhm
of P.. g... ~ we .. """cd ,I><rt. Monzk o J
.host Pmn.n .. , ... first P,,(',h bo'hop ....
.n<! cen.cr of ,I>< Pia" dyo."y", ,uk. l'lt~
.. ma,n. "f ,hc p ... R""",fIC'>U< ,nd
Ron,,""'l"" br>hop~ churd.... (fit;ur<. p. 254.

l"\;, for-mc. monoltCIl' church, Iltound

plan
,hurch w fuunded be''''~n 1018 and
IOl8 by K,ng S!<phc". 0, ... , ..
chul><, arc ,I>< <.tlol 1 10 Kaloc.u
(.cbu,1! I><,"tt" 1735 .nod 1754 ","h
1 ge.PM' .nd " ..~, 'ow '"'''ad of. h.II).
Gyulafch<rv .. (R<>nun Alba lu\"" hll.fly
1"" of Rom,n". bu, .ffiOrM '0 itunga ')'
towa.d. ,ho c"d "f tl>< ,welfth <e",u"I,.1><
1Irni'd1C""" mon3jl.ry ,hunh In TihAny
Ifoundcd In 1055, chu.~h c""",,,u,cd ,n
1060 .nd rtrlacr-d, .11 bu, tl>< hall 'I)'rr,
be'''ttn 11~0 .nod 11541 .nd S.. kw,d
(w"'rc King llila I " . burin!. 106(1.4;41,
Tht p.... h d",,,,h of F.ld.h,,;. d.'lng f,om
, ... r,m h.lf of tl>< .k,... th ern,ury, IS
.. m'nlocon, "f lIynm,....rchlfC'Clu", only
,I>< "Yl" .. m.. n. 11 ,,"U G.... k cros. f()l'1l1
chu"h with. dom< ",..,..1>< central sn,ion .
In pC'< 1>< old.hurth burnt down ,n 1064,
pl.ce"",n, w h' ... -a"kd low
chu"h and abooc It, .1>< "Ides, '~'>I'''8
cxampit of.
ba"(,,,. ",,,hou
,.ul1 0,- """"pt. but ,,IIh th .... p<t$ .nd
' owcro (fisu,n. p. 25~, bOllOm loft) tyr<
of bu,ld'ng ,h..
,,,dnp,c.d ,n .hc
,welfth ctntury - ",hc.. .",Iude .hc
c>lhM,.1 of Ego whICh " ..... n",'atM
frum 1831. and ,I>< chu"h ,n 8oIdov.,
whICh has
.o"'cro.
A 1"" of I<>",tro .nd . gall.ry f,.,..1>< ruk.,
., ,1>< ....., tod hal,
,I>< orrond half of
,I>< ,,,,tlfth '~n'"ry. n...n ,I>< hallm,uk of
"""'''''ry .hu"",", hu,l, by nobl....,.,n fur
,1><" o.... n u'" c".mpl.. ,ndud< Ak", IAdl
,n Romani.l.nd K,pomak.
Th< royal p.I"".
~:"'.<gom I. 1200). m
pan.mla, II ..... wing .nod eh'pel, IS .1><
hrgh porn' of I.,. Rom.""'! ... o"hll<'<"'''
., .uppon<d by II.... <oun. ckrgy .nd
.,,;to<<:><:y.
Th< Ci;tc"i,n,' o.ism.1 build'ng. ,n Z,,,
(fuunded 1182). P,h, (founded 11841 and
S><n'S"'th',d Ifuund<J 1183, ",bu,1t 1748641 h.... d's>ppe"M .Im"" ",';,hou, """c.
Thty influtn<M .hc """"'>lcry church.
<on<C'<'''M ,n 1224, of the Btn!",,,,,.

""I.,

If' ..

'h"""."kJ

W.,

'wo''''

"TIC.

a.

~bb<y

0/

p.""""halma, wh"h was

in \1'96.
Tht Brocd",,,,,,, """'.... ry chun,h of
l.cbnty ...,. '''a,,101 to the Gyo. f.m,ly,
hu,l. at , ... hog,nn,og "f t'" .... elfth n'Uf)'
and f'""lutotly hu,)" .1>< Iltn!""""
<huI\.h or l,ik (figur~, p. 254. 'op light) was
foufl<kd ""und 1210 hy Mjt"[on Nogy .. f
Jik; .nd u..mbek (f'Su ... p. !54. 1<11' kft).
.. Prtmon"rat<n ... n church, "'., hu,l, h~
t'" A,nJrd f.m,l~ fmm 1220 fI.:.1I of'h ....
wc.c .h, ... .. "IM v.ul,M 1><",n"on~ bUlld,nS' ...;,h ''''in
~.d<s .nd I.v"h
.xt..",,1 ornam<'n",'oo. In ,I>< II"", ",fo..
,I>< de"""""8 Mon~ 'nva~""'; of lHlI
42, fun"', ,mpo..un, I.t< Rom;"""!u.
,hu.eI, ........~ bu,I., "",h ...... p .... non
'''''''''".n church ,n 6$ko (fi", docu
mtn"d ,n 123~, 'nfl .... nd by lIu.-gund,.n
early GOIh"). ,I>< """",d <athMfal ,n
GyuL.fehfrvarIAlh. lulo. (mncd ..
c"d
of the ,welfth century, best p .... n"M
Romant$q ....a.IoI 1(.nod ,IK 1Itn<d""...
church of VcnissuntkcrtSZt Ic. 1200-1231.
,nru,nl
~.. hl,,101

'0"'''

,n.

""....

roland bC'C.mt Ch"'''an with tl>< bap",m

of D"k~ M'zko I ,n 966. W)"k carly
build"'g.(,uch
",101.. 1. Krak6w.
GnlC'''''. PoznAnl dat< bock '0 tl>< Ott"",.n
pe",..!. Rom.r.N:j'" ""hllC'<'u", ,h ........
"ron&ly infi ... ncM byCc.many began with
.1>< found",g "f tl>< .,chbo,hop.ic of
Gn .. ' ....' ,n 1000. From .h.n on, U",,) ,I><
Ci...,,,,.n> >I'''cd 'rr~.cl",g ,I>< GoIh"
style c. 1250, nu ....... """ ""'hr:<Jral,,, n""">f<ry
nd mlltg,., hurch " .. ,.. bUIlt, ., ",.11
....,,10 churcil ,uch as th .... Inow (h all
"'"h "'c"cm .oond ,owc., latC eln-cn.h
ccn,ury). 50:.;.;"", rema,n of <OmC "",ul.,
build,ngS, such ... th. Pi.., c.;tle ,n 8oIk6w.
No ... of Pol.nd'" .. IoI .. I. h'" m>ln! .. ,
OllSln.1 Romannq ... fu.m. Tht Catlolr.1
of $. Il'..... t and s.. Sun .. I,",. 00 ,II<:
11:', ... eI '" K.. k6w, ih. Go.h" .cpl.....

a, ,...

,n

l'o,";;n Cathcdral, g.ound plan

<x."

"Sh'l '''U
undernea'h , ... GOI~ic
..,101 1of r <tc nd I'.ul.
Wh,lr all that .cm.,n of ,I>< """""1
chu.chn ,n \"('rocbw (,I>< Augu",n .. n
""""'''try 'Our l.ody of the s..nod anod , ...
lItn!"" ... '" J',c"""'''''''''''an mon."..... 1 atO ,hc .yn,pan. d."ng from , I><
twelfth ntu", ,I><",
p..... n'able
""'n."...... ,n ..
011><. pl..n .......
.hough .hey ~ "",,",,h...o"qu.ud wh ...
compared '0 o,1>tt "'OIk, hnm ,I>< oa"",
pe.rod. Thc church of St. And.<w " .1><
mos, I><.u"ful ""ud bu,ld,ng ,n K.. kl>w
If18UI<, p. In. bonum left). Thc compk"
,..h"h 'n t'" ci ...nth .. n,ury W", firs, u<;oJ
boIh ., ,I>< so,' ..... ;g,,'. anod a I"n,h
cnu",h.
m.de. mon>lt<rychurcb b ....
h . o,,&<n.1 h.U ..... ",,,,,,.. I,n 1200, a~'
.bo.. b il"" "'IIh ehull a. ,1><.,,, cnd,
,I>< .de .(>'<> h........ 0 c"c>\,.,l. Th.
""o",h f.~.d." O.nkl hy
polygonal
J',cmon" ...~n".n chuITh ,n
'o"'cr>.

a""",

a..

,,";I'

n...

'wo

SO ..... I"". f.""", for ,.. columns ..."h [;gum..

I"'ob.>bly ilt&un ~fOOml 11 75 3m1
>nI1"'l<d "" IllOl.B. II II th ........ ~

10.".

b,.. ,I",~ ..... b 'nD!q'( ~nd h':01 on

un ... "M<! rnltlm ..... n.a.~ .nd .o<In ~nd tq ... Ur unuswl on Poland - u aoskd rno.L
In ,_ ,hI.d q ... rt... of , ... '-'fib 1I1\IIy
.....pI< Ns,I",~ .....Il ""'" ''''''""'., .... front
....,. addtd '0 .... Aupntln .. n abhoy of
Cu.w",,~, foun<ltd .......... n 11~8 and
IllS: , ... b."d ... ', moo, .. ma,bbk ....,"'"
", "'ppW """.IIkror~",I""h ,<I.. fs. In
T r2wnn2no, , ... A"II"",n .. n. 'ook oy., ,n
old Ikncdl("'" '''bey a' ,be bog,noi ... of
.he , ..,.lftll n,u'Y' 'rho" b;o"l ... ...os bu,l,
......'ttn 1130 and 1146 ~nd J..d. "o""'pI
~nd I..~dot
,n 'o-wro: In ,t..
'"""'....'h em.u'Y," ..... H'f>bttd by 0"1<

"'11" '..

R..mql>C'ellurth.
Poland'. Roon.annql>C' toIkp,a,. mtl"'....
......, .100 unv... lctd, In "no...."" .. ,
b..> .. I"" ... lfh ... ~ .... lb rffi"'~ on poll...
and dtd",~,td 10 Pnot.nd P.ul;" b;ou fl...
,oof. ,.. n~l"'.mI ,h.... Apon 0 1201401.
.nd ..... rnro<nl
Iorrn... sIo<)'
,_ 5"ond Work! W." ..,.. Churth of s..
'\I>"m ,n O~'uw d>l.. ft.om ,he mlddl. of
,he , ..,.If,h rrn',,'Y, .nd " .110 ",,,I,,.
with n.,.~ w~lIs "1''"3 on p,lIars ,nd. fl.u
,,,,,I, And " .1.., ha "''''''pI and 'hIH
'rors. and 0 b""dt w"h , ... ,n '0...., ... no.
U'onOI'. 1",,1, of "rge' t.."in ...-. "
d.cou,td ..'ItI! ~ .nd roond ..,.....
Tht pan"" chweh of ll>um. drdoca.td
'0 M"r ond Ak.,,,, and 'nlortd .h~.

'0 ,"

"",..",. ..'... d..!.."...J..

,fl.,

OJ

....

.... bor ... bu,ld"", ,n ,h .. """,,p Iphoco.

p.25.5. ho!tom ): " OJ. doubk-mdrd chu",h
..-"h plio"... &< ... ,he .,,10 .,..... ..,.. .....

ha woodtn '0<11:., " ...., .... d" ad""n'

I h.lff,-h~uht<l

cliolt ..."b ildt

Ipse'S.

ami

,he ......,md".n.1"'" flank'! "" ..,.......

Rob .aul""" "'0' ,n'rod"""'! '0 Poland ....
,t.. C"'<n:UJU ,n ,tw lint h.aJf of ,he
,h,".n"h em' .....: " an ... K<1I ,n , ...
~hllr<.... 01 ,he ....,.......... of Suqo..
lfoundtd IP 11~6, el! .."h con...,.. ,td In
IU21. W.... hok lfoundtd ,n 1179) nd
"or"'y"''''''' lfoun<ltd 1M 1185. chu",h
hc!Iun ,n 120-].
01

To .."", Church oIS . ,\b,l'. grou"d pi""

Rohr ..",

1""..,.<00, wooJon bu,ldongo

u".v....t ,n ,t.. ..,...,n ,ha,

ha"~

..... n

.. ood !(' ...

01 .hew
- . '" ,,",,~ ...... k '0 .he cou ... ry', .. rl1
hti-lQrl. ""h ,he n~ '0 po ...... of .tw
Prnn}d dJ"IU"1' "'.... 'do ,he ond of ....
n,n,h "... , .. ,.,.. In 911 \'xla"1 bt-a ..... Duk.
01 !ohmwo_ I-k ,,,,,,~.std ,~ p>o<~ 01
au-......."...,""',
tw ..... ",,,,drrtd by
~ broohor BoIri-Lo. I In 929. In 97J. ,t..
'>non Brnt-J"'".... n".. nu, ...... "",dot ,t..
b..hop nf ..... gl>C'
The- oIdttf Ch ...".n .. ~ ch ..,d... ,n
II<>hom.. Id ... n3 f,om ,be moddk .nd
...... ond h.lf 01 ,he n>n,h
ry) .......
u ...... J In .nd nu, P"'g"" H,.d"h,n.

,.lkd Cu.;hosIov.k .... Bu,

r><)I",

"""I

I""

<"" ..

...r

""untI H,.d.:.ny ( .>J,k) .nod ,n Sou,h...., M".. na 1'\lIk..I<... I. ~'''''nda,JOn' ....

.11 II.., .. nu,,,, ...... 01 ,... oldno- 1.1']If'"
K.k "",klo... on 8010""" . Undo-mra,h ,_
Goth", C"htd.. l 01 So. Vi,\I$, on a hili "'x'
'0 ,tw ... ,,10, .. ,_ Rot .. nd.. ,,j So. Vi,,,,
nd b. .. ldl~ .."I!
1916-910. ,..
fou, lponl ~nd ,1M' R.. .. ha <,f So. \"i, ...
I~, 1060. doutolr-mdnl bu,1d '"OIl ","10
<hanc.1 ","h ,Iu- '1"<" .nd ...., 1'1"'''.

0-".....,. .....

1M pol"","1 doptndotnct 01 ,t.. D.. ke<. of

I:Iohom .. on .... Holy Ronun mp'"
<onllntotd .ft.r 10681"....... Oul. V..",la.
" .. ~ modo k,"I by f..mporot H.,.ry IV),
<:t><T.-.j'IOO<i'n&!y. thou
a
drs01 orthllO<'(",.1 dtpt.lIdt"a .... Gtntun

".bo

"IF

"""""..,.. urge' bu,Id,,,,, an t.. d"odcd ""0 .......

""",,I"'. Sa .. I"'....-tlh ,Iu- al"" bu, no
,n lomb.:ordy or
"""t..rn c;.,.m.ony........ bu,l, ,n Suti
RoInIa. IB...,I",. of St. 11'... <1. ron ....... 1Cd
HJ.46). T,,,,, ... 10... ",10 of St. M'I)'. , ...
be.. prroo'...J b:I"hu ,n Bohon" bu,l ,
,... end ol,t..,,,oIhh n'"ry. fig ...... p. lB,
'opl. r ..B.....St .. t.o' IP,.moo"",'.n,i.n
loundtd ,n 1148 ) ~nd ,n
I) .. ko",. IBtnnl .... "... obtwy ch ..
ron .... ,.,td ,n 12281. Ra .. hc:.. ",,10
"an...... - ......11) ,n acco<da""... "It ....
iyom of a"h" ... ' .... 1 l"opo<fJOn' b..td
001 ,_ ('~ oq ...... a, a mod .. k, and

''''....-p<. of ~ .ypt found

"""'""<"1

,,,h.

... "h on al"'<'.nd .".... 'owns at .... froto,_

...... bu.l. III nnouo pUcn '""Iud....
" ..dIU'" (RtnNoc ...... m... ch. compkrrd ,n
I2JJI .nd OoIo; .. nr IP .."""".... '...... n
"""""'.ry t""ndtd ,n 1144).
-I'lIt...... th, ... d""""T Iypt> 01 .mal1
,h .."hn 'n Ilo"'m", ,t.. eh,",,~1 "'I""~
ehu"h, "'h",h It foun<kd 'htough'''''
"",.h...,~, ED,."". IM.kul<...,
nta,
P"~I>C'I' ,he "I"'" h.II ... "h a gallo". for ,he
....... I,'y IStari BoIesI ,. S!. Ckmm,. aft~r
, ... m>ddk 01 , ... ' .... r1f1h em'''ry; Jakub.
con ...... t<d ,n 116,1; Mohtln.... o.u"h of
Sf, Mary. md of ,he .....-Ifth CMfury;
Ih......... So. M"h..<I. c. 1200.: .mI ,ho ,~ .. - cI.. ",,~1 """.... c.... rch such a. , ... , ,n
1..... _ . IJn.o<I.-. plkntd hall ~hu",~
~ncl(hn- 'ypo of ch .. ",h bo... 1t for.he """"h,y
.10., .. pa"",ub,1y _ ..... onhy .. ,he
....1 "'" durol 'ypo, found ,n Chtb
(pal." ... c"'ptl. aft~, 1167) and Zibon on
,he R,~. Eltw (m,ddl. of ,he , ..... Ikh
,.n,,,,y), "lIo"'m .. n '''fUnd ... .mall
"lUnd ,hu.d>eo .."h
"I""'. .... ..
l';"''''ululy wodesl"~'o! , .......... ~umpl ...
n R'r laft .. IOj" Compl<1'M 1126).
Z"",mo I.... f.... ,tw nuddlt of .... "kffn'h
",n,ury).....~.W""horad. Church of So.

"Y'"

1o. k(>IO., So.

And ...... Ch ..h.
"ound pl.n Ind

.ku,,,,,,

.ft

M.",n 1<..... II,h co" ... ,y) and Hoi .. "",,,

11220412,11.
",. ""'" ,mp.mom n,.,mng la,goItC.k
bu'W,n~ ..... ct, .."",.,,,,,,, 01 , ... d .. ~""y
of for ........d III Bohrm, . So. ~\ ,n
.....81>C' 1974/976. fog..... p. l.5S. 'or ...go,)"
S,u.... plltnod b;o"ha ... ,,10 an
.rot.... of sul'f'O'1" .... orrd
.h... 1142. ..,.. P~"ra'...... n mon"""ry ch .. ",h ,n M,In.J<o Ifou.iIdtd

.1"".."""

1184111) ,,0 b..>$1I",...............'~ .... Ib ...

...ppontd .... Iy bycol ..m..... In T.-pIi .-01
,... oIdotf hall ch .. "'.... ""...do Sa,..........
corlt.n.,td ,n 1232. In T... b",. "
Btnnl",,, ... <Iou",h ,.... bu,h ,n 112S1.50
wllh <Iom",,1 uh. on ,he choi. "m,I., .0
,hoot lound 'n IInIOl.l.
..,.. Ci~'"":,,ol. who ....,'. Nough, '0
IIoIItm .. by K,,'I\ Vbd"l.v II 1114()..i2),
'nlrnd""..t ,he Co.h" ,,)"10 '0 ,he coun,ry.
.."ltd ,n Sedkc in 1141/41 nd
,how- bu,ld,rtp ................ ,..t ,n ,ho

",.,. Ii",

Goth", >fyk . ..,.. eh...-do ...U ...nch .,

P1a<y. foundrd ,n 11+4145:" wn"""" ... lly

on un,""htd b;o"I", ..."h n'~ ...11.

''''''''fl'.

'"""~ on ...1.... and

WIldt , ...
mu",h 01 V.kh,.d lfoundnl

1IIotlOU... ry

," 1205. ch"",h bu,l, 1!l8lJII .nd ,t..

mon~~"rr of
lfoundtd ,n 1191 )

o...u

3..

~"II

"""Iy .. ,. R"""'ne$q1>C' ,n <1)'10.

o.la ... ny lafw 12281 and lisnow l/oundod
12J2Ijjll-how th" ,he "b-"."hcd Gooh",

.. yk ,.. fin;lIy ",Ift,ns """I"'.n.

255

Uwe Geese

Romanesque sculpture

Inlroduction
Isolaled new beginnings in large-Kale Kulplure apptared during the tcnth
century, but II was nOI until the construction aCllvity that began suddenly
in many regions around the year I 000 Ih~t Kulplure became more widespread; Romanesque Kulpture, with "cry few e"ceptions, is firmly tied 10
architecture. And this fi rST spreading of a Slyle, through Roman and
ChriSlian [uropt, Ihal was uniform in terms of form ~nd content is [he
reason wh). for Ihe first time since the Classical age. art historians feci
justified in talking of an era.
Given that Kulpture depended so strongly on architecture, it mainly
appeared in the form of a relief, and this was 3 decisive difference from the
free-standing and anafOmically correCT Kulpture of antiquity. Though they
are traditionally considered to be part of Kulpture, reliefs occupy a middl e
position between painting, which is flat and tied fO a surface, and spatial,
corporeal sculpture. It is spial due to the synthesIS of haptic and optical
values, which the eye perceives as being genuinely three-dimensional.
~pending on the di stance betwec-n the background and the protruding
fignre, reliefs are classified as either low rehef (a lso called bas relief),
middle relief or high relief. All rh ese forms appear in Rornan~ue art in
vario us C0l11e"t5. While low relief is normally a feature of the pre and
early-Romancsque periods and w~s used later for decorative work, the
narrarive Kenes in tympanul11s and capitals were normally carried OUI in
l11iddle or high relid.
The earliest sites of R0l113nesqne sculpture are usually simple architeclllral elements. such as the corbels in Fromista in Spai n (photo,
opposi te} and the surfaces, similar 10 melOpe5, between them, or the door
lintel in Roussillon (photo. p. 258). While corbels bore secular 1I10tifs in
the widest sense, door lintels were more suited to a row of figures such as
that at the Last Supper. Soon, tympanul11s started to appe ar vaulted above
door lintels; they were initially no more than th e one in Aries-sur-Tech,
which was an arch filled with sandstone (photo, opposite) containing a
cruciform representation of Christ in Majesty. During the following
period, the tympanum became The central and most prominent site for
Romancsque sculplllre.
The capi tal was rhe upper part of a column and supponed the vault.
The column's symbolic content derives from its origins in the shape of
trees. And just as trees ha"e roots and a crown reaching for fhe skies,
columns have bases and capitals. This correlation has ne~er quite
disappeared in the sacred sphere. In addition. the column and vault bore
the symbolical form of the cosmos, where God lived. And between them.
an architectural infermediary between the upport and burden, was the
capital: a{ the oottom if was STill earthl)', but abo"e it faced the heavens.
This is the confe"t within which the contentS of Roman~ue sculpture on
~"I'it"b .J",>duJ.>l'.J.
Romanesque KulpTure was srrictly hierarchical, where irs form and
content are concerned; it followed STftctl y laid down, decidedly ceremonial
and frequently rigid forms that had developed out of religious traditions.
As a result, the folds in clothing and position of bodies, as well as the
depictions of hands, fect and faces, had certain generalized features that

M
From;", (l'ro .."". of hl.nlia~, :on
Martin. P.dHnenl Wlth ,<.>nsol. flgure_
Lut ,hlrd of Ihe eleventh ,.nlury

BOTTOM

Chauv;gny (Vi.nnel. for"",r colleg;...

,hUKh of:olnt-Pierrc_ Dp,tal'll ,he
ambulalory: AdO"'tlon ollhe M"I9.
>lsned. Sr.:OIId hallof th"wdftbc.mury

CEt..'TRE

Arles-sur-Ted. (WOStern i'yrcnttSl, abbey

cbur,h nfSainl.-Mlri<-M--V.llosp,r.
T,mpanutn. After 1().!6

can be recognized as hallmarks of Ro manesque sculpmre on a national

and even International basis. In addi tion, Romanesque art had countless
symbolic contents which are frequemly no longer acceSSIble in our modern
world (d. pp. 328). These do not just include the widespread represt'nlalions of animals and hybrid creatures; the symbolical ttnportance of
numbers and gemstones was equally varie<!.
But who were the sculptors who worke<! on all these things? There is a
widely accepted prejudice about Romanesque art, which StaTes th~! artists
remained anonymous intenTionally. as thei r works were dedicated to
the glory of God. While the ma jority of artists have indeed remamcd
unidentified, there are hundreds of artists' signatures. primarily in France,
Spain and Ital)', which show that there can be no ulk of a conscious
da:ision to remain anonymous. T he name that appeare<! was usually That
of the master in charge of the workshop that had produce<! a tympanum,
or perhaps the capitals of part or all of a cloister,
Attempts have been made to explain the significance of these
signamres, and the ThoughT that they could be requestS for ohser\'ers to
indude the artists in their prayers suggesTS a bck of inspiration in coming
up with alternatives to the prevailing view thaT artists wanted to remain
anonymous. lbc reason for this anonymity tS more likely to have bttn that
artisTS were aT first held in little est~m as craftsmen. This theory is
supported by The conspicuous increase ill artiSTS' signatures in areas where
more political, economic and social progress had been made. In the sense
that the person commissionmg a work, whether for secular or a:desiasIIcal reasons. wanted to express hts pnde III that work by engaging
an important master or a famous workshop. The detailed inscribed
acknowle<!gemenl of Master Wiligehnus of /.,Iodena appears 10 support
thts. During the historical period that saw the first signs of the bourgeoisie
and urbani1.3tion, artists gaine<! increasing self-awareness and pride about
their abilities and the qua lily of their work, and they wanted 10 express
thts by using signatures. One should not, however, forget that names
which ha\'e "fecil" - ~he made this" (photo, bollom right) adde<! arc frequently only naming the client. not the sculptor.
-Ibere are also groups of works which share stylistic characteristics that
suggesle<! they belong together, but whose sculptors are unknown, Art
htstorians use invente<! names for them, which normally refer to the home
of one of Ihe main works. So, for example, the "Master of Cabe'St;lny" is
named after Cabestany, a small suburb of I>erpignan in southern France.
because that is where there is a tympanum whose stylistic features are
simi"'r 10 many others throughout;l large area.
Romanesque scul pture in Fran ~e
,\olollllmental sculpture was not the way Romanesque sculpture first
manifested itself in France. Ralher, there are a series of set pieces which
probably were not even created in their original architectural context.
As an example, Bernhard Rupprecht considers the famous door lintel
of Saint-Genis-des-Fontallles (photo. p. 258, left) to be the work of a workshop in the I>yreltees whICh produce<! other sacre<! decorative pteces. And it
IS indeed the case that th is door lintel belongs to an entire group of relate<!

257

SIGems..<J<sFonlOmts (W<StI,rn
I'yrenttSl. abbey church of Sa,nlGtni,.
Door lInlel, ChrlsI bel"'n angels and

s,,,nrs.Marble.10I9120

works from the easlern Pyrenees, including Ih ... door llilld in Saint-Andrede-S(m~de. a neighboring town 10 Saint-Genis. and the tymp3n um cross as
well as the window frame in Arles-sur-Tech, which are all relmed StyliSlically. The door lintel in SaintGenis has an inscription which gjves its date
of origin as the tw~nTy-fourth year of th~ reign of King RObel1 the Pious.
which staned In 996. ThIS dates the lintel precisely to the year 1019-20,
makmg it one of the oldest examples of Ron13nesque stone sculpture.
In the center Christ is emhroned in a mandorla, held by IWO angels. On
either side arc three aposlles in arcades with horse-shoe arches. AI this
point the connection between the figures and the archite<:ture is still "er)'
tight, and this IS demonstra ted by the silhouettes of the apostl!es, who are
not ShalXd as normal figures but accordmg 10 the form of chI' arcades.
DespiTe Ihe similarily of Ihe figures, Ihere are substantial diffel"tnces in the
bearing and mo\'emem of the figures in Saint-Andre.
All these relids and the framing decor:lIions are worked in extremely
flat chip-carving, and comemporary models for this would :hardly have
been found in antique sculpture. It is mort likely thaI two-dimensional
frescoes or small pieces of an such as ivory reliefs, illummated manUSCTlplS
and goldsmith's art servt'<l as modds, and Rupprecht quite rightly
comments: ~Format and 11I0b,lity meant that this piece was Il'Ss a
precursor of monumental architectural sculpture, but rather an enlargenlent of workshop art. ~
During Ihe same lXriod the new abbey church of Saint-Philibert was
buill in Tournus in Burgundy, togelher ",ilh what ils inscripticll1 called the
Gerlanus arch (phOIO, right). Capitals, coarsely chip-carved with ornaments and planls, each supporl a thick slab with a sort of impost block,
One of them bears a masklike beard~ man's head, while the .:.>ther shows
a man carrying a halnmer. The latter is frequently wnsidered to be
Gerbnus the archi lt'Cl himself. While Ihere is no way of \".!rifying Ihis
inlerpn.'{:ltion, there is &lill son,elhing quite sen"",;on31 "bout II. 3S ;t

258

Tournus (Saon...... Loire). former abbey

church of Sa,"I-Ph,llbert. Gtrbnus arch
m
up~r tfo",yof
tem ..de,
ma.k. kcond qt1arte. of II...Ie,'enth
century

,h.

,h. ",...

Toumus (Sa6nt-etlo"e), former .bbey

church of Sa'rltPh,hberl. Gtrlanus arch
in lhe up~ to"'Y ohhe "'estern ,i<ic:
nun ",uh a hamm ... ~ond quartet of
,he <I...... mh ""rnury

would be the first indi\"idualizmg portrait of an arliSI m WeSlern art hlslOry.

But in contrast 10 Roussillon, these earliesl examples of Burgulldi3n
Romanesque show that stone and ils malerial consistency were problems
thaI had not yel been o,'ercome in the search for artistic expression, so thai
"the effort as well as the work and imagination, wh ich the frequentll'
mdlsllnct wrestling with Ihe block of slone caused," are qUIte VIsible.
Toulouse
The undisputed cemer of the ROlnanesquc in south-western France was
Toulouse, which had three greal cloisters. all of which fell prey 10 Ihe
Iconoclasm of Ihe Revolution. Since 1792, the remnants have been look~
after in the secuJaril~ Augustinian friary, now Ihe MuseI' des Auguslins.
The collegiate church of Saint-Sernin STili exists; after Cluny Ill, il W3S Ih ...
largest sacred building of the French Romanesque period. The sculptures
inside this church are a highly innovative ensemble in the artistic
development around the turn of the eleventh and Iwelflh centuries, and at
least three styliSlically different workshops can be identified at work here.
The famous table altar, which was probably consenated on May 24, 1096
by POlX Urban II, not only for the first time shows the dllect influence of
the Classical period in Languedoc, but also makes ust of the three--dimensional possibilities of Iht" relief, by using light and shadow as new
means for giving spatial structure to a work. The slab bears a quite long
inscri ption, which ends with the artist's signature: 8J;RNARDVS GF.UWINVS
.\lE ~EC . ("Bernardu5 Gelduinus made me" ). Olher works by him, or from
his work5hop, include the seven reliefs dated around 1096 in Ih ...
ambulatory, which did nOt all originally belong 10 that place. Even Ihough
the way the figures - Chrisl, angels and apostles - are for11l~ does not
seek 10 deny their origms in small sculptural pieces or goldsmith's art, their
enlargememlo half life-size nevertheless marks an importam turn towards
monumenro.l sculpture.

m.

T oulousc (Haut".G;>ronll(), colltgi.. e

church of Saint-Se,n,n. Porle Mi.gev,lIe.
tymponum: Ascension of Ch'lSI, door
Imtel: apostles.l:\(fore 1118

BOTIOM

Toul"" .. (HauleGa,onne), collegiate

church of onlSe""n. Cop",.1 on the
Po ...: de< Com.es. c. 1100

Two porlals on rhe south side of Saint-S!'rnin are funher milestones in

the developmem of Early Romanesque sculpllire. E" en If the quality of the
capitals of the Pone des Comtes (photo, bottom), mthe south transept and
dating from around 1100, does not compare with that of the other
workshops. it is still the first time thai an iconographical program appears
on a ponal. a feature that was later to become a cent ral theme of
Romanesque sculpllire in general. Even more Imporram III the de"eiopmem of Romanesque portals is the Pone ~hege\llle. the entrance to the
southern side aisle. Its name, which deri,'es from medIa ~'III(Je, cenrer of the
village. describes its central position within the town. [t was probably
completed lxfore the consecration of the church III 1118, and together
with the Spanish examples in Leon and Composteia is one of Ihe fi rSI
ponals in which all the important eiemellls m the structuring of a ponal,
such as the tympanum with ;I. lintel and archl\"olts, colullms wirh figured
capitals set into Ihe stonework, sculptured consoles and reliefs on the
f;l.~ade of the structure, separate from the rest of the church architecture,
are gathered together in a united ensemble.
The tympanum of th e I'one Mii:geville (photo. top) is the earliest in
l<Inguedoc; its theme is rhe AscenSion of ChnSI. who occupies the center
of the scene. Two angels are carrying the standmg Chri.tlOwards Hea,cn.
His raised arms, and his slightly raised lefr leg. which subtly correspond to
his raised head and thc way he is looking upwards. form a motion which
had never been seen before III this wa). the upward movement of a stone
figure. As if Ihe .sculptor had nOI dJred Irust hiS own gcnius, he placed the
IWO angels 011 either side to assist the process. A string course with carved
vine foliage separates the area within the arch from [he architrave, thereb)'
also separated the heavenly evems from {hc tanhl)' ones. Below are the
apostles, {hcir heads twisted upwards III order to s what is happening.
Oil either side of rhe tympanum art IWO largl" upright reliefs. on the left
St. James {he Great, a referenct 10 the Via Tolosana, olle of the main
pilgrimage routes 10 Santiago de Composlela. On the right is St. Peler, in
connection with th e Ascension; at his feet is a rt1ll"f showing the fall of
Simon the sorcerer.
Moissae
As young Adso in Umbeno Eco's novel TIn! NaillI' 0/ 11,1' Ro.>e steps into the
clltrance of the church, he is dazzled by "the silent speech of the carved stone"
and plunged Imo a vision. And his report is in a type of double past tense. He
IS writing as an old man, but at Ihe $..1.me IIIne he is wrillng of a vision the
memory of which had been burnt directly 11110 hiS rehglous spirit. Before his
eyes he still saw the poml he had JUSt walked beneath. 'Ibe reason &o's
description of [he ponal al ~Ioissac (photo, p. 261) isso extremely impressi..e
is that it enables us ro undcr.;tand how it would have been experienced by
n>onks at the li1lle. And I1Ideed, the tympallum at Moissac is a vision. Or
more precisely, rhe vision of St. John as described in his Revelation.
Enthroned in the center is the crowned figure of Christ, majestic,
unapproachable. transported beyond terrestrial humankind, on irs own
embod)'ing the order of Heaven. He is surrounded by a tetramorph, the
symbols of the fOllr Evangelists, {hemselves nanke<! by two angels with

259

MOI"",( rrUn.ftCaronllt). forlntr

abbty
01 Sa,mht ..,. Soulh
pon~l, tUltrn s,de ollM lrumtau: 1M
p.ophtt.le'm... h,<kt~,1. I I Z()"'I lJS

C"UfO"

260

MOIOQC rr.. n.ft-G..ronM), forlntr

abbo.ychur<h 01 Sa,nlhtrrt. W('lOI""
s,de of 1M _Ih pon~J'f .... nht <leu,l:
1.... _lafIM ndlnun IJlormmtN by
dcvik. I I Z()...I lJS

OProSITE

Moossac rram.ft-G..ron~). formtr

ab~ church

of Sa,n . I'><rrt. Soulh

parral. I 12()...1 lJS

TOP

A~I)

C ENTR E

BOlTOM

MOI ....c (nrn~G"ronnc), lormer

MoiS&lc (T.rn-ctGaron ne). former

abbtychurc" oISain,-Pi(:rrc. CIo,s'cr

abbey church 01 S'"n,Pierre. Clo",'er.

gallery. 1100

'wo p1l!ar rC"!I~Is. ! 100

scrolls. They are the sole refcrence to the Last Judgcmcnt. The rcst of the
area is taken up by the twcntyfour elders. two on each side in the
top regisler, th~ on each side below, and the remamder underneath
the ~sea of crystal, ~ the wal'es al thc feet of Ihe sublime one. The unusual
meander pallcrn grow ing OUI of the mouths of beasls at Ihe edge of the
tympanum has bIoen interpreted as ,hc bonds with which Hercules tied up
Cerberus, the dog from 1lades. Below the rympanum is the door lintel o n
which wheds of fire symbolize the fires of Hell in the Apocalyr-. It i~
all supported by twO mighty door POSts, whose edges are unusual,
like waves poiming inwards; on the left one is a very long relief statue of
Peter, the patron saint of Ihe abM-Y, and on the right there is one of Isaiah.
MWhal were thcy and what symbolic message did they communicate,
those three criss-<:rossed pairs of lions rampant, like arches, each with hind
paws plamed on the ground, forepaws on the back of his companion ... ?~
With some license, Adso's vision describes the exterior of the trumeau, and
his question is the same as an)'one looking at the portal would ask. What
do these lions mean? The Ph ysiologcr (d. p. 339) describes their sides, the
ones relating to Christ. Here too they seem to mean strength, as they are
carrying the lintel. But on the trumeau thcy appear in front of a
background of the roselles of hellfire on Ihe archilTave, and this - in an
eX!Temely high quality piece of work -creates a whiff of evil. This example
demonslrates the cnigmatic ambiguit y of Romanesque visual idiom, and
the menacing proximiry of Good and Evil which it frequently reveals.
Of cxceplionally high sculptural quality are the figures on the sides of
the tmmeau, on the left Ihe apostle 1';IUI, on the right the prophet Jeremiah
(phOIO, p. 260). The latter, in particular, is the sculptural peak of the works
at Moissac. The figure is very long, to match the pillar, upright and quite
twisted, as-lin scarcely conceivable given the patterns of figures described in
Classical writings. The figure appears to be standing firmly on both legs,
but they are crossed in a peculiarly Wide manner, the left over the right, so
that he almost !;eems 10 be dancing. His Iwisled hip protrudes slightly from
the pillar but his upper body is si tting rather rigidly on top. His head is bent
down in a strong countermovement. and his hands are holding a scroll
across his uppcr torso, though nothing can be read on il. lne finely
structured elegance of thc head m panicular, WIth its long hair and beard, is
the dira:t model for the Isaiah II) Soulliac (phOIO, p. 265). The side walls of
the portal entrance each hal'c a double arcade with scenes in TWO registers;
above thcm are fricus with complementary scenes. To rhe left is rh e slOry of
la:l.lrus conna:ted to the damnation of Avar;t;a and Luxuria (ef. PI', 344),
while on Ihe right are scenes whose theme is the Life of Christ.
According 10 the inscription, the cloister of I\-Ioissac was completed in
1100, and it is the first one in which biblical stories and other scenes
appear on the capitals. There are ten marble reliefs o n the corner pillars,
and 88 capi tals, making it thc largest decorate<! Romanesque cloister to
have survivcd. As thcrc is an ahernation of single and coupled columns,
thc scenes Ihemselves vary in thei r proponions, and in between the
capitals bearing figurC$ others are interspersed with pallerns of flowers or
ornaments. The cloister is funher broken up by the corner pillars bearing
reliefs and the rectangular pilbrs in the middle of each side.

262

,0.
Moina< [fam...,tG.ronM), former
.b~ church of So,ol Pierrc. Two
capual. In (hod"",.,. 1]0(1

BOTTOM

Mo; ... c (Tarn-fl"GaronMj. former

abbey church of SaonlP,.rn'. Clo"t.r
gan"y. ] 100

263

TOP LEFT

Souili3c ( I.OI ~. form~r abb..y church of

Salnte-Manc. Rehef on the in"", wOSlern
w~11.

] 120-IUS

~01TOM

tf.Ff

Souili3c (LotI. forme. abb..y church of

Sa,nt.-/o.!a" . Trumeau.<ktail: ..,.if"",

"fAb",ltam.1120-1135

264

SoUl]!.. (Lot ), Iotmt. abbc,y chu"h of

Samt.-M ..;. T,utntau. now ag;IIn" the
mner weltern wall. 1120-1]35

Soulliac (LotI. form~r abbey church of

S.lnlc-,\hri . lt.h.f on ,h. IIl"cr "'OSlo",
wall, ,h. prophet Isaiah. t 120-t 135

Souillac
The former abbey church of Saime-Marie in Souiliac, built between about
1075 and 1150, had suffered extensive damage during the Huguenot wars.
The e:<Tensive figured portal was affected extremely badly. and the
remaining pieces were put back in position in the se"enteenth century.
Nowadays these fr"gments ;Ire on the inner weStern wall.
The former trumeau of the lost portal (photo, opposite, right) has
intertwined griffin-like fabulous crea1Ures depicted on its ouwr side, and
lions fighting other animals. At the very top, a man is being swallowed by
a beast. In a fashion similar to the trumeau at Moissac, the bestial tumult
is brought under control by the symmetrical manner in which the fabulous
creatures arc arranged; chaos and order are confromed with each other in
such a way that they balance each other out - thus obeying one of the most
dominant stylistic principles of Romanesque art. If one onl)" takes this
approach, the trumeau in SoUlliac can be considered the prototype of
bestial columns Id. photos, p. 336). The left sidl' depicts the sacrifice of
Abraham (opposite, bottom left ).
The Theophilus rdief (p hoto, opposite, tOp left ) is possibly a later
amalgamation of various fragments in the form of a triptych. The figures
at the sides ha,-e been interpreted as Peter and BenediCt, and probably
flanked the original tympanum in a way similar to the figures of Peter and
James who flank the Porte Miegc:ville in Toulouse. The central n:lief shows
the legend of Theophilus who was the administrator of the bishopric of
Sicily in the sixth cen1Ury. Angered at being relieved of his office.
Theophilus enters into a pact with the Devil in order to be re;nstatcd. In
his remOT$t he turns to Mary, who returns the paper with the agreement to
him in a vision. The legend is told in three scenes. The first is the pact with
the Oe"il which is shown at the bottom left, The scene next to it on the
right shows the D"'il attempting to grab Theophilus. Above them, in the
third scene, is the figure of ,\hry, the patron saint of the chnrch. She is
really the main figure in the relief, and th at explains why the Story being
told here is not of a saint but of a sinner. Stylistically, the center of the
Theophilus relief has more in common with the prophet Isaiah (photo.
right) than the saints flanking it.
The depiction of Isaiah is not only arguably the mal1l work in Souillac,
but also the l1Iost important depictIon of a prophet in RomanC';quc art. In
stylc it is dirKrly dependent on the figure of Jeremiah ill Moissa,"
However. there is onc main difference: the figure of Jeremiah is standing
slill, whereas the figure of Isaiah almost seems to be mQving. Is.)iah is now
walking, and this, together with his swinging garments, g;"es rhe figure a
kind of new dynamism. Nonetheless, chere is no sense of anatomical unit).
and if the figure were truly walking one would expect Ihe feet and the right
hand 10 be in different positions relative to the body. Another significant
detail is the wide cloak with its rich braid trimm ing, whi,:h fi lls the
background of the relief and in Ihe process creates a new means of
structu ring sculpture. The unusu ally violent and lengthy movement has
encouraged some critics to calk of an Mcxpression of visionary dynam ism. ~
Perhaps the relief expresses the moment when Jsaiah was ca lled by God.

265

A"8O"I<_ (a... .....'e). c~lhI,~1 of

s..1II'Pier~. Cctllul a,ca& In t .... up""
.Jto~ of ,"" W~I f'"9l&: A$ccmton.

(. II J6

An&OOlbnc: (Chamne), ulhI",1 of

s..lnll'1eru. Scheme of ,he f~",do:

(acoord,ns 10 1)r0Sft"t:

I CbnSl In IItt mandorla

2 Ullk. IItt E""'nll"~~' John
J Anll"l.11tt Ev.nll"l;!I Mauhew
~ Winge;! hon K ,Itt Evo"lI"i'sl
Mark
5 Winge;! ox. ,'''' EY~nllehstlukf

Ii

A~ls

7_10 'ThcEIw

"

Mor""'ofGod

12-22 A".,.. ...

lJ 'ThcDamn<"d

27-30 A".,.....

"
T he West
Tht' landM:apes in the midwest regIon of I:rance, roughly /)etwn POilit'rs
in the north and Pun~roux In tru. south, posscss the richest rema1lling
Romanesque sacred bUildings and !>CUllMures. A number of characteristic
peculiarll1es de~eloped here in the way fa~adcs and portals wt'~ structu~d,
the most obVIOUS dlffermct' from tht' porr:als m other region s /)emg the
lade of a tympanum. In places other than Angoulime and POll1ers. whe~
the enme fao;adc IS a showple. the sculptural decorations art' restricted
mamly to the arch1"olts. OccasIonally, 111 SlIes such as the archt\"oh porral in Aulnay. M:ulptu~ and archlttural clements were trea ted as
equivalents.
Angoulcme
Tht' mOSt extcnsi~cly plannt'd fao;ade In Romant'sque art IS on the
cathedral of Saint-Pierre m Angoulcrne (figures, top ). It was produced
betwn 111 5 and 1136 under Bishop Girard II. and expounded a complica ted IconographICal program thaI was probably concei'ed during twO
di(fert'nt pertods. di~iding into the ground floor wnh the portal tympanum
and tht' hIgh arcades, and the upper floor wnh the cent ral a~a and :mgt'ls.
The central area is almost lll.:e a >"ery high tympanum 111 the way It
stretches above the portal and brgt' wl1ldow. In the centre Christ IS
standl1lg m a mandorla protruding from the fapde, and arou nd him Ihe
Evangelists' symbols hale beenlct 11110 Ihe wallm flat niches. The Var)'l1Ig
degrl~s 10 which th e M:ulptural clements are gmdua ted with relation 10
the fa~ade wall display :I. spial characteristic of Angou lcme, which is
rt'pe atoo 111 the forms of tht' angt'ls abol'c the wl1Idow. Tht' four angels
between the fnue and the arch are, like the Evangelists' symbols, SCt
into niches and face Christ. In conlraSI. Ihe angels 111 the spandrel projt

266

Mounltd b.anlt l,iJu\" ...on of

,"" Son,;of RoI~nd?)

front the wall and face outwards. This creaTes a complex structure of
~1allonshlps which dOts, howel'~ r. open OUI as regards content. Standmg
111 front of [he waH, the twO spandrel angels are forntally related to the
mandorla With the standing figure of Christ; above him is a cloud which
has cle,erly moved beyond the wall, ISSUing forth from the church and
cOl'uing the peal.: of the mandorla.
What has bttn dt'plCled IS the Pf('("ISC begmnl1lg of the proc~ In the
Acts of Iht' Apostles (I, 9), where II IS WTltten: -As he s.ud [hiS he was
hfled up whllt' they looked on, and a cloud look him from Iht'lr sigh t.The tWO angels are those "tWO men In whlle- (I, 10) who tUrn to the
aposdes and say: -This same Jesus ( ... ) will come bacl.: in the same way( I, II ). On first SIght the framl11g of a rnandorla depicting the AM:cnSlon
with the evangelists' symbols appears unusual, bUI ,t IS nothing other Ihan
an allusion 10 his prophcsled return. tht' Last Judgement. of which the four
ang~ls in Ihr lltches art' part.
In this respt, we arc deahng WIth an almost word for word
con,'USlon of an important Ne .... Testamenl passage 11110 SlOne. As. result,
the relevant blbhcal figura a~ collecled ,n the side aTCades: wllhm the
aTChed areas are the Chosen of Judgement Day, in the doublt' arcades
underneath Ihe apostles present III tht' AM:ension. Thr)' are 10lned, 111 the
nllddle register to the left of the windo ...., by the Madonna. There IS
M:arct'l y anothrr example 111 ROl1lant'5que art whIch dt'monslratcs such a
singlr, sclf-containrd meanmg. And as thr apostles arc also present to
witness the L1S t Judgemcnt, Ihey are accompanied on either side by devils
and the pcoplt' Iht'y a~ tormentl11g.
While Ihr t'quesU13n statues of SI. George and St. Martin undernrath
the mner double arcades and by the t)'mpanum of the crnlTal portal are
nmeteenth century addillons. the I)'mpanums in the blind arcades on

C.V"'Y lVienne), form",

priory church of
s,.,m-Norolu. Wco;t f"",dc. Second half
of the tw~lfth century

Poi"." (Vienne), former oollog,ate church

ofNou ...OamelaG.and. West f",adc,
deta,l: Rifth of Chnst. bathing the baby,
Jos<ph. Around the middle of the twrlfth
.~ntury

either side are the originals. While they stylistically pl"filate th e rest of the
fa~ade's sculptures, {hey also relate to the theme of the Ascension, for they
show the apos!les making Iheir farewells. The frieze in the blind arcade to
the right of the po rlal shows battles between hOf$tmen that hal'e been
inte rp.eted as scenes from the Song of Rola nd .
Poitier.
The three-storey f3~ade of the former colleg13le church of Notre-DamelaGrande in I'oilters (photo, p. 269) is SImilar to Angouleme, being determined by pronounced I'erlicallines; these are forml by a central portal,
a window abo~e il and an immense mandor13 in the gable sto.ey, all
accompanied by co.ne. IOwe. s. Despite this, the scheme of the fa~ade's
structure is not unified. While the lowe. storey with its central portal and
blmd arcades is related to a building wi th several aisles, the upper storey,
divided into twO registers with figu.ed a.cades, is shaped like the enlarged
wall of a 5.1Tcophagus or shrine.
In contrast, the iconog.aphical program is simple. The mandorla which
project. f.om the gable wall contains a standing Christ and the
E"angelists' symbols, and it is accompanted by the twelve apostles in the
upper storey. 1"ey are shown siumg in the eight arcades of the lower
register, while the fou r apostles above are standing. It has been suggested
that the two bishops standing in the outer arcades could be Saint-Hibire,
Saint-Martin or Saim-Martial. The figural ornamentation of the lower
storey is restricted to the area between the upper storey's arcade string
course and the portal arches. Above the highest point of the left blind
portal arch are the four prophets of the Old Testament: Moses, Jeremiah,
Isaiah and Daniel, neX I 10 them on the left is King Nebuchadneuar and
in the left spandrel is the Fall of Man.
On the prophets' right is the Annunciation, the stem of Jesse, and on
the right side of the por\althc Visi tation of Mary. In the right spandrel of

the right blind portal arch (photo, top) the Birth of Christ. the bathing of
the Child and Joseph sitting are depicted. Capitals, arches and archi"olts
are, more e,'en than in Angouleme, cOI'ered with such lavish decoration
tha t it forms an exciting contrast with the figural sculpture. Nonetheless,
there are many stylistic inconsistencies within the entire ensemble of the
fa~ade.

There are no written sources relating to the foundation of the building.

bu t it is thought that the construction of it started towa rds the end of the
ele"enth century and was completed by around the middle of the twelfth
cemury. The fa~ade also dates from this period, which is the late part of
the French Romanesque period.
The fa~ade of the church of Saint-Nicolas in Ciyray (photo, bottom) is
structured milch the same way as that in I'oiliers. There are two storeys
with three equally high arcades. The central ones are real arcades with the
one at the bollOm containing a jlQrlal and the one at the top containing a
window. While the blind arcades to either side of the jlQrtal themselves
comain bJiod double arcades, the upper ones, on the other hand, house
pieces of .sculpture. On the right. the archl area is separated fr01l1 the area
beoeath and contains the (our Evangelists. Uoderneath them is SI.
Nicholas who offered prQ[ection to three girls whose father was about 10
abandoo them to prostitution.
Opposite them is an equestrian statue but only fragments of it now
remain. T he archivolts aod arches in particular are completely covered
with sculptural decoratioos. And finally, the degree 10 which the great
variety of Romanesque forms was gradually beginning to break up and
lose itself io iocreasiogly tightly packl decora tions can be S('en in the
choir polygon of Notre- Dame in Rioux.

267

Rioux lCII... m.Mari,imt). NOIro

D.m. Ex'.rior wall of Ih. polygon.1
cllolr_ I.all thud "f ,h. 'welfth <emury

268

OPPOSITf
Po"'.~ (Vi.nne ), former collegIate
cllurch ofNo..... D'mt-la-C .. nd . Wes,
f"ode. Around Ih. mlddl. of,II.lw.lftll
century

Aul"'T...x-s.,n'~ (O,al't1lt..Manumt}, forme. coIlcopa'~ church of

s..,m ""'rrc~b.Tou .

portal. AI,... 1130

170

Sou,h'ransq>l

S.. nla (Ch.",n,e-!>b.mme), ror"",.

abbey (hur~h 0/ s",,,t.-M ie-dc ...
Dames_ \1t'es, /..... dc. Strond th"d 0/'''''
twclfth ~.ntury
a~ l.ow

!'ort.I."ruvoh,

Auln ay
The immediale sense of archiloxtu.e \Ind sculptu.e having merged wilh
ea~h other, which is a charaClertslic of ,he Romanesque in the west of
France, is expressed most succinclly In the archivolt portals of Aulnayde-Saimogne (phoro, opposIte) and Saintes (photos, tOp ). lb.re are four
\Irchi"olts in the portal of the soUlh transept of the pilgrimage church of
SainI-Pierre in Aulna)', and Ihe thr.... outer ones show a large number of
small figures arranged radially_ As each figure was carled separately from a
single StOne, every Slone in the archil'Olls has IIVO functiolls: decorative,
and supporting the arch.
This agreement of construction and doxoration is not \Ipplied on the
inner archholt. Here there arc only annnal and vine omamenlS twisted
across the arch. Above them a.e twenty-four figures with haloes, holding
books and containers and prooobly represeming apostles and prophets. In
the third archivol!, howe"er, there IS a seriOuS confhct between biblical
tradition_ the aesthetic arrangement and the requirements of architectural
construction. The crowned figures are holding instrumentS and containers
and allude to the Elders of the Apocal)pse. But only twenty-four Me
mentioned there, and here there arc a total of thirty-one figures. For
aesthetic reasons, the figures could only be a little larger than those in the
arch below, and In order to do JUStice to the architectural conStruction
of the arch, the number of SIOnCS. and with it Ihe number of figures.
was increased to thirty-one. All the figures in Ihest' two archivolts are
supported at the bottom by lillie atlantes, which are only visible frolll
below. In the founh archi"olt are numerous anim\lls. fabulous and hybrid

creatures, of which a few, such as the sphinX and the sirens, date back to
Dassieal tim~s. Others .der to locallegellds and myths or, like the donkey
wllh the IIIstrument. are an allusion to Ihe VICes. The emire arch is framed
by a torus, on which animals are arranged "tangentially, ~ with their body
axis touching the arch, facing towards the center.
Saintes
The fa~ade of Sainte-~hrie-des-Dames has IWO storeys and is divided into
three sections, meaning that it was following the Sl.:heme used throughout
western France. The remaining Sl.:nlpture is concentrated around the main
portal. and its archivolts are formed by animal and vine friezes. Here, roo,
the Sl.:ulpture is arranged both radially and tangemially. On the inside, six
angels arc moving tangemiall)' towards the highcst point, where tWO of
{hem are holding a lIledaliion with the hand of God. In the second
archivolt are the Evangelists' symbols surrounded by vines, and at the tOp
is the Lamb of God. There are many figures in the third archivolt, each of
them on its own 1'0I1s5Oi., and they show th e Massacre of the Innocents in
Bethlehem, while the number of the Elders of the Apocalypse is increased
in the fourth 3rchivolt, in accordance with the number of voussoirs, 10
fifty-four.

271

RIGHT
11.0,,,,), for"",r pri"ry church of
SalnlFanunal, Tympanum of Iht ",...1
pc>nai. End af lhe oIo"omh century
Ch3rli~u

BOTTOM LEfT
Semur-enBrionn.isIS.,,)nc~'LoI"'I.

I"rmer p,.,,,ry church "I S.in,H,I.".

TympanUln and door 1",,01 of ,he ,.'0$'
por"1. After ,he middk "f ,he twelfth
""muf)'

OPPOSIH
Charl;"u II.<)"~), lormt. pnOl)'church of
S.in,Fonu",n. Tympanum and door
lintol of the nonh sid. 01 Ih. nanhtx; 10
Ihe lIght ncx110 II, the hnlel, I)'mp.num
and 'rch",,,I1$ o,e. the window "n the
nonh SIde of ,he nanl>tx. Mid ,wdfth
,omur)'

ROTTO.\! RIGHT

S>lnt'Jul .. ndeJ<>n~y 1S>""'e~'I.olrol,

church ofS>lntJullen. Tyn'panum and
door limel of 'he "....., potlai. Mid
twclfthcen,ury

Burgu nd y
Burgundy always enjoyed a special position amongst the Romanesque
artistic landKapo:-s o f France, for the r... ason that thiS .;ecuon of country,
betw ..... n the Saone and Loir... , offered bot h extern al sccuruy and mlernal
stability. It is thert'fore no coincidenc ... Ihat this was th ... place where
monast icism revived at an early period and Cluny was bUilt, the la rgest
and mightiest monaste ry in the western world. This had a considerable
impact on ROlna nesque an. in particular sculpture.
Burgundian tympanum)
There are two reasons why the west portal of the abbey of SaintFortunal
in Cha rlieu (photo, top right) occupi ... s an important position in art
history. It is the olde5t remaining columned portal. in which all pans of the
portal are decorated with sculptures. And in addilion.this is Ihe first place
where Christ appears ~in M ajesty~ in the mandorla, a means of repr~n
tation which was later used for Ih ... l ast J udgem ... nt. ThaI Ihls in novation
should have taken p13ce in Burg undy has been explain ... d by Be rnhard
Rupprecht as a specific adoption of the Classical period. in which attention

272

was paid chiefly to Ih ... monument al Mcombina lion of architectur... and

sc ulpt ur.... " co nsidued to be ~ a n impo:-rial ge5tur... and prel ... nsion.~ The
ClullIac reforms. which became an ecclesiastical political movement in the
eleventh c... mury, fin ally led to fundamental wnfrontalions between
spi ritual and worldly pow ... r. between th... pope and ... mperor for dominion
in western Europe. It Iherefore seems reasonable to suggest th at the lord ly
figure of Christ in Majesty was a visualization of these f..... lings about power.
Built in the second half of the eleventh century, SaintFortunat was torn
down after the FrellCh Revolution. All that remain arc the We5tern section
with the tympanum, and the narthex in front of it. built in the first half of
the twelfth century with two openings to the north. We hal'e thIS circum
stance to thank for providing us with exa mples from the beginning and
end of the Burgundian Romanesque po:-riod of sculplure on one buil d ing.
The entire heigh t of th ... I)'mpanum of th ... W"'SI portal. dating from
about 1090, is taken up wilh Ihe fig ure of Christ enthroned with a
cruciform ha lo III a man dorla. support ... d by two angels. Th ... earliest la rg...
sca le sculptural representa tion of the type, it displays a statuesqu ... calm
and bala nce which allows the mon um... nt:l.l nalure of the piece to be

comprehended as rtg.~ rds comem. This hiera tic moment is Ileightened by the
row of apos!les enthroned underneath arcades in the lintel.
This type of scene In a tympanum was frequently repeated righ t until
late Burgundian Romanesque sculpture, and underwent considerable
styllsllc developments. If one compares the early west portal tympanUln
of Charlieu with the lalt.. one on the north portal (photo. top) . it is
conspicuous just how nat the relid of the former is. The bod ies of the
figures are only slightly curved and smoothly shaped. the contours of each
figure being mainly accentuated by linear elements. The relid background
and the archivolts arching o,er the tympanum are completely plain. This
ghes the composition withm the rympanum a peculiar scnsc of dead
weight, cxpres!tO:d mainly by the angels holding the mandorla. T hcy arc
leaning slightly inwards and supporting the curved sides of the mandorb,
but thclr lower legs, bent equally slightly outwards, act as a visual support
for the mandorla which is delicately balanced on ir<> tip. Then there are the
wings of the angels, which lie at the edge of the tympanum and vault the
entire scene. The message for the observer - here the true lord, the Lord of
Heaven. is emhroned.

The structure of the north portal m the nanhex, which dates from
much later, in the middle of the twelfth century, differs very lillIe from its
predccessor. Columns and pillars SCt into the stonework suppon the
curving archivol ts, and the tympanum is carried by a sturdy lintel.
Nonetheless, the observer gams a completely dlfferclII impression when
looking al it. All the architcctu ral elelnents are co'ered with ornamen ..
tation to such a degR"t' that they almost seem tu dissoke into it. OrnamC1lIS
even appear amongst the figures, causing the two to blend. The figure of
Christ in Majesty in the tympanum, to which the Evangelists' symbols
have been added, is in considerably hIgher relief th an thai on the west
portaL Instead of linear drawings on the figures , there are plastic ridges
formed by the folds of the garments, which both co.-er the bodies and take
on an ornamental role. Therc is an even dearer change in the movements
of the figures. Christ in the mandorla is no longc. sitting enthroned in a
frontal hieratic position, but is moving on his eat, almost 3 variation of a
standing position. The violcm movcment of the 311ge1S, constrained by the
addilion of the Evangelists" symbols, goes beyond anythi ng seen untilthcn,
b) incorporating and dividing twO directions of movement in one scenc.

273

'0'
Autun (s"one-fl-Loire).ca,hWral of
SamtUu",. Choir capllal: Dream oltho
Magi. 1120--1130. Autun. Musk "Sail.

Capnul."c-

BOTTOM LUT

A~' D

RIGHT

Cluny (s"one-fl-lo"el, (""mc. abhq

church of Samt.l'itrrr-fl-S.mtP.ul.
Ambulatory ""p1l31s: ,h. /OU. fI n of
P...,ad, .. and ,he first four 1>010$01
G~Of,an chan,. 1115/1120. Cluny.
Musk de Fu,me'

TOP LEIT ANI) RIGIIT

BOTTOM LEIT AN!> RIGHT

Autun ISaoo.-...,'.[.o,"'), carhcdral of

Saint-Laur . Two'>p;,,,Is: fl~h, into

Saul .. u (Ci>te d'O",), fann abbey

churchofSa,n,Andoch . Two nave
eapn.ls: First Temp"!>on ofCh';5f (left )
and TIlt Angd BlockIng ,h. P",h 01
8,I.am .nd HIS Ass ("glu ). MId ""..,Iftll
, ..... ury.

Egypt (ldt l and su>c!deol J udas.

11l1l-1130. Amun. Musi< S311.

Capoml.".",

For the hands fhat arc posi ti oned 10 support Ihe mandorla are inconsistent
wi,h ,he position of Ihe angels' bodies. They seem to be pulling apart.
almost as if Ihey are Irying 10 open Ihe mandorla. There are fUrTher
examples of this late styk in Sainl.Julien.de-Jonzy (pholo. p. 272. bollom
right) and Semur-en-Brionnais (photo. p. 272, left), and art historians have
invenled the term of Romanesque" Baroque" to classify thcm.
E"cn though the early tympanum in Charlieu predated that in ClullY. it
was finally Cluny, the most powerful center of Christianity after Rome al
the time. which was 10 spread artistic impulses in all directions. For its
tympanum, later destroyed, also contained Christ enthroned in a
mandorla supported by angels.
Burgundian capi tals
The influential importance of Romanesque sculpture in Burgundy was
also expressed in the design of figured capitals. Created around 1100. th e
capitals of the former abbey church of SaimPierre-et-Saim-Paul in Cluny
were preser"ed quite by chance; Ihey distinguish themselves through theIr
self-contained reference to anciem Corimhian capitals. This appears
particularly dearly in the two capitals bearillg the eight personifications of
the notcs of Gregorian chant (photo. bottom). While the basic form of Ihe
Classical model is adhered to, the sides are opened up by mandorla shapes,
which are not used here for the glory of the figures bill in order
to provide Ihem wllh a bowl-like area in whIch to be displa)ed. The
Cormthian volutes at the corners were lost from the musical capitals
when they were forcefully dismantled. but remain in other places, such
as the capilal with the Fall of f..lan: they dearly show a characteristic
stylislic feature of Burgundian capitals. T he tension between the
<1rchitcctural IIlterreJatlons and figural elemenls develops jmo an extraordinarily plastic design. which relates the IIldividual sides of Ihe cap!lals
10 each other.
One of the greatest sculptors of the Middle Ages was Master
Gislebertus, who inscribe<! his name on Ihe tympanum in AUlun. The
majority of Ihe capitals in the IIlterior of Saim-Lazare are also ascribe<! to
him; most of them are on pilasters and therefore remain firmly conllccled
to the surface. His sculptu res are some of the most humall. tuuching works
that exist in Romanesque sculpture. The vision of !he Three Kings (photo.
top ), originally on the east sidr of the northeast crossing pillar. shows !he
three crowned figures together under a large, round co'er. Two of them
are still asleep. but the third has alre ad y been woken by the mO"ingly
geutle touch of the angel who is poinring the star out to him.
The Flight inro Egypl (photo. opposite, lOp left). on Ihe pillar opposite. is
sometimes thought 10 be by a differem sc ul ptor; il shows Mary who is
looking at us in au almost personal manner. showing us her child. She
seems to be floating on the donkey rather than sitting on him, a position
similar to the emhrOiled Madouna and Child. But the sculptor has given
his own interpretation 10 the hieratic ~sedes sapientiae"; the mother's head
is slightly bowed, and her arm, laid protectively a round her child, creates a
scene of human profoundness and sensitivity. In contraSI. the suicide by
hanging of Judas (figure, opposite, top right ) is 3 scene of anger and terror

274

o~P'OSln

W~Loy IY.,.....,),

formtt abbty chun:h of

S.'nl .... M~<kb,...,. I-b,n p0ru01. In!ht
Iv"'panu"': ,lot ",,,ac!t of Ptnftt<)St.
IILS-Il3O

Vruuy IY.,.....,), fonntt abb." dmn:h of

pana1. 0rI~,1 of
tlot hmel: hrlOfl<ln~ wlth "''11< ears.
1125-1130
s..'n~M~<kb,...,.I-Ia'n

of evil, which Gislebenus depictN in the tympanum with jU!.! as much

vovidncu as Ihe mon: p<i,ivc cmotion! of m,mkind. The bCI ... ) .. 1 of
ChrISt was msplrN by 1M: Devil, and IWO o ther devilish figures appear
here, helpmgJudas 10 hang hImself. Nonethricss, Ih e mangle formed by
IIK-Ir heads 81"es the composItion a sense of balance whICh exp~ the
human mtsery of despair in de"astal1ng f:ilShlon.
A funher development of lhe Slyle of cap'lal found m AUlun, and OIl
Ihe same time lhe -end phase of north Burgundian figured C3Pltals,~ as
Knpprecht notes, can be found In the few examples which have been
preser"ed In the nave and side aisles of Ihe former abbey church of SamtAndoche III Saulieu. The dose relationship wllh Autull is panicu!3rly
v,slble m Ihe sIyltSIK Ifanspos'\lon of the tree and Satan in the caplt;.)1
showmg Ihe first Tempiatlon of Chnsllphrno, p. 275, bollom leftl_ One 10
Ihe way Ihey arc placed on half-column responds, Ihe capllals in Saulien
develop greater spallahty than the pllaSle. ,apllals In AUlun, and Ihls
cn:ates an Increased sense of drama. As an uample, lhe Ikpiction of
Sllum'S ass, who shied away three limes from the angel's sword Iphoto.
p. 275, bottom fight ) ,-anes from deep re<:esSt"l m the n:hef to 115 enttrely
three-dImensional head, turned away m fear. \"('hde the figur~' in scenes
such as the Flight into Egypt remam completely conne<:ted to the relief,
bmh Blleam on hiS donkey and {he angcl protrude from the C:IPltal. and
arc as It were placed in from of Ihe CorHllhlnn pl3nt motifs, whICh nrc
CQrrespondingly reduced 111 eXltnl.
Vhclay
AI the begmnl11g of one of lhe four 111;lIn pllgrnnage routes to Santiago
de Compostcla, {he ~Vi3 LtmO\' lCmSlS~ (the' Lalln name for )jmoges ),
Vhcby .... as the' place where mnumerable pllFo"I11S gathered m order to SUrt
the,r 10url"lCy togelher. The town first gamed Imporlance m Ihe elghlh
century. due {O the legend thai Ihe rellcs of Mar)' MagdalelK' were kept
then:: as a result, Vhclay Itsclf ban\C a deslln;lllon for pilgnmagcs. and
these mcreased sharply alter it gamed papal re<:ognllion m 1103.
In 1104, a new church dedicated {O St. Mary ~l3gdalene .... as bUilt by
IIle former abbey church of 5ai11le-Madeleme, but It was dcstro:(ed by fin:
In 11l0. Afterwards, another new church was bUilt, 10 which a narthex
Ipholo. p. 276) was added around 1140150, and thiS is where an. historical
evtnt took place 3t E,mer 1146, which affccted the mlln: contemporary
ChrlSllan world: before an ImmmSl:' crowd that included numerous
sc<:ubr prmces.. Bernard of Clatrvaux called for people to ,oin the 5ond
Cru~dc. lIenee, V"zela) was a f<.>Cus for bolh Europe-'s pllg.nms and
crusaders.
In the center of the tympanum. Christ IS enthroned", a mandorla .... uh
hiS legs {WIStN to the left, On ellher side, beneath hiS oUISln:tchcd arms,
Sit the Apostles holding books alld m the process of receiving the I-Ioly
5plfl{, represented by rays coming from Chflsf s fingers. LIke Christ, the
Aposlles arc not facing the observer d"ectly and an: no longer a.rrangcd '"
Ihe tradulon31 row. This creates a strong sense of ",dividuality in the
figures, and their ",creased corporeality cauSC$ them 10 stand out from Ihe
background of {he relief, something that IS clearest m the robt:d figures.

In accordance wilh the Acts of {he Apo~tles (2, 5 ff.l, the radiating coffers
deplCl the nallons tha t need 10 he com'ened; some of thtm depart from
normal human appearances. an idea that goes back to Ancient Gree. On
the right Side of the I"'tel, led b)" the Apos{les Peler and presumably P.lul.
IS a prOCessIOn of large-cared l'anOllan5 from Scythia Iphrno, top).
l1'grmcs and GIants. On the left IS a heathen scene showmg the sacrifICe of
a bull, :11K! behmd It are Romans and Scythian.., as reprcstntam'es of preChns{mn peoples. The affinity between the Old and New Testament is
mdicated by the monumental figure of John {he Sapl1St whICh 15 on the
trul11eau tn the same axis as Christ.
The theme of Ihe Vczclay tympanum, sendmg {he Apostles fO be missionaries 10 the world, and also {he cosmological dnl1ension of the signs of the
Zod,ac and Labours of the months m the surrounding archivolt, is an
extremely demanding theological concepl1on. This IS one rea'>On why It IS
Ilkcly that the sculptures, which arc usually dated around 1125-30, "'en:
:>Clually, gi"enthe iconography of Ihls Iympanum, produced in the context
or prepuatlons for the Crusade around 1146.
The figured capitals Inside n:producc Images of Good and Evil,
trequcntly With a dcgrtt 01 IConographIC complexity; Old Testament
themes m the nave and aisles are 111Icrpreted as predicltons of the New
Co"enant, and New Testamem themes complen~nt them in the narthex
and on the fao;ade. The person behllld the comprehenSI\'c encyclopedia of
knowledge realized in this cycle or capllals (whose sculptural quality is Icss
exalted) is thoughl to be the brother of Abbot Ponce, the Prior Pierre
de Monlboissier, who as Abbot of Cluny, under {he name of Petrus
VelM'rablhs, was 10 bome one of the most famous figures of the twclflh
century.

'"'

Scrnbon~ (W"'~rn I'yrtntt<). furmt.

pr;orychufCh of NOIr.-])~mc. T,ibu""

font.<: chOIr. Af.e,

,h. mIddle of ,h.

twolfthcrmury

TOP OPPOSITE

BOTTOM OPPOSITE

Serrabonc (W.st.rn I'yren'I, former

pnorychurch of NOIrt-Damt. Coupll
capital of the choir tribune. Aft.r the

Strrabont (Wts,.rn I'yrenou), formrr

priory church ofNo,,,,D3I"t. Ot,.. I.
f,om twocap",,1, In .h. choir rribunc.

rn,ddleof,h. Iwtlfth ",ury

Af'.r the mIddle,,! ,h. ,_Iflh ,,,,,,ury

BOTTOM

Elne (\'('tstun Pyr<nS), former

<:!.Ihrdrn! of S.j" Eulal~. Ronunrsql>t
gallery in Ih. <loin. After 1112

Roussi llon
The earliest Romanesquc sculptures in France (an be found in [his
southern landscape ncar Ih e Golfe du Lion. This region also saw the
emergence of a nurn~r of 3nistic Impulses, mainly as a consequence of the
developing fortunes of the monastery of Saint-Michel-de CUXJ. These
were impulses which were to have a signifieam effect on the entire region
for a long time to eomc.

Serrabone
Far off the main roads of Roussillon, on a northern arm of the Prrenees 10
th e east of the Massif du Canigou, lies the Church of NOlTe Dame. The
church Ixlongs to the former priory of Serrabone; since the monasterr
complex to which it was conna:ted was destrored, the Church of NotreDame has be<:ome a lonely building that dominates the surrounding
countryside. Its relevance to Romanesque sculpture lies mainly in one
sculptural feature - the sculptural design of the southern gallery and
tribunes (photos, top left and opposite).
Era:ted around 1150 in the west part of the church, the tribunes were
moved to the center of the church in either the seventeenth century or the
nineteenth. They consist of three arcades spanning the na"e, and ther form
two bays and arc supported by pillars, columns and coupled eolumns with
figured capitals. The vaults are supported b)' sturdy, round rib vaulting.
The western face is covered all over with relids: those on the arcade arches
are flowers and vines, and in the spandrels are Christian srmbols. Between
the northern and central arcade is the winged lion of St. Mark and the
eagle of St. John, in the spandrel to the right of the central arcade IS the
lamb of the Eucharist and the angel of St. Manhew, while St. luke's bull
apIXars in the spandrel br the south wall of the nave.
Separated from the shaft by toruses, the capitals are in high relief. and
the impost blocks are surrounded with roselte, palmene and vine ornaments. The figures depicted consist of a varietr of grotesque crea tures
which arc standing on the tOTUses. The heads of these figures are mostlr
facing outwards, underneath the eorner volutes; in manr cases they flank a
human head or mask. Their eontent is predominantly set within the limits
of a traditional iconography depicting the baltle between Good and Eyil.
Presumably this structure is intended for the singers in a choir. Buill
from a reddish-white marble. the structure forms a fine contrast to the
otherwise plain interior. t ike the sculptures on the capitals in the solllh
gallery, those on the lTibunes are of high sculptural qua lit)', which suggests
that two masters were at work here. At the same time, it is assumed tha t
the sculptors who worked here were the same sculptors who worked on
(he cloister in the nearby monastery of Saint-Michel-de-Cuxa. It is possible
that the emire tribune was produced in the workshop there, transported to
Serrabone in individual pieces and then finally assembled there. Similar
procedures probably hapIXned in other places, whose sculptures closely
copy those in Cuxa. In general, this ,hoir tribune call be considered a peak of
High Romanesque sculptural art in Roussillon.

278

Th e ~ Master o f Cabcstany~
While-Ihe sculptures in Cuxa reveal a certain stylistic uniformity, the very
opposite is the case with the work of a sculptor whose name has remained
unknown to this day. His personal style is so mdividual that hi~, works arc
easily identIfied everywhere, and they are widely dispersed, from Italy,
through France and into Spain, from Tuscan y via Roussillon down mto
the Rasque country. The invented name he has been given deril'es from a
tympanum (photo, lOp left) which can still be S('('Tl in lhe ehurch in the small
town of CabeStany near Perpignan. Rolf Legler quite rightly wrote that:
~ lbc Mastcr of Cabestany is one of the most distinctive and fascinating
antstic pt"rsonalities in the entire Romanesqu e period, silmlar to
Gislebertus of Autun, Gil"bertus oflQulouse and Antdami of Partna. ~
This tympanum contains several scenes descTlbing the Ascension of
Mary. and unusually begins on the right with Mary waking from the sleep
of the dead. The central scene depicts Mary giv ing her belt to doubting
Thomas, who after his doubts about the resurrection of Chtist did nOt
want to believe in the Ascension of the Mother of God dtht'r, and was
given a belt by her by way of proof. T he sculplOr's unconventional style
becolnes apparent here, because his figures always have large heads with
nat foreheads, long massive noses and oblique almond-shaped eyes. Other
characteristics include oversize hands with long fingers, and robes folded
in the Classical style. In none of these characteristics, however, is there any
suggestion of the intentions of creating a Classical effe<;;t that are found in
th" sculpture of places such as Provence.
The Museo di AnI' saer;! in San Casciano Val di I'esa 10 the south of
Florence, which was renovated :1 few years ago, contains a sITIall column
which is surroundcd with reliefs (photo, top right). At the bottom is thc
Annuneial1on, and above It tht' annunctatton 10 the shepherds -the angel
is holding one shepherd by his beard. Like the scene showing the
Assumption of Mary into Hea"en, this one shows a human tntimacy such
as is rarely discovered in Romanesque SCUlpllLrt', though occasionally it is
manifest in the works of Gislebertus. Above it are further scen es from the
Birth of Christ; firstly, the baby in swaddling clothes twisted backwards
around the SIde, as if resiglled to its future bte; next, the baby in the stable
with the ox and ass, and in the final scene the baby is shown being bathed.

280

;0,

- "\aSlO' 01 c.:.btstdny, Iympanum: Asc~",ion and

M",. l.o"'~rmg""r G"dl".

'''rn

c.:.bts,,,ny ( ~'...
Pyr.n<) .
p"Tlsh ,hu",h 01 Notr .... Dame,
""<"$""n wall ol , he north
".n"'pt. Second hall 01 fh~
fwdhh(~n'Uf}'

I!.IGltT
~ ,\hsr"r 01 c.bts,. ny. ~
sculptur..! column 01 a fOnl'
l",m ,I>c Blnh 010",,,.
S.n c.:...,;.no Val dl " ....
(Tusc.ny). Mu...., di Arr"",,cl"3.
Second hall oflhe IWelhh
c.n,ury

...,n...

-:- la5ler 01 CaOO.. n)", ~ Or coll".S".... group of ">,,,uls. RI~u~'~ hne"'''" (Au<k l.
church 01 L' A,,,,mp,;on-deNOfre-D.me. Second hall 01 ,hc rwdfrh "ncury

';\I~"cr ofCaoo'any,~ ~hcf: dc~,h

and

BorrO~t

.... " rrJom ,,{S. S'h"'''O~'. <1< ... ,1.

M .. '~r of C.hHuny, m.le he. d woth

s..mt-IH."ede-IA~d. (Aude), former

.bhty ch~rch. Marble. sond h.lf of,,,,
, ...~Ifth <cn,ury

,nl"idcyes from San I'edrode Rod".

Morbi., heigh, 12 'n<hts. N..,w in
P.rdad.a Ca.,Ie, M ... ~ <oll=ion.
s."ond fulf of the twelfth century

There is a peculiar magic about this sculpture, which co rl\"eys both the
Nativity and a sense of perfection, but avoids bemg easily placed in any art
history ca tego ry. Its iconography suggC'5ts It could be the steie of a fom.
The Saturninus $arcophagus (photo, top ] in the small church of NotreDame-dcI"Assomprion in Saint-Hilairede1'Aude, which could alternari,ely be a predella, is one of the main Romanesque sc ulptural works in
Ro ussillon. It narrates the marty rdom of Sr. Sernin, the first bishop of
Toulouse, in all the energetic vividness charactemllc of th is master s visual
idiom.
His identity is nonetheless a mystery. It is generally assumed that he
was a travcling sculplOr from Tuscany, who produced most of his works in
Ro ussillon. As he did not have to follow any models, he could lI'anslate his
own visual ideas into sculpture; th is has recently led to the specu btion that
he was a heretic who was working in Calhar regions during Ih,: period of
widespread heresy in the last quarter of the twelfth century.

281

S,,,n.Gill<:s-<iuGard lGard), ab~y

church ofSa,ntGiII<:s. W... f.~.d .
Second qua rt" of thr twrlfth crmury

282

S.. nl G,lIcsdu G..d (Gard). "bbq

,hurch of Sa,nI-Gin ... w..., f",. <It"""",
pun.(. norlhern lamb;Jame>!heGrea!
. nd Paul. Sttond quart .. of 'hI ,w<lfrh
<emury

Sa ",! -Gin -du -G ..d (Gard l. abbq

chu<ch ofSarn!-G,IJrs. WCSt f."d <. rna'"
pun.(. w uthern jarnb:Jobn and Pet er.
Sttottd quarter of!he {welfth o!Ury

Provence
The name of tllis Mediterranean landscape on tile left and rigll, banks of
,he Rllone g~s back to the original Roman tcrm for this region which m
classical times extended far to Ihe wesl, ~provincia gallia narbonensis.~
Though th e countless pieces of art remaining from Roman limes were
important models for medieval architects and sculptou. Romanesque art
blossomed IIcre relalively late, albeil unusually maturely. h IS no surprise
that two of the main works of l'roven~al Romanesque are portals formed
in the shape of Roman triumphal arc lies.

thiS place ensured its importance. in turn reflected by its large population: al
the beginning of the thinec:mh .:emury around 40,000 people lived ,here,
compared with 9.000 today.
The fa~ade of ,he former abbey church (photo, opposite) is unique
within the Romanesque period, and IS d,~ided into tllrec sections by walls
sct between {he widely separated portals which are flanked by massive
corner lOwers. The cemral portal is cmphasiud by a raised lintel, a lIigher
tympanum and a trumeau. Here. the adopllon of Roman triumphal arches
is mixed with the effect of Classicallheater archita:ture, such as Ihe stage
fa~ade presef"ed in Orange.
The complex stepping of the enlire srructure is accompaniw br a frieze
which Slretches over rhe enrire front and is pickw up in the side portals by
the !imets one levcllower. Many figures arc portra)'w in what is both rhe
first completc, and the mosr extcnsive, C)'de showing ,he Passion in
medieval sculpture. I, starts in Ille leil jamb of the norrll portal witllthe
preparations 10 enter Jerusalem, and with rhe entrance itself on the
architrave, conlinues on the northern partition wall with the parmcnt of

Saint-Gilles-du-Gard
Similar to V(ozeby. Saim-Gilles was nOI iUSI 3 placc of pilgrimage - to the
legendary founder of the eigllih century monastIC community, the wealthy
Alhenian mercllant Aegidius - bm also ,he place where French pilgrims to
Rome set sail from, and a place where pilgrims to Samiago gatherw, 'nost
of them ha"ing tra"eled from haly via Aries. before conrinuing ,heir
journey to Sp..11n along Ihe ~Via Tolosana. ~ The multi-funcilon.JI nalure of

283

SaonlGi!Lts-JuGard (Gard), abbty

church of SaInI' Gin . Wesl I~de,
.let.,! 01 Ih. In."" W.shlngof,h. f oct.
Sttond q .... n.r of Ibt I....,llth ,enlury

omitted from the frieze, lakes on the character of a Christus trimtrphans in

the southern tympanum, and the addition of Ecclesia, the symbolil.3{ion of
the Roman Catholic church, and the sj'nagogue su pported by an angel, the
symbol of Judaism, raises this 10 the level of a depiction of Ihe Christian
doclrine of salvation, It has been suggested that this very scene was
produced in the context of the heresies of I'ierre de Bruys, who was burnt
10 death in 1143 in SaintGilles; that would. probably nOt without good
rcason, mean that it was intended as a piece of contemporary propaganda.
The enthroned Mother of God in Ihe northern tympanum is also in
accordance with the hieratic symbolic content of Ihe Crucifixion scene,
and it is separated from the narrative depictions of the Three Kings 10 the
left and the dream of Jost'ph to the righl by flanking columns.
There hal't' been lenglhy debalcs about the da{mg of the work, and
Richard Hamann's early dating of its completion by 1129 has since been
rejected. The issue is clouded by a sculplor's signature on the background
of Ihe relief of Ihe apostle Bartholomew, saying IIRVNVS ME fECIT
(MBrunus madc me
il has been connected with documents from 117 1
and 11 86 which mention a person called Brunus. There are a number of
arguments to do with the style, suggesti ng that of all those sculptors
working here, the master who produced the archangel Michael was the
mO<l inn"enti31 in the design of the frieze and tymp3num, but none of
them provide a satisfactory explana tion. Today it is thought that the
sculptures were started during the second quarter of the twelfth century.
The wider relevance of SaintGiIles results from the entire com plex, and it
is assumed that there were many changes of plans while it was being built;
the debate continues.
M

);

Judas and the expulsion of the dealers from the templt' and coneludes with
tht' propheq to Peter in the north jamb of the cenlral portal. hs architra"t'
shows the washing of the feet (photo, top) and the Last Supper, and in the
.outh jamb i. Juda.'. ki and the arr('$' . The scene before Pilate, and the
Flagellation (photo, opposite), appear on the southern partition wall and
the carrying of the Cross, badly damaged, starts right neXI to Ihem; Ihe
Crucifixion itself is spread OUI across the southern tympanum. In contraSt,
the frie7.e in tht' south portal shows the events after Ch rist's death. Some
scenes are added that are not part of the Passion and are therefore rather
curious; rhey are the raising of La~arus, in the section of wall between the
northern partilion wall and jamb of the central portal, and the anointing
of Jesus's feet by Mary Magdalene in the jamb of the south portal. Hans
Fegers explains these additions, which are subdivided into various scenes,
as the desire to incorporate the Proven.;-al saints, the three Marys of les
SainlesMariesdelaMcr, Lazarus and Maximinus, into Ihe 'Yelc.
The rect:l.ngular niches in Ihe partition walls and the jambs of the
ccntral portal contain twelve lifesize figures, some of which can be
identified as Apostles due to the inscriptions still visible on Iheir haloes.
The Apostle in the firs! niche of the northern partition wall is presumably
Manhew, next to him is B.1rlholomew, followed by Thomas and James the
Less. In the southern jamb are John and Peter (photo, p. 283, right) and
oppositc them are James the Great and Paul (photo, p. 283, left); the
remaining four Apostles in the southern partition wall can no longer be
identified. In {he outer northern niche St. Michael is depicted killing a
dragon, and in the southern pendant an archangel IS fighting devils.
Unlike the seventeenth century tympanum in the cenlral porIa I which
shows Christ in Majesty and the Evangelim' symbols and possibly repeats
what {he Protestants destroyed in 1562, the tympanums in the side portals
are original. T he relationship of the Apostles in the niches 10 the contem of
the frieze seems 10 be as wimesses to Christ's Passion. their presence as it
were confirming that e"ent's real his!orical basis, hut the tympanums are
removed from this scenic sphere. The theme of the Crucifixion. which was

284

Ari es
The nlOSt extensive sculptured portal after SaintGilies is anached 10 the
former ca{hedral of Saint-Trophime in Aries (photo, p. 287), Designed in
imitation of ancient single.arch triumphal arches, such as that in nearby
SaintRemy. Ihe portal is not set into [he wall as is usual, hut placed in
front of Ihe Olherwise undecorated fa~ade. The entire ensemble has been
remarkably well preserved. and Ihe restoration work, which was finished
in the summer of 1995, has restored it to its original condition.
The iconographical program alludes to the Last Judgement, without
having the urgency of that in Moissac or Autun. In the tympanum Ch rist is
emhroned in a mandorla, accompanied by Ihe Evangelisls' symbols; he is
su rrounded by hosis of angels in the inner archivolt. There is a continuous
large frieze at lintel level; in {he lintel itself the Apostles are depicted sitting.
Starting at {he northern outside edge. the Fall of Man is depicted, followed
on the front of the fa.;-ade by the Chosen, facing the center, whose $ouls are
being laid!o rest in Abraham's bosom in the jamb. In the jamb opposite, the
Passion of Ihe Damned St:l.r!S; they are moving away from Christ, pushed
through Ihe gateway into Hell. A small friezc underneath shows scenes
from the Birth of ChriS{. The apostles standing in the iambs are Peter and
John on the left and Paul and Andrew on the right, while James the Great
and Bartholomew are in the box niches on the northern outer wall and
James the Less and Philip in those 10 the south. To the side of the door on

$atnl..c,lJesdu Gard (Gard), abbty

church of Sa inl' Gilles. West fa,.de,
detail of 1M fritu: 1M Flagcllall(>n.
Sond quane, of 1M Iwdhh""",ury

285

'0'
ArI.,. (I!oOJChcsd~-RhOnt), So,n,.
Troph""". CIOImrg;olby. Sond half of
th~

,wdf,h "~mury

BOTTOM

Aries iBouchndu-Rho .... ), S.lnlTroph,mr. Cloister,.p",!. SecOfld half

of ,he Iwdfth ctntury

the left is the chun:h patron Saim Trophime, and opposite him is the
stoning of S,. Stephen. The relics of rhe lattcr were kept in Aries.
The IX'rml complex, which dales from lhe second thIrd of the rwtlfth
century, has an extremely united appearance, due TO ils reduction to a
single portal. In addition, the frieze, which runs through all the levels, is a
strong visual1ink due 10 the almost monotonous uniformity of its rows of
figures. Nonetheless, this shows the Romanesqllc power of expression
beginning 10 ossify, and It has frequently been pointed out that there is an
element of stylistic dependence on the Chartres Early Gothic style.
The monastery of SaintTrophime also possesses the most e:<trav;agant
and lavish sculptured cloister in PrOIellce. The north and east wings are
the only remaining Romanesque SCCIions, dating from between 1150 and
1170, or poss.ibly IOwards Ihe end of the Iwdfth century. The iconographical themes of the scent'S on the figured capilals in the north wing
concentrate on the Passion. and Old Testament events are interspersed
betw~n them, as they are between the scenes from Christ's childhood in
the east wing. This, and the small frieze on the fa1;ade, gi\"es increase<!
substance to the Christian idea of rooemplion.
One featurc peculiar to Aries, and differing from lIIois5:lc, is ,hat each
of a pair of coupled columns has its own capital, and the pair is connccted
above it by the tmpost block in order to be able 10 support the weight of
Ihe arcade. As a result, the figures can take up the entire height of the
capilal, and ornamentation, similar 10 that on the portal, no longer
occupies the area containing the figures bl1l adopts an independent
function, prilllarily as a frame. These arc the aspectS emphasized by the
special nature of the adoption of Classical forms during the I'ro\"en~allate
Romanesqlle period.
There are also clear signs m Aries that there were intensive exchanges
of ideas with Romanesque sculptors in Italy. At the same time, the lions
that sllpport coillmns and pilasters, as they do in Saint-Gilles, are merely
an iconographical motif. Clearer evidence in fa\"ollr of this theory is the
capital showing the vision of the Thr~ Kings and the Flight into Egypt in
Ihe eaSI wing; ;t has been recognized as an early work by Benedel10
Ante1ami, who was 10 become one of Ihe principle identifiable masters of
the Italian Romanesqlle.

286

Arkl ' lIoud..~..Ju-RhOne,. Sa,nI.

Trophll"".

POlt~1.

Xrond ,hINj ol,hr

....... Uih eml .. ...,.

287

Compos.da (Galicia ), calhffi ... 1of

San.iago. Pu~rta ok lao Plalrrf.s on Ih.
soulh tran"'pl. W""I~rn Jambs of the I~ft
door: "mg Da vid, Ih~ Cre.llon of Adam,
Christ glvillf: h,s blessmg. Fragrncnt!;of
Ih. north portal movw to thIS site. Lut
d..-:ade of Ih lev.nlh cccnlury

Ro manesq ue sculptu re in Spain

1be srudy of Spanish art, particularly that of the Middle Ages, spent a long
period in the doldrulllS due 10 the political isolation caosed by Franco's
fascist regime, Added 10 this was a desire for an historical hegemony,
which was expressed by French research in panicular, and according to
which the arl of the Spanish early Romanesque period had to be seen as
dependent on the French Romanesque style. In contrast, a new generation
of arE historians has succee<led during the last two decades in freeing
Spanish an history from its isolation and returning it to the level of
international research, This caused interllational medieval art historians to
turn their attention to the Spanish Romanesque, and they brought some
surprises to light as a result.
Horst Bredekamp, for example, has proved in several investigations
that an independent center for producing sculptures was already
established in Fromista and its courtl y and artistic surroundings around
1070, and that this can be ~experienced ill the hislOry of th e development
of art as a quite individual break with the past and as a clear leap

288

Compostd. (Gal\C,a ).cathwral of

Santiago. Puc"a de las PI.,edas <)tithe
south transept. Completed in 1103.

forward.~ The scholarly importance of such a statement is contained

chidly in the fact that it releases the Spanish early Romanesque style from
il$ dependence on France and recognizes its independem genesis.
The emergence and development of the Spanish Early Romanesque
style have 10 be seen in terms of two basic factors. First of all, it was the
royal fami lies of Leon, Castille and Aragon whose close dynastic
connections gave rise to some important churcha with appropriate
architectural sculpture beillg built as early as the second half of the
eleventh century. Besides the church of San Marlin de Fromista, which was
started in 1066, are the churches of Santa Maria in Iguacel (1072), San
Isidoro de Duenas (after 1073), San Isidoro in LeOn (after 1072), the
cathedral of San Pedro in Jac3 (c. lOSS) and San Pedro de Loarre {after
10SO}. They display a wide spectrum of self-.;ontained Spanish sculpture,
and research in this area, with the exception of nationalistic pieces, is still
in its infancy. Secondly, it is a fact that architectural sculpture was mainly
distributed along the edges of the pilgrimage routes to Santiago de
Compostela.

TO'
UOn. Colq;iala dt San bi<lon,. Puena
<ld COrJ~ro.lymp.num.
century

Earl~

twdhh

WlTOM
LWn. COitgiaTa dt San J,idoro. Furna
<I~I P~rd6n. Earl)' twelfTh century

Spanish sculpture around 11 00

After pilgrims had covered hundreds, and even thousands of miles, they
wert' eagerly anticipating what they would encounter at their ,goal. Here,
m Santiago de Composteia, the target of numerous pilgrimage routes
throughout Europe, is where work was started on a cathedral in I077f78.
The work of the stone masons, and this includes sculptur:al work, was
directed by the "admirable master~ Bernard, who in more recent literature
has been called ~the eider~ in order to differentiale him from a later
Bernard. His workshop employed fifty stone masons, and one of his
assistants was a certain "conscientious Robert. ~
Besides the capitals in the III lerior which 3re an adaptation of ancient
Corinthian foliage, it is the Jarge portals thai contain the important works
of the Spanish early Romanesque period. II was lIot possible to complete
the west portal that was originally planned, though, and its present
appearance is a work of the Spanish late Romanesque. The northern
portal of the transept, the l'uerta Francigena, was destroyed in the
eighteenth century. The side portal in front of the north transept, the
Puena de]a A~bacheria, was destroyed by a fire started durin~, a revolt as
long ago as 1117. All that remains of it is a very artistic S<!Ction of a
column. The only portal stil! in existence is the Puerta de las ]>Iaterias - the
portal of the sih'ersmiths - in the south transept (photo. opposite. rightl.
which was completed using some fragments from the other portals. Put
together from quite varying slabs, Ihe two tympanums of the double portal
completed in 1103 have quite disparate appe3Tances. In the rigbt portal, in
the center of the lower register, is the Flagellation of Chrisl, and next to ii,
on the left, the Crown of Thorns and the healing of the blind, and in the
upper register, badly damaged, is Ihe Adoration of the Magi. DepICted U"I
the left tympanum, thatlVas pUltogether from even more disparate pieces. is
the Temptation of ChriSt in the desert. Most of the reliefs are, at leasl in
French research, wnsidered to be stylistically dependent upon Conques,
wh ile the healing of the blind displays references to the sculpture in LeOn.
Those reliefs set into the jambs of the Puerta de las Platerias widened as
far as the pier buttresses, which date from ,he last decade of the eleventh
century (photo, opposite, left), were probably originally part of the
deSlroyed I'uerta Francigena. The depictions of King David playing a
musical instrument, and the Creation of Adam, are of particularly high
sculptural quality, and the latter scene, in which the Creator has laid his
right hand on Adam's heart in order to bring him to life in God's image,
radiates a simple and sublime dignity.
Two portals were built on the south side of the Colegiata del San
!sidoro in Leon around 1100; they are the Puerta de! Perd,on (photo.
bottom) - the portal of forgiven.-ss - in the soulh transept and the POrlal
de! Cordero, which grants access TO the building from ,he southern side
aIsle. The Tympanum of the latter (photo, tOp) shows the sacrifice of Isaac
by Abraham together with details, some of which are not mentioned in the
Bible, such as Isaac getting onto his mounl or tak ing off his shoes and
clothes once they have reached their deslination. This extension of the
story emphasizes that Abraham's son had surrendered himself to divine
providence and accepted his fate willingl)"

289

From"'~ (Pr{.,.;"",. of Pale""".~. Solo

1>bn'o. Capn.ts on Iho hal/~:olurnns
between lhe nave and ~;do aisl .

1066-108511()90

Frorn;sta (P...,.,.IIICO of p.l.neia), S.o

,\hrl'n. Capn.1: The Fall of Man.
1066-108SIIO?O

290

hOmI\!a IProv""", of PalencIa). Sa"

\bnin. Interior. 1066-108511090

291

Jaca (Arllg6nJ.carhtdral. 5<,.."h pona1

Cl>p,ul; S,loam and h" ass.~. 1100

JaCl> (Arag6n ),ulhiral. South ponal

cop"al: The sa..iflCe"f Isaac. c. 1100

BOTTOM

lac. (Arag6nJ. San Salvador y San Cink.

Sarcophagu,of th.lnfanl. Dona Sancha:
d"play .. <k.c.IIOO

One particula r detail refers to the contemporary history of the Christ

ian Reconquest. The two figures on the left edge are Hngar, the Egyptian
maid of Abraham's wife Sarah, and her illegitimate son by Abraham,
Ishmael. who is described in Genesis (16.12 ) as "a wild-ass of a man.~
Both of Ih<."m were sent away into the desert, and that is the origin of the
Christian term for the descendants of Mohammed as MlshmaeliTes," or
outcasts. The figure of Ishmael riding OUT of the scene, his turban being a
refe rence to Arabic culture, is pointing his arrow to the Lamb of God
above the sacrifice. Th is expresses a deep condemnation of all things
Arabian, not surprising gi,-en that Spain was engaged in the Reconquista,
fighting the Moors during the period this tympanum was created.
Other pieces created around the tum of the century are tWO arch ivolt
capilals (photo, top) opposite each OTher on the porrnl on the southern side

aisles of the cathedral in Jaca. The one on the left shows Rilenm and his
ass, and on the right, again, is the sacrifice of Isaac by Abraham. This is
one of the most popular themes of the Romanesque period, because it
symbolized a humble submissiveness to one's personal faTe as determined
by God. This capiTal is exceptional in twO respects. First of all, it shows the
sacrifice at its most d ramatic moment; Isaac is standing there fearfully, but
obedient and ready to make the sacrifice, his hands tied behind his back,
and Abraham about to carry out the worst deed of his life as a man and
father. In Ihis instant, God"s angel seizes his sword and releases him from
his pious deed.
Secondly, the sculptor is making a direct reference to Classical nude
figures. Isaac is srnnding naked on the capirnl's torus, and Abraham is also
naked, through draped in a large doth. Ancielll corporeality dearly
continues 10 have an effect here, Though the style is Romaf1esque. Here,
too, Fromista serves as a model, because the sculptor there designed a
paradise scene as a direct copy of an ancielll Orestes sarcophngus in the
abbey of Sallla Maria in Huzillos, now in the Prado in Mndrid, in which
the classical figure of Orestes became the Romanesque figure of Adam.
One of the most important work s of the Spanish Romanesque period
not connected to an architectural Structure is the sarcophagus of Dona
Sancha, daughter of King Rami ro I and the widow of the Count of Toulouse
(photo, bottom); it used (0 be kept in the convent of Santa Cruz de 13 Scr6s
not far from lata. On the frOllt, underneath arcades, are two scenes in
memory of the countess who died in 1097, on the right Dona Sancha herself
is depicted between two nuns or maids, and on the left is her burial. In Ihe
center, the soul of the dead is shown by IWO angels within a mandorla. an
image of salvation. On account of his sympathetic, naive simplicity.
Durliat calls the sculptor the MMasler of Donn Sancha. ~ The reverse of the
sarcophagus shows a tournament divided into three arcades; it tOO is
simply and powerfully vivid, but is clearly the work of a diffcrelll sculptor.

P~mplona (f'roy ...'e of Navaru).

""Iwd",1. Fou.$Oda; of a C<lplul '" lhe

dOtsln, the Paullin of Job. c. ] ]-45.

Pamplona. Mu ..... &. Nay",u

The middle of the century

Around the middle of the twelfth century. 5Culpture conntttl to pl~
of archltccture was established throughout Europe. and in Spam it had
become oot: of the favorite types of artistic depIction. This can lit g;Juged
nOf lcast III the high quality of sculptures produced during that period. In
twO genuinely Spanish sculptures dating from the middle of the twelfth
century, the sufferings of Job {photos, top) arc compared to the Passion of
Christ. T,,'o coupled capitals in the former cloister m the cathedral of
Pamplona employ a method of narral1"e that mcludes all fou r sides of the
capnal and relates the episode chronologJcall)" :l.nd III seq~ncc. E"en :I.
modern comIC could scarcely lit more vi'-Id and direct. The first narrow
Side of the Job capnal shows. on IWO levels. the confhct between God and
Satin. which led to their ~wager~ rq;ardmg Job's fear of God, and his
sons' banquet. The following double SIde shows orn: message after the
other re:achmg Job: at the bottom LS the thcft of his herds, and on the
se<:ond narrow Side Ihe collapse of his house and death of thosc: inside. The
se<:ond double Side is divided vertically and shows the discussion between
Job. who has been affl icted with leprosy, find his wife and friends. none of
whom can understand that he continues to profess faith in God, despite all
the eVLIs that ha"c befallen him. Job appe:I.Ts:I. se<:ond time, almost like a
copy, but thLs time in order to be finally redeemed by God's blessing. The
natur:l.lt511c wealth of dct:lil and powerful and dramatic upression of the

mdmdual scenes make rh~ reliefs one of the greatest achievements of

European sculpture III any penod.
Another sculptor, callllhe -second Master of Uncastillo- by Marcel
Dur!Lat, dLsplayed hIS skill on thc south portal of the church of Santa
Maria in Uncastillo, Zaragoza, which was slaned in 1 \J5. Instead of a
tympallum, this portal has all archivolt compriSing scveral archcs, and on
ir rhe master depicted numerous se<:ubr scenes with cxamples of cTllde
cxcesscs and acts of violence (photo p. 294). Its marked tendency to
burlesquc and droll uaggeration conrrasts rather sharply with the
rebglOus sccnes on the capitals rhat support the archivoll, and this makes it
diffKult to imcrpret Ihe scene iconographically.
Prob.ably the IllOSf comprebcll5l\'e Ch115t1;ln iconographical program of
thIS age, howe,er. is on the west fa~ade of thc abbey church of RlpoJl,"
Caralonia (photo, p. 295 ). The regrettable damage to the s<culprures was a
resull of a fire in rhe monastcry III 1835. The portal has no tympanum, and
is 5tepped wirh scvcn archivolls supported by pilastcrs and columns, some
dccor<llcd wLlh leaves, flowers and Romancsque depictions of animals.
The third archivolt is supported by thc column statues of the Apostles
Pefcr and Paul, and shows a number of scenes from the life and
martyrdom of Ihe two saints. It is followed by an arrangemenr of curved
sta,es. and then there is an archi"olt covcred with ornamentlrion. The
next archivoll wnh figures tells the stones of Jonah and David. The last

29'

Unc~s"llo ( P"'vm'~ 01 Za gou).

church oIS.n 1\I"i3. South ronal,
.rchi,olt byth.
ofUnc .,illo."

"M."

deta,1, M,d ''''elfth century

arcb, wbicb IS arcbita:turally an arcade, depicts the labours of Ihe months

in the jambs and, at the top, tbe figure of Christ in Majesty surrounde<! by
angels,
T be fa,ade wbich surrounds tbe portal is extTt'mely ricbly decorated
witb figures, and is subdivide<! into six registers, whicb are supported b)' a
!;Ocle featuring monsters and me<! allions show1I1g Ille cardinal sins. In Ille
center of tile register thai wnlinues across tile lOp of tile portal arcllivohs
is tbe la rgest figure on tile f3~3de, a ChriSI in ~hiesty surrounded by
angels and tbe Evangelists' symbols of Jolln and Manllew, and Ille Iwemyfour ciders of tbe Apocalypse on eitller side. In tbe arcbl\'olt spandrels of
tile .egister beneatll it are tbe symbols of tbe otber two Evangelists, Luke
and Mark, eacll followed by a row of saints.
I'edro de Palol interp.etS tllese two upper registers as tile symbolic
represemation of tile "Cil urcil triumpllant," wll ile below tbem is tbe
~quarreling Cburcll." Boill registcrs contain stories from tile Bible, and tbe
way in wbiclltllese scenes are depiete<! is strongly influenced by Camlan
e!c\'entll-century Bible illustrations. Tbe next register, second from tbe
oollom. is div.ded inlo five blind arcades on eitber side, On tbe left is King
David with his musici ans. and on tile right is Christ blessing people
tboughtto be Count Oliva Cabreta of Besalu and u,rdaiia, his !;On, Abbot
Oliva and a furtber person. [n Ibe bonom register, tile scenes are quite
demonic and awful. The entin' portal has a triumphal structure of a
type familiar from ancient triumpbal arches and possihly com'eyed by
Carolingian miniatures.

294

OPPOSIH.
R'pon (Pro ....". of Gtron.). abbtf
church 01 n" M (. \'('.., f....<It.nd
po'13l: <It ,\. SKond qu:tn., {)I,h.
.welfth ",nrurf

The end of th e centu ry

The capitals and rdlefs on tbe corner pillars of [he clOister of Santo
Domingo de Silos (p botos, pp. 296-97 and p. JJ8), to tbe soutb-east of
Burgos, are some of the most remarkable Romanesq ue sculptures in
existence. Started around the middle of the Century and spread our o,'er
two storeys, it took a quarter of a century until the lower gallery was
complelCly finished. lbe coupled capitals, wllich arc [he most imporrant
afltstically. are in the east and north wings.
Many of them arc covered with foliage and fruits. and exhibit a sort of
blocky completeness, though at the same time showing a tendency 10
break up similar to that in the other capitals, They depict constantly
changing collections of fantastic birds and Harpies, foul creatures from
Greek mythology with the heads of old women ,1I1d the bodies of birds. On
other capitals are the heads of animals, birds or deer- li ke crea tures,
entangled in foliage. While these works seem to have been create<! by one
particular master, some of Ihe capilals in Ihe !;Oulh wing arc quile di(ferem
and seem 10 be go\'erned by a wild. demonic means of depiction. The
annnals appear to be bound by tile foliage, an d Ibe women with tile bodies
of birds ha"e cbanged into devils' bra IS.
The reliefs are the most conspicuous and important works. from tbe
point of view of art history, in Ihis cloiSler. A feature [ha t had appeared for
tbe first time more than half a centUry before in MoisS3c, and thaT
subsequently spread throughout southern France, was tbe decoration of
the corner pillars with Biblical scenes. T h. cycle of the death and
resurrcction of Christ stans on the northern side of [he north-east pillar
with Ihe Descem from [he Cros.s (phOIO, p. 296. lOp left), a theme [hal was
frequently preferred to tbe Crucifixion in Romanesque art as it demonstrated tbe power of Christ and his surmounting of death. The beam of tbe
Cross is inserted between the capitals of [be flanking columns like a cross
Strut. It divides Ihe earthly scene of mourning, conne<:led with Ihe descem
of the dead Christ from the Cross, from the hcavcnly and cosmic area
in the tympanum.
Benealh tile feet of those in the scene is a stylized representation of
Calvary, the sile of Ihe Crucifixion, from the Lalin translation of Ihe
Hebrew Golgotha Mlhe place of skulls. ~ In the cemer, bencalll [he feet of
the Crucified Jesus. Adam. tbe progenitor of [he human race, is opening
tbe lid of his coffin for tbe Resurrection. And tbe tympanum, which
Christ's bead projects into, mirrors tbis process. Angds are holding
cense rs, wbile the anthropomorpbic faces of the sun and moon are boldi ng
out clotbs. Integrate<! into this generaliz.lIion of the Resurrection and
presencc of Heavcn, tbe depiction of the dead Cbrist appea rs at tbe same
time 10 be tbe iconographical transition from Christ triumphant to Cbrist
the Redeemer, from tbe Pantocntor 10 tbe Salvator.
T he relief on the eastern side of the same pilbr is even more complex;
it shows tbe Resurrection intcgrated WIth tbe burial (photo, p. 296, top
right). T his double scene starts in the centCr, where Christ is being placed
mto Ihe sarcophagus by Nicodemus and Joseph of I\rt m.thca, The open
lid of tile tomb bisects [he upper part of ,he relief diagonally, thereby no,
only creating a Iwo-dimensional division of [h~ areas, bUl also giving the

29'

OPPOSITE
S,J"" (l'r""'~ of 6urgos). monastrry of

unto J>Om'flgo. ClolStc~ rd,d. on t1><

cMn.. p,))."', top )dt: o.:sc.,m from tM
Cros., ght: flun.).nd R..,urrtttlun,
bonom kit: Christ a pilgrim to tilt
\hnncofSt,J'''''' In
nght:
Doo'bttng Thorn , M,d ,wtllth "ntury

Sil", (Pro~intt of Burgos), ",on.st.ry of

Santo Domingo, Two virw. oftM
cloister and twoc.p,t.I., Mid twelfth
Century

u11m.u.,

297

Compostel" lGahcla ), cathedral of

Santiago. Portlrodela Glo"". c"n",,1
portal and entrance to the nave. Work of
.\Ia~ter ~hteo. 1168-1188

scene a sensc of spatial depth. While th{'" corpse's left arm is lying on th{'"
floor of the 5arcophagus, the right arm is lying along its lid and points to
the top left. Up there is the angel of the Resurrection. And behind the
TOmbstone, to one side bur nonetheless very much present, the thr~ Marys
of the Resurrection appear. Below the sarcophagus, occupying precisely
one third of the height of the relief, are the sleeping gu ards at the tomb.
'Ille scene of the Rcsurro:o;:tion is followed on the western sid{'" of the northwest pillar by a depiCTion of doubting Thomas (photo, p. 296, bottom right).
In accordance with older Romanesque principles of design, the sculptor
arranged the Apostles in three horiwntal rows. The rows are stepped one
behind the other. There is a subtle rhythnt worked into the representation of
their heads, for they are focusing attention concentrically on the eventS in the
foreground to the left. The scene unfolding there is the famous one in which
Thomas was invited to place his fingers into the wound in Christ's side in
order to convince himself that Jesus had really risen from the dead. Thisscene
culminates with Christ sayillg: ~You believe because you call sec me. Happy
are those who have nOt secll alld yet believe~ Uohn 20, 29).
While as usual the figures in the back row are reduced to mere busts, it
is p...il.>l" 10 ",~ke oul the 1",:1' ~"d feet of >UI"'" uf th", ~posllcs ill th"

298

RIghI !amhofthc ""nl",1 portal with the

apostles I'.... (left), P~ul,James the
Creat (Sant Iago) and John (n8htJ

second row in the small g.... ps between the complete figures in the fronl
row. This naturalism, which is also expressed in the treatment of the legs
and standing positions of the figures in the front row, reappears in the
~"eryday topic of the area above the arcade arch. Behind a crenellated wall
and bord~red by towers arc the figures of four musicians, two men
blowing horns and twO women with lambourines. This secular framing of
one of th~ principal scenes of Ihe Christian failh appears ralher unusual. In
one of the most fascinating essays on Rornanesque an, Meyer Schapiro
points out that this represents the s<"Cular power of thc new urban
surroundings of the monastery, which confron ted the absolufeness of faith
with empirical knowledge, a new historical quality of knowledge, a factor
the Church had to reaCt to.
Wilhout necessarily appearing <IS its representalive, Thomas follows
Christ's instructions and touches the wound in his side with hIS index
finger, an evem Ihat is not actually directly described in St. John's Gospel.
He supports his faith through a sensory perception of the risen Chris!. The
sculptor has, however, placed his antithesis in the "ery center of this
pictur{'". Paul, who was not even presenf on this occasion and never knew
J~)US when he was alive, is st<lnding on the left next to the o,'er life-size

AvilA (Cn"k), B.uil"" do San Vinctnu.

Guvtof San Vi'IC~n't. Rdit~;:
bul ........ rs lUring lhe 1xxl'''O/,he

,hr"'l->lnIJ ap.o" (lOp). Whikangc)<

IM ...... L' of 'M ...1n1S UI' to

.... rry

Ilta.~n.

,lInr M~dl ~rt bc-tng ~ru~ hy

(boI'om). c. 1190

'''''"ClI"eatl ........

Christ, SO ,hat 1"115 h..ad IS occupying th .. c.. nler of th .. en,ir" scene. 1-1..
reprcsems exempbry (auh, and by being depIcted next ' 0 the Apostles ,s a
eoun terpoint to doubting Thomas. At the same IIIne, ,hi) figure repreSCIlIS
,he reaction of the Church to the new urbane ,;c;uch for knowledge. Th ..
thltt rem:,uning reli.-fs show Omst as a pilgnm to the shrme of St. Jaml'S
m Emmaus with the d'SClpks,.he AscensIon and the m'Dd .. at Pentecost.
At the end of the per,od of ROffi3ncsqu.. sculpture m Spain is ,h..
..",cepl1onal work of Master Mal<'"() m Sanuago de Compostda, til.- PonlCo
de b GlOria (phOIO, opposite, left). [ts construcllon. whICh rndu.ded architectu ral (asks, took nearly half a cenlury. From Fcbru,ny 22, 11 68 Ma'eo
wu m receipt of a hIgh life an nuiTy from Kmg Ferdinand 11; out: of th iS he
nOt only had to suppon hlmsclf bm also bear Ihe COStS of manufacture.
The wurk WJ.. finally completro m 12 11 , ,he )eat ,he chureh Itself WaS
<:onsccra,ed.
A substructure Similar 10 a crypt was bUill to SUII the terraIn, and over
11:1 monumenta l nanhex whIch surrounded the actual l'onico d .. la Glolla
and th .. thltt en"anc.- portals. Only Ih .. cemral portal is covered by a
tymp;lI\ull1 which IS supported by a compound column with rTOany pans.
In frotlt of the trumeau IS a further column whose shaft IS decorated with
[nc Tree of Jr.;se, and 11$ caplt:il depicts th.. sea.ed apostle Jamcs the Grul,
,ne ~tron samt of the church. A banderole m h, left hand says MmlS11 n~
donllnus, the Lord sent Il\(.
In the cent.. r of the tympanum the figure of an o'ersizt, Christ IS
enthronro. This figure is surroundro by the f:'anltclists and thei.r symbols;
h,s hands bearing the Stlgmam are ralscd, and hiS rube is open 10 re.ealthe
wound in hiS side. On cnher side angels dispby the "arma Chnstj" whICh
3re the symbols of his l'aulon. Abo"e an: the hea'enly hosls of .he
Rroeemecl. In Ihe arch,,oh framIng the scene the Iwen lyfour .. Iders of the
Ap<IC:r.lypsc: are arranged m a row. The)" are (acong each other in p.airs and
pl3)'1ng mUSICal onstruments.
The side portals do nOl ha"e tym~nums, ~nd de"elop thei r ",sual
programs III three arch,,olts each. Va rious mterprem[lons conSld.. r Chrls[
to be shown on Ihe lell amongst the Chosen or the Jews, and on the tight
amongst the Damned or the Gentiles. Th .. r1'3S011 for thiS difference of
opltllon IS thai the enllre program can be onterpreted ellher as ;l depiction
of Ihe L.ISI Judgement, or as the lTIumph of the Redeemer o.er duth and
son. How ......., if one considers lhat a large amount of space m the
Iym~num IS taken up by the 1Im111 dmst/, an mterpre.allon of Ihe scene
a5 a Judgement becomes Il'Ss tenable. It IS more hkcly that th,s IS a
fundJmental change m [he way [he Son of God ,s perce,,ed, from the
Jlldge to the Redeemer of mank md. The extent to whICh this portal
heralded the dawn of ;1 new era of forms III the Span ish Middle Ages IS
shown by Ihe sixleen s.awl'S takll1g Ihe pla'e of .he 'olumn shafls m the
lambs.
M

'"

Romanesq ue sculpture in hal y

Nort hern hal y
As elsewhere, the development of Romanesque sculpture in Iwly was conne<:ted TO the flowering of cOntemporary archite<:fUre. Nonetheless, sculp
tu re here was not dina ted TO by the structural requirements of architeCTure
TO the same eXTent as it was in France, a5 th e demands wen! more of 3
liturgical nature. Instead, early works display strong de<:orativ.: intentions,
with the lise of an imal ornaments and abstract interlaced pan.:rns derived
frOIll LOlllbard an.
The church of Santa Maria in Pomposa was built in the se<:ond quarter
of the eleventh cenwry; its fa1;ade, placed in front of an atrium, has
retained its original form to the present day. It is rather low and wide, and
constructed of many different colors of brick; the end result is highly
de<:orated. and in the celller the wall is broken lip by thru entrance
arcades (photo, above). Their inner archivolts are de<:orated wi.th friezes of
vine foliage, and on the front side these are framoo by archivolts made of
radially and tangentially arrangoo bricks. The three horizontal areas of the
fa1;ade arc produced by two long bands of terracona; the I,)wer one is
interrupted by the arcades, and the upper one stretches along th e entire
length of the wall, abo"e the highest point~ of the arches. The u.niform vine
foliage, larger than in the archivohs, twines around numerous figures, and
is also used TO form two crosses which penetrate the upper ban.d above the
spandrels. The two arcade arches at the sides are crowned by two fabulous
creatures, and over the central one is a small marble cross. The side walls
are broken up by oculi, and next to them inscribed stone tablet; 3re let into
the wall. The tablet on the right is signed by The artist, Master Muulo,
though he unfortunately did not date his work. It is thought that th e

300

master and his craftsmen came from Ravenna, as the structure of th e

fa~adc is so Oriental, even Bytallline, in style.
Around 1100, the influence of the languedoc regIon staned to make
itself felt, particularly in the person of Master Wiligelmus, who worked
from 1099 for the cathedral archi tcct Lanfranw in Modena. We knuw his
n3nle due to the inscription which he lef, oyer one of the four fa~ade reliefs
whose theme is essentially the Book of Genesis (photo, opposite, TOp
right). If consideroo in its original order as a continuous frieze , it started
with the depiction of God, in a mandorla held by two angels, holding an
open book. Next was the Crea tion of Adam by God touching his head, the
Creation of Eve by means of Adam's rib, and finally the Fall of Man. The
se<:ond se<:tion shows God's judgement of Ihe sinners, their expulsion and
fate tilling the soil. In the third relief is the story of Cain and Abel, their
offering, the fratricide and Cain being cal100 to account in front of the
Lord for his brother's whereabouts; the fourth section continues with his
death, which is only described in the Apocrypha. The last two of the
tweh'e scenes are of Noah's Ark. These four reliefs and their powerful
expressiveness are, as it were, the starting point of Romanesque sculpture
in Italy, and the return to the Classical style is eharacteristic of Wiligelmus's
figures.
T he design of the two--storey portal. whose columns rest on ancient
lions (photo, opposite, bottom left}, has led the American Ht historian
Arthur Kingsley Porter to make a fascinating 3Ssumption. He thinks that
the two lions were found in Roman ruins, and were spoils usoo by
La nfranco and Wiligelmus to support the columns, and this in turn, quite
by chance, led 10 the construction of a wider portal of the type wh ich one
finds frequently both in the plains of the Rh'er Po and also in Saint-Gillesdu-G~rd in Provence and Konigsluuer in Germany.

OPP051H

BOTTOM

Pomp<><a ( I:mlh~-komagna), Sama

Maria, [)etail ...f,he f:>~ade. Bri<;k,
marbk, lerram"". Sttond quaner
oi,h, eleoc",h mul)"

Modena (I:nuliaRolII'Bna),,:a,hedrol of
San (;.,lIIlnl.llO. lion porlal un ,he we ..
fa~a<k. Beginning of the I,,"ell~h <emul)"

~Iod.na (Entili.1Romoglla), calhrdul of

San Gemini.no. Rolid on 'he we"
f.~ade: Crealion 01 Adam and lOve, Fall
of Man, Work by Wiligclmus. Beginning
01 ,he twelfth .enlury

A, the end of the nave, bordering thl." choir, is the choir screen whose
present position is a fairly precise reconSlrunion dating from 1920. The
barrier-like wall is formed of five variously sized and painted marble
reliefs, supported by six columns, mOSI of which have figured capitals, and
four of which are supposed by lions. The reliefs depict scenes frCom Christ's
Passion, slarting on the left wilh Ihe Washing of Ihe I'eel. NeXI to it,
occupying a wide area, is the Last Supper, and Judas's kiss. TI,l." last two
slabs show Christ before Pilale and Ihe flogging, followed by the carrying
of the Cross,
Art historians have identified at least four d,fferl."nl masters at work on
Ihis important halian Romanesque work, which has been dated between
1160 and 1180; Anselmo da Campione IS considered to havl~ been the
main maSler al work on the reliefs. He is ,he first of the few Romanesquc
sculptors belonging to the famous Campionese group, from Campione on
Lake Lugano, who we actually know by name. These archite<:ts, sculptors
and stone masons are credited with preserving and developil~g ancient
methods of construction, and wilh being responsible for a large
proportion of the development of Romanesquc architecture that took
pl3ce in northem Italy, France and even Germany. Campionese sculpture is

distincdy reminiscent of Pro"cn~al sculpture, and was probably modeled

on works in Saint-Gilles and Aries. The round ambo, buill later belwcen
about 1208 and 1225 on the left in froni of Ihe Pontile, is also thoughllO
be a Camplonese work, and according [0 an inscription in Ihe lapidarium
Ihe work is by a Master Bozarinus. The rcliefs show ChriSI surrounded by
the symbols of the four Evangelists', the Falhers of the Church and the
Calling of St. Peter.
I[ is noneth eless worth casting an eye over Ihc epigraph which sings the
praiscs of the sculptor which was carved as a postscript 10 the inscriplion
over the foundation date on the cathedral's fa(j"ade: 1~'l"E1I SCUt TORI;S
QUA"'TO SIS OIGNUS Ol-lORE, CLARlT SCULTURA r-,U[N]C WlLlGEL\IE TIM ~ H ow gready you are resp,ed amongsl sculptors, Wiligelmo, is now
shown by )'our work. ~ This is an example of ~scu1plural outdoing, ~ as
Alben Died puts it, making the person being praised stand OUI amongst
~all his compe'ing professional colleagues.~ This docs, however,
prcsuppose that sculptors had, due 10 the growing prestige of their work
and produclS, already managed 10 distance Ihcmseh-es from the
tradi,ionally undervalued crafts such as those of the SlOne masons, 3 group
in which sculplors tended 10 be included,
A ponrait of a sculplOr on the Porta dei Principi in Modena Cathedral,
described by Died as ~a self-portrail of an anonymous sculplOr from
Wiligelmo's own drcle,~ testifies to the way in which artistic selfawareness was able to express itself around 1100. The creation of a selfportrait, insofar as one can spea k of such a thing, was subordina te to the
Ihro1ogy of the universal act of crealion as carried out by God with regard
10 Adam; like a sculptor, he formed him from clay according 10 his own
image. Because the tablet bearing thc praise of Wiligelmus is held by the
prophels Enoch and Eliiah, who never dicd but were translated into

301

F~.u.a (Em,l,a-Roougnal. ca,htd I.

IN,ail o'the b.ldachln ,n f.ont of the
""',,' porr.l: T<iamo,," on a lion. Work
of Niceolo. End of th~ twrlhh ,,,"tury

TOP OPPOSITE

BOTTOM OPPOSITE

F,denUi IEm,haRomagnal, ,.,hed .. 1.

Niche fil\u,ts. D...,d ((dt I. E..,ki~1
(Tlghtl. Ase.ihtd to 1I<1Iedeno Ant.lam,.
E"J "i,1", ,,,dl,l, '~"'''''t

Fideru..o (Enuli . Romagn.I, ca,he<t 1.

h",de. ponala,ea: baldachin 'UPP')ffN
hy "'00 lion n",he fig" ... and ,ide
I",,,~I>.

EnJ..,i tf,~ , .. <1I,Io",u,t

Hea"en, [he sculp[or is also, as il were. being translated into an clernal

sphere and can expect a special life in the next world. h is a special
phenomenon thai mOSI Romanesque aniSIS' names ha"e been found in
haly, though research imo Ihis field is slill in ils infancy. Peter Cornelius
Claussen considers Ihe reason for this to be that ~Ihe [hirst for glory and
ohsession wi th prestige of the Upper llalian cilies ... lurned individual
artiSIS into her~s, even in Ihe Middle Ages. ~
In Ferrara in Ihe north east of Emilia-Romagna, towards the end of the
1130s, Master Niccolo stgned the cathedral fa~ade, dated 1137; it is
assumed Iha l he had been a pupil of Wiligelmus' in Modena previously.
Niccolo's works ~m to be inspired less by Ihe Classical period than by his
predecessor, though they scarcely march his power of expression.
Nonetheless, his figures have a spectal vivtdness which also comes through
in the g.l rments they wear. Niccolo also worked in Verona; pieces in the
church of San Zeno, and in panicular the jamb figures on the cathedral's
ponal (photo, p. 304, bonom) are ascribed to him and his workshop. The
latter figures, like those in Ferrara, have a strange, largely unexplained
affinity with the Early Gothic jamb figures in I:rance.
On the portal of the church in Fidenza are a group of sculptures and
reliefs (photos, p. 3031 whose slylislic similarities 10 those on the R.lptistery
of Parma have suggesled links with Bettedeno Antelami and his workshop.
The Structure of the portal area, in a clcver systcm of horizontal and
vertical lines, together wi lh the three projecting ponals, gives the fa~ade a
complex threedimensional quality. The side portals are separated from
the main ponal by two sturdy half-columns placed in front of the wall.
The mal1l element in the horizontal structure is the relief frieze, which runs
from the capitals oVer the northern half-column 10 its counterpan 10 the
south, and narrates the Story of the life, ma.t)'rdom and miracles of St.
Donninus.
The figures and scenes arc extremely vivid and full of life and display a
considerable closeness to the style of Benedello Antelami, so thaI the
~ M aster of St. Donninus~ should be viewed as an exceptional pupil of his,
apart from the possihilit)' that Antc!ami himself worked on the proja:t.
The two prophets' statues flanking the central ponal, David on the left
and Ezekiel on the right, are ascribed to him wilh a considerable degree of
confidence. They are standing in niches and are very rare examples of
three-dimensional Romanesque sculpture.
T he name of the most tmportant High Romanesque Italian sculptor is
known to us only from his two signatures; the more detailed of the two is
on the relief of the Descent from the Cross (photo, p. 3051 in Parma
Cathedral and it is dated: ANNO .\!lLLEJ-:O CEI'-'TEJ-:O SEmJAGENO OCTAVO
SCULT01l. PA1li1T .\IE."ISE S[CU:-iOO ANTEL>.MI DICTUS SCULPTOR fun- HlC
SE.'lCDrCTUS - MA sculptor appeared in February] ]78; this sculptor was
Benedetto, also known 3S Antclami." It is not certain whelher the addition al name Antclami is actually a famIly name, bur al any rate it is a name
rich in tradition referring 10 a group of archite.::tural experts from Ihe Valle
d'ln,e]vi be,,,,n Como and Lt.kc Lugano. called the Minte]",no", the
extended term, "Magistri Antelami," dates back to Roman times and was
used to mean architect.

302

TOP LEH

LOO, ( lomb~rdy) . ca,heJral. Po".l

flgur,,: Eve. <ku,l. L:m quarter of ,he
,welf,h mury
TOP KIGHT

Floren (Tuscany), San Mm;a,o.1

Mon' . Pulpit wi,h. support ma<k up of
a lion. m.n ~nd .agle. Second half of ,h.
, ....dfth n,ury
RIGfiT

Veron. (Vene'o). ca,heJ",,1 of San uno.

De,.;1 of,he left poml jamh: figu res of
prophe .... c. 11J5

304

Panna (EnuI".R~ .... al,"llkdr,1.

lItnt<kno An,d,m" Dncm. from ...,

c:ro...1 list> ...lId. M"blt. H...st>,
40 ,,,,bts, wtd,h 8~
1118

,,,,hes.

This IS th~ npaclty In wh.ch w~ ITlC't'I. hun In Parma, whcre h~ .s

thought 10 have designed the Bapllstery. TlK- !!Culptural decorations, whosc
program depicts th~ IIllporlJneC of the Birth of Christ for humankind's
sah'allon, arc also by hllll and hIs workshop. The relief of the Descent
from the Cross, origlllally part of th~ ealh~dr.lls chOIr 5CTttn or pulpu, is
the earliest work of h,s that w~ know of. Th~ K~n~ is framed by a broad,
damask-like vine scroll band III lhe nlcllo techlllqu~. The picture di vides
'1110 three groups. the centml one hems the recovery of the body. On the
left, lined lip 1Il1hc m;lIln~r of a proc~ssion. are lhe mourners together with
the personific:llion of FA:d~SI3, and on the Tight. stepped III two (evels, is a
procession of male Jews. and m front of them soldiers With Synagoga.
throwing dice for Christ's robes.
The stric! arrangement III ~ row is. in particular. what reminds one of
the portal frleu In Aries, ~nd th,s is generally where Antelami's stylisric
sources all: to bc found. Antebml's work conStifUtes an ,mportant body of
Romancsque sculptur~ In Italy. Aspecu of hIs stylistIC Innovation hale
bttn IIllItatW on se\'~ral occas.ons and whosc Itgacy can be found III th~
work of NICola PIsano and h.s puPil Arnolfod. CamblO.
Th~ cathedral fa~alk m Lucca (photo. p. 306. Tlghtl was Sirongly
mfllK'nced by the archllrctllral school of P.sa; accordms 10 an inscnpl10n
" was compl~lcd b)' Giudello da Como m 1204 and is Ihe oldesl
r~mallllllg lIon. In the grOllnd floor. three I;Hg~ uches open 111[0 a
narlhex cont:llnlllg the aClllal portals. Abol"r II all: Ihrtt galleTl("5. whose
001llmn5 and arcadts. III contrast 10 P'sa. ar~ richly decoraled with

sculpfllTC$ and SlOne ,nlay. Ollkr p'ellires sho'" Ihe equestrian statues of
the patron salll!, St. Marlin, III the TIght arch spandrel of the narthex, .n
the:1e1 of cUlling hIS robe In order to gil'e half 10 ~ beggar. For a long IInlC
th.s legend was felt to be so movlIlg that the statue was dothed with a cape
and ha. mad~ of valuable materials on feast days. Today it has been
replaced wllh a (ement cast danng from 1950. and the Romanesque
origlllal has been moved lIls.de. Its main nnportan'e in sculptural history
is thai it belongs 10 a scfles of famous Imlian equestrian smtues.
One of Lucca's mos! exceptional Romane5que sculptures is Ihe fonl
in San Frediano, produced around 1150 (photo, p. 306, left). The richly
5Culprured basm resls on a shaped round base, and in its ccnter is a column
in the form of a flame w.th lillie devils. It suplX'rl$ a round vasc with a
tcmp,eno. St"eral sculptors worked on this piece, including one Master
Roberto, who left hiS Signailire on Ih~ edge of the basin. He produced Ihe
figures of the Good Sh~ph~rd and the six proph~ls influenc~d by the
Byzantine sl)le. AnOlher SClilptor. probably taught III Lombard)', pmdlll:ed
Ihe series of Moses epIsodes., whIch narral~ stOTl" from th~ Penlateuch
IIsmg Simple bllt VIVid figures without an archlteclural framtwork,
Th~ rcltcn on Ihe fa~ade (photos, p. 307, top and bonom left) of th~
church of San PIetro fuoTl Ie mura III Spoleto, Umbria, w~rc probably
prodoced arollnd 1200. Ther~ are SIXIt'CTl recrangular reli~k sprcad 0111
across the entire fa~ad~, and th~ antral 5tlon aTQllnd tbc main ponal is
one of the oldest rcmamlllg parts. Above th~ porlalls a horst:Shoe-shaped
and flankmg eagles above decoratlY~ stnps.
lunetle wllh Cosmall

mou."

]OS

Lucca (Tuscany~, Son F",d,ano. Font.

xuJpwrsworking ",,,h
c. ILSO

M3~'er

Robtrto.

The entrance is framed by vine scroll decorations, and is surrounded by

arcades several storeys high, decorated with flower panerns and stylized
animals. On each side are fil'e reliefs depicting stones from the Bible and
animal fables. On the slab at the top right is the death of the penitent
sinner who freed Sf. ('Ner from his bonds. Above him a demon is angry,
the reason for which is explained on a sign: M[ am angry because he was
mine before this.
The parallel folds of the angel's robes show the influence of lombard
sculpture, in particular of Benedetto Antelami. The second tablet shows
the death of the sinner who did not repent, being tortured by demons. He
is head over heels in boiling water, and to one side the Archangel ""[ichael
is leaving with the scales. T he three reliefs U11derneath show 'I'ents with
lions, The first one shows a woodcutter who has trapped the paws of a lion
in a tree trunk, and this is meant to show man's superiority O\'er animals.
Further down in the second relief, a man is kneelmg in front of a lion, and
in the last relief a soldier is being attacked by a lion. According 10 a Tuscan
bestiary, in which the lion is compared 10 God, this depicts the theme of
repentance. The lion spares the humble, bUI not those who continue to
M

306

I."",, ITuscany ), cathedral of So"

Martmo. F.~a&., detail. Completed by

G'Ude"O J. Como. 1204

hold fast onto worldl)' things. On the right at the top are the Washing of
the Feet and the Calling of SI. ['eler and S,. Andrew, and underneath it two
wolf fables. At the I'cry bonom is another lion, [l1e symbol of Cl1rist
fighting a dragon.
The greal colu mned portal of tl1e collegiate church of San Quirico
in Orcia (phOIO, p. 307. top right) is father oversize in its proporw,ns
compared with the fa~ade. It was created during the late twelfth century,
and is a well -preserved example of Lombard portals in the province of
Siena. Its characteristic features are a projecting structure supported by
two columns knotted together, which in turn sland on lions positioned
parallclto thc fa~ade. On either side of thc entrance the jambs are formed
out of groups of columns. Above the columns arc the archivol[s. While
most of the capitals are decorated wilh foliage, IWO of [l1cm depiC! animal
heads. In Ihe tympanum is a B)'lamine staluClle wl1icl1 is thollgl1 l ro
representl'ope Damasus II (1048). [T is abo,'c alltl1e battle between TWO
demons in the architra,e which enablcs rl1is Tuscan portal 10 convey that
terrifying dimension wl1icl1 is so fami liar from the great portal of the
French Romanesque period.

Hl' "'].0 IOTTOM LEFT

"ICIIT

\pokto (Umbr .. l, s..1I 1'1rf.o fuoo Ie

Ott",

mura_ r.>{~dt ",I,"", dtt~,Il. (. IlOO

Qu"ICO. Po.ul wppontd by kOlOON

~otumol. U,t ,...dflh <mrury

rr_~nyl, roiltgJJ..t ~hurch <Ji San

307

Ro me. cc nlra l and soulhern haly

In Rome and Latium, II was, above all others, the Cosmati wh'J wok care
of Ihe artistic deeorauon of churches from Ihe beginning of Ihl: twelfth 10
the start of the fourteenth cenluries. Aparl from archileelUre, the fields
they preferred working In ..... ere $Culpture and mosaics. The term Cosmat;
is a colle-cllve n31ne for a senes of Roman famlhes of KutPIOrs who
frtqllenrly bore the name Cosmas. We know ~bout them because they
occasionally left Iheir signature and date on works. In addition to the
Cosmas. other wellknown aMiSIiC families Included the Mellinis and the
Vassalel1os.
Some of Ihe most remarkable producu of these: workshops are the
monumental Easter candle stands, dating from aboul 11 90. which can slill
be secn In Gaeta Cathedral or Ihe Romanesque church of San Paolo fuon
Ie mura (photo, opposite. ct'nler). The latter stands on a base: dC'Corated
with sphinxes and pwple. and ;1$ column is di"ided into snc1"'3l r~lsul$

308

in a manncr reminiscent of ancicnt triumphal columns. Created by I'iclro

Vassalel10 and Niccol" di Angelo, its visual program, comprising the
I'usion, ResurrC'Clion and AscenSion, IS ccntred on Easter. The similar
EaSier candle stand in Gaeta also depicts scenes from the Passion, though
il includes OIher scenes from the childhood of Ch risl and Ihe life of
ErasmllS, the patron $:JlIlt of Gaeta.
Roman .....orkshops did nOI IUSI ..... ork for the churches and monaSlerles
of Rome. They also prefabricated SC'Clions that could be: exponed 10 Olher
places In order to be: assembled there. The first section of Ihe cloister of
Santa ScolutiCOl III Subiaco, between Tivoh and Anagni in Lanum, for
example, "',15 Signed by Jacobus Romanus. and hiS !iOns confirnlCd its
complcllon: MCosmas and his sons Lucas and Jacobus, three Roman
C"llens and maSler aTliSU III marblt', created thiS work during Ihe rult of
Abbot landi. ~ The bo;t prt<jCT\'cd and most Important Roman cIOISltrs,
those' of San GiO\'annl In Laltrano and San Paolo fuori Ie mura (photos,

onoSITJ:
1l<>IM.I"I~ .. n

B(lOW

rala. Clom... ",Ik.,.

","h 100fl. ,ul'pon"lf: I.... columnl nnl

1D1.... (1Ilra~.IIdow; o...all of a
"".......t column ""..,~ ..lIh mOI-.II"I.
"'"Ofk (If Vawlcllo and h'J ......

no.

Romt.San

r~oIo

flMlf"i k mllra.

Eal.~r

eandk .und. dnail. Work ofl'l<1ro

Va...,letto and NiolO d, Angelo.

Romt. San Paolofuon k mura. Entra"""

arudf 10 OM of ..... <101SI ... pllcrlel..

Worir. of MOS:;II,

a"isrs on ltot Vawlctro

famIly. 1205-1241

(.1190

1215-1232

lOp and opposue. right). were bUlh m the first half of the thirteenth
cenrury by the Vau,11ello fam,ly. There is evidence that the father and son
were the maSlers who produced the cloister of the lateran Palace, which
was constructed 1xlween 12 1Sand 1232 and some of whose arcades are
supported by uflously tWisted coupled columns. They are frequently
cm'cred wjth ddicalC mosatq, and at thl': entranS [Q Ihe mner courtyard
are supported by ammals. There arc numcrous sculptural figures decoratmg lhe gUller cornrce. the arch spandrels and thc capuals. Abo,'c thc
arcades facmg the mner counyard IS a dorat"c mOSJ.1C fricze, characteristic of the Roman Romancsquc stylc. Thc clOIster of 53n Paolo fuon Ie
mura. bUlh belwcc:n 1205 and 1141. may be smaller, bUi IS cycn more
lal'ishly decorated.
Situated on the threshold Nlwcc:n thc Oncnt and the Occrdcnr, Apulia
produced a wealth of art from thc e""enth century onward!>, and apan
from architecture, thc mam oblects "'fCc sacred pieces of equipment. The

309

Buoluo (Apulial. cothedral 0/ San

Val.mlno. Pulpit e~gl . Induding
...,main.of" pulpit by Maste, Nichol,s.
c. 1220. Eigln.. mh ""muey

Bari (A pulia ), San Nicola. ThroM of Eli .

Marble. End of the el""enth or beginning

throne of Bishop Elia in San Nicola In Bari (photo. p. 310, right) is of

exceptionally high quality, and its seat IS supponed by three entirely thr~
dimensional atlantes. The main weIght is carried by the two figures on
either side, the central figure playing a minor role. The stave he is carrying
proves him to be a pilgrim. and this is thought to be a reference to the
pilgrim route to San Nicola, which was a significant ~suppon~ f,)r the new
importance of Bari and Bishop Elia. [t has recently been suggem:d that the
wurk could date from the third quarter of the twelfth century, though
traditionally it was assumed to ha\'e beeu produced immediately before
1105.
Other limrgical church furn ishiugs of the Italian R01llau CS(lue period
include the magnificent ambos, predecessors of the pulpits. III BitoJlto,
Apulia, the remains of the Romanesque pulpit by Master Nicholas have
been preserved (photo. left), and in the eighteenth century they were
combined with fragments of the ciborium dat ing from 1122, giving them

their present form.

In the church of Santa Maria del ugo in Muscufo is au imponant ....
example of Italian Romanesque ambos (photo, opP'-'sile). It was produced
in II S9 in the workshop of the sculptors Roberms and Nicodemus. and is
the only complete Abru7.zi pulpit remaining in its original location. On
thr~ sides of the square pulpit box are lecterns, :Iud underneath them
convex surfaces bearing the EV:lngclist$' symbols, which also lake on a
liturgical function: this is where the New Testament stands in the light of
Ihe church service. Next to the Evangelists are figures from the Old
Testament. ~ Bill the greatest narrative pace is developed in the depICtion of
the story of Jonah on the sides of the staircase," Roger WillemS<'n writes.
Truly surprising, however, is Ihe depiction of the Boy Extracting J Thorn.
This is 10 be found on oue of the corner pilla .. , an unusually early and
direct adoptiou of Classical sculptures, as this was not 3 general fe.1ture
until the Renaiss..1nce.

310

uf , .... twelfth ,.n,"ry

OPPOstTE

"'"",ufo (AbrUlZlj, S.nta Marl" drJ

L.go. Pulpll from , .... workshop of
$<Oull'lOr' Robenusand N,>demus.

1159

Gtrnrodt (Sa"on~-Anhall). form ..

con'".nlchurchQfSI. Cyri.kus. Holy
Scpukhrc. Wes,cm Qu'er wall of,he
bu"al chamber (lOp). Intrriorof Iht
bu,,~1 chambc-~ m.rryr and b"hop
M.tronus In Ih. n",h. of ,ht w.s, wall
(bonom). 1\0011130. H.ad ...f M."'mus
from ,h. end of ,h. d .....",h crnlUry

Romanesque sculpture in Germa ny

In contraSt to th ... Medilerranean countries, Germany did nOI enjoy a
continuous developmental history of Romanesqu ... scu)prure. II start ... d
with mainly sacred ples of equipment in churches, such as the Ouonian
bronze works of the Hildesheim workshop under Bishop Ikrnward at
the beginning of the eleventh Century, or Ihe metalwork pies of OIher
Ouonian centres. h en where SlOne sculprure did appear in the twelfth
century. it mainly provided obits for the interior. Plants, animals and
other figural dorative forms gradually appeared on the originally
undorated cushion capitals. AI Ihe same time a dear Italian influence is
noticeable in Ihis, which is a result of many Upper Italian sculplors being
called to Germany. ~In around 1\00 almost the enlire range of architcctural ornamentation in the German-speaking region was dependent upon
Upper Italian forms, ~ is how Rainer Budde summariz... s Ihe Situation.
There was probably a quite different situation in the Rhin eland with
Cologne as its center. becaU5C there was still a dirKt confrontation with
the remains of Classical sculptures there, and this also explains the actual
availability of tried and tested techniques. such as those for working SlOne,
in the dCl"enth century. An independent sculpture high in quality
de"doped here relatively early.
The once rich SCulplural works on the Holy Sepulchre in Ihe former
cOIll'ent church of St. Cyriakus in Gernrooe were also of high quality, as is
shown b)' those relllnanl5 thai have been preserved (photos. left). The west
wall, in particular, of the chambers built III between the two east ... rn bays
of the southern lTansept IS decorated 50 extensively Ihat il is frequemly
called a pra) ... r in stone. A central arca with three niches is framed by a
double frieze. In Ihe central niche a plaster tablet with the figure of Mary
Magdalene is set in. flanked by two columns standing in semi-circular
niches. The Outer narrow frieze consists of a band of vi ne foliag... that is
being disgorged by masks and anllnal mouths, while th e inner and wider
on ... contains actual scenes which are also framed by vine foliage. In the top
left corner ,s John the Baptist, and 0PIX'S;t ... him on Ih ... right is Moses;
bOlh of them, as Christ's predecessors. are pointing to the lamb of God,
which is in {he center of the upper parr of the frieze. Both figures are
aecOinpanied by lions, and the bunch of grapes that Ihe one on the right is
carrring in his mouth show th ... m to be good lions. After them. and
flanking the Lamb of God. are two birds, {he on ... on Ihe left a phocni:.: and
on Ihe right an eaglc, both symbols of the Resurrection. The theme of Ihe
upper scction is the Rcsurre.::tion and Sakation. but the lower one. with
the animals of th ... I'hysiologer, presents us w,th symbols of human
strengths and weaknesses.
This visual program on the W"'St wall of the Holy Sepulchre al<o
informs liS about its liturgical importance. The ~Sepulcrum Domini,~ the
imitation of Christ"s sarcophagus in Jerusalem thaI existed in many
Romanesque churches. was used to keep Chrisfs corpse in; ,t was taken
down from the Cross during the Good Friday service and laid to rest in
th~ s:>rcophagus in Ihe inn .. r chamber. D ... r;ng the ccl~bra'; ... n ... f ,he
Resurrection on Easter Sunday, it would be brought Out ceremoniously
and presented to the commu nity. Produced in the period from about 1100

312

al)'l rO~t

LEfT

R.. ~nbKkJT""klcntmrg (Nonh Rh",e'

W~lph3Iial, St. Cahtu,. TomhstOflt of
R..."h,ld". S.ndSl"""c. I UOI1135

Ex,en,,,.,...,...,at Horn (Nortb Rhine-

"""'ph.ha). Huly xpukhr. SCoup.

[)op,cuun "f,he l)(setnt from ,he Cross.
ReI ... fon rock. First quan .. of ,ho
,wcll,h cen,ury

aonO\l IlIGIIT

)'.t...",hurg (s"xonyAnhalt), form<r

of St.John th. B.pUSI and k
UwmK". Tomhsront of Rudolf of
Swab,a (d. 1080). Bron . Before 1100

c~,hN,.1

to 11 30 31 Ihe lalesl, th e Hol y Sepulchrt in Gernrode tS probably Ihe

oldest .xample of its Iype in Germany.
The most importanl form of medieval gral'c iSlhe IOmbslolle made out
of stone or bronze, which would be placed on the noor of a chun:h
covering a grave below, or OntO a san:ophagus.like lomb. While early
Romanesque churches and crYP's wcre .11 first used exclusively 10 bury
martyrs and sain ts, members of the clergy were gradually also buried
there, and eventually evcn secular lords or the founders of rh e chun:hes.
In Ihe crossing of Merseburg Cathedral i$ the grave of Rudolf of
Swabia (phOIO, bottom right}, who was killed in 1080 at rhe Battle of
[lslt<. As Ihe antiking 10 Emperor Henry IV, he was furni shed with the
msignia of the imperial orb, sceptre and slirrup crown , rho ugh he was not
actually entitled to these. In addition, his bronze {OmbSlOne was originally
gilded, givi ng it a noble quality thaI Ie<! 10 heavy criticism from contemporaries, ill particular Henry IV's supporters. The important feature for
art historians is that this is probably the earli esl figured tombstone. lbe
reason for its appearance within a church, which until then was the

preserve of members of the clerg}', is given in the surrounding inscription

as being that this person died battling for the Chun:h and had therefore
earned the righllO be buried in this place.
The trapezoid tomhSlOne of Reinhlldls in the village church of Horste!Riesenbe<:k near T.-cklenburg (phOIO, botlOm left} was possibly originally
the lid of a sarcophagus. The scene, framed by a band of foliage, shows, as
the inscription rells us,
the virgin Reinhildis, who was the heir of her
deceased father and who was murdered by her mother at the insrigation of
her second husband. She soon ascended in order 10 assume her scal in
Heaven, and has become a devout jointheir with Christ. Gerhard. The
yo ung woman has a halo and is wearing a Byzantine dress with wide
sleel'cs and a headscarf, Her arms are raised as she looks upwards, where
an ange! is bearing hcr soul to Heaven in the form of a child. The slab was
originally date<! around 1189, as this was th. year Itt which Bishop
Gerhard of Oldenburg rook o,'e. Ihe Osnabrlick diocese, and his is the
same name as the person who donated the 10mbslOne.lts style is, however,
more consistent with a date around 1135, meaning Ihatthe bishop has to
be ruled Ollt as a possible donor.
One of the mOSt unusual pllenomena in Ihe German Romanesque
period is rhe relief of the Deseenl from the Cross, eighteen feet high and
more than len and a half feet wide, in the Externsteine (Extern rocks} near
1lorn in EaSI Westphalia (photo, lOp}. This tS a monumenral piece of freestanding sculpture which see ms to have more in common wllh the huge
Presidents' heads carve<! inro the rock .11 Ihe Moullt Rushmore National
Memorial in South Dakota Ihan Romanesque sculptu re, which One would
normall y only expe<:t to find in connection with a man-made piece of
s'lCred an:hitecnne. And il is indeed an anciem heathen ceremonial site; the
Benedicline monastery of Abdinghof in Paderoorn gained the propt"rry
rights in 1093, a5 Abbor Gumperl wame<!lo build a hermitage Ihere. It
was finally the I'aderborn Bishop Heinrich ofW.r1 who decided to have an
M ...

ri

313

Gdnhau .. n (Hess<'J. rrof."am pari,h

form.rly SI. Mary'._ Choir
orcadc.consok' m:on In ,.,... follag .
c.IHO
~hur~h.

imitation of the religious sites in Jerusalem can'ed into the rocks here. The
cave-like chapel. which is behind Ihe relief and is considered to be an
Adam chapel, was consecrated in Il l S aceording 10 Its inscription. This
daTe also suggeSTS the date of origin of the Descem from the Cross. which
is occasionally thought to have been produced aT the same time 3S the
chapel was con!;t(;rated. Budde, however, considers il to be closer in style
to the Freckenhorsl baplismal font. dated 1129, which would date Ihe
rehd 10 around 1130.
In the cenler of the relief, whICh presumably served as a scenario for
EaSter festival productions, is a mighlY cross, in from of which the actual
e"entS lake place. Joseph of Arimalhea and NICodemus are depicted
recovering the Ix>dy of Christ, and his mother is standing on the left edge
of the relid. Opposite her, on the right side, is John hold ing a book. At
either end of the beam of the Cross are the sun, on the left, and the moon,
on the right. Beneath all of this, with Ihe serpent twined around them,
kneel Adam and Eve. Above the lefl side of the Cross beam is a bearded
figure with a cruciform nimbus, who is holding the banner of the Cross in
his left hand and pointing his right hand TO Mary in blessing. This figure
has been inlerpreled as either the Resurrecled Christ, or possibly as God
himself.
With a few exceptions. Ihere are no eounterparts to the extensive visual
narrath'es on the capItals in Spain, routhern France and Burgundy in
German churches. Most of the capi rals only ha,-e grometric shapes.
animals and plant decorations, masks or monsrers. The sculptors were
nOI, however, any less self-aware, as is shown by the signature on the
famous Hartmann column in Goslar: tIARTMANI'US STAruAl FEcrr RASISQUf.
flCURAM - MHartmann made the column and Ihe figure on Ihe base
{photo. opposite, bottom right).
w

Rom anesq ue portal s

The Ga ll us gale (photo, p. 316) which appears on the north transcpt of Ihe
Basel Minster of Our Lady looks as if it is sct within" Roman triumphal
arch. The Slructure, wh ich was built lowards Ihe end of Ihe Iwelflh
cenrury, has been restored and altered on many occasions during Ihe
course of rhe years. l'aT! of the original Romanesque structure are Ihe
upper pan of the Iympanum and the figures in the jambs. In the Iympanum Ch rist is enrhroned as a judge, holding ,he open Book of Life wilh
his left hand against his Ihigh; the Cross in his righ t hand is a later
addilion. He is accompanied by I'eter on his right and ]'aul on the left. ]n
Ihe righl corner," bearded man ;s kn.:-eling holding an archileclural model,
and I' aul is leading a male and a female figure by Ihe hand to Christ.]n Ihe
lefl jamb are the Evangelisls John and Mallhew, and on the right are Mark
and Luke. Their symbols are added over their heads in a type of lower
capi ralunderncath the actual capilals.
Following an earthquake in 13S6. during the course of which the cast
side of the cathedral in partkular was heavily damaged, it was necessary to
carry out extensive restora tion work. The figures of the wise and foo lish
virgins in the architrave probably date from this time, as do the columns
which make il dIfficult to see Ihe jamb figures. The portal area is nankcd

314

Quedlinburg (Saxon~Anh~lTl. former

C<)fIv.nr church of St. 5<,,.IIUO. Na""
cushion c'I'''al "ith figunl d""or,"on.
Before 1129

Hild",h."n (La,,'" SaxonYI. form ..

BenedlCTin. mOfla".ry church of St.
Mich,,!. Na"" cap".1 With foli.g. and
heads. Brfo.., 1186

Sp>eSbpl'd (Hesse l. fOflnn

Gaslar Il.o.... r Saxony). former coll.giat.

church ofSS. Simon andJudr. Capnal of
Th. H.nmann ,,,,Iumn wlth mask and
dragons. Third quarter of the twdfrh
century

Premonstr:uensian mort;l,t.ry church of

St. John tM B'pTi". Na . c~p".1 wIth
bearded maok and h ds. c. 1200

3 15

8a~I.

min,,"r of Our Lady. G.UU$ Ga'c.

portal with i.mb figures

SICp~

(OOnom ). "T"he Evangchm Manhew and

John wi,h ,htir srmOOls (left!. F.nd oflht
1,,oIfrh ccntury

showpiece wall covered with reliefs, and which is structure<! by vertical

and horizontal elements. The height of ,he lower 7.one malches the jambs,
and und .... rneath the three arch blind arcades to the left of the portal is the
enthroned Madonna and Child, and on th .... right another ruling figure is
enthroned, considered to be the antagonist to the Mother of God, and
which in medieval opinion was the Antichrist. Both of these figures are
accompanied by symbolic representations of Good and Evil, some of
which accord with the animal allegories of the I'hysiologer. The upper
zone, around the archivolts, is spilt into tWO areas with blind arcades, the
lower of which is supported by caryatids. One of the figures on the right
has been identified as Luxuria. This identification arises from the snakes
on her breasts, and as a result th .... other figures are also considered to be
personifications of the Vices; the figures oppoSIte, on the Madonna's side,
are thought to be the Virtues. Above the upper archivol! a relief row with
thirtet'n figures is let into the wall, and the central olle is t'asily recognized
as Christ, due to his raised right hand and the depiction of the Book of
Life. He is accompanied to the left and right by the Apostles, and the rQw
of figures is bordered on either side by larger reliefs containing dt'pictions
of Mary and John the Baptist.
The theme of this wall is the conflict between Good and Evil with
regard to the Last Judgement, and the portal and its tympanum, which
again depicts Christ, are placed between the figures of James the Great and

by three tabernacles on each side, arranged one above the other, comain
ing representations of muciful deeds. Above them is a type of aedieule
architeclUre with taller tabernacles containing the figures of John the
Ihpti51 on the left and the deacon Stephen on the right. At the Iery top, on
either side, IS an angel blowing the last trumpet, and the one on the right
dates from the early sixtet'nlh century. Small reliefs next to them depict the
resurrected dressing themselves. A profiled entablature with a paitnelle
frieze forms the upper conclusion to the portal. The Gallus gale was
noticeably influenced by Italian and French styles, predominantly the
laner. The EYangelists' robes in p.lrticular display a debt to Burgundian
sculpture, even if not entirely specific.
The entire layout of the north portal of the former Benedictine abbey
church of St. James in Regensburg is also reminiscent of an ancient
triumphal arch (photo, opposite, top). The actual portal is filled into a

'16

w
R~sbu~

(Ib""". ). formt:t
of SI. J~mtS.
North pon~1. (. 1190

&nro'('I1I>C abbry church

JOTroM
Fr~lbo'll

(s"xony). m'n.'~r of Our Lady.

c. 1230

Gold~n G~!~.

John the Evangtlis!. HIs nght hand is r;lIsW and he is holding Ihe Book of
Life, and Ramer Budde considers hlln \0 be ChrlSl l hc lucher pnxlaiming
the mcss;Igc of 531"alio". In each of the jambs an: three ornamented
columns placed In fronl of Ihe inward sr.-ding. and between them, OIl the
lOp and Ixmom. an: small crouchmg figures, one of whIch, wilh a point.
can be Identified as a Slone mason.
Despite us Unity, Ihls portal. umque 111 the ~rman ROnlancsque
period. shows ""gut mnuences from other regions such as Upper Italy and
southern France, and also from the Anglo-Saxon sphere. It is as.sumcd that
il was constructed towards the end of the twelfth century, though Ihis can
nOI be conclusl\'dy proved.
Onc of the last RomanCMlue portals in German)' is the west portal of
the pamh ehurch of Freiberg near Dreiiden (photo, oppoSite, bottom),
known as the Goldc>n Gate. ~ jambs of the portal art' graded m eight Steps,
and combme a whole variety of mfluences both m ItS Structure and the
style of ItS figure'S, and these can, above a ll, be traced to the srylc uf Gothic
cathedrals that had been dc>velopmg m France from the middle of the
twelfth CCTl tUry.
The theme of the entirt' ensemble IS the glorlfiC3t1on of the Mother of
God and the Child, and she appears m the center of the tympanum as the
enthroned Queen of Heaven wi th the baby Jesus. She IS accompanied on
the left by an angel carrying a scepter and Joseph, and on the right by the
Magi. T he glonrl(:auon of M ary is aided by the eight figures in the jambs,
whICh :He deplet ions of typological predecesl'Or5 of Christ and ,""Iary. In
Ihe left jamb IS Daniel, who beouse he survi"ed the lions.' den is
conSidered to be proof of the "irgmlty of Mary. The High Priest Aaron,
opposite him, should be understood In the same context. The: twO
women's figures standing opposite each Ofher, Bathsh.c:ba and the Queen of
Sheba, corrt'Spond to each other In their meaning. whICh is as the Old
Testament allUSion to Mary. The Kings Solomon :tnd DaVid from the Old
Testament appear as the pmiecCSliOrs of Christ. The mner figures m the
jambs, to either Side of Ihe portal, represent as It were Ihe life of Christ,
with J ohn the &lpl1st on the left and John the Evangelist on the ri@;hl.
The theme conunues in Ihe four arduyohs o,'cr Ihe jamb figures. lbe
mnc. one shows Christ, aecompamcd by archangels. crowning Mary. At
the highest pamt of the second archlvolt the rouls of the Chosen are being
brought 10 Abraham, and his lap is meant as the symbol of Hea'Tn. At Ihe
mks art' two angels and four aposdes. At the erown of the third arch"'oh
IS the dove of the Holy Ghost. also aceompamed by angels and the
rtmammg eight Apostles. The depictions of the Angel of Judgement and
the resurrected lea"mg their graves In the outer archlyoll has been used (0
argue that the theme: of the portal was Ihe LaSt Judgement. Budde qUite
rightly PO"1lS out that Ihe most important elements, such as the heavenly
Judge, the Damned and the jaws of Hell, are mlumg, and that, in addition,
the theme of the Last Judgment would rule oLitthat of the glorification of
Mary. ~Furthermore," he WTlles, ~the resurrected in the archivolts shou ld
be seen as the Blessed bemg led inlO Paradise by the Angel of Judgement
IMichael]."

317

o~ros,n

&mbtrJ (&~'''''I. c-~thtdral. M.... nt'"

kIne. known ~J Iht &mbergtr Rnla
(&mbtrJ Ik>tvmanl. on lbe first pliLl.
of 1M nonh ..... of Iht ~sChoIt.
!iand"OIIC'. hrlPlI 9J IIICbts. Ikfort 1231

F.........II..,d' (&dc-n. Wurtt(11lbt"I,

P'Of<'Sf'nf(hu~h. Fo.". On ,be b.a ... a
nun and loon a' ,upporllng figurn.. and
NSJ11ikt ~nd btankd nush ..... ht t.o..,.t.
(.ll1lO

319

'"'

C.n{~.bury (".nl).calhed.aL CapItal in

In.: crypt_ [100-1 120

80TTO.\1

,....~bury [Wiltsh,,~). church of St. James.

Font. Stone. Twolfthccn.ury

Ron. a ncsq ue sculpture in England

There was a rich Anglo-Saxon tradition of art in England from at leasl the
eighth c('ntury. which indudffi inAuences from the Celtic prlecesrors of
the Anglo-Saxons, as well as traces of the Romans. This was suddenly
interrupted by the Danish invasions around lOW. It was not until the
Danish King Canute had consolidated his position of power in England
and be<:onll: a Christian Ihat new artisTic creativity, in parricular in the
field of sacred architecture, was able to develop. AnOTher cultural change
was brought about by the arrival of the Norman William the Conqueror in
\066. In Ihe end, Romanesque sculpture in England del'doped under a
whole range of widely differing influences, and native forms combined
with Scandinavian and Cominemal styles to form a distinct Anglo
Norman anistic sryle. Indeed, the Romanesque style is generally known in
England as Norman'.
The remaming capitals 10 the cloister of the Benedictine abbey founded
in 11 21 10 Reading, the county town of Berkshire to the weSt of London,
arc partially ornamented with beaded bands twisted around each other:
$Orne also bear figurative decoration, such as a rather disconcerting angel.
One capital has what is thought to be the oldest remaining Coronation of
the Virgin. These capitals were preceded by the capitals in the sOUlh
transept arm of Worcester anhedral and those in Rom.sey Abbey, which in
turn referred to those in the crypt of Canterbury Cathedral, which were
produced between 1100 and 1120 at the latest (phOTOS, top and center).
What they all have in common is thaI their poim of departure was Anglo.
Sa:<on models, metalwork and illuminated manuscripts such as those in
the scriptorium in Canterbury.
Numerous baptismal fonts remam of the church furnishings that were
produced. and though $Orne of these were made of lead. most were
produced using stone. The stone basin from St. James's, in the village of
Avebury in Wiltshire in Ihe $Outheast of England, has a flat rdief: in the
lower pan a garland of tightly 1I1Ieriaced blmd arcades circles the body of
the font (photo, bottom). This motif was e:<tremdy popular and can often
be found as an architectural ornamemation in English Romanesque
churches. Above it are vines of varying lengths. Here, as on the other stone
fonts, Anglo-Suon clemems are dearly visible.
In Chichester Cathed ..,1 in Sussc:< are tWO reliefs which onginally were
probably part of th e rood sc reen (photo, opposite). One of them shows the
meeting of Jesus, Mary and Manha in front of the gates of Bethany, and
the other shows The raismg of Lazarus who was an intimate friend of Jesus.
Both scenes are thematically related, becausc before Jesus entered the
village n..ar Jerusalem, Lazarus's sisters Martha and Mary came 10 him one
after the other, telling him of their great sadness at their brothers death
and also complaining that if Jesus had been th .. re, th .." brother would not
hal'e died. His answer, that he would call Lazarus back to life, was understood by the women to mean their brother's resurre.:tion on Judgement
Day, and this was little comfort. This is followed by the shortest verse
in the Bible, which is also one of the most touching: MJesus wept
Uohn 11 ,35).
111e scene depicted in this relief combines the two successive encounters
W

320

Ollchol .... jSU_lI ). ca,MdraJ. Rcll<f:

R.o'~"'1 of Lourus. 1120-1125

Chochnoe. j SunclIl. c;a,bt-draJ. ReI",f:

~bry.nd Manha .......1JIfl Chno, by the
plri

11110 one evenl. BOIh women arc kneeling bc-fore Jesus, begging him 10
really reSlOre Iheir brother 10 life in thiS world. The relid IS damaged, and
of all places Ihe areas affccled are the left hand and righl arm of Chrisi.
The damage seems so calculated that one feels Juslified in assuming that
thIS IS a deliberate act of iconoclasm, perhaps In order to remo'"e the
personal and binding nature of the fnendsh,p John writes about. The relief
of Ihe raising of Lal.3TUS was probably dl5plarcd ,"cry close by, for the two
reliefs are also ITlatN stylistically. Thc high lines of the robes' folds arc
emphaslzN by deep cutS, and the structure of the twO scenes with Christ 111
the Center. cither sming or standmg. dlvidmg the c,'ents taking place in
front ofh'm from the Apostles behind. IS Identical.
Begun 111 1091. the cholT of Chichester Cathed ral was consecrated III
1108. Georg Zarnc"ki considcn Ihe rood ",reen 10 have been ercaled
during the period of office of Bishop Ralph de Luffa. who died in 112J
and was presumably German. This would e"plain cerlain slylislic
s, milar,tICS to Ononian works in J-hldeshcim and Cologne. The reliefs
probabl)' datcd from between 1120 and 11 2S.
The tradmon of Norman archl1('("fural ornamentation led to some

of Bethany. 1120-1125

elltraordlnarily magnificent Enghsh Romanesque portals. The one in the

soulhern nanhell of 51. Mary and 51. Aldhe1m in f-hlmesbury, Wiltshi re ,
belween London and Bristol, is not only the main sculptural work in this
church. but is also one of Ihe most cllcepuonal and unusual ellamples of it$
type anywhere.
The: narrow columns border the areh"'olts directly, without being
intcrrupted by capitals. Four arches, scpara ted from each other by narrow
ornamental Strips and surrounded by another atth", r outer ed~, contain
round and almond-shaped medalhons containing figures from the B.ble.
On the SIde walls of the narthe" alT tWO Junelles 0pposlle each other. each
cont;lInlllg 51" scated Aposlles.. :and :an angel noaung above the,r heads
holding a banderole (phOlo. p. 323. top). The elongated figures are
rcm,nl$C.. nl of Bursundian work. ...ound 1130 ... nd ,h..i. qu"lily i~ Ih ..
equal of the sculptural works in Autun.
The portals of EI )' and Kllpeck al~o demonstrarc the special British
lo\'e of rich dorati\'e work. The I'rior's Door of Ely Cathedral ,n
CambTldgeshi re, which was made a bishoprIC in 1 J08, is thc mostlavlshl),
doraled of the three entrances from the church's Romanesque cloISter

' 21

lffley (O"fordsh",,). del .. l of the ronal

i.mb. La" ,hird of.1>< , .... dfth ""n,ury

TOP OPPOSITE

BOTTOM UFTOPPOSITE

Malme'lbury (Wihshi~). church of St.

Mary and St. Aldhdm.lu""ueon 0 ... of
tbeslde ,,"ails of (he sou.h portal nartl><".

Ely (Ca mbndp"e). (alhttl .. 1. The

I'no,'$ D<Ior. Before] U9

(.]]55-]]70

BOTTOM RIGHT OP~OSITE

K'lpeck (Herdordlh"ej.,hurch ofSI.

Mary and St. DavId. Soulh portal wlIh
ammal columns. c. ] 140

(photo, p. 323, bottolll ldt). The columns a~ supported by figures that

can no longer be identified, though at least om' of them appears as a lion
in older engra"ings, a motif familiar from haly. Whd" the architTa"" is
carried by its "ery own support, the columns and the pillars flanking them
continue into the archivolts they support, separated by bead moulding.
While the outer archivoh is covered with a flat acanthus strip to match the
flat relief of the pillars, the inner archivolt curves inwards towards the
tympanum, corresponding to the columns thai bear it.
The depiction in the tympanum is of Christ in Majesty in a mandorla
held by angels; while this iconography deril'es from French models, it is
developed h"re in an unfamiliar manner. This is because the bottom tip of
Ih" mandorla and Ihc lower l"g5 of Ihc angel~ penetnte the enlin- height of
the lintel, and more than half its width, so that it was not possible to place
an independent scene Ihere.
This also shows one of Ihe unusual fealures of English Romanesque
portal sculpture, in that countless small figures are gh'en space on equally
countless ornamental medallions which are actually vine scroll decorations, while the large-scale relief, in contrast, is afforded little room. The
Prior's Door encapsulates this conflict be""'""n the native traditions and
Continental influences.
The south portal (photo, opposite, bottom right) of the chuf(h of St.
Mary and 51. David in Kilpeck , Herefordshire, has a different vO(:abulary
of form. Georg Zarnecki considers it to be the best preser.ed example of
an ennre senes of works, such as architectural sculpture and fonts,
produced by an onfluential school of sculptu~ in western England, which
worked during the second qllarter of the ",,'elflh century along the border
with southern Wales.
The church of Kilpeck occupies a special position in Ihat its founder,
Oli'"er de Merlemont, presumably did nOI iust return from his pilgrimage
to Santiago de Compostela with the intention - or even vow - to found a
church, but probably brought back sculptors with him who were familiar
with Continen tal forms. Nonetheless, the lauer were largely drown~ out
by the decorative idiom of the English Romanesque, and little can be
established of their provenance.
Narrow pillars that can beSt be described as a type of animal column
are covered with snake-like monSlers, and these form the outer frame of
the portal. At the top, angled inwards, they form the capitals of the richly
ornamented collimns on the inside neXI to them. Massive impost blocks
which project outwards to either side support the two equally mighty
archi"olts, one row wider than the supporting columns, and which contain
rows of medallions with depictions of animals. The core of the inner
archi"olt is formed by a rounded pole which animals and demons are
sitting on, like birds on a perch, and underneath each one is a console. At
the crown a flying angel is depicted with a banderole. The architrave,
which is formed by a zigzag band, supports the tympanum which contains a stylized depiction of what is probably a Tree of Lik Dating from
between 1135 and 1140, Ihc portal is one of the later English Romanesquc
works.

322

J2J

Medi~va l church porlal. and lh~.

imporunc( in .he hi, .ory oflaw

It .. Jun. IH. 1209. Very few mhah,tanl>

of ,he ,own of SoIO,Cille, du Card, 10
sou.hern Fr.nce. 'tayed", home on ,h.,
Jay, I>.u .. no<>< o,he. ,han Duke
Raymond VI of Toulouse wa, m.k,ng hI>
w.y 'hrough ,he "r(5 to ,he port.1 of
,he .bbey church. In .h" case. however,,,
was no, hi, magnificen' robes ,h.,
"t"'oro ,h. "".",ion uf th. CUro(>llS
'pla,ors. but ra.he, ,he ",m.rkablc fact
Ihal Raymond wOl nol wearing .ny
cio,t..s ., all - he wos approa,h,ng ,he
church porlOl stuk-naked, "adduct". <'S'
rome> Iludu. anI. fo ... eccb.. e,"
'. waS reported III ''''''empor.ry
chrOnicle. Thi. hum,lia"ng w.lk was 'h'
~n."ce Ihe church aUlhontja had I.,d
upon h,m for murderong , .... p.~II<g>I.,

I. W.rden, w tph.Ii church ofSI.

Salva,,,r w"h "',"fWMk. Pe<sptlve VICW
from ,he north-........

P.ler of Casldn"u_ In Ih" way" was

JIOSS,blt for h,m '0 bcromt "",onc,led
wilh the Church and be readm,n.d 10 ,(5
commun,on. &fo", ,he Juke walked
Ihrough Ihe .bbey church', porlal, he
would h.., had '0 ... ' he noli,f on ,he
tympanum above ,he m.,n MlIr"""e,
p.eso:nllng lhe ~ond Coming of lhe
lord '0 him an.J illu.,,..,,,,,& ,he ".Iu. of
pen.nce and reconcili.tlon. 10 w.. ,....
apocalypnc .'Slon of SI. John wuh ,he
AI~I.~MS DomIni, su rruunded by ,he
four be.St, of .he Apocalypst. The ""de

324

2. SIra.oourg

Mill.'.,., >O\Ilh portal

J. I\(rnhardJohlll, en".ving ~owi"g lhe

soUlh po".1 of S,r:l>oouIl: Ca,hed,..,l.

1566
ci.eul."on of Ih,. .,:e", "".nl Ih., Ihe
e.",h~.",,,,,.,,", ""'-5" lor mol."".1
observers .uch .s R. ymond was In'
escapabk. It i,. fae! thaI the 'pocal},pl1c
",~,on, of God, a~ ..ell as lhe e"pllCil
.epresentatlon of Ihe LaS! Judgemenl.
...... /:o.o",e IOplC' for medIeval church
punal~ In wCSI .. n Euro~.
The frequenc)' w;Ih w~ich both scencs
.p~ar h.. 10 t.. secn ,n lhe cml(e,,' of
lhe """" ,mpun.nt " .."" rtgul.rly '0
lake pl.ce III fronl "f .he church po,,~I:
_ulu .nd ccclcsi.."".1 ",.1 . Nume.ous
leg.1 reco.ds .1111 e""t Ihal tdl of ,udge
""",tS and .he .. b"ra"on "f conn".,
I.king pl.1 a, ,he entr. ""cs to ~hu.d,.,..
whether "In gahlea" (pe.recyIt.Forges,
1108), "suh port"'o" (Ferra r 11401, ",n
.mo" (Regen,burg. 1]83], "anI" grad~.
eccb.." (Frankfurt. 1232), ".nle
po".m" (F nkfu". 1248] o. "in mlo
"'Iio" (Goslar. 1256). Thi' legal trad",on
con be traced back 10 Ihe Onon"n and
Carollngt.n ..... In 81J, roy.1 Wle!
wa. iued fo.biddHl~ legalludgemenl of
secul,r ISSues 10 'ake place III Ihe a",um
In from of lhe m.. n po"al of churchn.;
IhlS .ef\n;" IUS! how widesp ..ad Ihls
convenllOIl W'$. Th. dr even had .0
t.. ",~a.ed on v IOU. o<ca""" . Thi.
IS ""hy a d<xumenl dJllllg from 943

4. FrankfurtCa'hedral.lhe rW door
walled up ,II. Ilde,hopel
5. l'aderbom Calhed.al. the.ed door

,h.,

.. ported
,he newly conStrUCIl
....,,,,,,,,,k .n I."", 01 ,he m~.n poMal of
Ih. church of SI. Sah'",or In We.den.
Wcslph.h., had hn bUIlt ~pif",all~
for hold,ng .ynod, (fig. II.
The practICe of carryIng oul secular and
dcsl.,lIc.1 1<g>1 b""ness by church
punal. was common Ihrougi>(>IlI Ihe
MIddle Ag... [n S.u,oourg, III lhe
Ih,rtten,h 'MI,ur)" lhe IOwll councIl',
cOurt was SCI up ",ar . he sou. h pon.l.
henea,h ,he "atue of Solomon, the Old
Tc;.alllen. klllg and judge (fig. 2). A
d",r(C III 1200 c<>mmandW Ihat ",f .11

a.gumen. break< Out amongo. ci .ilCn' ...

"" 0" hould .tralghtaway ",ach f~
,he" w.aponl, but lIl"ead ap~.r hefort
,he <ou""illors outside ,he Co,hl 1 of
N<xre Ihme. The" precISe PUS'IIOn
outSIde ..... ca.hed.al, sou ,h ponal is
cia,ifteJ in .nolher document. The porul
wa. II one lime pff)'e<"d by roof and
.urrounded by barn.<s. a, .ho",n in an
,ngraving by I\en,h dJobm dOling from
1566 (fig. 3). Thoe measu,"" meanl Ih31
Ihe legal procehnSS we", pro,tt.ed
f.om .he elc""n!< .nd ~rowJs of people.
A funher e"amplt of a church ponal
u>cd as secul.. place "f judgemelll is
,he cathed.al of leOn in Spain. I\(,""n
Ihe central and fIght enlr.nce III ,he
churd,', ell".nc. hall i Sta'ue of
Solomon. and beneath il ,he insc.iption
"Locu, Ap~lIaciolll'~ (plae~ for making
pcIII",n~), .~he< WIth the CoalS of
ann! of Cas.ile and Lffin. Wh,le , h.
he,..,ldlC ele""",ts can be dated 1o Ihe
Ihintenlh cenlu,). 'he ,"SC"PllO" I~
eltvcnlh cen.ury. The wo.ds d'Sllllg",sh
.h, em nce hall a, place of .0y.1
iu.i5dicno n
The", .. ~ phoo .n Sr.;n wt..,.., coun
,.,.,io". take place hy Ih. church pon.1
'0 ,hI, ".ry day. It is Vale"" ... F"r""..
10. . . every week by Ih.I ge main pon.1
of Ih~ 6JrOqU~ cathedr.l; ,he IUdges ,hey
h ,. ch.,..n s.ep up 10 ,h. w.... Court
and heardispuI"" o.e. ,rrig;ltl.,., wal~".
It "'a. fr~uently ,he (010. of Ihe door
whIch ,nd... ,cd ItS uSC a$ pl. of
,uds,menl. In numerous
Ihe
punal. ,n from of wh,ch 1<g>1 p.oceed
"'SS look place "'e.. framed ,n rl,
,raJ"lOn ,h Can br pro'cd 10 h,,,

ca.....

7. S.. I.n lochn". The L.$1Judgmen

Cologne. \l'al1,al.RICh.rr,-MulCum.c. 14..15

6. Au,un. Sain,-Laur~.
Dna,l from the ,yml"'num In ,h~ ......, pon.1
UI~l<d

mainly In IlOnhtm Europe. The

monk R~r of H~lma~h"UICn, who was
.n .nl". d<v01td an rn",.., cha p''' in htl
,,..,.UIC on the t/;'Chnlqu"", of v.,ioul .ns.
,he 'Schtdula D,.ersa An,um' ""'t"'n
.,ound 1110-40, '0 tht $uhjl:'C' 01 'bow
to glvr doutS ,td I........ Rtd doo'~
uICd u pia<.. of ludge'men, h"'e bn
.I>o"'n to h,,. cxi$1od at ,hc ca,htduls
of Qorman .own. such Funk/Uri.
P.d.. bom. Munster. Wun""rg. l\hgdt_
burg. Bamhtrg and f..rfun. In Frank/un
lfig. ~ ). d<.>cumen .. da"ng I,om ,ht fim
hall 01 .he ,h"t.. mh century SIal< ,hat
romracl$ used to be ."..,td in.o In front

of lhe 'rode du .... ,he ,,,,,,,h po<tal

which h., SlnCC bn b<K:kcd up. In
l'adcrbom. ludici.1 0<.. We'" s,,11 being
lCaltd as laIC as I~S2 ou.. ide "dti ,oden
IK>c,' on ,he nonh sid< 01 ' he (d,hed,al
Il1g.5).
Si",. a", .. n, ,imes., th~ <010, ... d h.d
bn ron"d~mI to be ,Iw symbol 01
po,..... , and "atu' a'WCI.t~d wi,h dilP'i
tari"",. and ,n tM Middle Ages 11 ...... , "
colo, m""h used in <onnC<:,,,)n ,,"lth Itgol
Thu ,he cmpe,or , .. ritd OuI
,ht enlwlfment of hi. lumdlction by
handing O'e, a ,cd bann. and 'hIS
p'oe""" ,,os rc<:o,dtd ,aking placc in

m""....

11'15. whcn H~n'y VI e"fw/lcd ,h. town

of C... mon. with h,. rtg>], The 0010.
red was '0 an hlualextent an allu.ion to
,ho po1<n,i.tl1y bloo<ly cxc<:u'lOn of I.gol
ludgem.nts. As a .",uh. ,hc h,gh .., <oun
in ,he ~hddle Ages. which had 10 decide
on m'''ets of life and d.ath. "as calltd
,h. 11100<1 Court. and Its law hvoks We'"
,h. Bloo<I Books. The,.., w'''' .Iso blood
>toncs. ,h~ /ap,dn ",ngN'nt sometlmcs
<aUtd ,td "Ot>ts, and thes.- .rt r/;'Co,dtd
a. existing '" Frank/un. P., .. u .nd
\l:'o,ms. Th .. is whe", ludg.ments wcre
annou",td and ICnt."'CS ex/;'C",td in ,I><
.arly MIddle Ages nd ,h. nanl< of ,h.
~tO"'" i. . .idently a refcr.n,. ,0 the
blood that " .. ~ ~Pllt , lIc<:au of .h...
tradltlon< .nd <.."01n ,td became the
symbol of ju,isdiction. It was thc colo,
favorrd by IUtll', and judges, and .v.n
Chtl" wore. 'ed go.mcnt In plet .. , .. 01
Judgemen' Day. Th'$ can be sun In
S'ephan I.o.:hne's pte'"'''' on ,hIS ,Mm.
(fig. 7). As a , ..,,1,. in ,h. MIddle Ag'"
,h.", W~'e no! 0Il1) rrdchur~h dool"S. b",
also mI lOwers, bc",h.s. <i,y go'cs and
"s. and ,n .a<h ca ... ,he color was a
d ..~n ,0 the OtlS'nal function of ,h .....
IIf" a. pla<.. of judge"'."'.
Beside. ,he ,olor mi. n01h~, ,,'ay of
l,..jica1lng ,hc Itgol functlOlls of port.ls
was ,he "'ide.pre.d dtpIC"on of a I"'i, of
s. 1101""0. T'."tlno-Alto Ad,se.
COlhedral portal
'1. F.... ", C.,htdnl. =on~truc"on of
'h~de ....o)".d Porta del Mcs'

..
,

"",;

...

11ft.
~.~

r',.
,~

I'

J.

,~

~~.
~

fA

'

~. ~
~";r

10. Oloron 11')"ins A,lanuqu .. ),

Sa,n'..."i ..i. Dnai\ of portal: m;ln
.anng monS, ..
Itons on c"her SId. of church

~nlra....,.

(figs. 8. 9). The lions " .... nftcn >n

nted with the: thronc of Solomon.

which wa. tlanktd by tw<> Itons. A~
Solomon w,,' the mOl' excmpbry IudS"
In.he Old T"'anle"'. Ih. ,wo It""s we",
ge'n~ .. lIy conne<,.d w"h ju,i$dic"on and
,ymboltud ludICi.1 power. This i. how
,he F'e",h monk I'i ..., IXr,,,,,. 'xplainnl II '" hi. "Repert"""m Mor"I
a m"",It"ng Inlcrprtu,ion of ,h~ world
datm8 from 1362: 'The lodge' IS
aWlCialtd wllh 'wo Ito.,.. whICh a .. S<"t
"p on m;lny of ,he flIghtS of Steps and

325

of I,ons whteh Ii""d Ih. porlicon of

nonh halo.n calhedrals. In II>< 1140..
nume.ous legal "u., wcn' coneludtd al
II>< Pona dei M ... i (wh;..h was latcr
destro).d) of F."a Gnl><dra!: " wa.
flanktd by two hon. and ,,..erlooktd Ihe
market squ... (fig. 9).
Th. legal acto>l,'es Ihal occu...d al
ponals we1"(; n01 lUSt r"II;""d 10 ,oun
...sions.
portal was also u~ as Ih.
pl." 10 swear an oa,h. F.om tl>e .. gh.h
"ntu.y onwa.d ~nd I"'nicularly ,n ,I><
North helegal cUSlom of r.king an oOlh
"on Ih. ,hr"hold" o. "I".. rh. church
door." became widesp.ead. In lhe
documen .. of .he Clun,a, p"ory of
Rueggi.be.g In Switz.,1at>d, for example.
th ... is a ,eport rhat .he E"o.rn~ church
ad"o<:al' Petermann of K.a<ICh,hal.wore
an oalh ro 1'.011 rhe Church ~nd aU
pe<>ple bdongmg 1o Ih. p"""""e: he rool;
.he oalh by "I.k,ng rh trlg wh;..h hung
on Ih. church duo. on hIS left hand and
rtp'",ing ,he S"pulaltd oa,h wIth his
"ghl hand ra,~." TakHbg an oa,h a'
Ihe church 0100. c~n al!<)o be found ,n
I"".ry !<)ou..,. ,h~ "Nibelungenlied."
whoch w.s w.itten around 1200. Wh~n
,he 'woqueens K".mh,lde and Ikunh,ld.
faikd '0 !<)on ou' ,he q~:"rcl .h~1 had
broken OUt between ,hem In ,he women',
ch.mbers of Ih. palac~. Ih~y transposed
'I '0 lhe portal 01 II>< calhedral in Worms.
no.mally )nsid.red 10 b.av. been Ih.
nonh por",1 (fig . II. 12 ). Th~ .. lhey
calltd upon ,he" husbands. S'egf"td and
Gumhe. as w"nesses. :lnd S,eg/ntd
finally off.,td 10 swcar an oolh on tbe
church doors. Thi. li .. rary cv,dence has"
mo.e lundamen,,,) cha.acn. than any

n...

II. Wo.m.G"l><d.al
!lank lhe .nlra""es of bUIld,ng. They
make" mOre d,ff"ulllO w~lk 'hrough.
~nd """,,,uso of th,s Ihey arc pla,.d
wherever judg., <It to pun,sh grtc'dy
reapl . " And 'I><re are ind...J many ~cts
of JUStl,. Ihal "'... dc<1d.d ",rer duos
leo1tN, (bet"'"1>IWO hons). One d.finilC
example is W.,den ,n Westphal,a... 'he
Church of SI. Ntehola. wh;..h was la ..,
OOI'O)-ed;
columns we pl.ctd In
fronl of 11. each ",,h a lion on II. R!gh'
,n,o ,h...ghl"1>lh cemury II wa, Ihe
CuStOm of Ih. abbey judge 10 ca.ry oul
offoci,,1 busu... ss be"'-ecn I~ Iwo
columns, and h,s aCl' d<cd w,th tb.
ph ...e,,,,,",,, ",ttlr duos Iw" . A .. mol ..
int.,p.".""" can be m.de of .h. 1"''''

""0

12. Worn" Co,hedral. nonh ponal

0. Roben Comptn. n", mamase of

Mary andJuseph (det.il), M.d.id. r..do.
e.1420

hlS,o."al documentHOuld have. because

'~Iragte pro13gon"ts 3f~ ,deali ... ftons
of queen k,ng h~roes and herOInes.
JUSt as the church doors .re an archetyp'
",h;..h I.fts ,he legal funcfton of Ihe
Wo.ms port~1 ,nto ,he rtalm. of my,h.
The legal Imponance of thi' ponal is
und.rI",.d by ,h. fact ,hal" " Ihe "'ry
sp<)l '0 wh,ch F.ed.",k Ba.N.",..
n:.. led lhe p" ... legu whoch I>< beslO,,td
upon ,he c'IY in 1184.
In ,he M,ddle Ages. lhe chu.ch ponal
""IS al!<)o " place 10 seek .sylum. "hny
ro."emporary "po.tS ,ell of fug'I"'"
...,ktng asylum a. chu.eh doors. legally,
grasptng hold of the 0100... ng was ,he
dc<" .... act. Th" flghl of ~.yluIII a,
church doors wa. ~Iso rodifitd In
bw books. In the "Sachsensp,egcl. n a
collec!ion of La"." from SOUthern G."""ny.
II>< .arliest "~rsion of whICh apP' .. td
around 121S.lh. lollo,,tngdccrttcan be
found: ",f a p'tSOn C~nnot get imo the
chu.dl. and ,nstead touch" the .IIIg on
,I>< church door, he should "~p'fI.n .. Ihe
.... me f.. hng of tranquollny ,hot he WIll
ha in.ide 'he church."
The .. gmng of cOfllraclS ~I!<)o look pia..
by church ponals. and Ihat ,,,,,Iud ... Ih.
marriage contract. In .h. M,ddl. Ages.
wtdding' ,ook place ,n flOn. of ,h.
church duors. ami " was n01 u",,1 ,her
marrted Ihat Ihe b.ide .nd groom
would be .aken ms,de
church 10
mass. Th,s ""d",on e~pla,"s the
occa.ional rtf.."nees '0 poou)s u ,h.
"b.ides garewayn whoch one finds on
churches in B:lml><rg. B.unsw;"k. "Ia,n~
and Nuremberg. For ,hi. 'Us<.>n. ,he

p.tn'." of II>< age often plcturtd the

mamage of M.ry and jUSC"ph .. laking
pl"ce in front of Ihe "n!ranee '0. temple
o. church. Ruben Campin. f<>r e"ampl
portra)td ,h. ,,-eddlng as ,.k"'g pia.., in
front of a chu.eh portal ,h~1 wa. I"'"hly
d",ora.ed wnh 5<'ulp'u,". In patnnng
wh;..h he crc"..d around 1420 (fog. 13).
Trad. alP"'"'ments were also condudtd 'n
nu"y mark",s
front of church portal ..
rha, .. main ., ~nd around churches
I..."fy 10 'his 'rad"ion (fig. 141. In many
,Itt olfoci,,1 measurtmcn,s
nis'
al church ,mra""es. 0 ... of ,h. mos,
cxlenSIV, .xamples i. th. Mmster in
Frc,b-urg; vanOuS measu .... and Ih. )'ur
,n wh;..h ,hey w.1"(; decrctd re rngra.td
"" 'he walls of ,I>< ,owers entulICe hall.
They include ,he presc.ibe<! SIZ" of
10..'" of bread and roll, for ,I>< yea ..
1270. 1..113 and 1320 (fig. 15). and lhe
"",.,urtmentS for corn, wood. coal and
bncks. 'ogcrher wi,h .he "ght. g... nttd
by King Rup ..,ht. to hold a fair tw;"e "

w".

IS. F,eiburg M,n"er. p...... ibe<!

meaSurements for b,~ad ~nd roll. for ,he
Je.rs 1270. 1313 ami 1320

14. Heidelberg. Church oftl,. Holy

Ghost "mI nu.kcI

326

,h.

n...

CO"'.

.,,11

). at.

l1>e legal stgmfic:otoc. of ,he church

p<>nal in lhe M,ddk ~... I!<)o explatn,
'he p'n".ntlal walk of Raymond VI.
wblCh wa, monuontd earlier. l1>e publIC
.iIe of rep'ntaloce 'ook place by ,he
church ponal a." was also. judicial ac,
Ih.. compfl~ 'he puntshment and
..,oneil,a"on of the soon". Acco.dong 10
,he .ul.. of the nto of rtponta""e. ,hose
,inne.. upon whom ,hIS pun,shmen' h.d
been 1.,01 w... dflven OUI of t .... church
on Ash W.d",,><Iay. ~Iust as Adam wa.
dTlv.n out of Paradi..,.n n", l"'.alle1.
drawn betw.. n Ih~ Slnne" .nd Adam

 xplams why Raymond waS reqUIr.d '0

go to the ponal n3kN: " wa, not IU<1 a
qu llon 01 publicly hum,Ii,"ng h,m. but
of ,lIustratmg h" con"IIon with Ad.m.
1M public act of "pen,anee eutmm31N
in a ri1< of ['oneili"ion 00 "bundy
Thursday. The SmnerS had to cOme {O the
chu rch pon"l. where ,he prie" would
,ake ,h.m by the right hand and lead
th.m back mlO the church. ThIs .ct
,lIusrral<d ,he ['oneili.,ion of tho
,inn." with the Church. and thoir
,.adm,tI.nee 1<, 'he <ommunlfY of ,he
f.lthful. Thi. proc.ss was frequ.mly
reproducN in works of .rt, abo~.ll m
S<0t><$ of ,ho laS! judg<~'. One
e""mpl< i, a dcta,) of ,ho tympanum m
Conques (fig. 1/i). showmg an angel who
Iu, ta ken One of ,he t>less.ed by ,h. hand
In ordo. '0 gUld. h,m th.ough ,he sat.,
way 10 P..... d, ... In medie,.I,ymboli,m .
. h. church port.1 ,,'a, equated w"h the
sates of Parad,.., allowing tho faithful
.,.,,,.nee mto ,he church, 0' the heav.nly
jeruoalem. In Stephan Lochner's pamtmg
of ,h. Lasrjudgemen', wh:h ha, .l... dy
bn mentioned (fig. 1), Ih mra"", to

r ... d .,,, p.on.NI ,1t,,1t 1"'",.1

But why d,d the church port.l ",quIre

,h,s ,mpon.nt legal ,il>"if1C:llnee m ,h.
Middle Ages? Th. an,wer is complex.
but one aspect wh'ch should be "nglN
OUt coneerns ,he legal funellon of ,h.
po"al in hiS1o,icaland ,heologlCal .. rm .
1M cu.tom of , .. rymg oUlltg:ll busmess
al a public g".""y can Itt ".cN back.
long w.y. In ,he Old T"'amem. ,h. ci,y

g.. es wer. Ih. pl""e wh... ,h. eldo ..

d"pens.ed IU<1;';". as IS shown on numer
ous OCcaS'OnS, God commandN ,he
b .... eli.es: " Hal< evil, love good. ",.im.m
jU<1ice .1 ,h. city gate" (Amos 5. 15);
!'loa. wem {O ,he city gA' es ,n o.der to
d,s<uss ,h. legali' ies Qf his marriage to
Rurh wllh ,h. eld.rs tRu,h 4); .nd
Absalom would ".,and beSIde ,h oad
Ie.d,ng '0 Ihe gAl<. when ..~. a man
wllh som.lawsuit had to co"'" be/Qre the
kmg'SCOUrI" (2 S.mueI15. 2-6).
In 'he " " ddle Ages. t"" church portal
w.s "ea'N a, ,he eqUlvalen' '0 ,he my
For .xampl . when. chu.ch was
<"" ........ d, ;ts doo.. "~re deS<flhed as
ci,y sat ... T1>c co"'parlson of clly gAt""
and the church p<.>rtal <:an .15() "" .... n in
Ciono', "p.... n,. "oos Qf /usruu>
UIl...ce) and /m"mll" (lnlustice) In ,he
Arena Chapel fres<o<s ,n Padua (figs. 11,
18), The personification of jusllce is
'"l1ng on th.on . the back QI which
appears to be open . enablmg one IQ ....
Ih. blpc sky beYQnd. T1>c pain.ed archi
,,ur.l lorms arc r'mmis<en' of a
ch~rch porlal whOS( doors .re w,do
Ol"'n In tn.","". ,h. I"'r<omr>c~"o" 01
lnlu" ... i, '''''ng 10 fwm of locked,
rui .... d ci,y ga''', The ci,y gates are a
re/ere"'~ 10 'he Old T ..I.men . The Old
Co~en.n', which God .ntered into wllh
the 1.....oIi'.., has bn supe .... dcd by Ihe
New Co'enan, wI.h Chrl,', in . h .. caSt
.y",oot.~ed by ,he figure of ju",ce. In
m.ny pa,n.ings of that period. Ih.
personification of ,he synagogpc, wllh

sa'"'"

11. Gi""Q. pe""n,flC'"Qn of lu,1I1i

1;.;;". rddua. "rcn ~ Cbdp<I.~, 110S

18. Gi<ll'Q, perSQllifi",,,oo of I"iust"'"

(rueo, r~d"o, Areno Cha pel, <, IJOS

broken lane. and crown fallen Qn'Q the

floor, <j"mbol of ,ho Old Cov.nant.
would be 5e1 aga,nst with the victOflOUS
figure of f;';de'<a: h..., ,ns.e.d, JUl' ;';"
and Injul'ic. appear as ,he .n1l1h.St, QI
Ihe Old and New Co~.nants. Th.l""ked,
rUlnN city gate ,. conlr.SlN wIth Ihe
Qpen porto!. The open door '" symbol
of Chri ... whQ uid " I .m ,he door.
AnyQne who em... through me will be
sa,N~ Uohn 19,9). Th.refore, Chris' It
,he gal<way tQ Pa radiSt. Qpen 'Q all whQ
beli.ve In Chm, . nd lead an uptlghl hf.
nu. is .ISl) ,he StnSt in which ,he
mediev.l church portal should he
Inte.pretN: " i, the place of Judgement,
the sa'CW'Y ' Q ('Had'$( which ,s open '0
'he jus.

Sa," ..

16. Conques,
FQY, det.,l of ,h.
'ymp.onum shOWing 'h~ Iiless.ed

327

Bcauh~u;;urDordogn.

(Corliu ), . bbt-y

church ... fS,llnt . !'ioIT. South porul.

tympanum, Th. LaSt Judgement, door

limel: cr.amr.. from Hoi!. t t3(}..40

Image and significance

The Last Judgement
Before a medieval believer emered the church, the House of God, he
encountered the most terrible and severe nem which his :powers of
imagi nation could coniure up, namely the end of the world. The threat
which continued 10 make itself felt, and was sensed wi th even greater
presenti ment in the eariy Middle Ages. was the Old Testa ment threat of
the God of Vengeance. Th is God was no w en throned as th e New
Testament Judge of the World o,'er chu rch portals, within. the new
tympan um, an d constitutes one of the central and most important
inventions of Romancsque sculpture. The Last Judgement W 3 !; the main

328

theme of Ih is new type of Romanesque portal sculpture.

Life in the Middle Ages was always ltved in a state of direct
confrontation with death. The average life . xpecta ncy was thiny 10 thiny
fi~e years, with a high infam and child morta liry rate and nume rous
illnesses and epidemics; as a result, deat h was a constant and powerful
companion, an nerpresent as]>f'Cl of life. As OttO Borst wri tes, ~There
was no other course of aclton for someone living in the Middle Ages than
10 walk hand in hand with Death, as if it was a companion, shyly, flinching. but in the kno wledge that it was everpresent and a part of life on
earth . .. Death was the foundation of life.~ And man's fear of death, as
physical and vi tal as it was, was above all a deep- rooted religious feu For
death was not the end of life, which would - according to the doctrine of

Conqu.rwn.Rou.'~ IA\eyronl. ~bbty

church of S~l.Lnl .... foy. W", porn!, dna.!

of 1M tymp.>lIum: Chns>: as .bot J~ of
lho World. 5ond q = of dot ~lfth
unlUty

the twO ""orlds - continue In the IIfc beyond. Evcry dying person was
thereforc faced with the burning question of whcthcr he would I'CCCI,'C
mercy from Hca\'en or be condemned to thc tormcnts of Hell. The
Judgement that would make thiS deciSion would lake placc on Doomsda)',
whICh was thought of as the end of allage5.
[n the t)'mpanum abo,'c the ....'CSt portal of the abbey church of Saime
Foy In Conques-cn.Rouergue, whICh was produced In the second quarter
of the t..... elfth century, Chnst is enthroned In the centcr. surrounded by a
glonole (photos, pp. 329-3 1}. That In IUrn .s surroundcd by a wreath of
clouds and nars as a reference 10 the hea\'cnly position of the cnthroned
figure. In this sphere four angcis arc also depICted, tWO of theM holding
banderoles on either side of his head, and the other t.....o, by his feet,
catr)'mg torches.
In accordance wnh the \ision of the LaSt judgcmen! as narrated by
~Iallhew, after ChTist has placed the sheep on hiS Tight hand and thc goats
on hiS ]cit (Mall. 25, 33}, hc will with hiS outstrC'lched arms divldc thc
world be)'ond Into Paradlsc on hiS nght and Hell on hiS Icft, a division of
Ihc ..... orld mto Good and [VII whICh dominates the cnllre ChnSlian art of
thc Middle Ages and has been a determining fuctor In culture right until
the present.
III the tympallum of BcaulteusurDord~lIe (photo. opposite}, which
was crcated at roughl)' the same IIInc, Christ is also enthroned In the
ecnter. Sut he lacks a gloriole. and is only a"ompanied by two horn
playing angds. HIS arms arc extcnded horizontally, crcatmg an obvious
allusion to hiS death 011 the Cr()$$ ..... hich IS hdd behmd h.s right arm by
tWO angels. They arc assisted by a th.rd, who IS presenting the cross nails
behind Chnst's left arm. TogC'lher Ihey arc showmg the Qrma Ch"sll, the
oblects whICh tell of his Passion and lhe triumph o,'er death. They are
rather unusual m deplClions of the LaSt judgement, and should be
mterpreted as symbols of that triumph and Christ's malesty, whICh IS
confirmed by the angel above the nght row of apostles ..... ho is arnvlng
carrying the judge's cro ..... n. The enllre design 1$ 3 rderenee 10 the Parousia,
the Sccond Comlllg of Christ, which will usher m the Last Judgement. For
the Weighing of the Souls, the acmal pr()(:es~ of ludgl'ment. still lies in Ihe
future. At the end of time the !tving and !hosc who have Tlsen from the
vave will gather al the foot of the Throne of judgement.
The arch.trave, which is divided Into IWO regiSterS, depicts <kmonlC
bemgs at the bollom, including the SC\enheaded monner from
Re-ciauon. While this is clearly a depiction of Hell, there arc dis
agreen~nl5 as to how the upper reg.ster should be Interpreted. It is, on the
one hand, also conSIdered 10 belong to Hell. sho""mg the Damned being
swallowed b)' monsters. but there IS an alternall"e View that th.:sc events
could correspond to the ~ H ortus deliclarum~ or Garden of Delights of
Herrad of Lt.ndsbcrg {1 125/30-1 195), .n whICh II is wTlllen that ~At
God's biddLllg the bodies and limbs of people onee swallowed by wild
annnals, birds and fish will be brought fonh ag.'lIl1, so that the intact limbs
of the samts Will Tl!iC again from the holy human substance. ~ Earlier
sources also demonstrate the contemporar)' topICality of th.s .deo.l, accord
mg to whICh bemg swallowed can also be underSlood as being disgorged,

an Idea more m III~ with the Parousia.

[n conlTast to Rcaulieu, Chr.st m Conques IS a strict judge ""ho divides
the world beyond inlO Parad.se and I-Iell. The ,'enital dh'iding line runs
Ihrough the trunk of Ihe Cross, m front of whICh is the gloriole and throne,
and through the Weighing of the Souls below. Christ'S right upper arm 15
stretched Ollt horiwntally, with hiS lower arm bent vertically upwards. In
thIS position Christ is, as it were, rcpresenting the co-ordlllale system
where the order of Paradise is to be found. Mar)', Pcter and perhaps the
founder of the mOllastery arc approachlllg him from thaI dirCClion .n an
uprighl posture, followed b)' funher saml5 who cannot be clearly
Identified, though presumably mcludlllg Charlemagne. Immediately on hiS
left are four angcis, one of whom IS holdlllg the Book of Ufe up for hIm to
sec, and another of whom IS swingmg a censcr. The tWO angels facing awal'
from him arc armed with a shield and pennanted lance in order to protect
hnn from the Hell which borders the scene.
]n the lower regiuer is a structure of arcades covered by a pediment,
rcpre$l'ntlng Ihe House of I'arad.se .n the New jerusalem from the
Apoc;llypse.ln the central arcade Abraham is to be found scaled with two
figures who ha\'e been redeemed, and in the Side arcades onc can $CC pairs
of holy men and women. In the left spandrcllhe Hand of God is stretched

329

IRla,ls of fhe tympanum, .he damn!

kIng pushed ,nto fh. raws ofH.ll (lOp).
The Devil mlhroned 'n HoIl .nd rnning
Out punl$hmtn. (oonom)

OPPOSITE

Conquos..,nRouerg"" (A.~ronl. abbty

,hurch ofSa,n,.Foy. Wes, po",I,
,yml"'num. Xcond quart.rofthc t ....elfth
century

QUI towards Ihe begging SI. Fides - Sainle Foy. Behind the figure of
the saini arc images of chains hanging from arcades. nC$e are tht
chains which bound the prisoners who werc spared on her recommendation. In the right spandrel angels aTC opening Ihe graves whicll
the dead are rising from, in order {O gain admission to Paradi$e or
Hell following the Weighing of tht Souls. The doors to bOlh of the next
worlds aTC wide open; they are panicularly noticeable due to their
naturalistic mountings and locks, and arc separated from each other by a
slUrdy wa li.
The Judge's left arm is pointing diagonally down towards the Damned
in hell: ~Go away from me, with your curse upon you, to the eternal fire
prepared for (he devil and his angels" (MatI. 25, 41 ). The order of
Paradise is comrasred with the chaos of the underworld. And stiding
through the gates of Hell are the open jaws of Leyialhan, who is
swallowing the Damned and throwing them into Hell (photo, top}. This
monster, which originated in Phoenician mythology, was, in the Bible. the
monster of chaos. [t was this monster which God defeated at the outset of
creation, but (he same monSler could easily be woken and break OUI of
captivity if a curse was uttered against the existing order. In the Conques
portal showing the Last Judgement, he is depicted as the jaws of Hell,
behind which the Devil reigns. Crowned, and scated under the pediment as
a symmetrical coumerpart 10 Abraham, he is holding a second hellish
judgement, in which he allocates torments according to the severity of the
sins committed.
The hanged man with a bag around his neck to his Jef( is a reference to
J udas, while an exposed woman and a monk, in other words a man of the
Church, are awaiting their hellish tonures. And behind them a knight and
his horse are being thrown head first into Hell. [t is nor, however, justthc
torments of Hell that are being put on view; each of these tortures of the
human flesh is also an exemplary punishmem for human vices and sins.
The fallen knight embodies arroganee, and the monk and naked woman
are symbols of fornication. In the register above it, there is e'en a bishop
being accused of the misuse of his ecclesiastical office, and a glutton is
being hung up by his legs.
In Autun in Burgundy, wM,re the relics of St. Lazarus had been brought
in the eigh th cemury, the Cathedral of SaintLatare was built between
1120 and 1146. Here, too, the Last Judgement is on display in the
tympanum, and in its center Christ is enth roned in a gloriole held by
angels (photo, p. j32). Each of the sides is split into twO registers with the
archi tra ve underneath. The upper one shows the enthroned Virgin Mary
and two apostles as observers of the judgement. In the lower register, to
the Tlgh! of Christ, eight apostl es stand, facing the emhroned figure in the
manner of petitioners. 51. Pelcr with the keys is guarding Ihe emrance 10
the heavenly Jerusalem, which is represemed as an arcaded structure, and
into which the resurrected are laboriously trying to squuze with the
assistance of an angel.
On the opposite side, in one of the most graphic scenes in Romanesque
sculplure, the Weighing of the Souls is raklllg place between the Archangel
Michael and (he Devil, and behind them stands Luxuria with snakes at

330

her breasts (photo, p. 33J), Behind Michael's back, facing Christ, is the
twelfth apostle, who is opening the Book of Life thaI is being weighed for
Ihe Judge. The architrave depicts Ihe resurrected being separated into th e
Redeemed and the Damned by an angel in Ihe cemer, The procession of
tbe Elect on Ihe left, which includes two pilgrims, contmilS with the
army of the Damned on the righI, This frighlened crowd is apprehensi,-ely alld fearfully moving towards the spot where the poor smners
are grasped by Ihe hand of Ihe Devil and pulled inlo a dr'eadful Hell.
The medallions on the uuter archivolts, with the labors of Ihe months
and signs of Ihe Zodiac arc a reference 10 the larger cosmic C"ntext of the
Last Judgement.
The tympanum in Autun is especially vivid due to the dong,ltion of the
figures which, depending on the proportions, almost ",vokes their
corporeality. Added to this is a senS(" of drama in Ihe COlUra&! of Good and
Evil, for instance in the Wetghing of the Souls, which could scarwly be

more graphic. The archangel wrapped in silk - worked in stone using a

filigree technique - stands opposite frightful and grotesque devils with
long, skinny limb$. It is scarcely possible 10 imagine a more urgent way of
visualizing the last da)s when there will be no going back, no repentance,
when turning back will no longer be of any U$l'. The LaSt Judgement, at the
end of time, really is taking place in this tympanum, at the feet of the enthroned Judge. And an)one who walked through Ihls portal in the knowledge of his sins would have had a good idea what was in StOre for him.
And strategically located right in the middle of the LaSI Judgment of
Autun, in the area at the bottom of the mandorla where it touches the
architm'e, at the feet of Christ and yet above the angel separating the Elect
and the Damned, the S(ulptor inS(ribed his signatu re: GtSLEBUltiS HOC
FECIT - ~Gistebertus made this." Placed here right in the visual cemer of
the tympanum, his signature elevales him - and his excepllonal work into a divine sphere.

331

OPPOSITE AND BELOW

Autun ISaon~~-I_OI te ).u,hMt.1 of

Sall,, l ..an:'. ~b'n potu!, 'j"mp~num:
La"Judgomenl. Dt, aill><,low: tho
Woighong of tl><, Souls. I UO-I1 4S

333

The sculptu ral wealt h of ca pitals

The extremely exciting display of God on the portals goes hand in hand with
the mysterio us wealth of symbols of Romanesque sculpture<! capitals in the
interior of churches. Apart from monStrous animal shapes, then- are most
puzzling forms which are sc;arcely intelligible to modem obse""ers and whose
roots lie not only f;ar back in the history of Christianity and the Classical
world, but even in th e countries of the Near East and Africa. Christianization and early monasticism caused those visual worlds to Ix incorporated
into Christianity without being understood, and to be passed on until they
were giwn a new sculptural expression in the ROn13lleSque churches of FrallCt',
Spain and Italy. There was a similar pattern to the handing down 'l1ld interpretation of heathen images incorporated into the Christian imagination in
the countries north of the Alps, and sculptural items there owe more to the
magical wealth of images of the Celts and Teutons.
On the other hand, dirl'Ct use was also made of ancient art. While the
traditional school of thought holds that the ~antiquarian cord- between
the so-called Carolingian Renaissance and the adoption of Antiquity in the
twelhh century had bun broken, Horst Bredekamp has rl'Cently pointed
out that in northern Spain, ~as early as the 1080'5, an adoption of ancient
forms had startoo, and their boldnt'Ss and originality goes far beyond
anything that took place in the twelfth cemury. - This reali~aTion is highly
important to art historians in that it contradicts the traditional thesis that
the French Romant'Sque period was historically pre-eminent o'"er that of
Spain. Additional factors are Ihe high degree of mobility and
-iconographical playfulness- of sculptors, and these contributed 10 the
de"elopment of an enigmatic and iconographically open visual idiom
which cannot be tied down to particular unambiguous meanings simply by
consulting contemporary texts. This more recent research into this
fascinating aspect of art history is in ItS infancy, however, and wherever
one question is answeroo, many others spring up in its place.
The great pilgrimage roUit'S of the Romanesque period 100 countless
prople right across Europe to the famous reliquaries, to th e gra\"t'S of the
Apostles Peter and Paul in Rome, and to the grave of th e Apostle James th e
Grea t in Santiago de Compostela in the extreme north-west of Spain. And
the First Crusade of 1095 to 1099 meant that Jerusalem was also once
more acct'Ssible to Christians. Like modern tourism, these "travelers~
played a large part in the exchange of cultures in the ,\Iiddle Ages. What
they saw on church portals, capitals and consoles when, for example, they
came to Spain from the North did not just shock them, but was taken
home with them as soon as they returned. And if the prople concerned were
painters or sculptors, they would incorporate what they had!t('('n into their
own visual language in order to give those imagt'S new life in the places
where they worked.
BUI above all these, and incorporated in all sermons, was the
penetration of Creation by the work of Satan and his hosts, which lay in
wait for mankind wherever demons could find a home. There were many
such opportunities: rough forests and ravines, storms and threatening dark
douds, illnesses and famines, and also the tempTations of sins of (he f1t'Sh
and transgressions of the Christian Virtues. Whenever a pilgrim walked

334

Ch~uv;gny (Vi.nn.), form ... colkgi ...

chuKh ofSaimPie.r." fou.cap,I.I. in
,h. ~mbuI3'0I}"" Sond half of Ihe
",,".Ifrh cen.ury

ThelXvil di.pl~ying his.I". Wllh .h.

sJ"mool of dea.h

F..aglesn.rying souls.o He.'"en

Griffin ,,"IIh il hand

D gon (symool of de.th) sw.llowing.

Ch",u.n

335

IIonn {Nonh Rh",t-Wt$,ph,lIIial. nllnster

of St. M.rtin. former <ollcgiatt <hurch of

Sf. Co$sius and Sf. Flortn,inu$. Chon

.talls, ,idt wall ,,;th tht Dtvil (lth). S,dt

w.1I with an angel (right'. Limestone.
c.1210

into one of the new churches, he would be confronted with t:he demon
who would give him no peace until it had penetrated him and consumed
his heart and soul. St. Manhew's Gospel gives many examples of how
Jesus dealt with demons, by driving them oUI using Beelzebub (Man. 9,
34; 12, 24-27). Romanesque sculptors made use of this countermeasure in
their $Culptures. ~Demons were 3nached to churches in a stone: form, the
intention being that they would r<"Cognize themselves. as in a mirror, and
be scared off by their own appearance, ~ is how Bredckamp pUtS it.
Many of these prople suddenly recognized their unending loneliness in
the face of Creation and as a result developed something whoSo: existence
has been disputed especially since the ear ly nineleenth ccnrmry - Iheir
individuality. The man)' Romanesque artists' signatures are proof of this.
Many finally took refuge in rhe religious movements and sectS that were
springing up in many places.
Even if Ihe sculptured capitals of Saint-Pierre in Chauvigny do not
reach the high quality of the Toulouse workshops and their sUfl:oundings,
they are nonetheless some of the mQ~1 expressive works of the French
Romanesque period (photos, opposite). They rest on Ihe columns belween
the choir and ambulatory, and present a bewildering unil'erse of biblical

336

and demonic figures and scenes in over thirty sculptures. The Devil
himself, wearing a scaly gannem, stands with his lqj$ apan on the northern
crossing pillar holding a magical symbol of death. Between his legs the fires
of Hell, burning on an altar, arc visible. Another scaly demon is turning
towards him from the len, and on the other side a smooth-skinned demon
is bringing him one of the Damned (photo, top len). On the southern
crossing pillar two eagles, symbols of renewal and resurrection, are
lxaling their wings and holding little naked human figures in their claws
and beaks. These' arc the souls of Ihe Dead which have been redeemed and
arc being carried up to Heaven {photo, top right}. Every sinning Christian
was haunted by the terrors of the ine:<plicable powers in this world and
plagued by premonitions of an impending terrible punishment, and would
therefore hal'e secn the picture of the winged dragon swallowing the naked
souls of Ihe Damned as representing his own fale (photo, p. 335, bottom
len). The griffins, in contrast, which are a mixture of lions and eagles with
human hands growing out of their tails, arc an enigma {photo, p. 335,
bouom right}.
The sculptor in charge also len his signature lxhind in this ensemble.
Similar to Conques, he carved it inlO the highest ranking religious sphere,

frc"ing (Bavana), ",.htdtal of$ . Mary

and S. Cor bin",n. C!"),p', ani"",1
column . H~i&h' 102 inches. c. 1200

Kilpcck (H ..cio. eshlfc), SI. Mary and $1.

David. $ou.h porlal, an,mal cQlumn. M Id
lw~lfth n.ury

337

S,los (Provina of Burgos), monastrry of

Santo Domingo. Thr.. roupled capital.
in tt.. cloi.t~r. c. 108S/1100

the Ige of the impost block of the capilal showing the Adoration of the
Magi: GODfl\tIlUS ME fECIT - -Godfridus made me- (pholO, p. 257).
But the Devil was omnipresent. lie appears noting down man's sins on
the slOne side wall of a choir sf;lll (pholO, p. 336, top lefl) in the Minsler of
St. Manin in Bonn, the former collegiate church of Sf. Cassius and St.
Florentinus. Whil e Ihe demon's head an3ched 10 a human or apparently
human body was meant 10 fend off Ihe Devil, at Ihe same time his bookkeeping was meanl to remtnd membcT$ of Ihe clergy who used these stalls
of their own sinfulness. Nexl to il was something more comforting, however, because the same choir stall containl an angel noting down man's
good deeds (pholo, p. 336, lOp right).
Animal colu mn s
Animals in all shapes populaled fr..... -standing columns or olher supportS,
e:<lending the sculptures on the capilals and baSC!i across the entire shaft.
An emire demonic animal kingdom came together Ihere, either engaged in
battles or intenwined ornamentally, and frequently including human
figures. These: animal columns are a special form of Romanesque sculpture
found mainly on French chu"h ponals, where Ihey form the trumeau or
cerllral support such as the one in Sauillac (photo, p. 264, right), which was
moved inside the church of Sainte-Marie following Ihe destruction of The
portal during the iconodasm of the religious warsi in the .en of Europe,
Ihis form is comparatively rare. There is a little column of this type in the
fa,ade gallery of San Martino e San Michele in Foro in the halian IOwn of

338

RI.oha d' Adda (lomNrdy l, San

S,g..smonOO. Car'l~l: IWIn-I3,lnI
mtrm.id. c. 1100
BOTTOM

Sanguna (Arag6nl, Santa Ma ria la RuL

I)~UlI of ,'''' f~de: . pl",ur arid boola...
cuarurn.. ........ '1 .... n .... of r"" ,,,,'dhh

<'e1!tury
lucca. The souTh Plmal of the church in Ki lpeck, Hertfordshore, III
I:nlliand. contains ;I similar colum n (phoTo. p. JJ7, right ). an((The only
rxample In Germany is 10 Ix- found in the crypt of I:reislng ealhedral
(photo. p. JJ7, lell ). The laller. dating around 1200, depicts .. dramallC
b;(lIle ~t".. etn TWO wmged dragons and kmgllls; TWO of Ihese ha>'e already
betn swallowrd and Ihe remamder are under threaT by funher .snake-like
dragons TlSlng up from below. The IConographICal IIlTerpretal10n of Ih.s
column on p;onicular. which IS execuled in a rather coorse style WIThout
dO$C parallels. can at beSt be made in lerms of a general symbohsm In
which Ihe dragon -figh t I~ IliusTratmg the bailie between Good and EVil.
The eagles in The capllal, sepa rated from the earthly sphere by means of a
magical rope. appear 10 represent ChriSI. The eaST Side show~ the halflength figure of a woman With pl:mrd halT, whICh Ramer Budde belie"M
rcp~nts The ApocalyptIC female figure of MarylEcclM,a.
Im:llge :lind Symbol
The Images which people m thc Middle Ages creaTed of the things ThaT

surrounded them, of animals, forests and mountUIIlS. and of natural events.

were Imbued with a vanety of qUlle different meanings. Nothing, remained
sluck in liS plam physical e"istCTlCe. The greaT DUlch historian Johan
I-Iu,zmga expressed th,s m a uniquely approprlale way' -It was never
forgollen thaT every ObJteT would be meaningless If liS relC"V3llCe went no
fanher than 1[S lmmed,ale fUllC,ion and appcararlCt, and a5 a rMulT all
ob,ect!) proJ:ted qUlle a way Into the next world.~ As a resull, hohness
could appear in ~lm05t ~nYThlng th~t was Visible and Tangible, whether IT
Ix- a tree. rock or ThundersTOrm. This w~s because God wa!) free to assume
3ny form he wal1led in order 10 re"cal himself 10 n13I1kind. This position
demontrntes the medieval expeclation of IllCarnal10n. and despite thelT
hocaThen OI"igins th.cst hltTOphantli could be ~underslood as desperate
3l1enlp'S 10 visuaiou the mySTery of IllCarnaflon before thoc C"o'enT, ~ as
M,reta Eliade says, cauflOllsly inTerpreting Them as the e"ptcratlon of
Chmtperu.
Apan from simple ITems. it was the reprc:scntal1onal world of
$Culplures thaI was f,,11 of symbolism, alld could COnt;lln unambiguous or
many-layered rderenccs. Whether good or eVil. they always accorded with
,hoc special type of medieval world orientation to which they owrd theIr
cxlStellCe. EverythIng was wo,'en togeTher by a network of slmilanties or
3ffilial1ons. and beneath lhoc superficial appearance of a thing. itli otncr
form, of which It was a symbol. lay dorm:IRI. M~1tV<l1 man was conSTanTly
CTC'a llng hnks in hiS "nderstanding between The appearance of an obJ:'
and the supernatu ml world and the higher reahty. Yet even these
refeTC'nces are not always clear-cut and the sole valid Olles, they (:an ahcr at
any TIme and place. be extended or changed inTO something else. The
uammaflon of symbolIC meanings has 10 pTQCetd by emphasiting p;onicular fealUrt!i whICh are relued 10 each other. Fo r uample, the light blue
color of a sapphire 's a chaT3C1enstic that c::on be connected dIrectly wnh
the hght blue of a clear sky. and this gi,'cs the gem 115 role as a symbol of
lleaven. And this IS the POint from which The symbolIC power of Ihe
sapphire can be extended or altcred depending on th e comext.

339

Mari~",.1 near Hdnl"rd, (Low ..

S"uonyl. mon'S'ery chur(h. Lon a
p<"~u'or of ,he c.:..od. takln&" lamb.
c.1140

Rari (A puli.}.S:in Nicola. MaIn po""1.

What is revealed is a specific peculiarity of medieval thought, which in contrast to its more normal cognitive means of recognition basN on a
sequence of cause and effect - is reduced simply to the associations made
with particular outward shapes. Umberto Eeo describes this phenomeuon
with reference to a rather shortened ability to visualize things: -In this
context people h""e spo ken of a spiri!Ual short-circuit, of a way of think ing Ihat does nOI seek Ihe relalionship between two things in Ihe
convolutions of the causal (orrelations between Ihem, but rather makes an
abrupt leap to sec them in terms of Ihe relationship between meaning and
purpose. ~

in Romanesque sculpture. Its core was probably wrinen by AI) 200, when
the canon of New Testament writings was already largely consolidated.
and it was, on the one hand, the product of ancient physical scieuce. BUI it
was also constantly reworked o,'er the course of the following millel1nium,
extended and brought into line with the Christian body of thought.
Animals arc descTlbed in simple language in fifty-five contemplative
and edifying storics, grouped according 10 their particular characteristics
and behavior, and thcsc form the groundwork for equating their qualities
aud behavior with an exemplary Christian lifestyle and even Christ
himself, all this narraled in a touchingly naive allegorical style. For
example, the nature of the -sun 1izard~ is described, and 1\ is said that it
becomes blind in old age. and slips into a crack in a wallrowards dawn in
order for its eyes to be healed by the sight of the rising su n. This passage is
followed by the following recommendaTion, addressed direcTly 10 elderly
people: -When you are wearing the clothes of old age, and the eyes of

The - I'hys iologerThis way of thinking found iTS expression in what is called the ~I'hysio
loger,~ or Kone versed in natural science,- one of the earliest exegetic
referem:e works that can be consulted over the world of animals depicted

340

Befor.11)98

Tor
Charl,eil (Lai",). former priory church of
S.intforrun.t. Cop".1 drpictillf: .n
:ac,oOOt. Twelfth ccntury
BoTIOM

La Ch.i,...lcVi<:omtc (Vcn,,",,).... pit.1

ICrM wnh roba". Twdf,h

~howlng .
c.mur ~

your reason have hecome dulle<! and stupid, go seek the rising sun of
ngh!Nusness which is Chris!," who will open ~Ihe eyes of :Iour he3n
and take away all the darkness. The Physiologer contains the S.oUTCe- of all
those famous Christian ammal allegories, such as the lion who ,conce-als his
tracks and is therefore the symbol of the Saviour who moves unseen
amongSt men. Another example is the phoenix, wrapped in precious
stones, which would fly up to the cedars of Lebanon every 500 years in
orde-r to fill its wings with pleasant smells, burn itself in the al.tar fire and
which, when pulled from the ashes by the priest In the shape of a worm,
would grow new wings. Like Christ, it could lose its life and then come to
life- again.
Romanesque sculptu~ contains numerous depictions of atnimals and
fJbulous creatu~s, which can only be comprehende<! by m,:ans of this
enigmatic - and by no means definite - symbolic and allegorical perception,
one which has been largely lost to modern understanding except in those
cases where it can be deduced by sources such as the one above"
M

l'layen. enterlainen and acrobat s

"Jocnlatorc:s, M as traveling entertainers were calle<! in medleval Church
lMin, occasionally appear on capitals. They were people wit:nout status.
home or honor, which made them Mdlshonest people." Their social
independence also made them outcasts, thou~ J)C'ople admired their
artistic skIlls at fairs. Ingeborg Teo:laff believes that depiCiions of them
were osed to represent the sins of the mind. "If they symbolize intellectual
speculallon or mental contonions'," she writes, meaning the "ery contorted positions the acroblts were deplCled In. ~it comes down to the same
thing: the Churchs proscription of undogmatic or hercrical thinking.
mixed with lny however involuntlry respect for its und .. niabl .. spiritual
power.~ While the acrobat whose legs are twisted ,.w er his shoulders and
whoo;e hands are stmklng hiS beard. depicted on one of the capitals of the
Benedictine abbey of Saint-Forlunat in Charliell {photo. right top), may
indeed suggest such an idea, he su~ly has a more modern purpose. Horst
Bre<!e-kamp, in a study of the console figures on the roof of San ~hrtin in
Fr6mista near Burgos, has shown JUSt how much these depiCiions were
connected to imml-rliate apotropaic purposes. This church, which was
built between 1066 and about 1090. and was the seventh stage on the
pilgrim rOUie to Santiago de Compostela that ran south of the l'yrellees,
has .craine<! its importance largely dlle to these sculptllres, numbering
over 400 in total. Naked acrobal$ of both genders appear in all sorts
of pleasurable contortions. and this is a warning that unbridled behavior
is likely to lead to damnation. In addition. the faces of a group comprising
a musician, acrobat and two wrestlers in laChai~e-le-Vicomte {photo.
right bottom) a~ contorted into animal masks. revcaling that they are
possessed by devils.
Demoni1.3tio n of the scxes
While the proscription of the unbridle<! body was dearly .. xpressed in the
scene depicting music and dancing, acrobatics and illusion,;. the damnation of sexual matters was tlIrne<! into a kind of body-search made

341

'0.
Coml'Ol'.rla (G.lici~), call>edra) of
$an.iago. Pucr.. ok lo. Pla " , Id,
'ymp.num: "dull..... or Orlgonal Sm,
SttQruI d,"".<k of .... (wdfth cmtury

BOTTOM

Aulnay(l(s",nlognc (OI3,..,n,.~ lanl'me), fo''''''' roll'Sia church of

S.m"p",",.d . b.Tour. Cap".1 In.1It
ap~: IXmon wi.h cfttping .oM'!.
BegInning of .ht ,,,,,11th .entury

stone. The character of these sculptures as the "mrans of warding off

fears, borne by pilgrims in particular, is >,ery sharply defin~. The capitals
of many Romanesque churches depict animals or humans in bonds,
mainly formoo of coiled vines which were belic"..d by contemporary
theologians to form part of Satan's hunting weapons, and these so;enes
sometimes COlluined sexual and even faoJ aspects. In Aulnay, for
example, the vine foliage is being excreted by an anus demon who is
holding his legs up in order to be "ble to set Satan's bonds on their faecal
way infO the world (photo, p. 342, bonom), wh ere Ihey will tum into
devilish snares for sinners.
This idea of devilish machinations was not juSt conjured up OUi of Ihin
air. Pseudo-Hrabanus Maurus considered Ihe world to be a tangled forest
full of demons whose sole purpose was to torment mankind. And in his
Elhym%gille, Isidor of Seville wrote that criminals, whose deeds had in any
case forfeited them 10 the Devil, had to eal magical plants which transformed them into all sorts of different animal shapes and hybrid creatures.
Just as these crapers, depicted on countless Romanesque (apitals,
grew out of demons' orifices, so they could only tum into monstrou~
beings if they had taken Ihe same path into this world. This shows that
these flourishes were by no means iust some ornamental acccssory, but
were rather the "frame and catalyst~ within which terms allthesc demonic
apparitions and demonizations had to be understood.
The demonization of sexuality In the depiction of the sexual org.lus
themselves is visually crude to the point of groresque distortion_ A naked
monk playing a lute on the nonhern side of the tower of San Martin in
fromista, for example, is making a point of di splaying his penis. That this
was more than 3 remote theme depictcd In out of the way architectural
corners is proved by its presence in prominent arch itectu ral sites. On the
pediments of Ihe same church a phallus man appears tWO consoles away
from a vulva woman. And at another site in San Martin is another phallus
man, whose penis has been drastically extended to the thickness of his arm
(photo, p. 343, left).
One of the most puuling and exc~ptional depictions of a vulva woman
is in Kilpeck, England (photo, p_ 343, right); Bredekamp thinks that the
version in f romista served as a model for this and Olher examples, such as
a console figure in St-Quentin-de-Rancannes, because the founder of the
church of 51. Mary and St. David in Kilpeck, Oliver de Merlemont, built
his church after he had made a pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostda and
had been impressed by what he saw there and etl roule. The figure, dating
from the middle of the twelfth c""nury. is steeply foreshortened and its
head is not female as n"'ch 3S demonic; her arms are folded underneath
her legs, like the acrobat in Charlieu, and she is using her hands to open
and display her vulva. This depiction, call~d a MSheda_na_gig,M meaning
Mllgl y as sin, ~ had some counterparts in Romanesque seulpture. The
capital with the twin-lailed mermaid in San Sigismondo in Rivolto
d'Adda, Lombardy (photo, p_ 339, tOp) is also pan of this series. Tht'St'
graphic depictions of female genitalia do in faCT date back to the SlOne
Age, and can be found in many Asian counlries. This image gained
mYlhical dimensions both there and in Ancient Greece. This must have
H

342

hom' ..... (Pru.1/Kt <>f P~kncia l. San

Mort,n. Con ..... fisu ...: pkoU"" .... n.

c. 108511090

",l..... k (11~rrlord..." ... I. Sf. Mary and 51.

I)~yod. Comok figure -Shtdaruoft.
.\I,d ..nlflh ....."'ry

made i{ an even more powerful wilness 111 Romancsque Europe [0 Ihe

thaI pl~gued membl'l"$ of Ihe dergy and monks m p:!nlcular.
The motIf of bemg sw~lIowt:<l has connotauons wllh tilt; vulv~. Reing
ntcn by buslS ~nd demons, onc's clH"my or opponcnl. was a widespread
.mage for tilt; enlrance to the underworld m the Old Teslament, and during
the: Romancsquc penod ;t m<anl passIng through the laws of til(' IkvII. ~s
depICted on [he Iympanum m Conqucs or Ihe capnal m Chauvlgny. TlK-rc
arc countless vanauons on th.s theme bolh on Romancsque capitals and
anImal columns. fo.lany Cl<amplcs appear m both bIblical ar.td contem
porary tUIS. m which this yery oJX"nmg [0 [he Inferno is brought into an
1I11elicctuai asscxialion with the "momh of the vulva. ~
The horror of hying m a lembil' world and knowing through which
oJX"ning onc had l'nlcred it had thc effcci. quitl' apart from all ascetic rcac
tions, of elevating II to a fic{ion in whICh all ~xual matlers wen con
sidered to be demonIC. Thai this opemng was at the same time the goal of

male desire. under autonomous femalc control. inevilably led to a deep

~ated fnr of the vulya. whICh was cxprt"S~d m countless plcturcs as being
eatcn. QUill' aparl from the dangel"$ of the )ournc)' whICh c"cry pllgr.m
!ravchng through France and nonhern Spam h~d to endure. he was also
constanily immerscrl in a range of feclmgs rangmg from fear to terror. This
desp'te lhe fact Ihal ;t w:as Ihe p,lgnmage lisclf that was supposed to frcc
Ihose pcopk takmg pan from thclr tud.flonal torment caused by the
IheologlCal Slate of sm. For there w;u no way of tellmg whether the
apotrop31C Intenllon of wardmg off the demon ic by means of these: Stom:
figurcs aClually worked. The attempt 10 usc II enl1rely for [he pu rpose of
prcscntl11g these repressive morals in fact led to [he imagina tive libcr:uion
of sculptu re. As Bredekamp pUIS it. " Having been requ ired to condemn
Ihe liberation of the senscs. they deplcled Evil w convincingly that their
sculplural skills ended up drawmg OUI and recording somethmg thai
should rather have been kept at a d' 5Iancc. ~

o~ss,ons

343

MUII!C (Torn-c,-Gar<)flne), I"rmer

abbey.hurch "fSainl-Ple'R. V;'c;,ern
w311 "I,he SQu,h p<>,ul narthex, <leu;!:
,he lX~iland luxuna. 1110-11}5

This almost archetypal threat is accompanied by moralistic 3SptS,

such as the tympanum of the Puerta de las Plarerias in Santiago de
Compostcla, where a sensuous woman with long, loose hair and a
transparent garment is depiclCd holding a skull in her lap (phmo, page
342, top). She is traditIonally interpreted as an adulteress holding the skull
of her lover, but a more rent view is that she is Eve in the form of the
~Mother of Death,~ Her physical sensuous presence is very noticeable,
however, and it reveals how Evil can gain its atttaction by the form it
assumes. The visual raming of the demon of gender managed, as it were, to
force it to be unleashed.

344

Nakedness and sin

Given the general condemnation and ourlawmg of everything to do with
the body, it is astonishing that so much space in Romanesque sculpture
was devoted to nakedness. It was this ostracizing of the flesh that constandy challenged sculptors to come up with new ways of depicting nudity
within the ambiguous limits of moral condemnation and sculptural form.
And the positions of these images were usually prominent architectural
sites, so that one could not help bot see the figures when approaching.
One of the most famous depictions of l.uxuria is on the western wall of
the porral entrance in Moissac (photo, bottom), Integrated into the Story of
Dives and Lazarus and the sin of avarice, it is the last P.1rt of (hat sculplural
program, She is modeled III an impressively naturalistic ma'lJler, and the
countermo,ement of her head against the d[f('Ction she IS walkmg in is
extremely expressive; her body is naked, and lIS sensuousness is further
accenru3!Cd by her long wavy hair, a true image of voluptuousness. She is
followed by the Devil who has a distended stomach and grotesque face and
he is gripping her by the right arm whICh she has raised. Is she his mimes~ or
the victim of h,s punishments? The reprehensIbleness of her actions is cerlainly symbolized by the snakes, C\'er-present symbols of evil, which have
bluen into her breasts. [n addition a tood is anacking her genitali,.. This is
where the iconographical content becomes more complicated, bec,llIse sir1(e
ancient times the womb was often depicted as a toad, and the laller wa~ also
occasionalJ)' shown helping during births. In the Middle Ages, it was more
likely to embody the animal shape of a ckmon, so scveral symbolIC meanmgs
merge at this point. Despite the considerable damage, the dl":lmatic effect
that these figures must have had on contemporary minds IS still ohvlous.
The dir~t conn~lion Ix-tween greed and uncha~tity found In many
Romanesque visual programs such as ,hose in southern France is a genuine
moltf in Romanesque art, or to Ix- more precise, an expression of contemporary social changes. By replacing the theological sin nf pride with gr~d
as the source of all e"il, a new and growing strarum in society W3S attacked,
on,' that was about to establish itself as an urban bourgeoisie by means of
collecting material we<llth through activities such as moneylending. pfO([ucing
jtoods and trade. The exchange of money and goods increasingl)' freed the
mdlvidual from his feudal oblig.~tions, as he was more frequently in the
position of being able to pay for things th<ll he hJd previously had to work
for personally. Unchaslity, considered to be the sensuous, early libertarian
counterpart to the economic pursuit of profit, complementttl this new free:dom of the individual, which tended 10 withdraw people from the sphere of
influence of the Church, and which also led them to question the religious and
moral basis of Ihe feudal system of the early Middle Ages. Seen from this
poim of V1CW, thc program of reliefs in Moissac is lcss of:l gencrJI religi .ms condemnation of lhe vices depicted there and marc in the war of the resistance
'ed by the clergy against gradual historical change in medieval society.
Nudity was. abo,c all, the condition of mankind in Pamdise,:1 condition
(ree of shame and sin. Betrayed by the cunning of the serpent and the
temptaTion to become godlike and clever, the original woman risked th",
death of herself and all her descendants. And in the instant of the original
sin she recognized herself and her guilt. One capital in Fromista (photo,

Au,uII (Sa<.in..-.,'-wl<"J. c;uhrdral of

S,un,-Lalar<. h~. from ,he door IImol of
Ior"",r I'IOnh "Ansel" ponal.
c. 1130. Amun.)<'lustt Rol",
rh~

p. 290) acts as a type of snapshot of this process. Adam and Ese are standing
drew in the robes of God's creation on either side of the forbidden tr~,
and the serpent is winding ilself around its trunk. At the very "lOmen! that
EIe reaches for Ihe apple with her Idt hand, she plact:s herself and all of
humanity into a condition of sin, making her aware of her shame so thaI
they hal'e to cOI'er their nakedness. Adam expresses his horror by clasping
his right hand 10 his throat. And alread)' rhe demons that will accompan)'
them from now on are presem on either side.
The Eve of Autun (photo, lOp) is sensuous and seductilc lik,: no other in
Romanesque art. She is presumably alro a work of that Gislt:bertus who
signed Ihe tympanum, and is a remaining fragment of the Iintel of the
north portal of Saint-Lazare. The figure of Adam has been lost. Supported
only by her right elbow and knees, EIe is moving through Ih,~ Garden of
Eden as if she were the serpent itself. She is looking towards Adam, to
whom she is whispering instructions to do what she has JUSt done, using
her right hand, held against her mouth, 10 amplify whal she 1$ saying; her
left hand is reaching behind her, in order to pick the apple on a branch
which is being bent towards her by the clawed hand of her seducer. The
presence of her feminine nudity is heightened further by the anatomically

exaggerated way in which her upper body is turned towards the observer.
There is no other example of a figure of Eve lying in such a position,
and it would remain a puzzlc were one not to consider the contemporary
mcaning of this position. The liturgy of penance demanded that the
penitent should li e stretched out on the floor, supported by his knees and
elbows. The sculplor incorptJraled the penance that could be expected into
the process of the seduction, blll it IS a queSTionable connection, as the
position of penance seems rather like the movemenr of :1 Sllake. cuhninarillg in the seducti,e way Eve is whispering to and looking at Adam. In
this way, the meaning of this original example of a mortal sin changes into
an enigmatic play on the senses in whICh Gislebenus expresses something
quite outragoous. He uses this theme in order to provoke whal he is
actual1)' supposed to be warning against.
This figure of Eve is indeed the high point of a highly ima ginative epoch
in European scul pture, in which the freedoms of the as )'et unassimilated
power of depiction had been largely exhausted by what were by no means
anonymous sculplOrs. Soon, in the figures on the west portal in Chartres,
this freedom would be abrorbed by the Mspirituality of the l'irtual1y lifeless
body" and transformed into 3 weakened and affirmative visual conten!.

345

Alt p,,,,,,. from :om. M i. in Taull.

Wood. pa,med. T",~lfth centu.y.
lIa",0I0n3. Mu...,d~ Arr~ de Cataluii.
BOlTO.\!

Alp"o!>;,ch. chu.ch pow made of turn.d

round p'" of ",ood. T""oIlthcentury

Wood.n 5Cul p.ura

Wood wao SO wido1y u!oed In lhe M,ddl.
Agcs and 'he proponion of" used in 'he
production of sculp'u,cs was $0 ~ltt.111
Ih., it could be igno.w wu. " not for
the .xi".n"" of ""'"" outsfOndmg p''''''_
of Romanesqu. an. Although the wood
ca.v... "'~.., quick 10 d,~t.nc. themsoh'"
from <>lh c.afrsmen hey "'.... still
cons,dored ,nf.roor .0 other .rrWI. in
Iheir r..ld. for usu.lIy ,hey only producw
the bosic ,n.x!0I which was b .., d"",.
.tW wi,h magnif",ent colors or gilded
w;Ih gold 0. silver. How,,.r. those "",ulp
lu ... ""hose coats of poml have now gone
or whoso gilding has b<:tn g ... du.lly
"m<'W durong rcst0r311on wwk reve,,1
,he rugh ani"ie <landa.d. to wh .. h , .....
wood ...... v.rs wo.ked.
Aparr from the <lorn,ion of the build
"'&. 'he euw."s I h .1... includ<-d the
production of chu",h ,menors. and the
e ving< on lhe doors ,,~ mosl vi,ibl~
1o Ih. o utside world. Th,. typo of sculpIU" was bound '0 .h urface. and k>w
"lief W3$. as i, wen:. ,he prescribed means
of depictiun. [n the field of .hu",h fur
nish'ng" th" W30 d.,.loped further to
mdud. the p.odu .... 'on of p,es of IlIgh
relief as well .. almost fr~'$undi ng fog
ur.. like the 'ndiv,dually e.rvC"d figu ...
.1tachC"d 10 ,h ha rp''':' in San,. " b ria
,n Taull d.llng from ,h. ,wdf'h cen,ury
[photn. lOp). Th. famous ketem in 'he
mona, .. ry .hu.ch at Alp,,<hach (pholO.

p. 3501 ,s a comp[ndy frttsrand",g

p,,,,,, of sculp'ure.
[n ,he .arly Middle Ages Ihe'''' uose one
of Ihe mos' widely used "",ulp.ur3[ forms
of lhe Romanesque ponoo: Ih. enthronl
M.donna .nd Ch,ld. rep~osen"ng the
ud.. sap',"'",e. or ,hro... of wisdom
[phmus. pp. 35 ]fl.). h 's ofr,:n ompared
10 tloe icons ,n By>.antt"" ~" b<:tau"",
tl\(, .. is a s[fic. h ... arie q\l~I"y ru ,"
fro",~I"y. E'~n ,he ch,ld . who ."her sn.

stands ,n front of Mary mpha,ite<

'his mon":'IIt of ,",v.my which did not
bogin to di .. ppo~r until around 1200.
wnh 'he ,nc....,ng d.p, .... 'on of I>h.y
.urning ru""ard he child. The magoif".nl "";If ,n ""h"h lhey are pamled Can
only lead 0ftC 10 guns.1 .he signif... "",
'htS<: figur("< had wuh,n Romane"!u"
culp'u ..... tim<: when ,he p.""" .. of
Ch.is, i.niH,ion caused the ven ..a"on of
he .. hen mo.h .. goJ<iC"SS<: com",on '"

(>f

numerous '<g,ona[ euh 0 be 'rans

{.... d to ,he cen.ral figu .. of M.ry Ihe
VirS,n Mmh ... Wh ... figure< _ wnh
."t,p"on of ,he n..h,onrs - w ... en
mely gilokd. the ,ntent,on was to ,mnate
e,,!,<n,ivt g...1d,mi,hs "",urs. Sinc. ,Itt
malority of the sUtue.......... y to
mo"c . hey could be .emo,W from Ihe"
usual pos'"0n On .h It.r and used ,n
l"urg ..,[ evenl . procc ...... ns .nd .. I'g"
ous plays.
I>bny .... Iorfully p.a"'Ied cruc,fix.s
(phOlos. pp. 3~8ff.) w... prod ...C"d ,n
wh,h CItro" i< usu.lly dtpi..ed na,lw
.lw o ,h. C......,. Thi.eomplied wi,h ,he
conrempornry emph",i. on the suffering.
endu d by thc Son of God represen
ling a triumph o"e. ok"h. Dep,er'ons of
a dead Ch",. (til lhe Cruss .rc r..,r. Wi,h
a ~ UtpllonS ,he dothrs on . h. figu ..
ron .." eithe. of a long fined Tunic on ,he
!inng. and 10,,,..,I01h on thc dead
CItri". In .dd;""" '0 IhtS<:. num<:rOU,
types 01 .. ucifixcs p..:uhar .0 d,If'ren,
.eglOn' dc"eloped. of ",h"h so"eul
became prO'otypes for .n,ire series. on,
."ampl. being.1tt Volro San. o ,n L"'3.

.b.

Cologn. (North Rh,ne\t:'es'phaloal, SI.

M.roa ,m K.pi,ol. ufr door, dn.il:
Annunc,.non '0 ,h. Shepherds. B'rrh of
CItro,., lhe Thr K,ng' befo.. Herod,
Ador.,,<.>n <.>f,he M'g,. Wood. pa,nted.
En,i.. l\(,igh, of ,I\(,doors 190 i",hes.
wid'hofrh,sdoor9] inches.c. 1065

346

f'r"~lnc .,fGomoa. Christ io Maju.y on

.h" Cross, f,om ,he OJo, '''gIon. Wood.
Heigl" ofChn~. 36 inchu. ""d t><... lfth
c"n.ury. B.>"e1ona, Mu~ d. Art. d.
Cat.lun.

348

OPPOSITE

Colasn. jNorrh Rhll"l Wu'rhaha~, SI.

Grorg"" Crucifix. Walnu . H",ght
77 Inches. c. 1070. H".d of ,h"C,ucifil
Christ. Cologne. Schou,S"n MUStum

OPI'O,ITP
l'frn, from .M monaslC'f)' ChUKh of
Alp ...o..eh. UPPfI h..>lf. wood. p.tlntN.
Hfoghf SS Inchn. Mod rwdfth cmtury.
F............."'<If (~.Wum.m'-BI.
P.OIcs.~nl

n.hron..J M~doonn~ and Quid, from

Rarosnc. LnMn ","00<1. p.aintl. Hflglu
)6 Inch<.;. c. 1150. ZurICh.
Sch""fluri",hes landes.mu.."m

n,hn:>nl Madonna .nd auld, from

10"'10. Wood, "",nll .. lIh LtU<1 ~ml'
PUCIOll"I~.I-koghl"4 Inches. c.
12 10. Rom<', Museodl P"],,uo Vmnu

""mh chu.ch

351

Au'orgno. Enlhronod M.do"". and

Ch,ld. Wood, coppo .,lvorpl...d.
Height 29 in' ...... Twelhhcentury.
Orclnl (Puy-d.-OOm.!. Nor,,Dame

352

EnThroned Madonn. and Child. "Not ...

D."",I.Rru,,",." Wood. ""Tntod and
""rtlally gIlded. "",ntmg and gildIng
r",orN in I S60. H.ighl 19 inches.
x.:ond half of .hc .".<Inh Unlury.
Tournu. (s;'on ."Tl.oi,,!. abbey ,hurch
ofS,lnt.Ph,hbrrr

b"hn::>n<'d "bOOn"" and Ch,I.!, f."", ,'''

hurrh ,n Gtr. Wood, p',n,td. Ik"",21
"",Ion. T",tlfth ..,nfury. llarctlona.
\iu .... <k Ant <k Calalui\a

~INO<th Rh,,~.W~lpluhal .
An",1 from a Iioly xpukh.t iVO"P.
PorIar ",ood. p',n,td.
15 ",cion.
c. 1180.ik.hn. Sfa.,hc'" Mu~
Prrut>,,,,.... KullU'brs," Kulpl:urr

lit"",

",ll<ry

35J

HildtsM,m (lowt:. Saxony), c.lhedral.

\l:'fil po".I. Bcmward door. Doo. ,n ''"'0
Stttions "'lt h ,d ,ds dop,clmg Old .nd
N ..... Te ... m",,, 5CmtS. Compl.,ed ,n
l OIS

B.on.e sculp'D"'S
Bron.e i,con.iderd.M mos. v.luable of
. ht: bue ",. Is. It 's nOl " Slnglc: metal.
howe"" bul an .lIoy of coppr. with
ei.l>tr flu Or .me; Ihe proponion. uood
vary according 10 .he do", .q:ion and
.'-en workshop wM~ Iht: piNes We"
p.odud. B.onte is Ihe mOS' popula.
metal among<t a.flsm"" bttau.. " IS
re1."voly t:asy 10 ""ork do.pilt: its hard
"""'. and bttau.. " ands up w"II,o ,h.
V.flOUS elf..." of Ih. we.lhn Alloy.
wi.h high proponi"". of fln or .i"" ha"e
'M advanlag. of being p.nicularly nuid
m tht:tr mol,en St.'e and can reproduce
"'-"" Ihe fj""". of do ,I. wht:n pourtd
,n.o .he mould .
The u,ual process for tht: c3Sflng of a
sculp,ure in Ih. M,ddk Ages c"" ...ted
of produc'ng a wu model whICh w
co,..,rtd wilh a laY"r of clay o. plas'er
(see 1M figur .. on p. 379). The finng of
,ht: caSt mado ,h. wax melt O"'''Y kaYlng
hollow OO~ ready rQ be filled with
molte" """.1 Th,s is known eln
perdu., or 1M I",.wax pr<.>CfiS. The caS'
wu SKurtd
bed of ",nd SO Ihal il did
nOl break. Nume.ous ,..ms ""surd ,ha,
when the moh"" me,.1 wa, poun:d in .
lhe alf could ....... pe and the ca" would
be ~lItd compie,dy.
In""PIIUn' on tWO mcd .. val asrs Sum
rna" .. Ihi, complex p.OCftS ,n cunci ..
,.,ms. One, on a lion's head door knob
00 Ttle. C..hedral, "Y" "\Vh., wax
cr ,ed. fire ha, ukrn and bron.e ha,
n:produttd.- Wh .. ",'as SO reword'ng for

In"

,h. Jrtl>l ond hIS work abour .hi. rran.

formation of a $Culp.ur" frum....,. mal.r
..I into a nother " ... , Ih., i, was the ... ul<
of" SUC'tt\.Sful brontt co". But ,he~ ""
al,,"YS an awa .. n... of .M txpt:nsc of
th,s proc.... for if Ihe c.<ting wen'
wrong. i. could no. be repeat.d unless a
second wax modd wa. productd. The
scc<lnd ,nSCflp"oo. on the lombslone of

Two detaIls from the Bcmward door: doorknocke san ... f.om , h.lik of JfiUS (I.n).
Eltpulsion from the Garde" of Eden (nghl)

354

Uon "I Iluk. "H.nry d" !.Jon." Bwnu

ropy. Brun .....,lCk (La ...... SU""Y). Ca.. 1e

oq .... rt. OngmalalSoO bronu. 1163169.
I\ru ......"k. H.fUl!I An,on Ulrich
MUlnlm

~ WoIh.ordl 01 Rom In Au~rr;

CalhNral. r..... lI. lho d ...."'" of labor
.. tu~h .ho
"f bron ",..Iplura in...,.]vtd: "Ono nudr "'" ,n wnand Konrad In bronu," For lUFf obtts
bollloundt ...
u... ~lIy .... I... td. I....
lhoy spK'ali .td In prodUCln~ b" ~.m
and \'I<R '~l'<'rl(1Xtd ,n dral,n, .. uh
b'g< amoun" 01 molltn mchl.
lnoc"p' .... n. ,uch al lho onr abo~ .1",
I,ll .... pecif" names. and wh,le " ... know
1",1, mo .... abou, "0"0" and ,I>< brorur
fOl'""" "K"",.,d" Ihan " ... a .... loI.lll>e
..... nun.,Mlcos knuw ul many ",I><..
",dudlng R.n ... "I I luy. wt.o c..... red Ih,
f.mou, lunt,n t,c&< Iph"' .... oolloml; 0<
Odt,,,,ul "I Bentv,nlo. wt.o mad. 1M
h.on't< d.uocs ul Tro,. Catht'd llpboto.
". 35'1 OJ wdl," ,Ioost 01 Son Cionnn,
In Capu. and s..n &molon..... m
8cnt>'('nto. I\;Itlunllf of Tran, and
8on.1nno "f 1'1.........1... w,,"hy of ROle.
The qllnt"'" .tI><t; hnr. thoough II
~ ,n ,I>e ~.. .., of ,nocnJ'f"""
on
ClIplul ,)'mp.1num. and oc,,",hI
,t'C'I....1 "'"' '" '0 wh.o, n'('JIt _ art

rn>d"""'"

_t.

J561 has ""'m arms spann'I1fl filt ..... lett.

and h,ghli&/t .. ,hr ,n...llI.;"" problem.
oI.och ot>, ... h. lions' fcttt a.o styl,""
~.lIy "m,I 10 II" I"", .." ...... Jphoco.
lopf. Mating" Slrong res<""bbnco ,0
dr,a,l ""h a. ,hr "'al'<' of lIS ...... and
m..IIt. Tht fa"""" Bru"""",k lion, ....h"h
"u I"obably butd 00 h.lian modds.
ouch .s ,hr .v.n mo .... famous R"man
I.up> o ran&" of mtd.. v.1 l,on $1a.1K'$
"hoot eX"""'" " confi."led only in
",ml.O sou.(es. ,. II>r old .." .... m.'nlog
f.ct ... nd,ng ,h""d ,men ..
'ue of
MIddle Ages.
Outing ,he .",<llth c,",u<y. counly and
ch,."I".: ....'.ys of bit and
t.x~mt
'''' ..... ''ngly f"..d and soph;""a,td.
"I',ally ,n the f",ld of tahle ""'r\l"Ifl'S;
,h,s wos .eflentd ,n ' M p..... d""ion of.
nunthe. olb.OIIU'-CISI ",,!ua""'nlies
of ..annul dts.gll$. ,,,,Iudlng ,host ,0 1M
fur-rm ...1 rogurn, whoch
ON! for
" .. sI""8 ,I>e hand.dutl",. n>eal.

,h.

"'''''I ...

""''''''J'S

".go

"'= ..

duh", "'uh "",ID or "-Mil... " wu

,,,",,, d"nto ..ho WOff '')''''1 to k.~ ..
"""""",110 ,~IYC$.
N ..""""",. hoghly omalt bron.., (hur~h
doon h.o~ bun w,II~. AmonpI
!hom ..... rt.. fIern"..rd door .. HIkIeohnm..
dann, f.om 101.5 IpIw:Mo$. p. JH1: 'M
,ogh, ....
on ,ach h.olf "f ,hr "'dtpon K"," from 'k Old .nd New
TCSUmt", . The .Imoo! ..,...... 'ctn/ooc
h,gh candtllbra ,n I\rum"'lCk (pboco, p.

1,,"

fonT, Work of Rm ... dr Huy. Bronu.

Early rwdlthe,n,,,,),,
utgc (Bo.,&>uml. s..,n, l\;Inhtkmy

355

B,un;;"'ick (Low", s..~ony), CaTMd .... 1.

C.nddab .... wiTh .. v.n "rm~. 8.on...
champl., . H.,ghT.pprox. ]92 II\chrs.
In .. ns l"b. b.... da.ing from 1896.
c. ] 170--]]9Q

356

HlldcshClln (/,.,we, Saxonyl. cafhed 1.

FOil!. lito""". I'k,ghl 68 Inch ... d'3m<1rr
38illchts.c.I125

357

V~rona (W~IO"s..n uno. Door of rht

wes. por.al. RIghI U<:I1on.dctail".ht T.".,
ol }esst. mounrrd propht., San ~o fi.h,ng.
healing 01 tht pnna ..., $3.1~a.ion of Ih.

J>V>><>><oJ .. an" G~Ii"n ... and San Zen..,.

Wood. bron~ . Entir. h.,ght 192 ,nchts.

width 144 inches: he.ght of po<lur. p.1"",I.
approx. 17-20 ;nchrs. wid'h apP'""'~' 16-17
;nch<s.c.1138

358

OPPOSITE

(Apulla,.cathrdra1. Do<nof . ht
"'<s' 1"'rul. Qdc" .. u. olllt"",.".o.
B.onu. lle.ghl 146 inches. ",id.h

Troi~

8 1 i1k.ht..

11 1 ~

C.o.i~. 01 5._ Anno. lIory. He,gh.

8 ,nches. c. 11)63. S..-gburg,
Trc~,uryofS,. 5.. ..... ,u.

Cuwe. with scenes from.he childhood

01 ChrIS, ~nd ,he lil~ of S,. Nichol ...
From ."" a'U ruled by.he PI~nl3S"n.".
(Anion!). Ivwy. Heigh, appro". S mches.
Mid .w~lhh ~nlu,y. London, Vocro.i.
and Albert Museum

Church "<~'urcs
Gold and ,il, h~"" always bttn h,ghly
,alL>td. In .he l\hddl~ Ages, howe' ..,
thes.e priou. IMtal. could no. com"",e
wi,h ,he nlue ~""chtd to reliqua"es. As
a rc."it ,hey w~re romb",ed '" form a
"ngk h'ghly est.. med "Ofk 01 art. Gold
a1>ll 'ilver were 'he favon.e ."b.r"""es
used to make 'he romai"" ... of rel~_ It
wa. """.,nly 'mporun! that ,hese .......1.
~hon. ,,;,h spa.kle .h en".ncc<I
o!>st.ve ... , but e,cn more SO ,h" 'he
",0 of ,he", a mon .,ery or church
pos..-ssed. 'he gno.... waS its importa""e
and po". '. Thy also, howe~.r, exp,es
..-d .he <ks'''''o make .pprop.;ate Te<:ep""
,.cles for ,he bodily .. m.il1$ oJ 'amts,
~nd lessc.-wdo,,-.d mon .... "es had 10
romen, ,hemselves w,th lesser metal. lik.
bronle and cop~ . lIause tel,o:i were so
pue,ous, U Wll' panicululy diffICuit '0
geT hold of .he",. Howe,c . no .Iu. Of
church rould be COflStated wuhou'

360

havinS at lea., onc. Th. foundtng of

many ""w Roma,..-.que churches and
"'una,'m" cau..-d .he demand for relics
10 grow '0 in<.-Nible PfOJIO",ons. Theft
Or f<><gery frequcntly controbu.ed [0 .he
wondrou. ,rocrcas.e ,n the numher of
relics, a. did ,h. di,-i.ion of a cwpsc.
Teeth. na,I" h.", hand 1>11 feet ~ ...
worth ,he mIIS[ a, relie-!. Ikhmd ,h,. waS
'he as.umplton ,h ,h. satnt w presrn,
in ev~ry pan of hi. body.
Nowadays. one .. "l1h ,ak.n ab.:lck if
one ...... med,ev.1 m.nuscnpt in which
there',,, drawing of. bi.hop cu.ung ,he
a.m off a sa,n,, corpse. fo, ,,,,,h. ,h'ng
i, unheard of today. In ,he M;d<lle Ages,
how.,'e~ i, ... ould b.:Ive been quote
'.prehen"bl. to mtSS 'he opponun,'Y'O
CUt " p,t off a sacr.d body tn order
10 IP~~ " '0 one, church 0< mona".ry.
Bi'hop Go,dred~, cenainly had h"
church or m",,"'Cry'. bes, intercs'$ 3t
lotan, for h. CuI off the whol. of

Vi,. of Coull!"" M.tI"ldo of

IIolhop Gocdmlus cu, .. ", an
a .... of"'" body ufSo:. ApoIlon,u,. IllS.
Cirt" dtI V."tlInG, &,bllIM ..... \'~"o;a ....
(dru,11
\)on .....

CoI1O$SO,

Gold .ta.... ufs.. Fidn. W""",,,n CO"',

,old pl.,ed. p..,.;ious >fones.~. 1000.
Conq...,...... ROutTg ... (A~cyron l, fonntr
~bbry ehu..,b of Sain.. Foy, churrh
I .... ~ury

50:. Apollo.""'" ann lfig".t, p. 361, 'Of'

,,&h'I nd ,11m prnumably Iud" pI.act<I

'" a........0I>q"".,. .ottn.ly.ckItd lotus

,h .. rd! ".a<urn. ,...., ......doqu .,. of
So:. l.a,."..,,,,,, .n lhoe \k.hn to: un"St"'~.be
mu~um ,. 3n ~arlr u~mple of a "Ialk
,n," ",I'qu .,., ,"bow u,~ ..... 1 f.......
nuk .. " cle wh",h !"'" of
body 1Ie<>n1.,M<! wlfh.n.
n". rrK<lIC",,1 ,J'~"""l\ al00 .howh.t
,h~ ow .... ,h,!, of .01,,, of ,mporun,
53on" b.uughl .bt.. uw"''' &n.t glu.y.
In 1162 ,h~ ,hh"hol' of O>Iogn~,
R"n,ld uf l),*I, a.khl R.:orba ........ ,he
Stauf.n dynuty oml""o o Itt hIm ha<'~
.he 1",. (If ,h. Th. King> 1m", the
conq ... ",d '''y of M,lan, as ,hqI WON:-a

J;>.n,',

"joy.

......, p..

booty. a " 'UN: wl"ch

bo comp.:".d to an}thl"l\ on
unh,' Th.e sptC1al h:.... ", of I~ ",I",.
wa, ,h.. ,hoe, ,,'cr' rorl"tkrN '0 be ,he.... bod ....... n' of 'M fir.. krnlt$ '0 pay
oomag 10 Chn", 'M KIna of K.np.
Glint... Grr"'....... ,,'00 dH.:rrbe1.
poI...... I- ",I.."., .........: -'1'lwy
rorl""'l ... nrly ben ...... , .........""".I0Il of
lhe- Or",".n kln~. 1l'hooM.." _'M<!
,fus Orn.,,,,,, ralltd,u ... and a.kn! tM
KI"' of 'M Qrim, for protMIOII. potsessed ,he- IU''-ru'lOII 01 1'111 Or""",n
rule. Th.e a",hbtshop of CoIosnt w~s
not; pan .. llb.\y ronumnI ",,h .heKrng<lono ,.~If, rat,,", ........ wtth ,hert1tn"on of h"", '0 "0"''' ,hef.mpor. To ,hIS mol M ,,,",,,,,n! 10
xqu.", tbt ...1"" of Ch.-a.ltnup. "'!>osr
tlInonl1-"'1Oft bt hau h.m~lf .nrrnkd ,n
1165. A. 'M c" y of ,bt Th..., Kon&,Colugnt Iu. ,h. "OW"" ,n "S co.>" of
m<lu .h .. V~'l <by.
... ,,1\01

.Er....
. . . a.

Arm ... hqllaryof50:.l.awm!U. Ctm

...-ood, s,lv", p.>"",llygrklod. c. 117S.
1\(.I,n, S. d .. M MIIKm P..... io.d,...
"ulrurbn,11. Kun<lgtWCfhnnu~u'"

361

l.ion or A"u"'\' RelIef p.".,1 from a

..,h'lu,ry: , ... iournty 10 Emm.us (lOp).
Noh nit ,.'Wrt(btlow).lvory. Htq;lu
10'I"""hci. Fim half of 1M 1,,.1flh
<mlury. Now York. MotfOJlOl,un
Mu~m of An.}. Plerpolnl Morpn
Foul1<b"on.1917

362

h.lr (Saltrnoor Am.lfiJ. R.hd pantl

from , ... P.hollo ofS.krno.lvory.
Itt",lu 9'1, inches. c. 1084. Salemo.

MII>CO lie! 01lOmO

Crucifix of King F<rdinand and Quttn

Sa""ha. r.om S. Isidoro In 1.tOn, Ivory.
H'>gh,21 loches, c. 1063. t.hd"d.
Mus> <k Arquwl6glco Naclonal

1,'Of)'
A nalural prodUCI. ",ory has I>n wI<kly
uS! In tM production of .maU works of
art rrom Ihr la.r C1u'IC.1 ~ra onw..d,.
Afr".n "Oil' Import~d ' ... Vent" and
O1btr Italian pon. w Ihe mOSt <om
monl)' uS!, Of equal importa"" . hOI'"
rvrr. " ...., 1M Ittlh of hippopotamI.
narwhals. .J't'.m whal.. and w.I .....,..
EVMl brown rhln<x~r()$ h<>rn waS SO
"mllar 10 iv0'1' Ihal " was ron"drrN an
equally ".Iuabl. rosoure.,
1M maIn soura of ",cork for "'<>'1'
c.rv.n " .... euly rued,.v.! book CO"""
whICh "~r. oftm decor:olN ",th mlni .. u",
rdid'. depIcting BIblICal 51<>ri... and
which ,,~ embrlll,hN "'lfh pri<>u.

BOlTOM

Sm.1I ",ltqu'''r bQ" .howlng ,h.

-Bc'1>ludcs. - Irom
Cokg'ala de San
lIid,.>rl' in LcOn. h'ory. 1063. Madrid.
Mus> <k A'quwlOgico Nacional

,h.

North",..1 Spain. Ado"",,on of Ibt MagI

(der"I). R.hcf mad.ol wal.us lu,k,
I-I.igb. 13'/, inch ... Firsl half or mid
.wc1fthccnmry. London. Vic.o". and
Albe" Mu .."m

m.tal, and ston ... Ou. 1o Ibt" "'ork

lhese hlUrg.:al books. whICh ,,~...,
ava,l.bl. only 10 mlno."y of rwplc.
g,,, .... d ronSld ... blc ",I.glou. 'mpo.
.anc. Ap.rr f.om prr<:iou, me.al "01)'
" ... , tbt hvom. material foot small wo.ks
of arr such as .hrCd,mcnSll)<I.1 figur .
Th. popul.rny of ruedi.va! c.,,ings and
$Culp.u ... ,n ivory I"'N nghl "'to Ibt
1,,~lhh "nlu'1'. Apart frorn ,h. produc
tlon of smaU sculplur... "'0'1' found
OIhcr u,.,s. bUI th~,., w ..., ma",ly
.. lig'ou, on..; c.'rn rombs. bQ".. and
OIhrr .m.1I "cm, wero p.oducN for
l"U'SICAlpurp<>Ses

363

OPPOSITE

COlog.... Domed reliquary from the

GUt"lph I",alo.t. Wo:>o<kn "'fe,
champlrW< on rop!"", gildN., ,..,Iick ond
f1gurn nudt of carv"" walrus ,n"'. floor
sUon wllh email brun. lee, cui In
bronK and "Ided. HeIght 17 'rICh",
w'iltk 16.nchc$. {. 1175-1180. 1It,I,n.
S.... lic:h" .\iu"",n P",ul!i..,ht,
Kulturbe$'n. Kunstgewe.bemus<um

Palermo (SICIly ]. !lox ",uk !","ltd j,"ory.

Oak corr. "'orr 1'1....1.. ~ mounTIngs.
HeIgh! 6'/, ,,,,,hes. wldrh 9'/"""h<$,
depth 7 inc,,", Twdlth ntury.
s..rhn. Stuthche '-iu""," ~ugL..:h ..
Kulturbc$ln. K unStgewerr..mutum

Nonh<m (".."many Or Dtnmuk. HIghly

colorful reliquary box ~ IS the baS<'
for 3 CroSS. OJk, "h .. mplev' p.nek

HeIgh, S'I, ;rochcs. W,d,h 8 ,,,ch<$, depth

5 inchr . Fi", half of lilt twdfth "enTury.

Btrlin. Suatloche ,\Iu"",n I~ue's<:h.r
KullUr\,n,n. Kuns.g.werbtmuscun\

364

OfPO~IH

Abu. From L' ...... rg. Rotltd ~nd '("J'OUSk

<oppotr shtort.ng. goldtd, orn~mtn.s UI
t ..... d brun. ~bry and a"ld.n "kkd ... ~,
brontt. W>(I,h 63 UlChH. c. 1140.
eopmll:ljttn. N...o.ul Mus.oum
~IC.HT

Tnplych 01 Alton T."..., ... Coppt"

"Idtd. prt"<'.ou,ontund dumrkv~.

~osh'1 4 '''lnchn. I 15().-1 160.
London, V.:.ona and Albtn '\\uS<'Um

BOTTOM LEn

L"""F' t ~b U't Vom .... ). '-,bonum hy

~b"t' AI"" ... Copptr, Il'kkd, ttW"~ytd
",ms.dl.1nlplt,..,. HtllP>' lj'/, .nchn.
c. II 60-1180.
1'.:0"', Muik du I.... Uy,t
BOTTOM

~I(, H

I"

Ens-bud. Rll{ou,,,bo,,um.
c.II60-1 170.
L.ondon. VlCto.U and "the" MuStunl

367

OPPOSITE
~r Saxony.

Book co> ... of an

... a"Fhar from Sc. A~""'. \l'oodm
ron'. sol" ..... !fw.to,
ptul. and ......,.
prKlOOU Ron<:$, walrll'l rusk. Heq;hl
12 1IW;hrs. wodth , ,nches. End ohM
,....,Ifth CCfllury.llrunl....,k. ll q
Anton U1"th M_um

"kkd.

Helmo.;bauI(n (11(ijtf. Cov~r Q/" an

... angti,ar. R..." of Iidmanh.aujtn (?j.
Sil" ....., "i.tkd, ...... 'prn:lOUf SOon<:$,
ptulo, bono. He"",' IS ,nchrs. t. 11 00.
Tncr, l>omsdt<on:

'"

S;tnlO [)Qm,ngodrS,1o!, (Prov,nctof

Bu'lU'I. "Unt<>" QfSJ. Dom,mc, deu,l:
Apoode. Qoppe~ ..,Ided, ,I\;Implevt.
8ti",,",,,, 1160arwl 1170. BufiOS, MUSf:O

Pro',,",al

370

P.mplona IP,o>'''1Cfuf Navarra).

Ah.rplf, " .... ,1.: d.. ""naN honof,t..
F.v.ngrh .. Mari< (ltft:). fnth.......d
Mot ..... of God (nsh'j. Coppc.. goldW,
champ"'Y .nddolionnt. 1175-1180.
San Mtg ....1,n F.nlsli

371

Weslern Fr.""e. Lmousln. S13lutueof

an angel. Annbul .. of lht E""og.list
Manhtw. deta'l. Copper. gilded.
~hampl.v" a od do,sono". H.>ghl
9 '1, ;""hes. {. 114().. 1150. Church of
S. i nl Su Ipic. I.... F.u ,lies

372

Mau rqpon. P~ .... I ... nlt. a n"'~u,.

Cop~~ SOlOed. champ!t.l. 11..,g.h.
4 n"'hes. t. 1160- 1170.
Pans, MUsdu louYK

L~ ( ~lau.~V.. Il .... ). Tombo.on.rof

Dukr Gt-offfOl '1a"'''gtni-t (d. I lSI).
f.nlt.tr ofEltanor of Aquila, ..... Cop~<.
champ!t..,; .............1. It ..,. 2.5 ,....It.u.
1\mo."fI 11S1.nd 1160.
I..t Mans, MuS Tess.'

Fon. fila .............. , bol<.

lo~. Around IISO.londoto. 8,.ul-lt. Mu ...... m

37J

Aach~l1. Sh'l1I~

of Mary. Oak, ~,h'",

OPPOSITE

!"""tong a~d cop!"', gilded. champlt,"<"

tmbossW, brofllt
tJgtd "',,1>
,wnes. I I<lght 3~ mchcs, w,d,h
1] 'I, inches, Itngth 73'1, m"h...

CoI"ll-'It. St."... of ,I>t Th= Kings. Oak,

gold, sd, .... nd COP!"', gildtJ,
dl.mpltv. and doosonnt. I'.-ci<)lls .nd
seml'p,ecious ilO~"", .nc'~~1 engra,tJ

~.

gem. and camWS. He,ght 61 OI1ch ..,

w,d, h 44 'nches, Itnglh 88 ,nch...

"".t.

111$]138. Aadltn. Domscl>3t~

~.

374

118] InC. 1230. Cologne. C",l>tdra]

Go.~1 from lIe .. ios.: Evangeli" wfll"'g

(d<1ail). 2nd quaner of Ih.lwelfth
cn,uty. A.nes, MuS d I.. Soc;,;",
ArehtQI<>&lque

Ehrenfried Kluckm

Arts a nd c.afu techniq ues

" In priDCiplu ~r:11 Verbum. c. Verbum

e",' apud o.um, el Dc-u. e"" Verbum."
In ,he bc-glllnrng wal the Wunl, and 'he
\1;'ord w wllh God. and the Word wa.
God. "Wo.d" II empha\ld Ihr .. umes!
God ""'e'S ,he wwld ,h,uugh language
- a uniq ... ,..nion of Ihe many mph. of
Ihe cre.lron of Ihe ,,orld. SI. John, who ..
G<:>spd belPn. wllh 'h"'" words, rcf~.mI
10.he Jew .. h mylh of creallon. T'h.o CUltlC
'~ncr.lron of ,he wII"en wo.d, of Ihe
,ex, of ,he liturgy. i. , he result of. God
who r., l, him ..!f through th. word.
Th. found.llun and ,p,.ad of Chris"~
",nily goes hand in ""nd wilh high
Cltm for Ih. w"n.n "ord.
The G<:>s~1 f",m Sr. Pan,.lwn (mId
,welfth ce1llury) depicls SI. John e""rgc1i
(ally pUIlmg qUIUI<> I'-'rch"",n" .boul
wri,. down the firs, "'(>rd. of hi, CoIpd.
In Ihis Gos~I.,he acl of wrumg is ,,,,.,ed
.Imosl .~ a lub.idi.ry Ih.me whICh I'-'Y'
hurn.>gc '0 ,hat 8"'0t all. n.c rnd",dual
of ,he p"p.>rarron and ,he .Clual
pr<><e'S' are IlIu"Hted, St. Matthew h.,
iu<t pichd up ,he quill and i. sharpening
11- an acllon Ihallook place tn .lIsellpl
orra p,i-or to any prolongfii ""riod (>f
w"'mg. I.tftrng up hi, he.d, SI. Mark i,
1n>pc'Cling Ih. qutll which ,. now ...dy
for u... Finally, St. I.ukr di~ the qUIll
rnloaninkpot .
Thul Ih. four Ev.ngehm creal. lhe
Imp'e'S.ion of .. sc,ip,o,ium luch as
wuuld norm.lly ho>.., bc-cn fuund on ,he
up~r stor.y of lhe chapl .... hou .. of a
1kr><:<l'Cline monal1'ry. It was absolutely
0".1 '0 P"y .. rieT "Item ton to ..,f<1Y
rcgul.tron. here ,"'~ mar,,-,.l ""h
tinClu,e'S,
wooden p.nds and w'~

waS used 10 .mourh ,h. "",a",hed ar~o

do""n "gam. a. requtml. In order !O do
IhlS. lhe "ylus ha, to be ,urned ,nound.
T'h.o """,ing labl.1 "'as made oUl ofbttch
wood. a pr.CllCe wh,eh conllnued unehangfii from CI.ssic.1 Anti.qullY up to
,h. ,1,1,.1.11. Ages. T'h.o word for "book"
de.i, .. from.he old Engh.h name for lhe
bch Ifce, "hoc". Thll """ling . abl.,
w35 kind of .hallow ,ur Ih., was
treat.d with a mIxture of lrnsccd 011.
ch.rcoal and ,allow. T'h.o "ay was lhen
filled with ".x which <crved lhe
"'''ling surface. In I... An"'lully II was
cu"oma.y 10 combine .....",1 wax
tablet. Into bluck ....h"'h Laler w.s
referred 10 . , Ih. "codex" (from ,he
ulin ",",u<lex"). ThIS t.rm wa. appli.d
also 10 bound .httrs of p.,chment a,
ea,IY'$ ,he founh century.
The "l'lu, aod .he "-ax tablel ""ere
lndrspcn\.lblo rn ony mona,,,f)'. At lea'l.
,hIS IS wha, St. Iknnlic. demanded for hIS

'0

".ge<

1'-'''''',

II\OIIk.
~'.dlcY.1

"..,.. h'ghly infbmmablo. For .hal ... SOn

,he n.ked fl."", wa. p'oh,I>IIed . And of
cou... Ih.", wa. also ..... n on s~akmg.
Smce .he 5C"~ had to "orneen"".e on
,heir ",ork. It could be
"ostly and
som<1t""" "cry diffICult to co"",1 mi.
l.ke'S 'n lhe wrillng. It '"IUlml ,h.
.. reful ",.. pmg off of the Ink .nd ,he
..""",-.,J prep.rnllon of Ihe wrillng sur
face. T'h.o black mk. a preparnll'''' lhe
rcei"" for whICh h3d bc-cn used hy ,he
.tlC"'" Egypllans., was .lmo".s Ikick ..
p.>.'o .nd was made of hloud and sool.
Ikf"re 01" could bc-gln '" "",i,e. ,he qUIll
had to be moist.ned wilh "'alcr. The

""Y

inkpot waS ,h.ped Irk< a .mall bowl wllh

rim ,h.t ,u"'ed ,"wards and wa. "''''''limes provided wtlh
holes co hold
'he qUIlls. Many "",d"o.1 book Illu.
trallons depic. Ink.horns., whICh ",ere
u .. d as an .1'ernall'.lo tnkpo",
"Erasrng" wos anolhe~ and .a..... method
of correction which w.s .. fermi '" .s
"Slilum , . " .... " which """n. "Iurning
round ehe styl">'" The .Iylu. or ~Iale
~n"il wal usually made of bone. wood
or metal and con""ed of Ihe poinT Of one
end .nd the 'p.>tula at lhe olh ... The
point was used '0 scurch IntO ,he ,op
loyer of the w""ng surf""" . nd the 'I"',ul.

'01,11"

""np'ona of n .... d

wIllrng <qUlpmen'. ,he 10ks and Ih.

colo .. w... p,oduced. In olher wo.k
.ho~ lhe monks prepared hollow molds
or m.lrrxCl f". Ih~ molding of reli.fs,
w.x model, for bron..., ,",mng. or .,amps
for ornamental pallern . The.. '.-cre
rn,truc11on, .nd textbookl !O gUld. all
,h"", diy.r. . .Cltyill... Th .... l",hnic.1
" It".. pro"ide- for u. ludal' an ino.l
uable 1OS>ghe Inlo medin'a! att .nd crafts
prod"'flon .
hi. pos,ible 10 look", Ihe>< wrttrngs
.pc'C;al I".rory genr. whIch txpcricDC~d
liS ,ichen nowcring between ,he .ighth

t,f1'1'

Ink horn. Rht",,',nd.

nrn'h_elo .. onth
century. Cologne.
SchnulgellMu.. um

IUGHT

Wrillng ,.bl", ... IIh

handle. Cologne.
thlr,centh century.
Cologne. Romi""hGrrmanr'he'S
M".. "m u.nd
Kiilnrsch.,.
Srndtm" .... um (ioint
property)

..

,~

eta

~
376

wo.ksho~

..."cI"d 10 Ihem. In one of Ihem Ih.

./

.k,,,,,,Mauom {I~ I. eo..~, bmrd 01

1M Goopd {dota,]j.
von
I klmarWulom. 51]...... 1P1dcd. Semlp.COOWiilonn. ,,"",I,. 110M. 1io,g,1
37 em. "'.ound 1100. Tnn-. "'lhed",1

Round ...... alloon.l."noSn. lSI halfol

Ibr Ih,nttn,h unrury. CoIcr$nt.
Schn"Igtn-Muscum

11..,

....Uu

maonl~ .... ncc. Th ....".,.... 0 .mpha.,u

he Slgmr.cancc of craft",orlr: In I"'"
;\Ioddk A&n. And. as IIIv ,,.n.I '0",.,
I'""""!.>t ~ncoutav .... n. '0 ru. ,eade~
he craft ...... n. br htgIns h.. I....."ft ","h
lhe 10110"'1,,& ....,.-do: -11'.11 .bm. my
cle-vrr (".nd ....... an tv ... grca,er ano>l"
sen ... be- a.ouiord m you and Ie! II be- ,br
"'prrme "uk of you, SpIno .0 b<rng 10
Comple-llOfI I..... wh"'h IS st.1I Ix~,ng
.monSS' I.... ,ooLs of ...., house of God.
w,,/wu. ,..h"h 'M d",nt my,rr'lft .nd
.h. proclO.. 1 nu"ol1 of ,h. holy .crs
cannol n.SI.
The ngh.h tflC)'clopllSl and Ihcolopan
AI,under NKkham (1l57-1217f also
,.rOI( a 'reallS<: <kahng WI.h 'Kllnical
.ns'ruerlOfl' for .br pn:oducrion 01 an ...
bc.,- 1'1,. CH ,,'nti,hln. ...... dn.gnr<I
for u... as :> ~1wx>I.hooI!, .. net "",nr
I'"n..~ de.1 w"h ,br
01 1M

Ihmcal and aft"lic ,kIlls. 11 .. des"

10 .ueh furur. g"""'IOons of erafr ....... n
box"""" .ppa..... rrl"<",nt;"U.o
,,..... ddlT$s'I1@; .he nuster of.M work
.bop. br wn.n.:
"Hit a. 1'" IM"pr1".........d pu",1 needs a
.......... rahle!. Of rolher, one
,sro;,.td
,."h ..tiM. ,,'U ard.y.so , ..... bran IKe
lksogn or copy a ~anny of scrolls.
And In order ,hal ..... hould no< bot
rlcc ....I. ht sh.ll bt ...... de :><'I"a.n.I
,.."h ......, n.rlgoIJ, .nd M shalile-arn It,
dllllnguo;h btIW.." purofied gold. bro>!
~nd coppo' SO Ihar he WIll nOI buy bra:...
In .. cad of purofilgold."

on

.""n

.ha,

" .0

'0

.ra''''''1

.nd .M .w,lflh c.nlu'Otl. The monk.

consulr.d Ih~ olde ncydopl,~ .. for
~nmple It.ose of H"Nn"s Mau,u. or
bldor of Se,.,ll . "'1"" con.uhed
eolk-clIOfl' of old rKIpe$ for nuklns
colon or pu~ and for wo.klng pus 0'
m<1alo. OM .""h uample- .. ,hr -,\b~
Clon, "la - "h",h has bn pS<".....d In.
corle. ,Luong from lhe ""... Iflh tI.ury
(ComIng. !>OY. US.... Coml,,& ;\Iuso:um of
GliAl. Ongo",uong from nont.em F,aOtt.
" " b.aiord on an oIde. collecuon of
reclf'd from .1vC.roIlnS'~" penod.
ThIS spc-c I,n I".urure IS 31so full of
hlnrs a O how. med...",1 work!hop ........
run. Al'"rr fmm 1,m of Insrruc""on.
go.~'nlng .he prnduclOon procnsn of
,.."ou,
w. fInd h~,. I" .. of
1001 and ...,.. rolln:llOn. of figu,al"'"
or orna .... m.1 m"IOf<. .... 1M ""mnlns
of , ..... Ie,..mh cen.ury he h,storr.n
Ac\tnu, de: OIab.annn nude: Iht follow'ng norn ,,,",d,,,, un.", ~ In
..... rrod","IIon 01. ",,,,fi,,: -;\bh 1M
0 1 , .... C'OM :ra:ord'ng .0
.Iv ..KI.h of one .hum........,I. ;\bk~ lho
wMlfh lrom d>t ""..... nd ro ..... Id.
.... nd one full Oomu . Also from lho ,.....
1<> .he _ . one Domus nd "",k. ~
sImple- ClOSS. From , .....11<0:11 ro .ho
~"".d ....... IT .......... " s.ops . htle-ngrh
01 on .. Ihumh. narl.
fo, .M .....,",...
IMnl 01 .h. crOSl." ICod. Vos . lat. Ocr.
IS, fol. 212,. !..rlden. l.h,ary of .h..
R'lk.unl. .. '~I .. IIJ.
The mos, ImJlOn.m ......se cone",",ng
medlc-'ol e frwork " 'n. ho,. ....r. produc:fd by Tneophlluo P... h)= .nd
nlnrled rN d....ers" ..."b>o ThIS com

w.r.

."d.,...

m.,.,,,.nmtI,

a.

pond,um ,..u made In nonh-"nl.rn

Com,any around 1100 and .. "Iso known
unde, ,he !Ilk of Sc/ud,,/a dIrW$IJ''''''
~rt''''''. Tw., urly tumpic-s h~.~ com~
down .0 "'. one from Vitnna (o..~''''ic
h,,,,ho N~loorulhrhh",hc~. Cod. 2527 f.
and .br oeM. one f,om Wolf.nhulld
(1Im"ll-Augu'-lBlbhorMk. Cod. Guelf.
Gudl~nu$ b,. 206'1. It '5 f."ly uft.o
plTSu"", , .... , ,br monk nd p....-s.
Thtophllus IS rrlcrrl>C~1 "",h Rogl" yon
Hd...... rlh:o"om. Cons'stlng of d"..
hooks. h" 'ITallse cone~ms ,,~If ,.."h
"",n.,ng. p~s, rrod"ctoon "nd mnal
wo'~. ",.. Ii", hook .. dnlonrnJ """nly
ro I'",nllng and deals .bov~ .11 wllh
reel,," lor rna~Ing colors. A 1"""cuI3rly
,mponan, ,ol~ .. g,,tn 10 goldl and .. Ivtr.
$Iru: .. Thcophll'" dl"'ngul~h,:s he' ...... n
~n"'n, .nd Im"alOan coarlngs. I I"
rn;,1"S .,flen Indude rf<""""",ndalOons
0 ,.h"h colon a", mos. ~u"able- for
",mcu~, .... bttctsof ,lIusmnion: "I'rTpare
a nux'U't from "~ry cle-a. gum and W~,
... nd 11ft .h.. 10 nu" .11 colo.. uctpf
for 1"'ftI. wh,,~ kad. mi",um and
...,ml..... Grttn conlalnlng ... h " no!
.ullabk lor hooI! .. To xh, ..... <b,~ ...
.....d,ng. r.dd loO<I>r I"""" of "IS. cahba",
or Irrk.The s"bl"l of Ibr OKOIId I>ook IS ,h~
p.nd"" .. on of gla ... Thcophllu... xpl.""
..xactly how Iht 1001, u, bo, "",ok and
how .h, v~"ous kIlns >t 0 br con_
",,,,,.1. Th~ .h,rd book IS. br mos.
.ubs.an.. ,I: brIT lhe: aUlhor il. concernt<l
"' llh Ibr prod"""on and wor~,ng of
m<1al,. To .Iaft ....lIh. he focusr-J on .br
... orb""" "self. lIS f<I"'pmo.:n. and

...

'0

If.

,,urk.hop . .... lanlS. Furt .... 'mo... M

g"'n ad_Itt on .he pllrchase 01 raw
nuo<, ... I,. ,..h"h always p<>SI"<l many
drff",ulnn. lie al50 provides ' .... eahng
,nlorm.IOon abou' .br ,..riolH 1001, and
""",. '0 II... tl",m. Tht .IlIhor plaaoo
",""",,,lit rmpha .. s on .he ","$SIng on of

377

10<1.... " bus, of ,ht Eml"'ror Frnk,ick

Ra,barossa. A p~n' from ,h~ Eml"'ro,
[0 his gOOf.,ht, Ouo yon c.pptnbc-rg.
I\ronz~, g,ldrd. parfly s,ly~,.pla,ed.
H"Sh, Jl em. Around 1155-1160.
Cappenbc-rg. Sun.k,rch. S,. Job.nn ..
Capl"'nburg

378

eir< pe. d ... 0. , h. 10..-...... " p.O<S

first a model IS made ou, of

"<IX with
'hm rods 01 Wax and" plug, to.hcd, W
.h" 1..", .h. hot wax c"n .....apc. The
model i. ,hen .""...d in clay (2) f.om
wh>eh ,he rods and wax prOlect. Model
ond cl.y mould "r< .hen pl."d In 0 hot
kiln (J). When .he h.ot ,,'ax has ...... pcJ.
moh~n me,~1 is po~<e<l m'o 'he mould
(4). After .he me l ha, <ooitd,
mould" broken . nd ,hod. and bung
r<moved.

.h,

!l
,

Ni.:1l0
Th. italian word "ni.lla.." me.nS ~,o fin
,n". L.ad, coppcr or sulfur rubbed
m.o m..ral pl .... wIth pauerns engraved
tn'O ,hem. The metall", .lIoys .hen fo.m
black pattern on .h. polished me,.l
ground. Ahr the plo'H ....ngr,,'ed ( I )
,he metal Or sulfid .. is appl'ed (2) and
burned on (J) brfore ,he II\Ctal pial< is
polisl>ed.

Ch ing
The pnxHS of finishIng .he ,u.facr of
."he. me l caSU or ..
,,o.k IS
done by polL,lung and mo,,"g .mp<1f.... ions ,h occu".d during ",,"ing o.
repoussag for ex.mple ""h,n r.movlng
rod. from" me.al C'"st ("I). R.pou ....
work" <o.rrc,cd and wo.ked on ,he
reverse sode. In o.d.o do .h 1>t obi""
IS he.,ed anJ pbced on" soh pllabl. b...
(2) wl>tr. U IS th.n worked with h.mmer
.nd " ... 1pu""h (3).

pou."

Rq,o..... ge

A mM.l plat< i. pb..d onm. 0010 .ur/are

(og phablr bo d) .nd ...... ked wuh "

stl punch (I). n.. rough modeltng .s

followed bych3<ing. Th. m,,,.l modeling
can aloo be dono w.,h a metal ball
hammer. Hollow.d-ou. shapc;l ... made
by placing the metal plal< o'c. a blod of
wood WIth a J.pr .."on ,n " urf... anJ
work'ng thc metal ... uh '<pou."
h.mme. (2). Fo< ,h"now ph , h'r.
,h. me l i. pt.<l o\"Or " pi. of
squa d "mbe nd then worked w,th
h.mmer as rC<Jui.ed (3).

C... monJalcross (dc iJ ),around 1107,

Cologn~.Schnu'gtn~ ' u .. um.

Probably

by Roger voo Hdmarshausen

379

380

Gospel of Henry the Lon, he""ttn 1185

and 1188 (Wolf.nbund, Herzog August
library, Cod. Gudf. lOS Novi ... 2').

Thi. manu..:ript I. one of Ihe outstanding

a"h,e"ements of Rorruntsque book prod"", ion. It und.rllo" ,he poli' >e,,1 power
.nd self..:onfidcnce of the ruler.
"He" the dcscendant of Chademagne.
To hIm alone "'ould Englaod eOttuS'
,\hthilda, who was '0 he., him the
ch,ldn:n ,hrough wl>om Christ', peau
.nd salv.tlon we.. go".n to thIS country.
The" ~neroslly surpaSKd all Ih"
glorIOUS deeds of II.." predec..sors.
They ha"e exahed Ihis CIty splo-ndldly;
this IS proclaImed by rumor throughout
the who~ wodd.

n.o.. . . .ord.... used 10 th,' ded>eatory

poem of the Gospel 10 pmse tl.(, glory of
the duke and d""I>ts~. The fin.1 picture
of II.(, corona.ion (illu",,,,,,d opposite)
dl~pla~s ,h plendo. and tM impotl.nee
of the noble coupl. whil. at the ... me
""'" d.owlng the" amhorl!Y bemg
conferred Up<lfl them b~ Ihe grace of
God. n.. top sectIon of the p>etur.
.ho""i Chnst surrounded by :tpostles and
""nl<.
The st~li ... d ",odel of a .ph.. ra pene
trat .. the hea"coly zone and ,Inks down
ontO 1M e.rthly .phen: of power of the
duke and d""hes<. "Divine hand," appear
wi,h crown, which ... n:ce,ved by thc
rouple In humIlity (th.y .re carrymg
uos .... J. Th" coronation can he under
stood .s .xp ....'ng th. hop<"$ of Henry,
Duk. of Saxony. HIS acn[..,ion for
politic,,1 power fouod expre.;slon In thIS

atti'I>e representatIon of h" hope of

.. Ivation. Surdy this "coronation" mu.t
also he un<kr>lood as a "h.....nly cOrO'
nation..s a ConSCIOUS vision uf the he ..
aher.
The picture shOWIng S. Mark (wp right)
shows 3n .bun<i>n<:' of omament ;on.
p>etoria) a"hifttlun) de",en ... and
<krouti .... scrip'. A striking feature is the
comb"'"'lOn of differe", pane",. such as
meander. rosene f.ones or plain f"",nlng.
The Goopel for Hcnry ,he Lon wa. made
,n .he SC"ptorium of Hdm.rshausen.
The pr ... iou. and rich illu",inatlon of thIS
m.nuscrlpt h.. c.used it 10 he hnked
wlfh lhe ~b.d,,1a dUltTfIJ",rn ~rlJ"'"
by Theophllu. Pmhy,er, ali3S Roger
of Htlm.rshausen, $,,,,e ,he .... hnlques
of o.namen,ation and .he drpiction of
the human figure are contained in
11>coplulus"s ins.runions. Thus the model

log pme ... for a hrad (above left) as SCt

out in the treallSC (volume I, chap.. r
1-13) (an, fot exampl., he .",nskrm!.o
.he head of Henry a. dePIcted in . he
"corona, ion picturr. In chaptrrs 10-12,
Thcophilu. describes thr deplCtioo of
hair and bea rds In thr sequence of the
aget of ma n, froOl boy to man to old agr.
The di"mcllon between the aget of man
I> a $Ignlf>ean. fe.,ure of ,I.(, Gospel,
dt<p"e ,he fae. ,ha, M ..k,s thown wi.h
heud wh>eh establishes hIS >I.tu. as a
wise and dignified old man. hI> h ... hu
the light color of a boy. The Gospel of
Henry th. LIon 1$ the join, propeny of
,he fcdc",1 "a,e of lo"",r Saxony, t'"
Prce St e of llava.ia, th. F..Je",l
Republic of Germany, and the Stihung
I'rrus.sischer Kulturbesitz.

381

Ehrenfri ed Kluckert

Romanesque painting

Int roduction: It began wi th the MLi bri Ca ro1in i ~

M... with all humility King Charles submined himself to God and the
request of the bishops and of the whole Christian community, and took on
the tide of Emperor and was ordained by Pope Leo, on the day on which
the birth of Jesus Christ our Lord was ct'lebrated. And thus he restored
peace and harmony to Ihe I-I oly Church of Rome, bringing an end 10 Ihe
discord which had e:rciSled within il."
These comments were made by the chronicler of the Annals of Lorsch
(probably the Archbishop Richbod von Trier) in 80 1 10 describe the
imperial coronation of Charlemagne, Charles the Great, in Rome by Pope
Leo ilion Christmas Eve in the year 800. For the pope, this ceremony
represented a first step IOwards clarifying the situJtion between B)'"lanlium
and Rome. The political balance of power in the Mediterranean had been
destablilized by the turmoil surrounding the iconoclastic contrOI'ersy and
the issue of Ihe succession to Ihe Ihrone. Now al last there was one ruler
for all Ihe Chrislian community, including Ihat of Ihe Byzantine Empire:
the Emperor Charlemagne. Charlemagne, incidentally, was able to regul ate
this new si tua tion on a political level as well with the TrealY of Aix-JaChapelle of 812. In the Ireaty, he was recognized as emperor by Ihe
emperor of Byzan tium, Michat'l I, proViding him with a very flallering
solullon to the "problem of the two emperors.~ I-I owever, he had to pay
for It by handing over Venke. [stria and Dalmatia.
The "discord~ mentioned by the chronicler was, of course, a reference
to the ico noclastic controversy which had been raging in BY2an tium since
the middle of the eighth century. The By7~~ ntine emperors Leo JIl and his
son and successor Constantine V wanted to ban all religious painting and
images. They condemned the worship of God through pictures as heresy
and a dange r to religion. Furthermore, they wanted to put the monks in
their place. since they had profited from the trade in pictures. In 787 the
Council of Nicea ruled in favor of those who worshipped through images
and icons. Charlemagne later criticized this decision, arguing that the
pictures painted by the "Grks" had been painted "for (ol'e of decoration
and not out of a deSire 10 do awa)' with it.~ The "Libri Carolini" (sec pp.
422 ff.), the cultural manifeslO of the court school of Charles the Great,
were dra wn up by Thcodulf of Orleans. T hey pass judgemem on ooth the
over-enthusiastic icon lovers and the extreme iconoclasts. What the
Frallkish emperor was concerned aoolll was the "right measure~: religious
images must not be traded as holy objects but should be treated as guides
leading 10 the true faith by ex pressing the sacred el'ems and messages of
the Bible. Images showing Christ, the Madonna aJld the Saints were
regarded as being close 10 idolatry and we re rejected, ahhough those who
used them were no longer persecuted. This decr~ was nOt relaxed until
aner the Synod of Paris of 825 when the "Libri Carolini" wcre discussed and
modified. T he number of subjects wo rthy of depiction was expanded 10
include, for instance, the representation of Christ as the ruler of the world.
Thus the subject which was to become the cemraltheme of Romanesque
paiming, the Christ in Majest), had at last become presentable at court.
This Mcoincidentia opposilOrum," the reconciliation of the diffe ring
cultural stances of the eastern and western churches, suggests Ih31 the

beginning of Romanesque painting coincided with the appearmnce of the

~Libri Carolini. ri
The CarolingIan cultural policies as laid down in the ~Libriri not only
incl ude decisions on fundamental principles regarding the function of
images. They also ann;lI raising the general level of education at coun and
in the church. J)ainting now had the specific task of Nucating its viewers
about the truths of Christian saJvation. It was thanks to this that painting
achievN such a high le,el of skill and became so widespread.
One could argue that Ro manesque painting bcg.'ln with the I:oronation
of Charlemagne. Defining the exact period of IUne during which the
Middle Ages occuTTed is equally controversial. Ernst Robert Curtius s,'lid
of such an alfempt that it was the ~most pointless concept" in historical
discourse. Terms such as ~early M iddle Ages~ or ~early Christi:," art~ can
refer as far back as the sixth centu ry and the beginmng of western
monasticism; and they refer 10 paintiJlg in the most varied ways. Thus,
early medieval painting can consist of BF",ntine miniatures, Irish
manuscripts, and Carolingian book illustrations and frescoes. As far as thc
Onunian epoch is conccrned, there IS a tendency 10 assign it to the high
Middle Ages. Often this period is Healed as .!-eparate from RomaJlesque
painting, which - JUSt like sculpfUre and architeclure - began at the fUrn of
the millennium. However. Carolingian and Ononian examples are cited
whenever an attempt is madt' to define the typology and the design of
ROll1 anesque monumental paiming. IndeN, it is often said that the
subjCCI-mancr of Roman~ue frescoes cannot be understood without
looking aT Carolingian painting.
Whether as a separatc or an integral part of Romanesque paill tins,
Carolingian and Ononian art objects belong to it and are relevalll to it. Let
us the refore include in our observations these two peTlods which made
such rich contributions to ou r cullural history, particularly since their
codict's and illustrations are the most distinctive, the beSt developed, and
in the beSt state of preservation. UnforlUnately !he s,1mc cannOl be said of
Romanesque monumental painting: what has come down to us is very
incomplete and mostly in I'cry bad condition.
T he end of Romanesque painting is sometimes said to coincide with
kits lIighest dC\"elopment,~ i.c. the panel paillting of 141h cemury Italy
and artists such as DIICCio, Cimabue and Giollo. The re ar.~ certainly
references to Romanesque painting in tht work of these anists, albei t more
on an ico nograph;cal level than a formal one. BUI these artists also usher in
a new aTlistic epoch, that of the ~post-"l iddle Ages." This appl.ies only to
h aly, where the concern WIth the ~figure in space" can already be seen in
Giouos work, alld whcre this exploration of pictorial :;pace was
developed into the Renaiss.ance system of central perspective.
As far as tile rest of Euro~ - and particularly France - was .~oncernN,
the conStruction of the firs! Gothic cathedrals meant the loss c,f the large
wall surfaces required for palllting Romanesque frescoes. In Gt:rnmny the
Ro ma nesq ut' style conlinued to be used for a long time, until about 1250
in facl. A few decades beforc ils final dcmise, special forms developed,
snch as the ~zig1.3g style~ and the I'olumi ll olls treatment of tht: figurcs of
the kStaufen ClaSSICism."

It appears scnsible 10 locate Ro manesque painting in the ~riod from

800 101250. T he "Lihri Carolini" refer to "classical models," by which

are meam the anciem forms and types of BY1.3ll!me art. In addition to
Byzantine miniatures, we shall also look at mosaics and codices of the
early Hiberno-Saxon school as iIIummatmg companllve examples.
T he spread of wa ll pai nting
Painling in th e Carolingian Empi re
To provide an outline a((OU111 of the art of the Carolingian period, one
must ignore n,lIional borders. The usual European formula is of Hule use
litre. Charle magne ruled over nuriy all of western Europe, mcluding
provinces in Italy and northcrn Spain. His empire was not homogeneous
and it had inherited no gnvernmenTal and ad ministrative structures that
had stood the test of time. For these "cry reasons Charlemagne wantcd 10
found a society which enjo)cd a high cullUre - an almost impossible task
given the very modest le" .. l of Nucatio n that existt'd. The majo rity of his
popula tion were barbarians, many of whom served successfully ill his
army. His first priority was therefore to promote the sciences and to
increase the cultu ral achievement in his rea lm. Charlemagne looked to
BytanTium and the Arab countries as models. T here, a high level of
education and culture had been achieved and preserved, thanks to the
constant ,,"vitalization of ancient scientific practice.
Charlemagne therefore assemblN at his court eminenl Eu ropean
scholars, including anists from Byzantine hal). The first hnmanist scholar
to arrive at his COIlTl was the Northllmbrian Aleuin of York. There was
also thc Visigoth Theodulf of Orleans, author of the "Libri C.'lrolini~
mentioned earlier. The preS('n~ of these universal scholars provided a
boost for the scienct's, thc education system and the arts. They were
interested not only in the glorification of the Christian faIth, but also
particularly in !he development of an educational program which was as
broad as possible. Aleuin, who taught at th e monastery at Fulda and who
counted amongst his pupils the famous Hrabanus Maurus, designed a
building for teaching based on the Seven Liberal Arl$: grammar, arithmetic
and geometry togClhe r wah music, astronomy, logic and rhetoric. Later
these arts appear as allegories ill book iIluminalion alld are parlicularly
popular in porlal sculplure.
The intense promotion of the arlS and sciences, which was due 10 tile
presence of such cminent scholars at Charlemagne's coun, produced
scriptoria wllich will be described in delail later on. h also rcsultN in
magnificent exa mples of monumental paiming, most of which, however,
were destroyed. A cumprehensive survey and a det::llled analysis of
Carolingian wall painting are tllerefore not possible.
One can procecd from the assumption that c"ery church interior was
extensi,cly paimed - otherwise il would havt' been considerN unfinished.
The dome of {hc Pala tine Chapel in Aachen, for instance, is reported to
have been deco ratt'd wilh a splendid mosaic.
The surviving informatio n is inco mplete so Ihat today we cannot be
certai n whcther the subjcct of Ihe nlosaic was a ChriST in Majesty, a
representation of Christ as the ruler of the world wilhi n a Starry sky, or the

383

Gttmign~_<ks.Prk.
l '~l .

OU10ry "f Theodulf

TM Ark of ,ht Co"rnanl. Around

800

Adoration of the L1mb. Accord ing 10 other documentS, Charlemagne's

imperial capital was supposed to have been the home of a cycle of
historical paintings. Bolh subject-maner and design al'e, howe"er,
unknown and cannot be commented upon. Nevertheless, e"en these "ague
hints suggest that Aachen and the mher centers of the Cuolingian Empire
were treasure-houses of ar!. One should remember that the scr;plOria (see
below) and the workshops were busy eenters for the production of
religious art.
Wi th regard to large-scale painting on histOrical subjects, Inore detailed
information can be given about the [mperial Pabce in Ingclheim on the
Rhine. Louis the I'ious, son and one of the suecessors of Charlemagne,
commissioned a history of the world which artists painted on the walls of
his private rooms. It depicted historical el'ents from early antiquity up to
the age of Constan tine, as well as scenes from the lives of great men such
as Theodosius the Great, Charles Martell, and, of course, the life of his
own father, Charlemagne.
Today, there remains only one large work of art from the time of
Charlemagne and it has been only slightly restored. [t is the mosaic in the
oratory of T heodulf of Orleans ,n Germigny.des-Pris, siTUated JUSt a few
miles east of Orleans, the seal of his bishopric (piclure abolt:). This only
remaining Carolingian mosaic depicts two angels with oumretched wings
who point at the Ark of the Covenant. Theodulf presumably had in his
mind a comprehensil'e plan for Ihe interior decoration of his oratory.
The Caroligian church of St. Germain is not far from Germigny-desPris, in Auxerre, and can slill be visited today. It was founded in 841 by
Conrad, Duke of Allxerre, who was the uncle on his mother's side of
Charles the Bald. It is likely tha t the church had already been completed
eighteen )'ears later, in time for the arrival of the relics of Sf. Germanlls. It
was then, or possibly later in the 860s, that the frescoes in tht upper level

384

of thecrypl were painted. Only the scenes from rhe life of St. Stephen have
sllT\'ived - his condemnaTion, tOrture, aod stoning. When rhe paintings
were discovered 111 1927 they were 111 good condition, so that one could
gain a dear idea of the viv,d colonng and the outline and com(XIsition of
the figures. The colors used were ma inly shades of red, yellow ochre,
greyish-whire and greyish-green. Influences from earl)' Roman caTacomb
painting and from compositional pallerns of ByuntlOf mosaics in Santa
Maria Maggiore in Rome hal'c been detected.
The best-pre~rved Carolingian fresco cyde can be found in a remOie
"alley in Graubunden. 10 the monastery church of Mustair. llte church is
dedicated to St. John the BaptiST. and it is generally beliel'ed to ha" e been
founded towards the end of rhe eighth century, in about 790, and probably
by Charlemagne. His nam e-day, January 28. is still celebrated loda).
Morrover, the king is said to ha"e vowed Ihat he would establish a
monaSlery in the valley to offer thanks for his safe crossing of the
mountall1 pass of Umbrail in stormy weather. One can assume that the
frescoes were painted soon after the compleTion of the monaster)' church.
Located in the apses. Ihe paintings remained undiscovered until 1896 and
were finally completely uncovered by 1950. Parts of the frescoes had b:n
painted o\'er in rhe twelfth century by artists belonging TO the School of
Salzburg.
Cha rlemagne probably never returned 10 Muslair and may ha"e
forgollen about it altogether, for the artiSTS who executed the paintings did
not belong 10 his COUT! school. Extensive commissions like the one at
Mustair were usually taken on by Itinerant artiSTS who came from [taly
and were trallled in Ihe Byzantine style. The Byzantine influence can be
found nOT only in the shapes but also in the treatment of the pictorial
narrative, that is the manner in which the individual scenes are emphasized
by Ihe articulation of the architectural elements around them.
Quite dose TO Mustair in the Venosta region of south Tyrol lies Ihe
little town of Malles with its simple little Benedictine church. In the
Carolingian era, this chutch and the one in nearby Graubiinden belonged
together, the church of ,\l3lles being affiliaTed to rhat of Mustair. A series
of paintings were executed much later, probably in about 880, bUI a1llh31
remains in the apSt:s are the figures of Christ sianding, of St. Stephen, and
of Gregory the Great. On the narrow sirips of masonry between the apses
there is, amongst other things, the figure of 3 priest accompanied by the
noble donor, who offers :I model of the church to God (photos, p. 385 ).
Roman influence has b:n detected in these frescoes, blll their execution
and treannent of delail differs significantly from the style of the figures in
the Mustair church.
Further down the valley, towards lIIerano, lies Namrno. Its church of
Patroklus, built towards the end of the eighth century, contains a painTing
of the ~flight of I'aul~ executed in a ,-cry simplified manner.
The a(XIstle is depicted above a meander frieze: almost as if on a swing,
and the figure is executed in a nai"e and very reduced style. His body
consists of Ihe sweeps of his garment; his face appears flat and devoid of
contours and modeling with the ("ceplion of the eyes, noSt: and mouth.
T he meander frieze is the only dement that bctra)'s some of the ingenuity

N.. urno. St. Pr<,oeulul. angtl carrying a

,roo... round 800

of three-dimensional m~allnent and was undoubledly inspired by Classical

antiquity. It is possible thai the picture has suffered through restoration. It
is. howe,'er. juSt as likely that the work was produced by badly trained
artists. If so, it may help to explain the ineonsistem quality of the art work
produced within the developing Carolingian Empire. There is no doubt
that it was exclusively the imperial court schouls that provided the besttrained artists. In remote regions far away from the artistic cemers, it was
left to the locals to find master-budders, artisans and artists, and this
resulted in "anable success. As mention~-d above. remote Alpine regions
depended upon artists from Iraly who were tTa"elmg throngh and who
were wclltrained. These conld then be engaged provided it was possible to
promise them good pay. If money was tight. one had to make do with It'5s
talented local artists. The criteria employed here for the evaluation of
artiSlic quality are, of course, contestable since, as has httn pointed out
earlier. there are no examples for comparison. The only thing that can be
of assistance is Carolingian book illustration, and this has survived in
unusual quanuty and complexity, quite m contrast to monumental
pain\lng. Any comments about the quality of the wall painting of the
period have therefore to be arrived at only after ~consulting- examples of
book illuslrations done in Carolingian scriptoria.
Our 1351 example of Carolingian wall paintmg is found in the crypt of
the abbey church of 51. ~'Iaxlmin In Trier and depiCls St. John the
Evangelist standmg next to the cross. The fresco was probably painted
towards the end of the ninth century and in stylistic tcrms is so closely
connted with conremporary book illustration that a direcl1ink with the
sehool al the palace of Aachen has httn suggested. T he connection
between miniature and monumental paiming will be reiterated ag~in and
again in the appropriate chapters in order to explain the composillon and
the subjeclmal1er of the frescoes.
The spread of post-Carolingian paimll1g during the Ononian period
and later on up umil the mid thirteenth cemury is easier to treat with
reference to specific cou ntries. In artistic terms. the heritagc of the
Carolmgian era WJS absorbed more readily and de"eloped more richly in

1>t.11es. St.ilenW,k, (.pst). DQDOr figures.

A,...,und800

France, Germany and Ital y. Following thc death of Charlemagne in 814.

the empire was repeatedl)' divided durmg the ninth cemury, resulling in a
significant change to the polilicallandscape of Europe. SlruClures began to
emerge which laid the rough foundations for Europe as we know it today.
Nevertheless, the political and cultural connections between Ihe individual
European countries continued 10 cxist c,'en throughout the high Middle
Ages. Until the end of the Hohenstaufen dynasty in 1268, haly remained
part of the German empire. In 1033. for example, Ihis conncction with
h .. ly was expanded by uniting the kingdom of Burgundy to form the
powerful European trio of ~ Germany-Italy-Burgundy.~ The monastic
orders, tou. operated on a European rather than on a national level, in
pafticular the Clu niacs and the Cistercians. The nOlion of a cultural life
organized along stnClly national lines during the high Middle Ages is
therefore sustainable only to a limited degree.

385

Sa'nt""'naord.St.....anItV'll"". Two
drullsof fmc.,..., angd.IM Fall of Man.
A,ound 1140

Momooft.u,...O>t .. St. G11~ o...~~ of

fmeo on u"~m apK: angd .. Second
qu.on .... of 1M rw..lfth cmlUI'}'

surroundmg places such as Talnm. S,.SavmsurGnflcmP<'. St.-A,gnan

surCher. Montoiresu rCher. Thc,r work IS charaClenzed as the
Mnatural,Sllc school and there hn el'en been a tendenc)' 10 presem their
works as thc Mfirst nalUfahSllc Mph:l.sc of French pamtmg.
lllc corona lion of Hugo Capet in Rhelms m the ycar 987 m.uki the
fiSC of the Gapetian dynasty. and .... IIh It the appearance of a new
archltC'Cture and later also a new style of paln"ng In that part of France. It
was m Ihe same year thatlltlbault. Duke of Tours. foundcd Ihe pnory of
Tavant. The wall paimings in thc ,rypt of the parish church ofSI. Nichola,
wcr~ painted larer. probably in th~ first half of the twelfth cemu ry. and
cknl with an unconventional subjC'Ct: the ballic betWeen good and evil. 11\
pnables from the Old Testamcnt and c,'enu from the New Testamcm.
One well preserved scene shows Chrlt desccndtng mlO J-Iell and saltng
Adam and Eve from thc clutches of the deVIl. ThiS first group of pamungs
is characteriud by sandy-.colOf'Cd pam"ngs on a pale background.
The wall paintmgs that were exeo;utcd around 1180 in the collC'S,ate
church of St.AlgnansurCher ar~ of SImilar appearance. StylistIC simI
larmes an: alS<.> found in the frescoes of the monastery church of St. Gilles
on Monl0lre, situated a few miles north of Tours (photo below). It IS nt
St.$avons urGaflempe. howev~r. that the styl~ of thIS fil'!it group can be
5CC'n :11 liS beSt. Found there is whnt 1'1OSP<'r Mcrimec described III 1845
as Mtlle most Significant and magnificent Rornnnesquc painllng in France M
(photos. pp. 454-55).
Palltled around 1100. thIS fresco c)'de IS unusually complete nnd well
preserled, and IS rcferred to on the chapttr dealmg with narratll'C style.
The second group,loc;tli m central wuth-eastem France and cemeted
around wu them Burgundy and tilt' Auvergne. is known as the M,\-ionte
cassono G roup.~ The abbot I-Iugo or Hugues (1049-1109 ) had a small
France
Romanesqu<, wall paintmg r<,ach~ liS j)C'ak m Fr;'!1 befY,ttn 1080 and
11 50. n P<'rlOO alS<.> of greal slgnoricance for European poillics. Dunng
those )'cars was decided thc falc of Ihe German Empire whICh. undN
pressure from the Church. hnd 10 give in w Romc. To a considernble
eXlenl it was the French Church. under the mfluence of Cluniac rdornlS
and thclr swift spread to the north. whICh supported Ihe pnpacy in 115
battle agamSithe secular dcmands of the Gertn;ln emj)C'rors. Whal finally
dccld~ the battlc for the Indershlp of western Chnstendom .... cre the
mtensc dfons of St. Bernard of Clalf\'aux to strengthen papal power effons whICh, uICldcntally, ran contrary to the VIC .... ' of lilt' Clumac order.
Cluny was the star that outshone all the other arllSUC centers In Europe
m the hIgh MIddle Ages. The turmoil of the French Revolution resulted In
the nlmost tot;\1 destruction of the monaslery church - once the largesl
church m ChrIstendom - and ali 115 treasu res. Tooa y we can hal'e only a
very roush idea of the effect of this center of art ;md science upon artists of
all kmds all over Europe.
Generally speaking, four groups can bc distmgutsh~ In Francc. All
four can be defined not only in topographical but alS<.> m st)'listle term s
wllh reasonablc precision. The ccnter of the first group is Tours. with

386

i.3.audl~u, form" IltntdiClin~ .bb<y.

ChriSlln MaJeSty w"h syrnboli of the
Evangdi'ts, induJlng Mary on the
Ihronc wilh angc"l nd Ap,,,,IM.
Around 1220

church built for the priory of Berze-I3-Ville, a few miles east of Cluny. The
abbot is reported to ha"c retreated \0 this lillie church in order to
contemplate the approach of de ath. Along with 51. Savin, the mC01lumental
paintings of Berze-Ia-Ville are among the most important works of art of
the French Romanesque peTlod (photos, p. 411). They were probably
painted at the same time as thoS(" of St. Sa"in, around 1100, although it is
possible that they were not executed until 1120. T he style, however, is
different, it is morc ~Brzantine.~ It is probable that Cluny arranged for
artists from the monastery of r.,\ontccasslno in southern Italy 10 come to
Bene in order 10 paint the fre$C~s [here. This does no[, hocvc,; apply 10
all the frescoes. Only fragments remalll of ~Chris['s Entry illlo J,:rusalem~
on the western wall of the church (painted around 1180}, bill stylistically,
this fresco is connl"Cted to the first group, the one cemered around Tours.
Such stylistic variety III the same place runs contrary 10 a prc-cise topographical classification, eSpe<:ially as so few examples survive. Nevcrtheless, one llIay tentad"ely establish two groups: the dark frl'SCoes WIth blue
backgrounds are typical of sotuhern Burgundy and [he Au\'ergne, while
the 5andy-colored paimings on a pale background are charaCieristic of the
loire valley.
Also among the second group are the fa.o;cinating fre.o;coes of St. Chef in
the Dauphine rcgion, east of lyons. An inscription suggests that they were
painted in the j'ear 1080. Also belonging 10 this group are [he wall
paimings of St. Julien III Brioude in the Auvergne, which date from the
beglllning of thc thIrteenth cent ury. The fre.o;coes of Brioude are sometimes
seen as being related to Ihose found in neighboring lavaudieLl, and arc
therefore classified as belonging 10 the third group. Similar 10 the paintings
of Bcr7.t-la-Ville, the frescoes of the tllird group ha"e a dark background.
They are, however, not connected with Clu ny or MOlltccassino, de.pite the
faCi that they e:<hibit sonle Byzantine characteristics. These are found ill
the heads of the Apostles with their di sti ncrive physiognomy, :lind in the
carefully modeled mu.o;cles of their faces and hands. The frescOo!s (photo,
TIght) are III the refectory of a former lknedlCtine abbey and we:re paimed
around 1220. Lavaudleu mIght well allow us to call this the" B)'"Lantinc
group
The fourth grou p is known as the ~Cat~lan group~ sillcc the wall
paimings differ strongly (rom the French type. They have more in common
with those found in the Catalan region of ROlIssillon. The painti:ngs of St.Martin-de Fenouilbr south of Perpignan, executed around 1150, should
also be mentioned here, as should those of 51. Romain in Caldegas which
date fronl about the s,1111e period. Another good example of this fourth
group can be found in the frescoes of St.-Jean-Ie-Vigne in St. Plancard,
about 30 miles cast of Tarbes (photos, p. 386). These paintinl;5, dating
frolll around 1140, are loeated in the only church in Francc that has tWO
chancels and arc in two different styles. The often sharp-edged style
employed in [he figures in the chapel of the chancel suggests 'l Catalan
arllSt, while [he strong emphasis on outl ines and the flat fa('cs of the
figures in the apses are 1110re reminiscent of a maSter [rained in the east.
This treatment of form is found in mally, often minor, frescoes in the
,"lIey< of Ih~ French Pyren....... They "I .... ""rve ~< remln,le of th~ lively

cultu ral e:<change thai took place between Ihe regions of northern Spalll
and southern France.
Spain
At the tllne of the Carollllgian Empire, mOSt of Spain was under Moorish
rule. It was referrt"d to as the Umayyad Emirate of Cordoba. The narrow
stretch of the Spanish Marches in the Pyrenees was partly under Frankish
administration, and partly under Frankish influence. During the ReconqUlsra, [he Chnstian Slates on [he edges of the Moorish empire, the kingdoms
of Asturia and Navarre, and the coullly of Barcelon", had to battle ag"insl
Isbm. By the mtd thirteenth celllury, [he "lIlori.o;cos, ~ the Moors, had been
driven out of the [benan Penlllsula, WIth the exception of Granada, which
remained the l3st Moorish state on European soil unti l 1492.
Today, the majority of Roman csque frescoes and paintings from [he
Christian areas llIentioned abo"e arc no longer in their original church
scllmg.
At Ihe beginning of this century, experts began the removal of the
monumental paIntings from the churches. sct III hand their resloranon,
and then distributed them amongSt the three 111051 important museul11s of
Calalonia - Barcelona, Vich, and Solsona.
Spanish Romanesquc painting can be roughly divided into two
(~'~e"ri~~: ,he <fyl~ inflllen(,NI hy Moori~h art, and thaI ;nflllenCM by

387

Frescoes from T.hull (Sonia Maria).

lXrail, O~",cl's victory ov~r Goliath.
Around I lB. Barcelona. Mu..., d'Arf~
d~

c..a]ym.

opposrn: MGE>
LWn . Pan.e6n dt 1"" R~~'''', {k, "]S'
rnurdtr of the In~n".t lIr,h]~h~m,
Christ In Ma~5ly (top), 1M Annunci,,,on
to tM shepMrds (below]. Around 1]80

Byz:ltlline art. Th ... Arab-Moorish influence I... d 10 the de,clopm.nt of Ihe

so-(;alled MOl.arabic Christian art. It is charactI.'rized by Ihe flat trealmen!
of Ihe figures and their elongated heads. The artists belonging to Ihe
~Moorish group ~ were active in places such as Durro, Gerona and Tahul1.
T he early-twelfth-century :'-laster of Osormon desen'es to be mentioned,
since he was responsible, amongSI other things, for Ihe frescoes in the
Church of SI. John in Bellcair. The most famous (or, al least, mOSI often
cited) frescoes were from Tahulland were made around 1123. Today, they
are in the Catalan Museum in Barcelona (photo, p. 388).
The Master of Pedret painted 10 the Byuntine style. The hair-styles and
the arrangement of folds, as well as the dl.'COration of the robes, all show
an artistic affinit) with Byzantium. h en styltstic elements from northern
Italy have been detected in the twelfth-<:entury frescoes of the monastery of
Burgal. The Byzantine influence is particularly noticeable in the western
part of Catalonia - and not only with regard to formal clements bit! also to
subject-maner: Ihe apse fres.:oes of San Pedro of Seu d'Urgeil show Christ
in Majesty, symbols of the Evangelists, and .\1ary and the Apostles (around
(200). The s.:enes from Ihe Passion of ChriS! depicted in San Esteban,
Andorra, are also typically Byzantine 10 thei r motifs and design. Also
likely to be indebted to the Byzantine tradition are the wall paintings from
the monastery of Sigena which were badly damagcd by fire in 1936. Thcre
are, however, shades of ocher and salmon-red, and a light-blue color
which is extremely uncommon in Spanish painting. These colors draw
attention to another link - a link with English twelfth-celllury painting.
There have been suggeslions that the Winchesler Bible and the stained
glass windows of Canterbury Cathedral might have sen'cd as models. The
connection between northern Spain and England could possibly be
explained by the Crusades. There is evid.. nee that at Ihe beginning of Ih ..
twelfth century English knights Sfayed at the Norman COUT! of Palermo
where they are likely to have met Spanish crusaders or clergy. ,\lloreO"er, it
is well known thai direcl ecclesiaSlical and political comacts existed
between Canterbury and Constantinople. It is almost certain that English
ships put in at the Atlantic ports of Ihe north-weslern part of Spain and at
the Spanish Mediterranean ports south of the Pyrenees.
The Panteon de los Re)'es of San [sidoro in LeOn has been called the
~Sistine Chapd of Ihe Romanesque period.~ This burial chamber of the
kings of Castile and Leon (1054-1067) was decoratt"<l by an artiSI from
southern France or from Catalonia who around I 180 painted magnificenl
frescoes over the walls and on the ceiling (photos, p. 389). Using main ly
bluish-grey, red, and deep-brown sh<ldes and a typically Byzantine style,
Ihe artist depicted s.:enes from the life of Christ th<ll are enltvened by
ornamental plant mOlifs and animals.

388

Ol'l'QSm: PACE,
Cant~rbury Cath..dr.1. Wall.nd '-au!t
frescoes In th~cr}'pt (Samt Cabnel's

Oapel), Around L180

Cam.rbuT) Calhtdral. Samt A",..(m'.

Ch.pd. P~ullhrows" $n.>k~ ,nl01M fir .
Third quan~r of lh"Wdf,h ~n1Ury

Knr;:ht>te<len. former Pr<'monmat~",ian

abbry,hurch ofS, . .\I"ia and Andreas.
Croupoflhr~ Aposil". Around
11 70180

England
The close political conlaCt (mentioned aoove) between England and the
eastern Mediterranean region explains Ihe strong Byzantine influence in
Engltsh Romanesque painting. Unfortunately, only very few examples of
fresco painting ha,'e survi,'ed. An allempt to construct a topograph)' of
Ron13n.-sque painting IS therefore not possible. The only testimony
remaining can be found 111 the villages of Hardham and Clayton in Susscx,
in Copford in Essex, in Kempley in Gloucestershire, and in Winchester
Cathedral, as well as in the crypt of Canterbury Cathedral (photo, p. 390).
It has been claimed that the paintings in 51. Botolph's, Hardham, and
St. John's, Clayton, also show signs of continental influence, including that
of Clun)', Presumably manuscripts of the Carohngian court schools
reached the island, since in Hardham stylistic elements have been
discovered that correspond to those of work from the school of Rheims.
Germany
A strict formalism distinguishes Gtrman Romanesque wall-painting of the
eleven th and twelfth centuries in stylistic terms from that of other
European countries, II is comparatively easy to arri,'e at a topographical
division, since enough examples of monumental painting have been
preserved III the individual regions to allow this. The towns whIch extend
along the lower Rhine valley as far as Westphalia make up one of the
main centers. Remarkable pal1\tings were produced there in the twelfth
century, such as the wallpaintings of Schwart.rheindorf; the paintings in
the chancel of St, Gereon in Cologne; those in the chapter housc of
BT;,uweiler; or those in the collegiate church of Knochtsteden (photo, right),
There are also the vault frescoes in St. Maria lysklfchen in Cologne which
date back to the midthirteenth century and are in very good condiTion.
Fragments of Roman.-sque frescoes dating back further, to the late tenth
and early elen"nth ct"nturies, can be found in the chapels and monastery
churches of Essen, Werden, and Aachen. The paintings in Ihe Hohnekirche
{St, Maria 7.ur Hohe} in SotSt were executed around 1250 and are
examples of the Iypically Rheni sh late Romanesque sryle which is often
aprly referred to as Msoftly nowing.~ This Msoftly flowing" sryle takes on
monumental proportions m Schwartrheindorf and would be more suitably
described as MStaufen Classicism. ~ lbere is, howevt"r, a second style of bte
Romanesque pamtlllg III Germany - a somewhat affected, Mner\'ous~ zigzag style that heralds the transiflon to Gothic form. This st)'le win be
dlscusst.'<l in more dt"tail III the appropriate chapter (see pp. 414 H. ).
Another center can be identified in lower Saxony. The best example is the
ceiling of St. Michael III Hildesheim {photos, p. 392}. The only other
surviVIng example of a pal1lted wooden ceiling is in Zillis, SWI!Urland, but
neither in form nor subjectmalter does this ha"e any similarity to St.
f..lichael"s.
Olher paintings worth mentionmg ar.. those in Brunswick Cathedral
and in Ihe Neuwerkkirche III Goslar. They belong to tht" first half of the
thirteenth centllT)' and show strong Otton;an stl'l,stic influences. Both
Rheni sh and Westphalian painting had close links with FrancoFlellllsh
c"hure. lower Saxon)', on the other hand, extended liS innuence towards

391

H,ldes .... 'm, Sc .l.loch;lei I,,oodtn

enlo"gl. P~"'u~I.", ... and &u,1. Sc..vnd

'I".n... Qf , .... d"nmh emu.u')'

"
......

1 1 ",

r ,I'
'\

f,

,"

"n

n
~

n
n

n
n

"

.... ..,..

n n

n
n

"

n
n

n
6

Scand1Oa"ia and e.'en fhe 8m'5h Isle's. The' ~lfuallon was eomple'[e'ly
different 10 south,wC'S1 Germany, where' Ihe' so<alltd MSchool of
Relchenau Meme'rge'd, [hough us e'xistcnce' is doubled by some scholars. (A
1110re' dera,led discuSSion of Ih,s school of painting and fhe associated
co,mo"trsy will follow 111 Ihe SCClion dealing with book Illustration.)
Gcrrn:l1Iy IS home 10 a cycle of pamllngs that has been immens.ely revealing
wuh regard to the STylislic development of Romanesque painting in Europe.
The pamtmgs In quesllon are the OHonian frescoes of tht church of St.
Georg In Obencll on the island of Reichenau on Lake' ConSTanCe'. Dtspite
careful restorallon efforts, they arc 10 a poor nate' of p'e'serv3110n. What
has remamed Intacl, however, is Iht cycle of paintings dtpiwng the
nllracles of Christ which run along the' Imcrior walls of Iht church n:lve.
Closely connected 10 ,hI' Rtlckenau pamlings are Ihe Sylvesler chapel m
tkt nearby .. ,lIagt of Goldb.ach and tht largt wall fresco m Burgfcldcn m
Wuntemberg.
Anothcr nnpoTlanf cenler 10 south Gennany was Regensburg. The:
Allerhelligenkapdle {All Sa10ts ChapelJ In tht caThedral (a round 1160)
and the Magdalentnkapelle (Chapel of Mary Magdalen ) in Sankt
Emmeran (around 1170) ha"e 10 be secn '" confext with Ihe paintings in
Ihe monaSlery church of Prufemng (around 1130). One: is sfruck by the
lmear and clearly contoured Slyle Ihat could be ",nuenced by Reichenau,
or by the- book Illustrallon of lhT!i3U. From Ihere, another link can be

Z,lh . St. Marttn.i)cla,1 of wood."

cr,hng.

P~rt .. 1.iew.

Around 1130140

established, namely to Archbishop Eberhard J of Salzburg who was an

enthusiastic patron of art and, indted, emerged as a kten practitioner
himself around II SO. E,en tOday, the frescoes in the con\"\'nl church at the
Nonnbt-rg in Salzburg bear wttness to Ihis.
It tS very difficult 10 formulau uniform SlyhSlic characteristtcs for the
various Europt"an t"l'gions of arttstic activtty. Although tt is possibk in the
case of France, it is not so in the case of Germany. There are two poss,ble
reawns for Ihis: since the Sfi:ond half of the twdfth century, the abundant
vocabulary of form of OttOntan art had become exhausted, and the result
was an artistic vacuum. Therefore R)'1.antine culture, which had become a
familiar feature thanks to the Hohcnstaufen policies towards haly, could
now ag."1in exert a stronger influence m Germanr, T he Sfi:ond reason has
to do with tile thirteenlh cenlury: from the laIc Iwdftll century onwards,
Ille Gothic structure and style had become increasingly dom inant, first and
above all in France, and in due course also in the olher, mainly southweSlern Europt"an countries, German)" however, remained fixed in a striCt
aeslhelic formalism which held on 10 the traditiollal design cmeria. One
example of ~evasive aClion~ Iypical of such a conservattve anitudc
consisted in Ihe development of the soealled ~tigtag slyle~, exemplified
by the SocSt altarpiece, the ~Socsler Relabel, - and ils depiction of God the
Father (photo, p. 414 below).
Austria and Swinc rlan d
Il.oth countrtes are closdy linked to the arttstic development of their
neighboring countries: for northern and western Switzerland. stylistic
trends were set by Reichenau and Rurgund)', while southern and eastern
Switzerland looked to Lombardy and the Tyrol for inspiration. In cultural
and geographICal terms, the Romanesque painting of the T)'rol presents a
homogeneous piclure. Of particular iconographical mterest are the
frescoes of Termeno, Lana ncar Mcrano, and Brcssanone. All these
frescoes were painled during the first half of the th,rtcettth C~ntur)'.
Reference has already been made to fhe Carolmgtan patnttngs of ~hlles
and Naturno m Venosla (so uthern Tyrol) which are closely connected with
those of Mustatr (Graublinden J. Sttuated above ,\l3lles, ncar Burgusio, is
the Benedtctine abbey of Marienberg (Monte Maria ), The crypt there
contains frescoes from around 1160 which are likely to lIa'c been
influenced by Rcichenau. Another artistic center is Styr;a, The frescoes in
the cathedral of Gurk (arou nd 1260) have as their subject-mailer ~the
church as the city of God- and, with their typical zigzag style, are alread)'
part of the transttional phase: leading to the Gothic style,
The question as to whether Reichenaus influence extended also 10 the
wooden ceiling of the church of SI. ,\olartin in Zill,s (Graubunden ) has
already been discussed; it must, however, remain doubtful. The same
applies to the dating (atound 11 30/40) of the works which have been
restort"d se:veraltimes. They are an impressive cycle of paintings depicting
the Ufe of Christ and his l'assion, and also some eptsodes rdatmg to the
life of the church's patron, tn 153 main pictures with 43 accompanying
marginal pictures (p hoto, p. 394). The marginal spaces show allegorical
depictions of animals and stylized plant forms.

393

Z,lh .. Sf . .\1a"1n. lHuil of woodtn

ce,hng. Around 1 I3 OJ~ O

394

MU<f.ir, monall~ry church ofS!-o Jolon.

De!>;1 of .. d~ "1"'"= Ih~ >toning ofSI.
Sleph~n. T....elfth mury

395

V~ni<:~,Sl.
nartht~:

Ma,k's. ,\1oso,c in ,he

dome: of Gc:neSls. Early

.himxn,h (;(:n,ury

haly
In Italy there are three cemers of Romanesque painting that can be dearly
defined in geographical terms: Montecassino in the south, Rome in central
Italy, and Milan in the north. Each adopted Byzamine art as their stylistic
ideal. AI that time the influence of the Byzantine mosaic schools of Trieste,
Venice, Ravenna, Rome, and of Cefalu and Palermo in Sicily was overwhelming, Its effect was felt for a long lime afterwards nOI only in the artistic
OOlten themselves, but throughout Italy (photo, left, p. 397). When i)esiderius,
the abbot of ,"lomtcasS1I1o durtng the second half of the eleventh century,
wanted to have the Provost's quarters of the monastery of Sam'Angelo in
Formis decorated, he even sent for artists and artisans from the Byzantine
metropolis, Constantinople, In the case of Rome, particular mention 1I1USt
be made of San Clemente. A fresco dating back to around 1000 can still be
seen in the upper church - in the past it used to be situated in the narthex of
the lower church. The crypt, the e"islence of which can be traced back as fat
as the fourth cenruty, is today regarded as a treasure-house of Romanesque
painting. It boasts ninth-century frescoes in the nave, depiCTing the Ascension
of Christ, and in the narthex a cycle from the early twelfth century representing the legend of Sf. Clement (photo, p. 398), A Madonna painted around
the year 500 in the Byzantine style completes the impressive array.
The work done b)' the Master of the legend of St. Clement and his
workshop had a far-reaching effect in Rome and far beyond. The Roman
school might e,'en have influenced Ihe paintings of the abbey of Castel
Sanr'Elia ncar Nepi (around 1100, photo, p. 399) and in the cathedral of
Agnani (around 1200).
Nothing has remained of the artistic center of h'lilan. One has 10 look
to the neighboring towns and villages, such as Galliano near Cantu (ea rly
eleventh century) or Civale (around 1090) north-east of Lake Como, in
order to find e"amples of the characteristic Milan style. The OtlOnian
influence that affected the places JUSt mentioned will be discussed at a laleT
stage. There are the less well-known frescoes of Sant'llario in Revello
(begi nning of the eleventh century; situated betv.cen Cuneo and Turin) and
of San Pietro e Sanr'Orso ;n Aosta (around 1150), aU of which were
certainly painled independently of Milan but are nonetheless remarkable,
Aosta could e~en be singled out as the Piemonlese center of painting. Of
iconographical interest are the paintmgs in the oratory of San Siro in
Novara which dale from the firsl half of Ihe Ihirteenth century. In a
colorful and lively manner they illuSlrate miracles and evenlS from the life
of St. Sirius. The scenes include elements of both reabstic and dramatic
design and arc enlivened by the use of brilliant blues and pinks.
Scandina via, Bohemia and Moravia
In art one should not refer to Mperipheral works~ - at most, one should
regard them as works of no particular consequence for future developments. At this point we therefore mention e"amples from Scandinavia and
from Bohemia and Moravia in order to give a geographically complete
survey of Romanesque painting and define its eastern borders.
The development of Romanesque painting in Scandinavia is closely
linked with the arltrade in England and in Lower Sa"ony,

396

Florenct, rn.pt,\,cry. Dna,1 from ,h~

mosaic in.be dom~. Fl"Qm 1225

Panel.howlng 1M A""""sion of Chm.

from 1M ch~r<:h of Eke. Around
1200. Stockholm, Stale"! H ,.ton.ka
Museum
(de.~il )

Byzantine influences do not come ro the fore until the end of the twelfth
cenlllry and th e beginning of the thirteenth. One can assume that most
wooden churches of the eleventh and twelfth centuries were decorated
with panel paintings. Unfonunately, only very little of this kind of work
has survived. One example is the Ascension of Christ, painted around
1200, from the Swedish church of Eke (phoro, p. 397). The pa.nel is now
kept in the National Museum in Stockholm.
The earliest wall paintings found in Bohemia and Moravia date from
the twelfth century and include the frescoes in the eastle ch,apd of St.
Catharine in Znojmo painted in 1134. Work found in the church of S1.
Klelnens in Stara Boleslav suggests a connection with book illur.nination in
S;lb:burg. T he scenes from the tife of SI. Clement are thought to have bet-n
painted around 1180. Amongst the stylistically most mature w,:.rk of that
region are the paintings on the piers in the Mariageburtkirche (Church of
the ~ativjty of the Blessed Virgin Mary) in Pisek. The depictions of the
Passion of Christ contain a mixture of Byzantine and early Gothic stylistic
elements. This has led 10 the assumption that the work was done towards
the end of the thirteenth century by an artist from the Middle Rhine.

397

Romt. San Ckmtnt I0 ....." church.

St. Ckmcm ~I.br:u"'g ,h.
Around [[00

M.,..

398

OPf'OSIT'EPAGE.:

CaStel Sant'Eh. dl Ncpl. Raslhc~

Sant'AnaSlOSIO. Apse frescoes. Endof
ele"",,.h/btglnnlns of 'welfth ~nlUrr

Book Illumination
HibCTno-Saxon and AnglG-Sa:<on manu scri pts
The significance of Irish book iliuminatiOll (the origins of which were in
Scotland, the home of the Irish) for the developmenT of Carolingian and
partiyeven Ottollian paiming was cOllsidcrable. The main reason for Ihis
was the missionary work carried out by Irish monks. Aroun([ 590, SI.
Columba alld his companions tra,eled [0 France. Germany and across
the Alps 10 Northern [m[y. [n the Vosges "'[ountains he founded the
monaslery of Luxeull and in Lombardy that of 8obbio. MallY of the early
monasteries later developed thrivillg scriptoria. Amollgst them art' the mOllasteries of Fulda (80nifatius), Wiirzburg (Kilian), Regellsburg (Emmeran},
St. Gallen (Gallns) and EchteTJlach (Willibrod}. Before 5t. Columba's
activity, his father, Columba the Elder, ],ad been invoked 111 founding
monasteries in ],is motherland - amongSt them DUTrOW on Ihe Hebridean
island of lona, and Kells in [relalld. These were tile mOSt im portant centers
of early medieval sc],olarship. They produced manuscripts which 'were soon
to be kllown at any royal or prillCe's palace in Europe as well as III all abbeys
and in the Vatican. Amongs[ the famous manuscnprs are what are t(Klay known
as [he Book of Durrow (sevent], century, photo, p. 401 ) and the Book of Kells
(around 8(0). Long after I],e first HibemG-Saxon alld AIlg[05.1X0I1 mission
0')' oct'v;.y dire<:ted south east h"d t"ken pl"ce, the "rtistic .rndi,-ion of .he
British Isles was cultivated and com[nued on Ihe continent. In t],is way the
aesthetic foundations of Carolingian painting had been cstabl,sh.:d.
Around the end of the sevemh cemury the artistic activity of the Insh
monks shifted from Scotland to Eng[and. The monastery of Lindisfarnc
was founded in Northumbria. Its unique malluscript, the Lindisfarne
Gospels, was produced around 700 alld inspired artists in German
scriplOria 10 adopt its use of sophiSticated pictor,al patterns.
[n the year 597 Ihe Benedictine monk AuguSline arrived in Canterbury
from Rome. l,.,is marked the beginning of the contlict with Iltte artistic
tradition of Rome, i.e. with the Byzanline style Ihe influence of which, it is
true, was present only in a restrained way and which was only gradually
making itself felt. [t is reported that he was carrying out missionary work
on the instructions of I'ope Gregory the Great and [hal he had with him
varions codices from Rome. Allother twO centuries passed hefore the
Byzantine form was accepted and modified in Ihe course of the eighlh
century. This assimilation took place mainly in the schools of Canterbury
alld Winchester. 80th writing schools were gainmg rc<:ogmlion at thaI
time, inspiring contmental artists to d"'elop novel combin.a.ions of
abstract figures and ornamentallettermg.
Carolingian alld Ollonian scri ptoria
The Palace school in Aachen formed the center of Carolingian cultu re. [tS
writing schools and scriptoria produced important manuscriJPI5 which
contributed to the de~dopment of the mature Romanesque style.T he
flowering of the court school began around the year 800 and Insted until
Ihe death of Charlemagne in 8 14. It was Charlemagne himself who
commissione<l the God~a1c Gospel (around 780/83 ), the schoc,)'s earliest
recorded manuscript. It was usual to name manuscripts either after the

400

place for whtch they were deSlined or the place where they were kept, or
after [he donor. Examples of such manuscripts produced at Aachen are the
Gospels of 5t. Mtdard of Soissons (phoro, p. 402) {which, incidentally,
contains up to 600 d[iferent ornamental motifs) and the Ada Codex of
Tner.
After the death of Charlemagne, the important task of communicating
and spreading the style of the Palace school fell 10 the scrrptorium of
fulda. The link between Aachen and Fulda was made possible thanks 10 one
of Akuin's pupils, Hrabanus Maurus, known as ~Praeceptor Germaniae, ~,
Mlhe leacher of German)'~, who was abbot of Fu1d~ un ti[ 842. The
Gospels of Wunburg were written there, a manuscripl that look up [he
profusion of form and shapes displayed in the Gospels of 5!. MCdard and
varied and adapted them further.
Another workshop acrh'e during the Caro[ing'an period was situated
In Rhclms and produced the Ebo Gospels and [he Utrecht I'salter. 80lh
manuscripts date from around 855. Following [he example of Reims, there
were founded further workshops and schools in Tours and in 5t. Denis
w],ich produced Ihe Lotha r Gospels (around 850) and the !i.1Cramentary of
Charles the Bald (around 860). The artistic centers of Merl and Corbie
should also be mentioned here.
The abo"cmentioned places point to 3 whol .. ne.work of "rti~"c
aClivity. so that there were a number of centers producing illustrated
manuscrrpts, not just Aachen. In the wake of the Palace school founded by
the Emperor Charlemagne, a number of other schools and workshops
were established. T hey, too, all profited from the HibernG-Saxon and
AngloSaxon traditions and fused them with Byzamlne elements, thus
creating new compositions and a new [allguage of form.
Carolingian book illumination retained its dommant posil,on well inlO
the tenth cenwry, with the result Ihal the Ortolllan scriptoria at first
followed in the tradition of the Carolingian ornamental and piclOria!
pafterns. 'mere is evidence that the first Ottonian manuscripts were mere
copies of Carolingian codices. which might also be accounted for by,
amongst other Ihings, a drop in ;lr!lstic produclion around the year 900.
Artistic activity declined as a result of nOT only the Viking invasions and Ihe
threat posed by the Magyars, but also by the decline of domestic policy
within parts of Ihe C.1rolingian empire. The imperial traditton was nOI
consolidated until the arrival of the OtTon,an rulers during the tenth and
e!C\'enth cenwries. There followed a cu[tural upswing which must also be
seen in the comexi of Ihe reform of Ihe monasteries during this same period.
The foundation of the monaslery of Clunl' in 9\0 servcd TO prOmOte the
aesthetic ideals of Johannes ScotuS who regarded pictorial reprcsemal10n as
the highest form of perception. According to Ih,s Carolingian philosopher,
beauty was Ihe perfe<.:t expression of berng. Th[S meant that an art form had
not only a symbolic significance bUl was also important to the sah'ation of
the human sou!. In this contexl, beauty is equated with light, and the
~image-light~ interpreted as a metaphor for hea"rnly, divine beings.
Such thinking migh t accoum for the inten$C colorlllg found in Ottonian
minialures. In the couT$/' of Ihe tenth and eleventh centunes, th cse ideas
gained momemum and led 10 Ihe fiN;! formulation of a theory of art.

!look ofDu'row.om.o ..... n'al ....,. lona.

x..rn.h ~n.ury.l>ubhn. TnnttyColIc-go.

lib. Ms. 57. fol.

3~

f rom.ht l.nd"fo,..., Gooptl$. Ou-Rho

'nlflall. Amund "8.l.on<loo. Sn".h
L bury. Cotton ~b. Ntro D. IV. 101.29,

PHOTO P 4t)l.

Soon.,n.. ("..,.ptl ofS . Mtdard.

Ado"'lOftof . ht Lamb. School of.ht
Palace of Aach.n. Around 800. Pan ..
1I,b!. Nat. Ms.!..at. 8850 101.1

"fOTOP.4(I)

Tnt, 11'. Cod"" Egbon,. QN"",.ory

J"CIun: ~ f~nus.~ Ar.... nd 980. T,ie,.
Stad. b,b!.od.d,. Cod. 24. fol. 2

40 1

402

403

CO<hlOntmopk. J<hu. ":'oll J<hua

and .hc.p",s from Gibeon. Around 950.

Rome. Ribl. ApIX.olic:a Va.oeana. V.

ralast. Gra.431

For many years Ihe is13nd of Reichenau on Lake Conslance was

considered a place of prolific artistic production durtllg the high Middle
AS"" Huw"vn, rcf"r""~'" Lu lh .. ~flU~Il"'Li,,!S mUu'" ~,f .. }"Ii .. i~
comparisun and its un rcliabi1ity~ made about thirty ytaT$ ago led 10
doubts as 10 whether the writing and illuminating school o~Rekhenau had
ever e,'en existe<!. !l.hny codices originally attributed to the Reichenau
school were now beheved to have ~n produced in Trier, for eJ(ample the
Codex Egberti (which in Ihis context will be discussed in more detail
shortly). However, at the Congress of Art Historians in Constance in 1972
this theory was rejected, and thanks 10 studies relating 10 it, liturgical
history. the analysis of its form an d shapes, and 10 its iconOjl;raphy. the
school of Reichenau was ~rttstablished~ as the artistic cemer of the
Ottonian period,
A brief example to illustrate the nature of the contro"crsy is the much
disputed Codex Egberti (photo, p. 403) which is const:mtly being
reanribuled 10 Trier or Reichenau. There are numerous indications that
the manu\oCript was actually produced in Trier - not least the fact that it
was commissione<! by Egbert who was the archbishop of Trier. T he
~ R eichcnau~ supporteT$ counter this argument by pointing out that the
dedicatory verses in the codex contain the information that the manuscript
had ~n offered to the archbishop by the ~augia fauSt3,~ {he ~happy
meadow, ~ that is, Reichenau.
The tendency loday is again to defend the island of Reichenau as a
center of artistic production. One of the main reasons for this is the
Reichenau cleric Liuthar who has been connected with matny of the
codices attribllled to Reichenau. They, in turn, show links Wllh famous
manuscripts, such as the gospel book of Ono III or the' Bamberg
Apocalypse. What e"eryone is agreed upon is that so far no condusi,'c
evidenct"' has been forthcoming to prO"e the actual existence of a writing
~nd illuminating school at Reichenau, During the discussion no consider
ation was gi"en, however, to Ihe fact that between the elevelllh and the

404

twelfth centuries, regional monaSlic schools of aT! were of far less

importance than they had ~n in the previous centuries, for example in
,be C."ulingi~n (n'pire. In the Ononian period, many mOre laYlllen lOok
part in Ihe prodUctlon of manuscripts. ApaT! from the king, there W:lS a
particularly large number of noblemen financing the production of
precious manuscripts. Artistic production increased considerably during
that period and was no longer confined to individual centers. The free
exchange of artistic ideas was made possible b)' the royal court and its
surroundings, particularly Ihe bishops and the abbots and the aristocracy.
Ollonian aT! was an art of the whole empire no longer confined to the
hmit3110ns of regional art centers.
Whiche"er theory might be true, it is nOt possible to discuss the issue
here. A quesflon mark must therefore be added in the following pages
whene"fT Trier is mentioned as the place of origin, if modern research
suggests that a work W;lS produced in Reichenau.
Many manuscripts of great di,'ersity were produced in the Trier
workshop between 980 and 1020, amongst them the Gospeillook of 0110
[][, Ihe Registrum Gregorii. and the Bamberg Apocalypse, Echternach, an
offshool of the Trier wtlting school, creale<! pictu res of the Evangelists and
the gospel book of Sant!e Chapelle which are distinguished by their perfect
and lavish design and presentation,
The Regcnsbutg scriptorium lended to look towards Carolingian
examples for inspira tion, in p3rticular those from the court school of
Tours. T he most important work produced In Regensburg includes the Uta
Codex (late eleventh century) and the s-acr;lmen\ary of Hen ry II. The
major work to emerge from the workshops in Cologne is without doubt
Ihe codex of the Abbess Hitda "on Meschede, known as the Hilda Codex,
which was produced III the first quarter of the eleventh century. The gospel
book of St. Gereon, WTlften at the end of the tenth century, could be
regardcd as a kind of preliminary stage to the Hitda Codex in lerms of
style and motifs.

Ashbum.m pc:nt:l1.uch. North Afnc~ (1).

J~C<)b

an.! Es<ou. Stv.nth <.nlury. Paris.

Bib1. Nal. Nouv. Acq. La!. 2334.101. 2S

There are a number of individual Austrian schools Ihal deserve 10 be

mentioned, although Ihey did nOI necessarily belong to Ollonian art. One
such school of high slanding was at Ihe monastery of Heiligenkreuz
situated in the southern part of the Vienna woods and founded by the
Margrave leopold 111 in 1135. Around the year 1200, a number of very
fine illustrators and scribes were working there. The manuscripts
produced in the convent of Zwenl in the Lower Austrian woods are also
di stinguished by interesting pictorial patterns, as found, for instance, in
the ~Speculum Virginum~. [t is likely thaI arrists from Ikiligenkreuztal
and Zwenl were active also in Reu n in Slyria. It IS to Ihem that we owe the
MReun panern book which was produced around the year 1200.
Finally, Ihe Bohemian writing school should be considered. [t includes
the school of Vysthard where the Coronation Gospel Book W3$ created
{now kept in Ihe Prague Unhersity Libra ry). Although these works show
close links with their Austrian models, they pale before the glories of
Ononian book production.
M

halian and Spani sh writing schools

Throughout the early and high Middle Ages, Italy was regarded as a
Msu pplier of form and design~ for the wriling and Court schools north of
the Alps. After the Norman Conquest of Engl and in 1066, Italian
manuscripts also found their way 10 the island which until then had relied
for formal and typological vocabulary largely on irs own monasteries in
Northumbria or Scotland.
In the clelenth century, the Abbot Desiderius of Montecassino had stnt
for artists and book iIIurninatoT$ from Constantinople who extended the
Latin scriptoriurn in the monastery. From there, this ~new style~ soon
spread throughout haly. The fame of the Irishtrained book illuminators in
Ihe monastery of Bobbio in Lombardy began 10 fade. Particularly famous
was the ~ I-Iomiliary~ and also the MLife of S,1im Benedict. ~ The ~Homiliary~
was a collection of sermons according to the order of the pericopes used
for the gospel and epistle readings throughout the ecclesiastical year. With
regard to the Codex of Saint BenediCt, it has even been po:ssible to trace the
artist -the monk Leo.
Between the early tenth and the thirteenth centuries, a new pictorial
genre came into existence. This was the ~exultet roll~ which took its name
from the words which with it began: MExultet iam angelica tu rba coelomm
... ~ (Rejoice, re heavenly hosts ... ). On Easter Saturday, these picture rolls,
also called ~rotuli,~ were lowered from the pulpit during the sermon. The
text read OUt by the deacon was wrinen on one side, wh ile the
congregation could see the pictures illustrating the text on the other side.
T he tradition of the rotuli can be traced back to ancient triumphal
columns with sculpted piclorial friezes, such as the column of Trajan in
Rome. The Joshua scroll {photo. p. 404) represents a variant of this type.
It was produced in Constantinople, probably aroulld the middle of the
tenth century, and must soon have found its way 10 the countries north of
the Alps where it exerted" de<:isive influence on the n""".ive style.
In a development similar to that found in the wall-paintings of Civate
and Galliano near Cantu, a fusion of Byzantine form and Ononi"n

traditions took place in many Umbrian and north- Italian workshops, one
example being the scriptorium of Polirone, situated on the river Po soUlheast of Mantua.
Spain constilUies a special case, not least because of the Arab in nuence
dominant there. The apocalypse manuscripts were a speciality of northern
Spain. In order to understand them, it is necessary to look to the
~Ashburnham Pent:lteuch ~ (photo, above), " codex probably produced in
northern Africa in the seventh centu ry. [tS pictorial language, ornamental
style, figure composi tion and coloring hale prepared the way for the
popular Mozarabic style. These apocalypse manuscripts are highly interesting both in iconographIC and formal terms. One of the centers where they
were crea ted was Ihe monastery of San Salvador de Tavara whose artistic
production reached iTO puk in Ihe oecond h"lf of the lenlh cenrury.
With this brief reference to Spain, we ha'e now completed a rough
outline of Ihe complex links that existed between the va riou s countries

405

~lId Ih~1 mulled In Ihe lOJl(lgraphleal ~s wdl n stylistic Influences of

Romancsque P:lIl11l11g, The followilig Stlons Will now look :II how the
variolls stylistic and Iconographical variations developed,

Wall painting: Slylistic dndopmcnt and composition

U)"La nline pattern and Hohen ~ta ufen form
The stylistic Interconntlons of R01l1ancsquc pallltlng in Europe arc
many: they arc also very difficult to catcRorize, This is partly bccause of
the spread of medievalmanuscnpts, which occurred al a rate unusually
faSt for the time, Il y thc eleventh ccntury at the bleSI, all the rdel':lnt
specialist artlstlc centers 111 Eu rope were acquallltcd with C;uolingian,
0110ntan and Byzantllle codices, Lacking new styhstic ideas ()of irs own,
wall-palllling often copied the composl11on and motifs of thc manuscripts
:lnd adaptcd thtm for itS own purposes, Thc high Mlddlc Ages c:ln be
lookr-d upon :IS a peTiod of a truly 1IItcrnauonai European style, Slllce It
was common pradlce for al'1'51S to work for d,ffercnt courtS and diOCC$CS_
This e:<changc of arusu COntrlbu1r-d 10 the fact that distinct regional
amst;c sryles only ,'cry r.arely cOincided with thc regIonal boundaries,
Basicall y, four arliSlic IIlQI'emenlS c;an be distinguished:
1_) The Byzanune style whIch spread frum Ital y 10 conflnen!al Europe and
reached as br as England, II affected both mlll1alure and monumental
pa1lltlng_
2_) The Hlberno-Saxon and Anglo-Saxon slyle whICh advam;ed !>Outhwards across the cun unent as far 3S nOTlhern haly. It was relevant mainly
in the early phase of RomanC5que p:l1llt1llg and was used predollllllantly in
book illumination,
3.) The art of Ihe Carolingian and Ollonlan empires which from its cemers
in Germany :lnd France radiated 111 all d,,t1ons. It manlfcsted i~lf above
all 111 work done 111 scriptoria thai were active between the nlllth and Ihe
deve1l1h ccn!llnes_ There IS evidence th31thc Ulrolingian codices cxerted a
dir~t and m;lrked innuenct on the plClOril, l struclUre and subj~t matler
ofOtwnian painllng.
4. ) Finally 1here was MOMrabic lIT! whICh, despite its strong regiona!
limi1ations, had an immense Impact. Bc:twccn the tighth and th.t tlevcnth
centuries, it gavc TlSC to unusual and deli ghtful variallons m tht: ChriSIJan
:lrt of northern Spam_
Tht mnuenct of Ihe ltalo-Byzanllne styl e (whi,h will be discussed in
more del:lll shortly ) meanl that the mtellCCfUal hentage of anti'luity came
into direct contaC( wllh the ChnSllan doctrine of sal,':uion_ It was, abovt
all, t~ Carollllgian coun schools that valued the 8yzantllle spiri t. After
all, since the Emperor JUSllman closed down the Platonic A,--ademy of
Athens III 529, ChTiStian Europe had had only very sporadi, access 10 Ihe
anclCnt ~ctS_ The knowledge and behefs of the ancients could rea,h
Europe only III "cry small quall1l11es and bY:l roundabout route vi:l highly
cultu red .... lamic Spalll - If 31 all. The hbraTies of Constanlllople, Rome
and Venice, and 1:lIer al!>O those of Monlccasslno and Pa!ermo, housed
nUlllerous volumes contamlllg the thought and teachmgs of Classical
antiqullY but they wtre available only 10 enhghtened Classical scholars. It

406

was really only dUTIng Ihe Carolmglan and Ihe Hohtnstauftn dynasuM
that ClaS~I(;l1 antlqlllty II:lS I~alized for liS policiM and hlghl) n.lued
for liS culture. Today, there IS a tendcn'Y to refer 10 such cases as a
~Rena ,ssance,~ a ~ Proto-Renalssance,~ or a ~Renoval1o,~ terms which
will be dealt wllh at a later stage in thiS book. Our ;nilial concern is 10
descnbe 1he kdl o-BYZ;oIIItine style III order to define Byz:mline form and
give an outime of 1he efft 11 had on the stylistic development of
Romancsquc wall paulll11g.
T he early ChrlSllan mosaICS of Ravenna and Rome were a treasurehouse of form and deSIgn for Carollllgian monumental painling. Just how
strong this innuence was borncs nnpresSlI'ely obvious in the litllt
monastery church of M uSt:UT m Graubunden. The walls of Ihe aisles and
the apses 3rc dorated wllh numerous frescoes depicting subjccts from
the Old :lnd New Testaments, with :lrchllectural sh:lpes that dccor.atc the
background 111 an unobtruSII'e manner (photo, p. 407 on the left)_ The
palllred archl1ccturnl elements such as arches. col umn s and pilasters help
to articulate the groups of figures. Thus Christ IS often placed beneath a
semi-Clrcular arch which allows for the harnlQmous IIltegrnnon of hIS
halo. Columns and pIlaSTers are useful devices IQ separa te figures or
groups of figures from the backgruund. A certam spatial quality is
suggested by the overlappmg of figum and archItectural tleR1Cms, despITe
t~ faa Ihat proper perspcctllt has nOI )'ct been achlCl'ed. TIlls ~spallal
plane~ 5tr\td as the Slage, :IS 11 were. on which Iht figum slood or
performed the,r aCtlons_ Similar compos'l1onal systems and trC3tlllCnt of
figures can be found at Castclsepno !>Oulh of Varcsc (probably daung back
to the early eighth cenlury). Howevcr, the characteristics described arc al!>O
typICal of the Byzantine mosaics III R:lvcnna and Rome. It is conceivablt
that there werc evtn lmks to early Rom:ln wall or catacomb pamtmg.
Imporlanl examples of thiS are Sta. Mana Annqua (early eighlh cenwry)
and the catacomb on the Via Nomemana (fourth century).
Such compansons scrvc 10 Illustrate m gcneral terms how the B)"Lamme
style was adoptcd, It dots not however, account for the sheer weal th and
joy of detail a11d l1arr:l1Ion th:l1 is.so obvious 111 the apses of Mustair, The
figu res skippmg past columns, ducking under arches, and hiding behind
pilasters have a high,spmted but al!>O traditional element abom them
whICh scem$ best ~lIItr-d to the bllhful of a rural district. It is possible Ihat
pre-Carolingian book Illumlllat'on al!>O prOVIded !>Orne tnSpinllon, as IS
suggested by pages from the Ashburnham I'enrateuch_ It is worth
remcmbtnng here thai t~ laner codex, whICh was probabl)' wrmen III
Spam or northern Africa m the scI'enth cemury, IS reprcscnlatWe of a
number of early Byzan llnc manUSCTlpts whICh use a compar.able figurat,..e
and archltcctural pauern. A k1lld of model of thIS manner of reprcsentallOn so 1)'plCal of Byun1lne art can bt setn m a folIO showmg scenes
from the Old Testament StOry of Jacob and Esau (set photo, p. 405 ), liere,
1he slructuTing of figures and archltlu ral elements works on a Similar
lel'el 10 Ihat of Ihe MuSlalr pamtmgs. Spati:ll depth is suggest~d by
Ol'erlappmg a figure with a column. Figures lined up s,de b)' SIde." are
aTl,culatcd by round arches that setm to urge on the speed of the nanallve.
Here, tOO, the palace-like arChlfCCIIJre has tht over.all function of a stage

MUSIal<. n'lQn.>St~ry church of St. John,

north ..... ~II; ChriSl h~~ling ,h~ mu.~ m~n.
Around 800

TOP K1Glrr,

Aach.n. Ada Gos~1. St. Luk~ ,h.

Ev.ngchSl. Around 800. Trier,
St.dtb,bli<>th~k.

Cod. 22. 101. 8S

BOTfO.'! IlIGlrr:
Mii"~l<. monalt(ry church of St. John.
Orna",.mal h.nd rita, ,h. ap$<' ""ndow.

Ar""nd 800

set which defines ,h,. space in which the figur,.s act, and dividt,S 11 up into
individual scenes.
AIS<.> of note are ,he window framings conistll1g of p:llnt'~ columns
with a threequarter circle profil.., imitating classical forms (photo on the
right, bo[tom). They dearly relat .. to ornamentation used in book
illumination produced at around the same time (photo, top right ). The
colonn .... " ....s are decorated with styliud flowers and entwined by spiral
ribbons. Such Brunt"'.... ornamemal motifs arc typical of the illuminations
produced by the Palace school of Charlemagne 111 Aachen. Th,~ folio with
the Evangelist Luke from the Ada gospel book (around SOO) depicts the
Evangelist ~neath a portal with columns. The arch is decorated with a
delicate sawtooth frieze, while the slender colonnetles arc (,mam.. nted
with spiral ribbons and small cartouches. It is possible that the anist in this
case wanted to indicate the existence of two levcls - one in the secular
world, represented by the architectural framing, and one in the hereafter,
.... I'r~<l'n.~d by ,h.. vi<ion~ry ~ppearance of the Evangelist who <it< on hi<

heavenly throne and is accompanied by his apo.;alyptic symbol. the bull.

One can assume that the window framings in [h.. church of Miistair are
bascd on a similar conc.. pt of m..atling. The ornamental features seen in
context with the actual architecture of rhe window aUows the "outsider 3
glimpse onto and into the sacr..d space, and rhus a symbolic glimpse of the
Heavenly Jerusalem which is in turn represcnted by the actual church
building. The references are therefore manifold and on many levels, The
formal language of B)'"lantine art exerts its influenCe on bolh book
illumination and monumental painting alike, and again and again we sce
how the tWO genres rescmble each OIher itl both style and motif.
What was already heralded by Musrair and Ihe Ada Guspel Book _ i.e.
Ih .. artistic interplay between figure and architecture - is a characteristic
feature of B)'"l<~ntine decoration. Architeclure, however, is not always
restrict ..d to Ihe role of background articulation. Many Carolingian
frescoes (eature buildings and town districts which arc not covered by
figure<. Although 3crive figures are inlcgnle<l inlO Ihe over~1l3rchil<'Clu'al
M

407

Aux~rre, S"inl-~rmaill, cryJ>f, SI.

Sleph~n's Ch.pC"l. The slolllllgofSaill1
Sl~ph~n

Montmorillon, NOire Dame. Chapell~

S'"nt.... Calh~r; .... Th. Virgin Mary and
Child. Around ]200

unique at this early stage. Such compositions suggest the existence of a

lively arristic center where experimentation with Bytantine compositional
schemes had been going on for some time. Even tuall y they might have
opened up new perspecti,'CS for the aesthetic design of wall spaces. What
such examples also do is 10 underl ine the arltstic potency and self
confidence of the Carolingian striving for artistic excellence. It is therefore
a reasonable assumption that funher instances of independe", pictorial
design would have come to light had more wall painting of the
Carolingian period survived.
The anistic dialogue with Bytantium has still more "ariety to offer:
form was interesting nOI only in its capacity for representing the political
dignity of the ruler (see below). It also allowcd the direct adoption of
motifs which were transplanted, as il wcre, from their original Byzantine
selling. Such a case can be seen in NotreDame in Montmori11on. near
Poitiers (photo, below). The apse vault of the Chapelle S;ainteOathcrinc is
taken up by a represel1latlon ofth.: enthroned Virgin Mary with the Christ
child. His linle arm stretches out beyond the confin~'S of the mandorla in
design, the view remains unobstructed. Thus whole buildings or groups of
buildings move into [he foreground and be<:ome the pictorial subject.
In St. Stephen's Chapel in the cryp[ of St. Germain in Auxerre, the
visitor is confronted by a surprising composition (photo, abo"e): the
stoning of St. Stephen is depicted in a tympanum. Nearly all of the lefthand half of the pictur~ is taken up by the representation of a fOwn which
is scaled down in size in proponion to the figures. The towers, pans of
buildings, and a spacious gateway adorned with a triangular pe<lim~nt can
all be looked upon as a reduced veduta. St. Stephen, it seems, has lust been
dragged throush this city gate and onto thc place of his execution by his
judges. Towering behind the humble SI. Stephen, his torturerS;ITe depICted
with their arms raised up ready to throw the stones. The figure of Stephen
himsdf projects into the right half of thc picture which otherwise consists
of an empty space, broken up to great effcct by the appearance of the hand
of God.
T his unusual composition gives us tWO important pieces of information: the adopt ion of the Byzantine pictorial motif of the cit), and the
gradual development away from [he Byzantine figure-architecture relation
ship. We arc unlikely to come across a composi tion in Oarolingia n wall
painting that can be compared with Auxerre; although ninth-century book
illumination might offer some comparable exam ples.
There is anothcr fresco in the Chapel of 51. Stephen that breaks away
from Ihe Byzantine pallern usually employed at the time. Set wi thin
another Iympanum, we are confronted by another unusual composition:
depicted along the central axis is the upright figure of a sainI around
whom the other figures arc grouped in such a way that they form a line
rising up towards the center. This triangular composition is integrated
harmoniously infO the span of the tympanum. Nevertheless it seems
unusual that not even smaller groupings of heads are shown in a staggered
arrangement at the same height, as is the case with BY1.antine models, and
with sarcophagi from late antiquity in particular. The piling up of figures
behind and next to SI. Stephen creates an illusion of space that is almost

408

Form,s,
",,,,,,SlY. Around 1080

Sa~!"Angeio In

order to crown Ecclesia. Hovering above The S(ene aTe angels in various
degant. mannered or acrobatically disTOrted poses.
Although the subje<:t is Typically Byzantine, the style is not. II is softer
and more animated and imparts TO the divine couple a graceful
appearance. What this work dating from about 1200 makes clear is for
just how long B)"l3ntine af! served as a source of inspiration for many
artiSTS in the most diverse manner, in terms of both formal style and
subje<:t-maner. Typically, thIS kind of subject transfer with individual
stylistic design occurred in local S(hools. Ha vmg established a style of their
own, they nevertheless wanted tu use a time-honored system of symbols
and types sanctioned by sacred tradinon. In the first pl3ce this concerns, of
course, the main subja:t of Romanesque painting, the depiction of Christ
in ~hjcsty. Three such Christs in MajesTy pro,ide examples' those in
Sant'Angelo in Formis (around 1080), San Clemente in Tahull (around
1123), and Berze-la-Ville (around 1120). The starting point of thi s
typology is the church mentioned first, Sant'Angelo in Fonnis (phOTO,
right) which was founded by the Abbot Desiderius of Montecassino. It is
assumed that Iksiderius summoned the Master of the Christ in Majesty
from a court school in Constantinople. He would therefore have bet>n
familiar with the traditional east-Roman piCTOrial system. Nevenheless he
tried a novel approach. No depictions of a majesty with the Evangelists'
symbols are known in Constantinople. On the other hand, They have
occurred more freque1l11y in the west since the Carolingian period. II is
also of mterest that Christ does nO! appear with in the mandorla, the
aureole of d,vine light - an unusual, albeit not a novel approach. Perhaps
the artist had S"n the depictions of a Christ free from his mandorla which
had survived from the early Christian period in the apse mosaic of Old ST.
Peter's and in St. 1';1ul"s in Rome. Everythmg else. howe,er, follows Byzantine
traditions -the represemalion of detail, the strict linear parallelism of the
gowns, the sculptured quality of the bodies emph<lsized by d<lrk ~hading.
The deep purple of the gowns with their connotation of preciousness can
also be traced back 10 eastern models, as can the magnificent golden throne.
What is remarkable is that the artist obviously integrat ed north
Carolingian and Roman/early Ch ri stian pICtorial conceptions in order 10
create his Christ in Majesty. h is quite likely titat he occupies a special
position in the hislOry of su,h Christ images, since the Christ in Majesty of
SanfAngelo in Formis proved to be of interest to other artists in other
countries. This point will be diS(ussed in more detail later.
The political configuration peculiar to the north of Spain resulted in
the dominance of Arab-derived designs, and it is difficult to find there
evidence of Byzantine a1l. In [he course of the eleventh 10 the thineenth
cellfuries, the reconquest of The peninsula from the Moors - the socalled
Reconquista - was gathering momentum.Tltis meant, among other things,
that Christian and Byzantine shapes and designs gradually gained greater
significance. Like the one of Sant'Angeio in Formis, the Christ in Majeny
of Tahull (photo, p. 410) consists of two parts: GQd the Father is depicted
in the apsis calone, while the plinth area shows Mary with the Apostles.
This is, however, where the similariTy ends. Iconographical differences can
be seen in the presence of the mandorla, the segmental arches instead of

a~.

ChriSI in

the throne, and the pictures of the Evangelists, some of which are franled
in medallions. What the TWO have in common arc just matters of detail and
composition, such as the strict frontality and the axial symmetry of God
the Father, and the shading which emphasizes the hand muscles and parts
of the f;lce. These are exactly the poims al which one's at!e11lion becomes
focused: it seems that the Master of Tahull has made the Ryuntine model
even more Byzantine, that he further stylized what was already STylized.
The facial contours, which in halian e:<amples had been indicated gent ly,
are now given great emphasis. The face of God in SanfAngelo in Formis
turns into a mask in Tahull. Similar observations apply TO the treatment of
folds in the garments and to the gestures: what in haly is depicted in a
softer and more animated style appears harder and more rigid in Tahull.
This tendency can probably be explained by the arrival of the already
mentioned M07.arabic style, that fusion of Arab styliSTic e1cmc11IS and
Christian western ideas of shape and form. And yet it is not sufficient
10 characterize the Roman csque painting of northern Spain simply as
~Mozarabic,~ as the e:<ample JUSt cited shows. Despite all the differences
described above, there is uevertheless:l distinctive Ryzantine factor which
contributed to the stylistic development.
The Christ in Majesty of Bern-la-Ville (photo, p. 411) differs considerably from the examples just mentioned. In C011lrast to the strict and rigid

409

Ff<'$CO from T.hul1 (S.nta Ma".). Ch",t

In M.itsty. Around 1123. Ba",clona.
MustOd~ Am dt Cataluna

41 0

OPI'()SITE PAGL
1It"-~-I.Vil1e. p"o.ychurch. Chnst In
Mal.-sty (top), .pand.eI ftgu.~ I"'mom
Idtl. many.dom of 1I1J$'us (dcull.
bottom nghr). Around 1120

Ronlt. :on Cknltnlr.lo".." church.

RdicsofSr. Cy"lliu . Around 1100

plan found in Tahull, in Ikrl':la.vilie we are faced with soft, flowing lines
and a sublime u,;e of color.
Apart from adopting a different konographicallayout (which will be
dealt wiTh in more deTail in The apprOpriaTe chapTer), The artist who
worked in This Burgundian Cluniae daughter-church is also very likely!O
have workN from B)"lantine models. And )'et he must have interpreted
them very differently. He seems to have examined the Byzantine style with
regard to its finer structures, to ils fine modelmg of volume :und its variety
of design. This becomes pankularly apparent in Ihe way he sha~d the
gowns, The dense folds of which wind Themseh'es along Ihe various parts
of Ihe bodies like an clongalN and eleganl linear pattern, forming flal
areas around the ~lvis, the knees and the elbows. This treatment of the
gown is apparent not only in Ihe figure of Christ but also in ~he Apostles
arranged around The sides. The frescoes on Ihe side walls of The chancel
were therefore presumably painted b)' the s.1me master, even if the figures
apptar more rigid and clumsy (see, for instance, the figures in the

412

martyrdom of St. Lawrence ). The figures nevertheless show The same

characteristic arrangement of folds in the garmenTS.
The indication of body shape through draptry was not :I new idea
and had already been employed in the ChTISt in Majesty of Sant'Angelo
in Formis. As already mentioned. the ByzanTine anisT who worked for
the monastery of Montecassino had drawn some of his inspiration with
regard to style and subje<:t-matter from Rome and probably also from
Carolingian manuscripts. One might therefore assume that the artist acti"e
in Ikrle-la-Ville had made use of the same or similar sources. Another
comparison SlfengThens this observalion: stylistic links can be established
with The lower church of San Clemente in Rome. As far as The trearmem of
The garments is concerned (phOTO, left), The frescoes paimed there around
the year 1100 show surprising similarities to the paimings found in the
Burgundy church. This applies in particular to the figur.-s in San Clemente,
those dcpicted in a slightly bem posture carrying the reliquary. The treaTment of th~ garments there has been attributN. amongst other things, to
the influence of Carolingian miniatures which, in turn, had been inspired by
Byzantine aT! forms. Further evidence for this can be seen, for example, in
the folios of the Gospels of Saint-Mt<lard of Soissons which was produced
around the year 800 in the court school of Aachen (photo, p. 402 ).
Arollnti .hl' yl'''' 1200, Cerm""y ~~w .he heginning of ~ new rh~ ... in
the adoption of Byzamine or, to be more precise, proper Classical form
elemenTS. This phase found expression in a very differclII way. This period
of Romanesque wan painting is generally defined by a strict formalism
which was derived from the B)"lantine monumental style. The examples of
(he mosaics in Palermo and of Cefalu on Sicily have been cited in this
context. Indeed, many represenTations of Christ in Majesry mighl have
served as comparison, as can be sccn in Ihe up~r church of Schwarlrheindorf near Bonn (around 1180, photo, p. 4 13, left ): when compared
wllh the Christ in Majesty in the Capptlb Palatina in Palermo (around
1150, photo, p. 413. righl ) there clearly are some fundamental similarities
in The POSllIre and gesllIres of Ihe figures. in the drapery and e\'en in the
form of the throne. Even such an unspectacular detail as the slightly
billowing throne cushion has been included in both picllIres. How a
Romanesque church on the Rhine could hal'e been conne<:tN to:l distant
chapel in Palermo on the island of Sicily might be explained as follows: the
Cap~lla PalaTina was built in The middle of the twelfth century by the
Norman rulcrs, probably du ring (he reign of Roger II. The decoraTive
mosaics date from Ihal period. AI around The same lime Ihe chancellor of
Konrad III of Hohenstaufen, Arnold von Wied, commissionN the
construction of the palatine chorch of Schwarzrheindorf. The church was
not painted until some years later, probably not until 1180. At that time,
that IS in the second half of the twdhh century. there already existed close
links between Ihe Hohenstaufen dynaSly and the Normans who still
resided aT The court of Palermo. In the year 1186, Henry VI married
Constance, a daughter of the Norman Roger 11, and inherited the Norman
empire. Via the house of Hohenslaufen, Germany thus found itself quite
suddenly exposed to the BYlantine STyle. examples of which were to be
found all over southern ITaly and Sicily. Before long, The cuhural heriTage

M"""

Sc"w~.ulltlndorf. So.
and
KIe ...." .. apoorof tilt uppt.ehun:h.
Chn" M~pc>fy. A.ound 1180

P"lt....... C.P<'II~ P.... "na. apot. Omst III

of ByzantIUm had become ,'ery popular in Ihe German counlries north of

Ihe AlI'S. Schwan.rhemdorf represcllls ollly one example of Ihe new
arlislic slyle which soon became popular.
The impertal prelenSIOI\~ of Ihe I loh enSlaufen dynasly acquired evell
grearer momentum wllh Ihe arrival of I:rederick II. and art bo.:ame closely
cunnCClt-d wllh hIS po h\lcal ambl\lons. FredeTlck II enlertalned a V;SIOO of
hllllSdf ruhng over Europe like a Roman emperor from [he Capitol in
Rome. and Healing a sc<:ond MPa x AuguSlana. MHe Iherefore ensured an
ample supply of works of art 11\ [he ClassIcal Roman style for Ihe regions
and clues of his homdand north of Ihe AlI'S. ThIs so-called MStaufeo
Oassicism- soon left ItS mark also on pam\lng from around the year 1200
onwards. Unfortunately. the frescoes of Schwanrhellldorf ha"e SUT\'I\"ed III
a "ery mcomp!ete and damaged Slale. Ne-crthdcss. Ihey sco'c as impl'CS5i"e
Illustranons of Ihe change III acslhcuc ~rcepllon allhal ~riod.
As alrudy OWT\'ed 11\ lhe figure of ChtlsI1I\ Maj('Sly, Ihere had been a
noticeable change 11\ the trealment of draper)' and m the OUlltmng of Ihe
phYSlognom)' of the figures and the "MIOUS parts of Ihe body. Everything
was $Only undul:l.llng - a lendency whICh IS e,'en more pronounced In Ihe
figurl"$ 11\ Ihe lower church Ihal are Ihoughl 10 ha"e been painted a hllie
earher (around 1160). The so-called MJulousy picrurc M (named after

Ezekiel who mentl00l"$ a p,cture which aroused Ihe jealousy of God) in the
Wl"$tero chapel has a clear resembluocc to Ihe figurc of SI. Mallhew on the
Aogel Columo In Strasbourg Calhedral. Incidentally, the sculptures of the
Angel Column are often cned as perfect examples of Ihe monumcntal style
of MStaufeo Classic1sm. MWhat is evell more astonishing is Ihe similarity
betwcco the figu re dressed In hocn in the northern chapel, and Ihc Roman
stalUC of the emperor Augustl1s. Surely this must be interpreled as an
example of the political nalUre of mu,h of the:m of Schwarzrheindorf.
With these compa Tl$OIlS we have completed our outline of Ihe
figurat1ve style of MSt~ufell Classiclsm.- By now the Brzantme eleme11lS
had largely made way for a Classical Roman style, or had at least been
modIfied by 11. The drapery. wllh liS emphasis 00 volume and long,
flowiog mO"emcm, deri'l"$ from late Roman monumental sculpture.
r~ther than from the ascetIC figures fouod m Bruntine mosaICS. The
figural,,"e Slyle of -Slal1fen ClassiclsmM manifested llself dearly m the
fresc,," of Schw01rzrhemdorf.
In France, the new and elegant formal vocabulary of Ihe GOIhie style
had already nncq;cd by thesccond half of the twelfth ctnlUry. Compared with
that. Germany's modem -SllIufen MSt)'1e appeared rather stolid and conscrva t,,e. There were, mdced. hardly any stylistIC ~ibllil1cs and Slanmg

I"

Mal"'lY. A.ou"" I ISO

413

A"'~p"ndlUm

from Ih~ mon'\I~ry of

In Sot". Around 1170.
O.k..ood. ..I? x 76 ''''' ...... Mun"~r.

SI.

1lt'~lpurg;,

Wrs,fjl,\(I\(, \..;r.no.ksmu .. um

Altarp''''''' for 1M WitStnkirch~ III Sots,.

HolyTrrnrty. 51. ~Iaf}', SI. John. Around

1250.1I<:.lon. S... thd.. MuSttn
I'rcuss,<ch~r

points which could ha"e transformed such a compact and monumental

figurati"e style into the graceful and mannered realm of Gothic form.
The M1.ig1.ag stylc M
In ~rmany, too, stylistic changes occurred, even if at a later date and in a
manner different from Ihal of of other European countries. The Walpurgis
church in ~st was the original home to a majesty antependium painted
around the year 1170, which, incidemally, is the only surviving
Rumanesque anteptmdium in Germany (phuto, tOp). What is noticeable
about the voluminous treannent of lhe robes is lhe tapering folds of the
red cloaks worn by Walpurgis, Mary, John, Augustine and Christ. They all
end in an unusually sharp-edged jagged line. This provides a peculiar
contraSI 10 lhe forms olherwise employed in the garments and the bodies
of the figures, which are undulating and gently rounded. Even at this very

414

Kulrurbt-sl'l

early stage this is evidence of the beginning of the dissolution of the early
Staufen form.
Of couTS(', thi s example could be dism issed as merely an isolated case,
occurring, as it did, at Ihe end of the twelfth centu ry. However. about
eighty j'eaTS bter another Westphalian master painted an altarpiece
(around 1250) probably intended for the Wiesenkirche in SoeSt. In this
rerable (photo, above ) the jagged shapes are actually used as the main
structoral framework for the figures of the Holy Trinity. John. and Mary.
The garments look as if they had been blown OUT and then fr01.en. as
though the unexpected onset of a strong gUSt of wind JUSt as suddenl)'
subsided. The pointed folds project from the bodies in a rigid and
unwieldy fashion. 111e shapes appear all the more bizarre as they are set in
a framework of evenly rounded arches. The result of this combination is a
heighten ing of artistic represe ntation and of dramatic expression.

c...lognc. St. Marla Ly;)""h"". Scene.

from Iht PasSIon of Ch".,. Around 1250

These two examples from Westphalia illustrate this exceptional form of

ROmaneMillC pamting known as the German ~zlgzag style." or sometimes
~jagged style." In the face of such atypical form and design. II remains
open to question whether the M;r;ig7-"g .tyle" can really be categoril.ed as
Romanesque. At all nents. it marks the transition 10 the Gothic style in
Ihal it began to change the figurative style of the Slaufen period in a way
Ihal was very close to Mannerism.
There are other works thar could be cited to doc ument Ihis Slrange and
shon-lived style. Amongst rhem afe some panels painted on oolh sides Ihal
were probably destined for tile Johanneski rche in Wonns or for the cathedral.
Today Ihey arc kepI in the I-Iessisches Landesmuseum in Darmstadt. It is
likely that the panels. painted around 1220. were pan of a winged
altarpiece. The jagged zigzag pattern is unmistakable, particularly in the
ends of the folds of St. Peter's garment. Ne"enhcless, the compositIon of the
figures as a whole appears more restrained than that of Ihe Soc.t allarpiece. This might also indicate that the panels were painted at an earlier date.
Another remarkable example of this style are the vault fre!iCocs in St.
r.l aria lyskirchen in Cologne (photos, right ). They were the subject of an
exemplary exercise m uncovering and restoration between 1972 and 1977.
Daling fwm around 1250, the paintings are attributed to the Gothic !ilyle
by some researchers, although they also show typical characteristics of the
Mzigzag slyle" in the treatment of the garments, where nowing folds aT("
interrupted suddenly by sharp edges and end in nervous Jagged poinlS.
Where might the ~zigzag style" have originated? Was it the eccelllric
in"ention of one master that was imitated by artists in other regions, or did
il SCI a precedent and allract a proper following? No satisfactory answer
can be given 10 th ese questions since "ery lillie evidence has survi'ed. One
can. however, specul3le. A variation of this style appears on th e west
gallery of the:athedral in Gurk in Carinthia. Incidentally. it is set in the
cOl1texl of an interesting iconographical program. The throne of Solomon
is depicted, along with the Tra nsfiguration and the Birth of Chrisl. [n the
vauh one can see the Earthly Paradise. The paintings were probably
exc<:uled around the year 1260 and are not in a very good state of
preservarion. It is undear whether one or several artists wert involved in
the work. What is dear is thar there are differences between the figures
depicted in Paradise and those depicted on the walls. With regard to our
question as to the geographical spread of Ihe MZIgzag style," one figure is
of particular interest: the figure of Mary ott Ihe Iympanum aOO ..e the apse
portal. The garments worn both by her and by Ihe secondary figures on
both sides of the rhrone display the characteristic jagged features we have
scen at Sotst and at Worms. [nterrupled by sharp and broken edges, mOSt
of the folds either end in a horizontallme or Prol~1 III a kind of Slar shape.
a formal variation of the Westphalian zigzag style. Such an artistic Imk
between SocSt and Carmthia could suggest a geographical spread of the
Slyle. This would further extend the possibility of the start of an
independent stylistic dC"elopmenr running parallel 10 the Gothic style.
It is fairly certain that the M7.lgzag style" was inspired by Byzantine examples
in Ihe wake of the cuhural development under the Hohenstaufen dynasty.
T herefore it was nut only Classical form as adopted by the aforementioned

415

MSt:lufen Classicism-that was affocled by Iheoonfront:llion wilh Byzanrium.

The transformation of the monumental drapl figu re of Ihe Suufen
styl.. imo a -figured g.:mnent- mean! th aI the gannl'flf s movement and Structure were freed from the body of Ihe person depicled and had entered into an
aesthelic life of ils own. This development can indeed ~ said to ma rk the
final stages of Romanesque and Ihe beginning of Gothic lXlinting in Germany.
It was not o nly the knowledge of Byzantine art, made accessible by the
European policit'S of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, that provided a stimulus
for the ~zigzag style." lnspiranon came from the WCSt, tOO, al though this
had nothing to do with Hohenstaufen politics. II has already b.-I'n
mentioned that the Ottonian painting of Lower Saxony had links wtth
artistic de"e!opment in England. During the period from the tenth to the
twelfth century, only Canterbury, Winchester and Bury St. Edmunds can
~ considered as the dominant English schools. T he Holy Sepulchre chapel
of Winchester Cathedral was decorated towards the end of the twelfth
century. A noticeable fea ture of both the Deposi tion and the Entombment
of Christ is the frequently employed device of interrupting flowing drapery
by an ho rizon tal arrangement of groups of folds. The result are sharpedged corners not dissimilar to the shapes discussed earlier with regard to
the majesty antependium at SotSt. At the time, there was a strong link
between the monumental paintings of Winchester and the scriptoria which
we re also hou:;cd there. The sacnmentary of Robert of Jumiege!l
(~gin n ing of the eleventh century), with its similar treatment of drapery,
might have sen'ed as an example. T he variation in style can then ~ traced
back to the anist;c circle of the Carolingian period, such as the coun
school in Rheims, for instance. In the figures of both the Ebo Gospel Book
and the Utrecht I'salter, we find the unmistakable characteristics of these
schools in the nervous treatment of the drapery (phOIO, p. 422, left).
Seen in retrospen. the rela tionship between Grolingian scriptoria,
English book illummation and wall p"i nting, and German panel and monu
memal painting is a complICated one. It is also typical of the stylistic
interaction of Romanesque pain ting in Europe. During the nin th century,
the influenc~ of Hiberno-Saxon and Anglo-Saxon book production on
artists on the continent ceased, and th~ Grolingian court schools became
increasingly dominant. It was not until towards the end of the temh
century that England once again opened its doors to the cultural
de"elopments on the contment. This was also the time when Ollonlan
book illuminators drew inspiration from the artistic tradition of th~
Carolingians, as was dis.;;ussed earlier.
It is interesting thatthir; connection can ~ established between English
painting of the e!e"enth century and the final stages of Romanesque
paintmg in Germany. Seen in the context of English and -concealed
Carolingian ~ as well as Byzantine and Staufen influences, the German
~ztgzag style" can be regarded as a stylistic variant of the Romanesque,
but certainly not as a "stylistic interlude. ~
Group compositions
The principal subjects of Romanesque painting are the Christ in Majcsty
and Virgin Enthroned. The stylistic conception and composition are simple

4 16

and leave little room for variation owing to the fixed thwlogical
meanings. Both these trpes are discussed in more detail in th e chapter on
iconography (pp. 428 H. ). With regard 10 groups of people, the situation is
different. The design and compositional possibilities are far greater and
more variable than with a single figure.
Two basic types can be distinguished, the additive and the integrative
principle. In the additi"e principle, the figures are placed next to one
another without significant overlapping. In the integrallve principle, on
the other hand, the figures are arranged both side by side and behind one
::lIlother. The resultmg overlaps are I'ery conspicuous and are supposed to
suggest a feeling of spattal depth. But such group compositions often
appear like a flat piling-up of bodies without conveying any spatial
connection whatsoCl"er. Romanesque painting had not ret succeeded in
cr~ating a space for the figure as Giotto later did, transforming the spot
where a figure was positioned into an aCllve spac~.
Group composition as defined by isocephaly, that is the arrangement of
heads all at the $3m~ Ie\'el, is a specific characteristic of Ancient and
Byzantine art. The frescoes in SanfAngclo in Formis which date from
around 1080 represent a kind of stylist;c and iconographical point of
intersection between Byzantine tradition and the Christian teaching of
form that had just been newly formu lated al that time. The various
princtples of formal design and conslellations of motifs that found
expression in Sanr"Angeio in Formi. can at least make an important
contribution 10 the definition of Romancsque monumental pain ting. The
group compositions of the Last Judgement on the western wall of the
church (photos, p. 417, top) are painted "ery much in the BY7A1ntine
tradition and refer back mainly to the formal ideal of Classical antiquity.
Clergy and faithful are depicted standing side by side and the same size,
raising their hands in prayer. Behind them, in the second row, only heads
are to be seen. All that is visible of the fai thful and the saints in the rows
behind is their hair. The "ddi,i"e principle meant that here a large numl1cr
of people had 10 be accommodated with in a pictorial space of uniform
definition that was "meant" to function as space. Given the Apocalyptic
subject, this was fully intentional. The order and the Slatic equilibTlum of
the picture also fit into the framework of meaning that the subject
commands. The counterparts to the faithful, namely the damned, have
been conc~i"ed in a dynamic, diagonally ascending composilion. The
wrelched ar~ rendered in a greal vari~ty of movement as they are pushed
mercilessly into the mouth of Hell by blood-red devils. The benl and
falling bodies overlap each other, arc huddled together or drift apart. The
turmoil of Hell has been captured til a quite masterly way in this scene.
This se rves as proof that the integrative principle is also dependent on the
subjt-matter. The additive principle cannot therefor~ be se~n as
conservative. nor the integrative principle ~ regarded as a progressive
variation of Romanesque group composition, des pile the faCt that the
latter principle naturally achieves a far greater "three-dimensional- effect.
Static equilibrium and dynamism, surface design and the urge ro
achieve the illusion of space; these pairs of opposites define the different
stages of development of Romanesque painting and at the same time aptly

San,Anglo.n Form.s. Tht Last

Judgt-.... nt. <omplcte VIeW and dna.!
l'opl. II", 801ray;t1 ofChns' (booom.
Itft). tM La" Suppe1' (b.,nom. "W"l.
Around 1080

417

SchwamhrindQrf. Ss. Mar", .nd

Klrmrn . upprrchuKh. Sanr from thr
Last Judgrmrnt: di"inr puni,hmml.
Around 1180

df"SCri~

the peculiarities inherent in both Ihl' addttive and intl'grat;"e

principles of group compo.ition.
The rich variety encompassed by these IWO groups is now so great and
distributed so extensively o"er the indi"idual centuries, that it is virtually
impossible to trace their development. One should, however, bear in mind
tha t the integrati,'e principle, with its exploration of the spatial depth of
piclOrial space, ha. become the agreed standard type of the postRoman.-sque era. The impressive evidence for this claim is to ~ ~n in the
group compositions of &hwarzrheindorf: the Divine Judgement depiCied
in the spandrel of the northern chapel in the lower church could almost be
taken for a group composition of the early Renaissance period (photo,
len). The figures are involved in dramatic movement aud do not only
o"eflap, but their staggered arrangement creates the illusion of depth 10

418

such a degree that the whole spandrel seems to undergo a sudden transformation into an illusionistic spheneal triallgle. The illgenuity of the compositl<'" is further heightened by the fact that the scene is divided imo smaller
sub-groups, each of which is involved in one action. The IOnnemors, for
example, are depicted in a staggered arrangemellt, onc ~hind the other in
an almost fan-like conception; equipped with spears alld swords, Iheir
right hallds arc shown hitlillg alld stabbing at the bodies of the damlled.
The group of the IOrmemors is fac ..d by an equivalent but smaller group
opposite, while ~low them there is a loose colle<:tion of the recumbent or
falling bodies of the helpless and dying, still re<:eiving mOrlal blows.
Within the context of the development of Romanesque painting, two
lelels must be distinguished within both principles of compositioll. On the
one hand, botb the additive and the integrative principle are restricted by
th .. appropnale sub;'"'t matter avaibble. On the other hand, it appears birl)'
clear thaI the lalter type docs represent an element of progress away from the
Strict and diagrammatic R)"l.3mine system. There is no doubt thatl.",en in the
Carolingian era artists have always endeavored to find a way of creating
the illusion of spatial depth on a flat pictorial space. A "ery good example
of this desire is St, Stephen's Chapel in St. Germain in Auxerre {photo, p.
408 ). The integrati"e principle is also illustrated by the group compositions of the legend of Clement as depicted in the lower church of San Clememe
in Rome, well known for ils use of R)"l.3nrine expressiv.. form {photo. p. 398).
This applies above all ro the group on the right next to thl." saint in front of
the altar, from which bent figures emerge and break up tM unit), of the group.
This group therefore SIl~estS a greater degree of spatial depth than the painted architectural elemen ts behind it, which look lik .. mere wall de<:orallon.
Now we come to {he unique composition of Mary enthroncd in the
vaulted ceiling of rhe apse of St. Maria zur Hohe in Sotst {known as the
Hohnekirehe, mid thirteenth century). Indebted more to the Staufen style
in its formal conception, the majesty definitely used the additive principle.
Mary's throne i. surrounded by St. John the Baptist and SI. John the
Evangelist, who both ha"e smaller ~secondar)' 3ngels~ assigned to them,
and by sixteen angels arranged in an arc formation {photo, p. 432 ). The
di>'ision of the angelic gathering into groups of rwo or three is determined
br tM vault segments. A comparabll." composition can be foulld in the western
chancd of the former collegiate church of Lambach {shortly before 1089).
Instead of angels, WI." find magicians kneeling in adoration before the
Mother of God seated on her Ihrol1e in the vault of the cemral bay.
Perhaps the group depicted ar SotSt should not even ~ regarded as a
homogeneous group, sincc the spherical shape of Ihe vault makes the
linedup angels appear like a decorative pailI'm. Whtchevl."r way one looks
al this ceiling painting - hi." it as a group composition or as a ~figurative
ornamental paflern~ - one thing has become clear: group composition in
Romanesque paulling is dl."termined primarily by Ihe subject-matter. In other
words. the formal structure i. always used to convey the iconographical
structure. The angels surrounding the thronl." of ~bry in such a novel
fashion repres.-nl, therefore, an unusual variation of Mary Enthroned.
YCt another composition of ev.. n greater iconographical ingenuity was
created by the Master of Rem;-la-Ville (photo, p. 411, top ). The arm of the

R~ichtn~u, Nic<krull, S. Peter .nd Paul,

apse. Chr;.,;n Maj.M.y. Around 1120

ColOSM, SI. G.-rron,lp.i$.ery. S.

c"rwn (l.ft) and SI. M'''111 ' right).
ArQund 1240150

lord is seen to projen on the right-hand side beyond the shining boundary
of his sphaira or mandorla in order to hand to St. pe{~r the scroll
containing the Stalutes.
51. Peter is accompanied by five other Apostles and, like Ihcm, lowers
his head in humility. The Apostles are set'n crowding n... xl 10 and behind
one another, lined up in typical Ryzanline addili, ... style within the
spherical spandrd that extends be,ween ,he curve of the mandoda and the
outer edge of the apse. Artistically speaking, this is a ,cry deve. composition, ba:au.se the area showing the mandorla dominates the apse and
.separates off the spheres of the A(lQstles, at least as far as the viewpoint of
the observer is concerned: Oil approaching the chancel along the cel1tral
axis of the nave, all thai is visible is the Christ in Majesty, the godly
cosmos. Almost excluded, in terms of perspective anyway, by Ih,! spherical
arChitecture of the apse, the figures of the Apostles are diSl<)ned into
irregular linework and blocks of color. But if one takes up :) position
underneath and to the side of the apsis calotle, Ihe Aposlles can be seen in
their proper proportiol1s, whilst the mandorla now ~ms 10 contract, thc
cosmos of God is omnipresent even if it is invisiblc from our human world.
The combination of Majesry depictions and group compositions takes
on different fonns. The examples of $oeSt and Bene-la-Ville undoubtedly
constitute special cases. A typical and widely used system is the Byzantine

one which we know from the church of 5ant"Angelo in Formis (photo, p.

409). In a modified form, it applies to the apse paintings of Cefalu (1 148),
thc upper church of Schwarzrheindorf (a round 1180, photo, p. 413 ), the
Church of St. Gerton in Cologne, or the Reichenau Church of St. Peter
and Paul in Niederzell (around 1120, photo, top lcft ). It is doubtful,
however, whether the abo'e examples represent real group compositions;
although the figures are lined up in accordance wilh the addilive principle,
they arc at the s.1lne time represented in $trict isobrion. This sense of isolation
is further enhanced by the architecture of the windows and sometimes, as
in the Rcichenau example, also by painted arcading. Perhaps this problem
can also be solved by taking into account the viewing position of the
observers, i.c. the faithful. Standing in Ihe cirde of the chancel apse, the
architectural conceplion meant that they could not help being surrounded
by apostles, angels or OIher biblical figures. Aided by the framework of
painted area ding such as in Niederzell, or by articulating windows such a5 in
St. Gereon in Cologne, these figuTC$ can then be experienced as a real group.
The term ~group composition~ is therefore a flexible one when applied
10 Romanesque painting, since so far no definite typology has been
established for medieval monumental painting. This term is useful merely
as an explanatory model in order 10 make a distinction between the
various stylistic developments possible.

419

unknown. $. Marlc

Eigh.h nwry. $1. Gallen,

S"ftSbibliOlhek. Cod. 5 I, Pag. 7$

Evangrli"ary af Godescak. Aachen,

Palace School. Ch" In Maies.y. 783
Pari., B,bl.
Nauv. Acq. La,. 1203,
fal. 3.

Book illumination
Spiral ornament and interlace. The Hi bcrno-Saxon influence
11 has already been pointed ou! that the influence of Hibcrno-Saxon and
Anglo-Saxon book illumination on the co ntinellt was ullusually StrOllS
even before the Carolingian period. When the Irish monks traveled to the
countries both Ilorth and south of the Alps, they brought with them the
learned writings which now found their way into the newly founded
monasteries. T here, the teachings were examined and the traditional
concepts adapted. In this way, a cultural foulldation was established upon
which the newly founded court schools could develop .Ild flourish
towards the end of the eighth and throughout the ninth centur),.
In terms of atl istic development, three aspects of st)'le were of
impc:ltIance: firstly, the spi ral-shaped and uniform ornamemal designs
swirling over alld covering the surface like a carpetlhence the term ~carpet

page~); secondly, the i11lricately designed initial; and thirdly, the framing
of the figure by means of extremely skilfully arranged architectural
elements.
Early indications of the important features characterizing Irish book
production can be seen in the ornamental page of the ~Book of Durrow"
pictured on page 40 I (left; seventh century) and the St. Mark folio from a
later Irish manuscript (photo, p. 420 left). In the second example, The
dense spiral pallerns from lona (Book of Durrow) become ~disentangJed"
and reorganize Ihemselves into the figure of the Evangelist. The
Evangelists' symbols placed in the corners of the page are hardly
distinguishable from the dense vine scroll decoration in the other parts of
the side margin. Another folio allows liS to follow the metamorphosis
from ornamental framing to architectural pictorial element as it almOSI
unfolds before our I"ery eyes: this is the Arrest of Christ in the ~Book of

Irish codu. O"gil1

420

N.,.

8001. of Kells. Th.e ArtUI of Chnl.

End of togh,h..,n,ury. Dublm, Trinlf)'
CoII'lIt.Lb.M~58.AI6.fol 114r

KelJs~

daTIng from around the year 800 (photo, nght). The S<..""ene takes
bene:uh an orna~ntal ;u th conSlTUCled of abstraCt decoram'e
paltern~ th:u assu~ an archuCClura l shape.
Such orna~ntal arth,tectural ele~nts were employed as dichk, as II
wer~, for th~ p,clonal construction of Carolingian Iliumina'ions. For ,he
frammg of Ihe blessmg ChnSI of Ih~ God~so:ak Evang~hsrary produc~d in
Charlemagne's Pala~ School In Aachen (78 1-83, photo, p. 420. right ) the
:mist rneru oock to the Irish mterlace motifs as found in th,e Book of
Kells. An altempl IS made 10 IISC archneclUral elements as means of
ornamenlalion, similar 10 the SI. Mark folio and Ihe folio showing tht
Arrest of Christ: the wall running along under the Christ ill MajeslY
symbolizes a piece of the Heavenly Jerusalem, and alternates in ils arlistic
eKprcssion belwecn con$truCled archnecfllre and decorativc ban.:!'
Durmg the cout$C of the ninth ccnt ury. a clear dislinction was made in
the mmlalUrts of the Carolmglan 5CnptOfla belwecn arch neclUI"31 pallern
and mtcrlace. The 5ubhm~ outlm~ drawmg found m Irish ornamental
archilectur~ was a\olded. Instead, a clear commitment was mAd~ 10 the
combmanon of ml{1al and ornalTl('nt. Long after the Carolmgian period.
soch works from Irebnd were exemplary and unsurpassc:d in their anisric
variery. They ",'ere appreciated m any monastery on lhe Conllnent, an
aspect thai is eUlly comprehended e\'cn today. One Irish co<te;" dating
from the elghl Cffi IUry COntalllS the mllial ~Chi~, a reference 10 Ihe first
words of Matthew, 18: MChnstus au tem generano SIC eral M(MNow the
binh of Jesus ChflSt was on thIS w;sc M). The 1Il1uais combine int~rla~,
spital-shaped patterns, and slyh1.ed anHnal monfs. From the IIlI<:raCtion of
lhese pIctorial elements, the Inll;al develops InlO the framework whKh
embraces the words quoted from the Evangehst. This inirial MCh,."
incidentally, occurs agall1 and ag':lIn and m ever varying form in a number
of OIh~r Hiberno-Saxon manuscripts and 111 miniatures from Carolingian
and evcn Otlonian SCflptOtla. It must be unlkrstood as a kind of
Msignamre M of Christ. This II1tllllate combination of animal motif,
interlace and spltalshape. Ihe artlfkal loops and knots, soon ,)11 formed
part of the standard rCp<'rtoltc of all EurOp<'an book production. Growing
from an axial s~ mmctrical base, Ihe inlerlacing uncn branches OUi Imo
\'cgelatlv~ StruClllrl'S, capmrmg. as il were. the leiters. Ev~n in Otronian
manuscriplS there I~ still ev idcnce of the popular cXp<'rimenta,ion
combming kller and ornamenlal forms with thl' fram~work of thc
iliuminallon. In fact, there IS eVIdence of thIS keen aesthl'lic
experimentanon m vlriually every codcx. This appllcs not only 10 the
ariistic design of text iIIustraf10ns but also 10 the texiS themsc:hes. An Irish
form of pDCtry known as ~HlSpenca Famina Maoondons the meaning of a
""ord 111 favor of the effect produced by words. It is con~moo with the
effect of sound whKh IS created by means of lmaginam'e word-plJy and
which anempts to captivate the realkr or listener by its usc of truly
Iabyrimhme 5yma". One can IIldttd refer to thIS poetry as an ~imerlace of
words Mor a ~spltal of words. MIn thc same: "'-ay as the sc:arch for meaning
in the poetry of ~HI5p<'r;ca Famllla Mis pomtlc:ss and unproducriv~. the
spiral shapes and mtcrla~ m the book Illustrations must also be rc:garded
largely as a dccoralll'e pattern. It would be nccc:ssa.ry to cxaminl'
pla~

II1dlvidual examples of the depiction of dl'monlC animal mOlifs m order 10

establish to whal exl~nt an apotropalC function (i.e. deslgnl'd '0 ncn evil)
was mtcnded.
Insh an was allowed 10 develop IIldependently from late ClaSSICal and
Bruntllle mflucnces. 11115. at any rate, applics to the rich vanety of
ornamenlJl shapes whICh slill recall traditional Qilic patterns. To .S<'C
thl'm fundam~ntally deYOld of any trace of the Classical cullUral heritage
would, however, amount to a misconc~ption regarding the teaching
program of the Insh and Northu mbrian monastery schools. It is known
thalth~ abbot of Jarrow and Wearmouth was a keen colleclor. h is 1ikel~
thai he ~\'cn had aecess 10 By;eantine codICes and was able to study [hcir
piClurts and th~1t contcnts. As we know, there had been a ~By1.3l11ine
link Mto the Island evcr since the sixt h cenlury, if nOi before, when Pope
Gregory Ihe Gr~at senl Ihe BenedICtine monk Augusline to England. King
Ethelberl made the laller bishop of Ca nterbury in the year 597. AuguSline
must nOI be ,onfused. by the way, wnh hIS namesake, the grealtheologian
and philosopher who h\'ed III Afnca around 150 )'cars before. The Italian
Benedicllne Augusllne IS reponed to ha\'e taken with him a large collection
of SIgnificant manuscripts. This would explain the obvious references to
forms and shapes of Classical anllq1llry found in the treatment of both
garments and figures, as wcJl as In the: depiction of gesturc and movemenl.
Since the anlSf1C Influence of the Insh on the comment goes hand in hand
wnh their miSSIOnary aCllvny, n 15 nOi cven unreasonable to assume that
Anglo-Saxon book 11IUmillallOn was rcspon51ble for the first impulses
towards the great mtercst III QasslCal antiqUity that later markcd the
~CarollllglAn RenAlssancc:. M

411

"",rr

Go.;p<'IlIookQf Ebo. Rhf,ms. S" Luh

,"" En,..!. ... 8dOtt US. " ... may, Blbl.
MUIlI':'paJ. :\h. 1. fol. 90v
fAllUCHT

Vomru Corona.1On eo....llIook.

Axhcn, p~~ School. St. Mark II...
Enngol, ... At<MInd 800. V..n ....,
SC ...."'hm...... fol. ~6b

Tht Carolingian Rt naiss anct

Thl' adopllon and modifICation of ClassIcal arllstic fOnfis by Carolingian
artists has alrcady ~n rdl'r~d to. Thl' first pha$/' of adaptong ,he an of
ClassICal anllqully In Ihe .\llddlc Ages was 31 the Sl'rvlU of rulmg-class
propaganda and SC~lIllflC Icachmg. The political system of Charlcmag~
was In nm of rcprescrllali"C mttha 10 commumcate aesthetic e"pression.

and also of a wclJfun,uonmg leachmg program. H,s aim was 10 promote

and Stablhtc the structu res of the stale - such as administration and the
military - by rousmg the general Ic,'d of roucatlon. A lencr wrmen
In the year 790 by Akum of York. the ~first scholar~ at the COUrt of
Charlemagne, comams the followmg remarkable !KISS3ge:
~If many were to follow the mdustry and enthusiasm of the King, a
new Athens would be crea ted 1M Aac hen in the Frank.sh Empire, wh.ch III
liS ~rvice to Ihe lord Jesus Chf1~1 would surpass all academic wisdom.
This old Athens shone merely through Ihe luchlllg of Plato and Ihe $e\'en
liberal Arts; but the new Athens, enTiched by the abundance of Ihe Hol y
Ghost. will surpass all the merits of word ly Wisdom. ~
It is interesting that reference IS made to a ~new Athens~ rather than a
~ncw ROlne.~ This is likely 10 appl y to the Italian policy of Charlemagne
who at Ihal time was alrcady trYlllg to get Rome or, more prcci~ly, the
Vatican, to sanction hIS entpm:, then III the process of becoming a unil'CTS;lI
Chnsnan empIre. Of rourse II was paramoum for Charlemagne to avoid any
ronfllct wnh the Eternal ClIy :md dK: pupe. TIlere .s also an unmistakable
allusion to the former Platon IC Academy of Athens and Its broad spectrum
of scientifIC tcaching. Charlemagne. mOfCO\er. was not the only one to profit
from the f31'or of the pope who had made hIm emperor. TIle pope himself
had the opponumly 10 pl.3y an Importam trump card in tenns of church
policy: the IInpenal coronallon allowed hIm 10 present an emperor who was
~S3llCllficd~ by the Seat ofSI. Peler; he was an emperor for all Chf1snans and
all the fallhfullll eaSlCTTl Rome alike. In lhe Treat)' of Aix-I.3-Chapelle (i.e.
Aachen) of 812. soon after h,scQf"Oll;luon III Rome, and IWO rears before hiS
dC3th, CbarlC111.3gnc was finally recognlUd:lls tile Emperor of all Chnsn;lI1s
by the Byzantll"le Emperor MIChael I. The handmg OYer of VenICe. ISlna and
Dalmalla was the high price Charlemagne had 10 !KIy for thIS recognition.

422

TIle Byzantine elemenu thereforc played an imponam role in the unll"ersal

Ihmklllg of Charlemagne.
Secn In thiS context, Ihe ~Carolmglan RenaiSS3nce~ 3t first presents
Itself as the rc5ult of pol"'ca! cakulalion between Aachen, Rome and
Constanllnople. Charlemagne's Imperial cl;lim to power was to find
express.on III a new MPax AuguSlan;;l. ~ ThIs was a ulOplan dream. In pragmat~ terms, howe\'cr, tlloe KIC11CeS and arts from antiqUity were presented
as a means of strtngthemng social StrUCIUrc5 and as a sign of so\ereignt).
How d.d Ihese political connccllons find the .. expressIon 111 anisnc
prodUCtIOn? Classical dluslomsm and Bruntine fonn were the pTlllCiple
characteTlStlcs of desIgn. In the ~alled Vienna Coronanon Gospel Book
of Charlemagne, prodl~ed by the P,ll ace School of Aachen around 800,
we find classIcally dem'cd figures: SCI agalllst Impres:s.ol1lsfleall) shaped
bndscapes, according to the Byunnne tradition. The \'olumlllous shape of
~hrk the Evangelist in flowmg robc-s (photo, lOp right) is set against a
termced landscape. Sp;\llal depth .s suggested by o\'erlapping shapes .so
that clements that are on top of one :lIIother are made 10 appear be hind
one another. This device IS tYPical of Classical antiquity and is used as a
mcans of design m early Byun tme manuscripts. Any Irish influence is OUI
of Ihe question. Instcad, Ihis way of combming figure and landscape is 3
characteristic of th e MVienna Genesls~ that was produced around the
mlddl~ of th~ SIxth cenlUry, probably in Constanmople or In Antioch.
Indeed, so aSlolllshmg arc the Slmilaf1lies: wllh other Srunfine codices:,
such as the Codex RossanenS1S datmg back to the ccond half of the sixth
century, that one cannot help hutfhmk of MByza ntinc hands,~ i.c. artists
who were summoned from B)'Unl1um to the coun of Charlemagne
spec.flCally for thIS purpose.
The gospel book of the Archbishop Ebo of Rhelms was produced m the
first quarter of the mnth centllry. The m.matures: cuntallled in its pages:
rontinue the lr:ldlllOn of the Vienna manUSCript, although they mm'e a .....ar
from the Byuntllle example and de\"Clop a 51yk of tOOr own. This style IS
besl apprccl;ited III the nervous and sh immering draper) and 111 the
pamlerly. almost tachlst lreatment of the landscape in the background
{photo, p. 422.lcftl.

SoOSIOni. GosJ'<'11\ook ofSt, MMa,d,

Aadlfn, I'ala School. St. Jolin Ih~
Eva~IIM. AfflUnd 800. P~n., R.bl. Nat.
I>h.l.a . 8850. fol. \80

The Ulrcchl Pulter. tOO, IS a product of Ihe school of Rheims, ",here

Ihe artiSls achieved an unmistakable slyle thanks 10 Iheir figuralive design
and the light parntcrl)' touch of Ihclr landscapc formations,
Thai fil'!it ph:lsc of the devclopmcnt of the Carolingian scriptoria was
marked by the Important role pb)'cd by Ihe forms of Classical anllquity,
or, to be more prccisc, Ihe forms of ClassKal :lnllquity as handcd down
through Syzanllne cod ices, There is eVidence of an acsrhelic program
",hich lakcs lmo accoum Ihe poillical Significance of science, arl, and
educarion, II has been the ach ievement of the artISts of the writing and
ill umrnallon schools of Aachen, Rhclms and Fulda, to combine the
",cstern and eastern art forms o f 1-llbcrno-Saxon and 8Y1.:lntine book
iUuminallun, whilst at thc samc time crea ting a new style of rheir own.
Pictoria l archit ect ure and architectura l piclures
It is rclanvely simple to distmgUlsh belwccn pICtorial archilecnm: and
archilcclural pictUres. uSing as an example Ihe St. John folio in the Gospcl
Book of SI. .\IWard of Solsscms. This wu produced in the Palace School of
Charlemagne at Aachen around Ihe year 800 (photo, righl). 1''''0 areas,
IWO kinds of archllcclure: comc to thc VICWCr'S nOflCC: one that fulfills a
framing function. and one that has an Illustutl\,C role. Thc fil'!it typc
mdudcs Ihc archlre<:lUral clcmcnl$ such :IS columns and archcs whICh arc
imegraled 11110 rhc P:lImed framework prescnl1llg rhc E.'angel,st .. In such :I
C<lSC Ihe lenn plCtOl'1<lI architecture IS approproate smce thc paimed 3rchneclural elemenls ha"e the functIOn of a prescnt;l\1on framework. The city wall.
on lhe olhtt hand. SCI at an angle and prOjctlmg Imo lhe PICIUre: m an al11lQS1
Ihrec-dimm510nal fashion. ","h irS front SCCllon reptcSCnling the-throne of
Ihe Evangelist. IS meanl as a rderencc to constructed archite<:ture and also 10
the J-Ieavcnly Jerusalc:m. 11l1s IS, therefore, 3 plClonalll'present:lI1on of arch,tCClUIl', and seen 111 Iso13l1on, such a detail would be an architectural pICTUre.
Thc architectural relallonshlp inlo which the figure is SCI is a device uscd in
many pictures of the Evangelists produced In the Carolingian scriptoria.
JUSt how domlnnnt a poSlllon IS played by the architectul"31 picture
becomes apparent In the subject of the fuunrall1 of life, o r f(mntain of
paradisc, The Gospcl lk>ok of St. MMard ",hich we have JUSt mentioned,
contains another folio ",hlch depICts the ascending columns and the dome
of the fountam SCt against an Imposmg exedr:! (pholo. p. 425, lch). The
archltcctural deSign of the fountain IS ",,,hour doubt derived from the
canon ta.blcs whICh U5U:lI1)' prel;ede a manuSCript (see special page on
canon tables and teXI millals. p. 427). Often a dUeI;l connectIon betWC'etl
the founum of life. or founum of paradise. and canon table is ddibcrately
included in the lConosraphlcal dcslgn, for example m the tympanum of the
canon table of Ihe last-menlloned gospcl book. liere, a small f<lumain of
life was placed alongside the Evangc:hsu Mark and Mallhe"'. 11le Identity
of thc fountain as a Mhca\"cnly oble<:t- IS cstabhshed by the attnbulcs of
paradisc whIch :Ill' distributed :l.tound the founta.ln, such as exotic plants
and 3111mals. The 1C0nosrarhICaisurroundmgs of the aforementioned folio
deplCllng the fountam of p:l.tad,sc ~re ,'cry SimIlar. The aTChltCC'l:ure: of the
exedra. which nses up like a palace In the background. is therefore
probably an allnbure of the Heavenly Jcrusalem. The four columns. ",hich

hDvc been emphasi1.ed by Iheir coloration. arc III this WllIext a reference to
Ihe four Evangelists, who. incidcnf;llly, arc also included in the canon
table. The four columns furthermore refer to The fou, rivers of paradise
and the four corners of the world, Thus Ihe gOpcl book represcnls, m
pictures :lnd words, a lIIcans of 3CCesS to God's cOmos.
The combinanon of architWIl' and figure, and the diSl1nction
between pictori~1 architecture and architectural pictures, we~ matters of
prime Importance for the artIsts of Ihe Ortonian period, This, of coursc,
also throws some light on their ~peclal fondness for Carolingian mil1la'
lUres, Towards the end of Ihe lenth cenIU1)', the MCodex Wilt1kundeus~
was produced In Fulda. The foho shOWing the Evangehst Mallhc:-w (phoro
p. 425. nght) can be rc-garded as a varoal1on of the picture of the E"angchSI
painted In the Ada Gospcl Book of Aachen (photo, p. 407), executed
almOt 200 years preVIously. The columns and arches framing the pletull',
and the meanmgful construction (I-Iea"enly Jerusalem) rising up behind

423

Tr..,r (I), Gooptillook Qf 0"0 ilL The

Washing Qf 1ht Fre, of Pe,er. Around
1000. Munich, llIyeriKhe

S'a ... b,bho,hek. elm 4453, foL 237r

n.e subjrct ofthe city i. often u",d au

mnnS of frammg and STr"'lUrlng
plCtonal aeuOn: ,he central ax" dw,dt.
,ht "'y and ,n'erS<'.:U the head of Christ.

the throne are so close to the Carolingian modellhal one can assume wilh
some certainly Ihat the artiSI in Fulda based his composition and design of
detail on such earlier codices.
This assumption is also natural bause a Carolingian writing so::hool
had been active in Fulda. The Olton ian illuminators and so::ribes were
therefore unlikely to be shorr of appropriate models.
The example just cited is an extreme one and must not be applied to the
development of Orronian book illumination in general. Apart from copies
and modifications of the Grolingian models, there were also artists that
explored novel and individual ways. Famous examples of this development are the manuscripts produced in Trier and in liS subsidiary
monastery in Echternach. Amongst the most magnificent and artistically
refined codices of the Olton ian period is the Gospel Book of Ono ][]
which w:as produced around the rear 1000. As mentioned before, there is
a dispute between Reichenau and Trier as to the place of its Heation. The
folio depicting the ~Washing of the Feet of I'etcr" must be mentioned here.
since its combination of figure and architecture is so surprising and the
result so astonishing that it deserves a closer look (photo, on the left).
What one notices first is ,hat the separaTion of pictorial architec,ure and
architectural picture has been largely abandoned. There are no architectural clementS framing the picture. And yet the green columns with the
archiua,e (which is developed into a ~palace city") form the boundary of
an area of gold leaf in front of which appear Christ, the arms of Peter, and
the secondary figure of a water-carrier. In conceiving such a constellation,
the artist might have intended TO create ~a picture wilhin the picture" in
ordcr TO show Christ clearly belonging to the sphe re of God. In such a
context, the columns may be understood as clements of pictorial architecture. Operating on the principle of reversed perspeclive, the building
sections, towering up over the area of gold, form themselves inlO a Mpalace
city,~ anOlher reference TO the Heavenly Jerusalem. The diagram shows
thai if a central axis is applied 10 Ihe picture, it divides the city and
intersects the head of Christ. If the lines of the outer sections are rxtended,
they run parallel into Ihe cenler of Ihe picture and also intrrsect al the head
of Christ. Whilst not opening up three-dimensional space, the systcm of
perspective applied here brings out the link between the works of Christ
on earth, and the promise of the Heavenl y Jerus,llem.
The use of pictorial architecture in OIher pages of this codex is sparing
but effective. Columns, arches and archilra,es are defined as architectural
componentS, and assume framing and symbolic functions al the same
time. The architectural elements are frequently employed as means of
articulation and combined with depictions of the city. The boundaries
between architectural picture and pictorial architecture bome blurred,
with the former transforming itself inTO the latter in order 10 mark Out the
godly sphere. Alternatively, pictorial architl'(;ture may turn into architl'(;Tural picture, when, for instance, figures are placed in front of columns. As
they overi3p, a dist::l.nce is cTealed between architecture and figure, in other
words, spatial depth.
The different treatment of piclOrial architecture and architectural
picture in terms of overall design and composition is a typical charac-

Soossons, GmpcJ BooIt <>is,, M...urd,

Aachen. P.bc~ Sd>ooJ. 1M fou .. t~I" of
I,f", Aroulld 800, P~nf. BIb!. Nat, Ms,

Lo., 88.10. 101. 6

FukU. Codu Wiu"kundruf, St.

,\btl,,",.k F... ~n1!<"I,", F.nd of,k It"IIth
ccontury.l\o;rl,n. Su.;IISb,b!IOIMk lu
!\t,I,n. Prnu<lschtr KubUlbn" ...

/l.b.ThtoI.LoI.IoI.1

,eristIC of Onoman CodICes. It helps to crUll' ,ension in a pictorial

structure that otherwtse tends to be qu.et and monotonous.
It indeed remained a characterisftc feature In the development of book
IIlumlnafton un,.lthe end of the Romancsque penod. The subject of the
city IS frequently used as a means of frammg and structuring the picture,
while a, the same ILllle funcftonlng as a reprrsentafton of arehltecture.
nns, more-o,'U, was already e"lden, In a "ery early cO<kx, the Ashburnham I'entateuch Iphoto. p. 405 ).
Th.t ran~ of anlSIlC work touched upon here developed o\e. the
course: of 500 rears. from early ChrlStLan illustration up to the codICes of
the: Ouoman penod, It brings home to ,he obscn"er the varie[}' of ways In
whICh architecture was used within the pIcture space: sometimes the

prinCIpal sublcct IS framed by architectural elements such as entablatures,

pi lasters or columns; somelLmes sttCtches of wall, crenellations o r arcades
articulate the sublectmauer, In many cases, pictorial architecture is also
an LlnportJnt means of comnlllntCJllng, expression and ~amng. In
almost all cases.. thIS takes the form of symbols of God's promise of
531"allon, such as the mOlif of the fountam of paradise, or the Hea"enly
Jeru53lem. SomellllK'S a pillar, an archltra,'e, or part of a building arc
enough to stand for a symbol of the whole of the hea"enly sphere. It goes
WIthout saying that these archItectural components are borrowed from
church bUlldmg. as the lafler, the House of God on eanh, was also
worshipped as a s)'mool of God's heavenly city.

425

Gosptl book, nonlw:m f unct. ArotInd

860-80, f.nboschbfl,,1w: OlOl(O;Inlloo
CombobllOdltl<. Oom I-b . 4

426

book .. 1"hcrc .'" no nplanallons '0

,he .. ru<:lUnl ,."",on. of.hnt Optn,ng
ieCtlOllS. "Thty art obVIOUsly ,h(, ~ub of
"'"a,n prrlrrtnru of indlvidu.1 """pI.
o"a WIIOf$. In 1M Hilda Codex from
Cologne. for ~umpk. ,he pattern
oud,nrd abo," ...'U adop!ed for .....
h.nge'hm M.. k and lukr, ",hll~
d,ff~rtnt sys'em "'~f apl'hrd to ,h~ orh ....
Iwo, Thr edotor ~pon.,b~ for ,h~ "firl'
[van",I, ... " Man .... w. om",.d , ....
"II,ulus" and ftpbctd"Wllhanloclpll,
Th" "lI1ulu," or IIIk p.gt' (onl .. ns only
'Ur: .nd w~ Ut .Ir.ady fam.lo .. w"h ,hr
dtpIC"on of Ih~ h.nsdli'. of whoch
II.. ny .xaml'l<1 ha"~ 1In ,"rd. It "
''''r~fo,( 'pprop"J '( h",r 10 ,.k~ a
d~r look a, ,he canon ,.bk and ,he

Ca""" labk and 10:' in",al

1"hc ronSlruct>Od of a .",.x..

11><- ,....." -"odtx- (book l ..,fen; to 1M

whok range' of Iliumuulrd nu.nUKnpu
"'h",h arc ,It...fted IIIXOrdlng 10 dtfferrm
types; apa" from 1M BIbie-. IMrr ar~ al ...
lhe followmg: ,h(, n 'angdlu or goop<'I
book wllh Ih(, ,oml'lt1~ g<)ip<'1 lUIS:
,he ~vangd,sIa..,. or p<'rlCOp<' book "'"h
u"'<'rpu (p<'ricopt-J) from Ih~ Gospel; Ihe
5XUmtn,.ry. l"u.g..:.1 book w.,h
pr.)~'" for M...; 1M 1":1I011ary, .1....
h.urS"",1 book coma"""g pa.sag~' f'om
Ih~ BIble: and lhe I'1hr, Ih(, Book of
hllms.
U"r\.g a goop<'I b<:>oI< I ~'.nge'hu l al all
uampk." ,odtx usually hi ,he follow
Ing S"UC'u'~: " bogln. wllh lhe Canon
wh..:h .. ~IIh(,. ~ Of fulloww
by. A." .. In .\ h,nl y.1M canon ,.bk ..
,nl.ndrd 10 f""hw. 'M findmg of
NknllUl or .. m.lt. ,ex, ~ ....ga In .he
goopel book lronco...iun).
1"hc canon ,able- IS onm foIlo..w by ,he

,",,,.1,

,.bIe-

Canon ,ableSOO ......". Gosptl 8001< ofSl. M.d.lrd.

""'~.I'al"'t Sct.ool. Around 800

-", ..10..- an m...><I1I<"ItOn or prrlx~ '0

,he pptl. 1M "llmlus" 15 us""Uy III
>'fn(' form and pays homage' '0 , ....
... n",lo .. ~. In some manu
"'riP" lhe 1''''"00' of , .... ~b!<'SfY .rr
100 aa:ompamrd by a "mulus."
:-'u, folloVI'J .h(, ,nu", of .h(, E... n"'I ....
an .... wh",h t"""" .. an "inonum" or
"""'pt. " Th .. '~.m .d~n; ro , ... 0JIC'II'''l!
word. of , .... 'tunuKnpl whoch hegon
,,"IIh an tnlargffi decora,rd kf{~r, t'"
,n,,,.1. Th,. ,n,,,.1 page' rtprnmts ,he
O(>fn,ng of .hr g<>Ip<'1 Itx. ,,"lIh ,ts
acoolnpany.ng IlIumlna,ioo ..
l ne d,,",,,orl ""0 """,I"," - im.", of the
[ v.n",I". - "1""'1'11" or gospel .nollal
tokes a diffe.en, form ,n every manu"'''1'' and evm varirs ,n 'M gosp<'1

"T"M canon ,.blt (oot d,agram):

T,,'O 'yprs of (allOn 'able- have bttn
lundtd do ...... from 'M M,ddle Aga: ,he
ard.rd 'ype nd , ....ntabl.,uff IYpt.
1M ltTle. IS found m,a,nly In 'M
Carol,ng",n wnll"l! ""hooI of R<'1ms
(dugr.rrn I - typt: Eho Gosptl 8001<.
,",,,,,,,.j 8001. n ..... dlC\l 'n><" .. 10 ... 10 , ....
be, lfacW bxk to , ..... Xlh cen'ury Il;
onen usN ,n Olton",,, book .lIum.nalton
(da;l.Vam 2" rypt: Gotptl 8001< from Sf.
GrrtOll.~. uound IOSOj, "l'l>tn. '
al.., hyb.1d f(Wm con"iflng of
....'.bla'''''' "'11" ped.rnc:nt, .nor .....
ch x't""" fealU'" of ,h(, ""hooI of
C".oIosn<' (dIagram J ",).pt: Gosptl 8001<
from T.IC., around 1(00).

1"hc ;n;,;al
A d""nC'IIon " madt bnwt'C'n ,he body
or ou,h..." and ,he " fillong" or confrnU
of an ,n,,,al. Tlw: body or oUllonc oi a
Itlf" of"," ConSI,,, of IwO parallel gold
1m.. ,hal In"f5t and may uke ,h.
,h.p<' of variouS ornamental fo.mallonl.
Their .'" "filled" w.,h ,n .... o. dnall.
u.""l(y.n , .... ,h.1'4' of .. ..., ""rol! dc<:ou"on. n.. do$'lP' l'O'"b,l",rs .rr. how
c,'C', 100 ""atlhal II" .,"""lty Imf'O'S.ble'0 .. uhhsh fixrd co'egonH. n.. follow
ng ,h.t'C' ~umplts aT( c~n '0 convey
wont Klta of , ..... och vocabul.ry usN ,n
,h(,dtcor.. "", of lut Inlll.I.:
1. Gosp<'1 8001< from TflC"f: lUI 1",,,..1
"N" (phoco, lop, ng.hl l
n.. .",,,.1 " N" IS dt<;or.,rd wllh ,nlul.ott knotS boIh " '"h,n III maIn S'IOII'
and
fol",gt' "'rolls, sym.......""
along I...... ax,!.. JPfOIKI f.om
.... of, .... Im...
2. Goopel 8001< from Cologne: ,ex' "'111.1
"N~ (fi.gu.~. ",n'ff, nghl l
Th .. ,rulUl .ppurs ~ cn.::1otC'd. .1.......
u .quart, The d...gonal .... of ,he "N-

mol."".

II ~L II

II

fo.m; ''''0 "'Jngks wh",h art fillcJ by

tM d,mbong and en,w,ned lanns of
sporalsh.pC'd sc~ls.
J. Grtsptl Book from'M Coon School of
Otarlts 'M Jl.:rld: ,..,., ",",al "H" (fig""'.
bonom. ngh'l
Th .. In .. ",1 "H" (HIe est Joh"nnnl from
,he Ca.oI'npa" P.Iac~ s.:hool 15 SIIU

7::.:.=

dormn.,ed b)' 'M In"sh d,,~lrd , ha .....

of eoron,b,an .tnd.. ls .nd scpals
,mll~IIng Oa .. ,c.1 anllqully.
n.. ,n,,;a! bogln. ,lit In. of , .... g"'p<'1
.nd ,...,. ,t.. "'~nt of , .... L,fe of o.,,~,.

"'It """'tt

on.... ,... .tCt1Irs "lump" from hangrhst

'0 Ev.ngrh". dtprndl"l! on ,he norutl ....

seq"""" choistn.

427

Iconograph y
Wall painting
The subject matter of sane<! Romanesque wall painting is determined by
iTS very location within a church building: the walls of the nave between
the arcades and the clerestory windows, as well as the church ceiling
(either barrel vault or flat wO<.>den ceiling) were often intended ro be
decorated with narrative cycles from boTh the Old and New Testament.
The LaSt Judgement with the mourh of Hell is sometimes depicted on
rhe interior western wall. The east is the direction aswciated with
ResurTCction and Redemption and therefore equates with the position of
the chancel in a church. T he apse wall in this section almost always
contains an image of Christ in Majesty, while the plinth area is filled with
angels or Apostles, or is dedicatcd ro particular saints.
The side walls of the chancel occasionally depict legends of the saints,
usually in connection with a specifically local context.
The pictorial subject matter of Romanesque art thuefore corresponds
fairly closely 10 the respective significance of the particular section of rhe
sacred bUilding it decorates. [tS iconography is therefore pre-determined.
And yet it was this very fact that ohen led to allcmpts at undermining the
general principl e by including a greater variety of motifs. The aim was to
break through the influence of Christology and balance the theme of the
doctrine of salvation by introducing more profane subject-malTer. II was
also a means of expressing the belief that a life devoted to God could
certainly be reconciled with a leSt for life. And it is even possible that there
was also a deliberate intention of overstepping the mark, as it were, by
employing little-used marginal areas of the church for small exaltanons
and drolleries, whkh found expression in grOtesque ornamentation and
figurations, or in the shape of monsters and fabulous creatures.
The profane subjects created in the Christological comext are among
the mOSt faSCinating examples of Romanesque paiming. Of course, they
were repeatedly denounced as blasphemous and damnable since it was
impossible to integrate them into the sacTCd context. In the year 1124, the
strict Bernard of Clairvaux was moved by a visit to the monastery of
Cluny to deliver th is now well-known, passionale speech against the
excessively luxurious nature of the building:
~ Moreover, in the clOISter, before the reading brelhren - what is the
purpose there of such a blasphemous monstrosity, such deformed shapeliness, and such shapely deformity? What is the purpose there of unclean
monkeys? Of wild lions? Of monstrous centaurs? Of hunters blowing their
horns? There you can see many bodies 3!1ached 10 one head, and many
heads attached to one body. Here you see a quadruped wilh the tail of a
serpent, and there a fish wirh the head of a quadruped. There you have <)
beast which has the front part of a horse and the hindquarte rs of a goat;
theTC an animal with horns at the front bUllhe shape of a horse at the back.
In short, every space is filled up with such a manifold variety of astonishing creatures that one prefers to read the blocks of marble rather than the
codices, and to spend the whole day in bewildering wonderment at such a
display rather than contempla te the law of God. God forbid! If there is no
shame about such foolishness, at least one should consider the expense! ~

428

Ikrnard obviousl y enjoyed busying himself with such ~foolishness,~

otherwise he would not have studied and described them in such detail.
After all, his speech amounted 10 a kind of instruction manual for th e
production of constructed devils and Ihe creation of a bestiary - e"en if
this was completely unintentional on his pari.
Smct in nature and not very receptIVe to the arts, II was Bernard's
express wish to ban all non-Christian subject matter from the House of
God. More than that: he was even in favor of removing any decoraTIon
from the churches, so that they could be redesigned as sober places
without any Mexternal~ trappings of beauty, in accordance with the newly
formulated Benedictine ideal. Such a decidedly hostile attitude towards the
arts was in strong contrast to the attitude of 51. Augustin e. It was he who
several hundred years previously had formulated the Classical PlatoniC
artistic theory in order to make it available to the church. The early
Christian sacred interior allowed the arts to enhance life and give some
pleasu re to mankind. 51. Augustine believed that this would contribute to
a fuller understanding of all the magnificence and grealiless of God's
cTCation.
Romanesque pamting therefore had an inherent tension developed in
an environment rhat ranged from a euphoric enthusiasm for art on the one
hand, to an ascetic rejection of all an on the other. Within this context,
Romanesque painting flourished and produced the mOSI splendid and
absurd resulrs, even if they wcre only secondary Imagery accompany1l1g
Biblical subject-matter.
The principal subjecls of Romanesque painting aTC, witholll doubt, the
depictions of Christ in Majesty and the Virgin Enthroned. They are usually
seen in the apse, the most Important and significant place for imagery III
the ChrIstian church. [t is therefore all the more surprlsmg that in the
Oratory ofTheodulf of Orleans al Germigny-desPres, a church that had a
great Significance for Carolingian cuhure, there was no Christ in Majesty
in the apse, but a subject which was later almost completely disregarded:
that of two angels hO"ering above the Ark of the Covenant (photo, p.
384 ). The question arises as to wh~' such a strange subject was chosen for a
place of such symbolic significance. l1>e answer is quickly found: as
already discussed in the first cha pter of this book, T heodulf was the most
important scholar at the court of Cha rlemagne after Alcuin of York. As the
author of the Libri Carolini, the "cultural manifesto of the Carolingian
Empire, ~ Thcodulf was greatly concerned towards the end of the eighth
century with the Ryzantine ban on images. He chose to follow a middle
course between the resolute rejection of pictures With a divine content, and
idolatry, the excessive worship of images. According to the bishop, rhe
image was an important medium of communicating Biblical messages and
therefore served an educational purpose. His range of images did,
however, nOI include Ch rist or the sainls since they were under Msuspicion
of idolatry. ~ Before the year 825, it was therefore not yet possible to depict
Christ in Majesty in Germigny-des-Pres. 825 was also the year of the
Synod of Paris, at which a change of position occurred with regard to
pictorial subject-matter. Subsequently, il was no longer an act of sacrilege
to depict Christ, God, or the Virgin Mary. Now the figures of Christ In

Gosrcillook uf II~n!)' the bun. Ch"lt in

Majcsty. 1188. Wolfcnbimd, Herzog
Augu,,SlbIIOlhek. Cod.

Nov",. r, fol. l72r

Gudf. 105

Gospc"llIook of Honry II.

Port.. " of a TIller. Around 1020. Rom.
Rq;ensburg.

IIlb!. V.t. O"oOOn. Lat. 74

The Gosptl Book of Henry the lion is the

loint pfOpc"rty of lhe Sf.te of I.ower
Saxony. the Frtt S,.teof llav.na.lhe
Fodo.,1 Ropubllcof c"rmany. and th.
Sf,ftung I'reu,,,,,,h.r Kulturbes"l.

Majesry and the Virgin Enthroned were assigned their proper place in the
most imponam pan If the church - the apse of the cast sanctuary.
C h ri~t in Majesty and the Virgin Enthroned
The dearest way of breaking down ,he iconographical constellations of
these two types of Majesty in monumental painting, is by means If examples
from book illumination. If we compa re the apse fresco in Sant'Angdo in
FQnnis (phOlo, p. 409) with a miniature from the gospel book commissiollOO
by Henry II around 1020 (thar is, aoout fifty years previously; photo, aoov.,
righr ), the similarity betwn them in term s of subjecr-martcr and lay-out
are immediately obvious, and mark rhem out as Majesry depiclions. There
is, however, o ne difference which at the time was quire revolurionary:
whiisl in typologica! and formal iconographic;alrerms we are confronted
wilh a Majesty, it is the image of Henry J( that sits en throned in the
mandorla mstead of Ch ri st Qr God the Farher. The dove of the HQl y Ghost
is seen hQvering above his head, and rhe three-quarter medallions al the
sides :and the rectangular spaces in the margin shQW the Virtues, alluded 10
by means of human gestures. A scene If judgement is seen taking place

beneath the image of the emperor. There can be no dQubt as to Ihe 1l1cs>age If
this miniaTUre: as he passes judgcmenr, ,he emperor ~Dei gratia, ~ Inspi re<!
by God (the dove), is represenred as a personification of ,he Virtues.
BefQre an anempt is made tQ clarify what appears '0 be an act If
5.1crilege, it is wQrth considering the motif If the circle. Here there is an
allusion to the earth, the globe, and thertfore 10 the worldly empire
granted by Ihe grace of God. T he figure of Ch rist as Ihe Ruler of the World
is fam il iar frQm other cQmpositiQns. Christ in Majesty is often depicted
within a ci rcular mandQrla ,ha, idenrifies itself as sphai ra of stars. This
motif can be traced back to Classical antiquity where it was used 10 depict
Zeus or Jupiter as ruler of fhe cosmo in the midst of the signs of the
zodiac. The transfer of meaning is obvious and compelling: the
interconn~tion of a claim 10 power derived from antiquity and divine
righ, allows for a dialogue between anciem and Christian motifs and
demonstrates a new self-assurance In ,he part If the medieval ruler. This
image of the MRuler If Ihe World~ appears in many variations: in the Liber
Floridus (Flanders, around 1\80), for cl<am ple, Ch rist is represented
between Ihe fQur elements (photo, p. 4291.

429

Aux~rr~ a"hrdr~l. crypt. Chris' on ,he

wh". hor..,. Around l1S0

This ~presumpfUouness of pictorial subJect M of course already

contains the seeds of the fiercc conflict between the emperor and the pope
which was 10 break Out openly a few decadcs btcr and culminate in the
M[nvestiture Contest." Thcre was nothing novel about this ~profanoo"
Majesty. As the successor to the Roman Emperors. the emperor of
Byzantium had already laid claim 10 this title. which the rulers of western
Rome conceded 10 God alone. During the reign of Charlemagne, however,
the attribute M'\hjestyM began ag.lin to be applioo to the ruler in the
context of the return to the culture of Classical antiquity. And Henry II
saw the title not only as a reflection of his position but also regarded
hims.elf as the s.ecular equivalent of Ch rist. It seemed therefore natural for
him 10 be worshipped as the subject of a MChrist in Majesty. M
The confronlMion between profane and sacred majesty depictions is
baffling. The only likely explanation for it might have been the rapidly
increasing power of the Ononian rulers. They wallloo to give expression

430

to thdr belief Ihat they could receive the imperial crown direcrly from
God. When depictoo in miniatures, they therefore used symbols that
would magnify them, such as the dove of the Holy Ghost, or the hand of
God. This amounted to a dedaral!on of the absolute power of the Godgiven Empire, and was achieved in a way that was almost offenSIve to
Rome, since the message was that it was nm the pope who dominated the
world, but the emperorch~n by God.
Whether before, during, or after the hll'estiture Contest, the tension
betwc.:n emperor and pope lastoo untIl well into the twelfth cenlury. II
express.ed ilself sporadically in the form of severe conflicts culminatmg in
the MStaufen confrontation," when Frederick II raise<! an army against the
pope. At the Council of Lyons in 1245, Frederick was banished by the
pope, declared a herNic, and deposed.
In the crypt vault of the cathedral of Auxerrc there is an extrcmely rare
but highly remarkable yariation of Ihe majesty image. Set at the point of
intersection of a cross, Christ is depicted on horseback, holding a SCeptre
in his right hand and raising his left hand in a gesture of blessing (photo,
left). The four marginal areas ollIside thc cross show angel medallions.
The paintings were probably panlled around the year ]]50. According to
the words of the Prophet ~ I abchi, MEece adven!! dominator dominus ... M
{Behold, Ihe ruler and Lord is comrng ... }, we might here indeoo be faced
with a majesty variation which follows, howeyer. along the lines of the
Cbssical rukr typology. The significance of the so-called ~Adve1Jlus
Imperator" could possibly be explained further by passages from the
Apocalypse which also justify the whtle horse: ~And I $31'.' heaven opened,
and behold a whne horse: and he that sat upon hun was called Faithful
and True, and in righteousness he doth judge and make war ... M. This then
establishes the link to the fragment of the Gospel of Lorsch, in which the
symbolism of the ruler was derived from the adoption of the majesty
image in its Classical context.
Apart from the example abol'e, the typology of the Majesty offers little
variety. This applies abol'c all to the range of motifs and to a lesser degree
to its formal design. Christ is surrounded by the fOUT Evangelrsts. angels
and saints. The universal claim of faith, the Ol'ercoming of evil, and
redemption linked to the entry into paradise, arc all different aspects of the
message of salvation.
The standard allribUies of the Majesty are the four Evangelists, often
representoo by the beasts of the Apocalypse: the angel for Mallhew, the
lion for Mark, the bull for Luke, and the cagle for John. Within the
Majesty, the winged beasts and the wingoo man or angel playa double
role: they inspire their ~partnersM to write down the Gospels, while at the
same time embodying the basic characteristics of their Lord. The man
refers 10 Ihe incarnation of Christ, and the lion to {he kingdom of the
Lord. The bull symbolizcs strength of faith, and the eagle soars skywards
as a symbol of the Ascension of Christ. The Evangelists are frequently
depicted gathere<l around the Thronc of the Lord in the order JUSt
mentionoo. Usually this subjcct-maller IS represented in Ihe chancel aps.e.
virtually above the altar, proclaiming its mcssage of $3lva{ion and
redemption from the liturgical center of the Hous.e of God.

Civ .... 5.on P","o.1 Mon,,,. "a$",m wall

of e,,!ranco hall. Figh! wilh !hedroSOfl.
A.ound 109(1

In the Wl'St, [00, Ihe combination of Christ and the Evangelists'

symbols can be found, usually accompanied by angels with trumpets and
by Mary and John. The Archangel Michael is also amongst them: the
angels wTlh the trumpels have just announced the coming of the LaSt
Judgement; ....Iary and John are ,aking up their placl'S by the Throne of
God in order to plead for thOS/' souls who are tortured but not completelj'
beyond salvation. In bolh cases, the majl'Sty appears in the context of the
divine p.omiSl' of .edempllon. In the case of the Last Judgement thIs can
also mean damna"on.
A majesty of unusual conslellalion in bOlh iconographical and formal
terms can be seen in 5.1n Pietro on Ihe Monte Plale near Civate. The wall
section under Ihe formeret on the eastern w"l1 of the entrance IX'rch
features Ihe figure of Christ SCI in a dynamic compositional design. Painted
around the year 1090, the fresco is regarded as one of the most imporlant
1r~li~n conlrlhlllion< 10 Romane<<J"e p~inling (phOlo, ahove). It ill,,<um,,<

chapter 12 of the Apocalypse: beneath the mandorla containing Christ in

Majesty we see the writhing body of a dragon of gigantic proportions.
Fighting Ihe monster is the heavenly host, led by the Archangel Michael.
The woman of the Apocalypse - chOS/'n to crush the dragon underfoot - is
shown crouching in the boTTom tefl-hand corner of the picture. A wetnurse
next to her offers up to the dragon a newborn child who is holding up his
hands in defence ag.1instthe be".t. In this way, the child reaches the divine
sphere above, front where he is handed to the Lord through the mandorla
by an angel. The Apocalj'pse of John reads as follows: ~And she brought
forth a ma" child. who was to rule all nations with a rod of iron: and her
child was caught up unto God, and to his throne. ~ The boy is Christ, and
the woman is his mother Mary who is introduced here in her role ~s the
~woman of Ihe Apocalypse. ~
A strange yel obvious interpretation of the Apocalypse' the s~crifice of
C:hri~t's I;f~ Mome~ ~ melaphm for the hanle again" evil, rdlecled in

431

0""""
SI. Chrf, .bbty church, Ch.1ptllt
Con'entuellt,ce,hng. Ch"'l In :-1'1<:SIY
an<l the Heavenly Jerusalem. Aroon<l
1080
~". Marl. zur Hoke, dom.,. TIl<- Virgm
Enth'<>n<d. A,.,..,nd l t20

visual terms by combining the woman of th(" Apocalypse witll< tile figllr
against tile dragon. It epitomizes tile message of salvation and tile c("rtam
knowledge tllat eternal life Illay ~ gained througll tile sacrifice of Christ.
In tllis Majesty, the ideas of redemption and paradise are expresu:d amidst
a scene of battle and sacrifice.
The image of Christ in MajC"5t) surrounded by the heavenly host
appears in yet anmher iconographical context in the ab~y church of St.
Chef in Dauphm':. east of Lyons (aro und 1080). The picture in the vault of
the Chapelle Conventuelle shows the Illandorla depicting Christ enthroned
on a bench covered with cushions and with his arms raised in blessing
{photo. p. 433). Above the crown on Christ's head the Holy" Lamb is
placed rather awkwardly upside down as it ~Iongs 10 another section of
the vault, namely the narrow, spherically sloping part. On turning around,
the viewer will thus find that the Lamb of God now represents rhe lOp of
the heavenly castle which rests on the lower rim of the vault. The Virgin
Mary and the host of angels are arranged to the side of the Hea"enly
Jerusalem and around the mandorla in such 3 way tllat the heavl~nly c3stle
with the Lamb of God, the majesty, and Mary are aligned along the central
axis. If this axis is continued as far as into the apse of the chapel, it leads to
a second Lamb of God and another majesty in the calott(" of Ihe apse. [t is
perfectly natuml and in no way unusual to find two majestty images
rdating to one and the saille iconographical context, and distributed over
various parts of the church.
There is no doubt that the vault at Sf. Chef is defined as the divine
cosmos. The arch of the mandorla contains bands of elouds shaped like a
curved sawtooth frieze, and can ~ interpreted as a cosmic reference.
Continuing these iconographical observations within our dialogue with
Ihe church building, one realizes Ihat the hea"enly vault rests on the earth
- in other words, the illusionistic presence of God is convered by means of
the pailllings on the walls. There we find the Evangelists, the Prophets and

432

Ihe Apostles assembled, together with the Iwellly-four Elders of the

Re\"elation engaged in dialogue, and the four Fathers of the Church. T he
word of God is taken up and "carried~ along by the heavenly host, ils
message communicated by the Evangelists, and interpreted and taught br
the Fathers of the Church. [ncidentally, the ctntral axis runs through the
Book of Life which lies open in Christ's !ap. The iconographical design is
legible and relates dire<:tiy 10 the faithful who would have circulated
around the chapel with their heads held up high learning the Christian
teachings. The notions of "abo"e and ~~low~ h3\"e been suspended.
Earthly standards and perspecthes are no longer valid. What appears 10 ~
standing on its hcad is integrated imo the divine order and opens up the
conne<:tions through which the doctrine of salvation is communicaK-d.
The architecture of the chapel now has the sole function of com'eying rhe
pictorial narrati"e, and is thus defined as "heavenly architcclure.~ The
Chapelle Cunvemuelle in 51. Chef is one of rhe few examples of fresco
C)'cles from the Romanesque period which have survived in such a
complete Slate.
The composi tion of the "auh paiming of St. Chef is strangely similar 10
the dome fresco of Maria zur Hohe in SotSt, whi,h has been described
earlier (photo above). [n both churches, a defimte connl'Ction ~twcen
architttture and image gives visual e,..pression 10 the link ~tween heaven
and earth. The common strand within the iconogrJphical program is
iliuslTated by the position held by Mary both within the frC5Co and, at the
same time, within the church inrerior. [n SotSt, Mary is nOI given a central
position in the dome, bur merely a place along the lower seglllelll of the
circle, effectively placing her above the alta r. She could therefore be
characterized as a kind of devotional image of the altar wh ile at the Slime
time belonging to the heavenly sphere: it IS through the figure of Mary that
the congregation learns of the direct conneclion ~tween the altar in this
world, and tht divine cosmos in the hereafter.
M

Mary establish('s thIs link in h('r capacity as th(' Mother of God and h('r
ro](' as intercessor. The image of th(' Virgin Enthroned is therefore much
more strongly related 10 this world than that of Christ in Majesty. The
absence of a mandorla and the lower positioning of the Virgin at the
~cosmk margin~ of the ~Ordo Angelicus," that is the ('dge of the dome,
should therefore not h<' interpretl as denoting a lesser value in the
iconographical system compared 10 that of the Christ in Majesty.
T he sole purpose of this interpretation is to establish their place within
the sacred sphere of meanmg. A similar constellation was notl in St. Chef:
surroundl by angels, Mary is depictl standing at the edge of the dome
above the triumphal arch of the apse. This establishes a visual connection
with the altar h<'low her, placing her firmly in the liturgical context.
Another variat ion in the posi tioning of !I.-lary relative to Christ in
Majesty had been noted in Civate. There she was represented as the
woman of th(' Apocalypse, and therefore as a symbol of the conquest of
('VII, sacrifice, and rlcmption. In sacred terms, Mary and Christ/God the
Father were put on the same level. Expressed in a theological and
t<:desiastical context, Mary is given increasing SIgnificance in her function
as a fighter for the cause and intercessor by the SIde of Ch riSl and God the
Father. Her position within the divine cosmos as hea,enly queen is thus
complete: the uncrowned Christ places the crown on the head of his
mother, as depictl by Jacopo Torriti in his apse mosaic in Santa Maria
Maggiore, Rome, in 1295. Mary's coronation in h('aven can be regardl
as the synthesis or result of the mtellectual lmks betwe('n the images of
Christ in Majesty and the Virgin Enthroned.
Mention has already been made of the host of angels surrounding the
Mother of God, a cOnstantly rt<:urring motif in the depictions of the Virgin
Enthroned. T he compositions in Soest and also in St. Chef are pallicularly
impressive. The angels ar(' an allusion to the divine cosmos. It is, however,
unlikely thaI the choir of angels might represent the equiva]('111 of the
majesty mandorla. Mary is too firmly connt<:ud to this world to h<'
depictl within a mandorla when shown in majesty. In her role as the
physical Mother of God and as intercessor, she is a figure that the faithful
can directly relate TO. The angelic choir is more concrete and much
~closer~ 10 mankind than {he sphaira or mandorla, suffused with the light
that surrounds God the Father.
The combination of the Virgin Mary and th(' choir of angels constitutes
a cI('arly defined subject in the panel painting of the Italian 13th and 14th
centuries, where;t was stylized into a highly significant pictorial sysum. In
the work of Duccio, Cimabue and GiOIlO, this type was refured 10 as
~Maesta-. There are clear differences both m terms of motif and style
when compared to the Maestas of the Virgin examined here. At th e time,
the new majesty contributed greatly to the popularization of a new
generation of painters. Using th e majesty as a vehicle, Duccio and Giollo
developed the concept of the figure in space, and were therefore heralding
the arrival of modern painting.

434

The Heavenly Jerusal em

AI 51. Chef, the dominant features of the heavenly castle, Christ in
Majesty, and the Virgin Enthroned, arc all arranged along the main
iconographical axis. They can therdore h<' interpreud as a model for the
spectrum of meaning inherent in the Heavenly Jerusalem depicted in
Romanesque painting. The distant promise of redemption which finds its
concrete form in th(' city of God can only be reachlthrough the sacrifice
of Christ's death and through Mary's intercessions at the throne of God.
The cent('r of the di\ine cosmos is occupied by ~New Jerusalem" which
therefore had 10 undergo a fusion with the figure of the majesty within the
mandorla. In St. Chef, this combination of ~heavenly identif)'~ of the City
of God, the Son of God, and the Mother of Ch rist is conveyed by its
position above the central main axis of the vault.
~ And there came untO me one of th(' sev('n angels ... and he carried me
away in the spirit to a great and high mou ntain, and sh('wed me that great
city, the holy Jerusalem, descendll1g out of h('aven from God ... and had a
wall great and high, and had tweke gates, and at the gates rwel,e angels.
and the city lieth foursquJre, and the length is as Iarg(' as the breadth ...
and the foundations of the wall of the city were garnished with all manner
of prt<:ious stones ... and the twelve gates were Iweln' pearls; every several
gate waS of olle pearl: an el th~ .treet of Ihe c il) w~< pllr~ golel, ~< il w~r~
transparent glass ... ~
There is a wealth of detail in the description of the hea,enly city in
chapter 21 of the Revelation of 51. John the Divine. Indeed, the derail is
often meticulously preci~. The artists, however, took little notice of this
lavish listing of the most precious building materials. For them, the New
Jerusalem represented an allegory of the place of God. And 1\ th('refore
mad(' more sense to them to depict the city of God in the shape of a
church, particularly since it was St:ltl1l1 Augustm("s ever,present text De
CivilIJle Del (wnllen between 412 and 426 ) ,hat the realm of God is made
manifest on earth in the shape of th(' church. In this way, the Heavenly
City became a part of everyday experience for the faithful in the Middle
Ages.
Th(' depiction of the Heavenly Jerusalem in the genre of wall painting
cannot be fully understood without taking into account its liturgical milieu
and the resulting artistic motifs. The heavenly castle is mtegratl within a
frame of rderence whose allusions arc the key to the whole range of
meaning contain('d within them. The faithful are called upon to seek out
and take up their respeCtive positions. New Jerusalem is accessible only
through the word of God (represented by the Majesty ), the sacrifice of
Christ"s life (represented by the Lamb of God ), and th rough interc(,SSIOI1
(represented by Mary ). Humankind can rt<:eive the word of God in many
ways, through either the Gospels or the Fathers of the Church. The
believer is prott<:ted by the army of the king which is prefigured in the
heavenly and fortifil host depicted in Civate. The bailie against eviltu
prott<:t and redeem the faithful is therefore another reference 10 the
Hea,enly Jerusalem. According to the Apocalyps<>, the Heavenly
Jerusalem was not revealed to John until aft('r the Images of Wrath and the
Judgement.

It is thIS very scene of the -apocalyptic confrontation ~ betwttn

Judgement and Re\'~ lallon [hal has !:Ittn ch05tn to Illustrate th~ HeavCTlly
Jerusalem al Ci\~le. II IS ckPlctcd In the eastern secllon of {he vault,
followmg the fr~o of the for~TC1: on the cast wall (photo, p. 436J.
God the Father IS shown seated on hiS throne, wllh Ihe Book of LIfe 10
hl$ tap and the hoi)' Lamb by hiS fttt. He IS sel " 'uhm a garden remmlsctnt
of puadlse and ~urrounded by walls fomfied wnh towers. Here, the
pamter has followe<!the ttxt of Ihe Apocalypse faltly closely: In his Tight
hand, the Lord holds the "golden rrc<l~ wnh which he has measured the
CI{Y. Twelve faces look om of the twelve gates and -behold his
countenance. - Usmg Ihe Iconographical IIllage of the garden 10 represent
the Heavenly Jerusalem IS not only a dev iallon from the tex{; it is also
relau\'ely unusual to find It rendered in slIch a quasi-impressionistic
manner remlmscelll of late antiqUity. LandSC':llpe structures of this kind 3re
known only from carl)' Chtlstian miniatures along the lines of the GeOCSIS
of Vienna. ~ comhlnallon of heavcnly castle and garden of paradise
slgnlfoes {hal the Judgement has alread y !:Ittn p.1ssed and th:n the faithful
and the blessed may be I'tdttmtd. Agam, an iconographical conntction
can be made wilh Ihe fresco m Ihe wall secllon under the formcret,
showmg the fight against {he dragon. For Ihe faithful of Ihe Middle Ages,
Ihis subtle Imk was immedialely obvious: cnlry into paradise was gamed
only afle r completmg the unhly saCrifice and o"ercoming evil, only
gained at (he end of time when the face of God would be re,ealed.
Schwaruhemdorf ImprcsSI\'eiy il1ustt3les ,U51 how Imponant II is to
combme and Itnk meaning OVCT several sacre<! rooms or sectIons. A kind of
ke)' Image for both the upper and Ihe lower church is placed in a central
locallon In the lower church, In the eaSlem vault sectIon of the (Tossmg
(photo, p. 437_ top). It shows the bUildings of a city wlIh a dlsproponion ately enlarged porta1. In the opc:nmg, a figure C<ln be secn which appears 10
be steppmg out through {he gale. TIlls pICture refers 10 a saying of lhe
prophet Ezekiel, who is depicte<! wl lh hiS scroll 10 the lower pari of Ihe
pIcture: MAflnward He [the hand of God[ hroughl me to the gate, even the
gate Ihat looketh lQward Ihe cast: and, behold, the glory of Ihe God of
Israel came from the way of the east.~ E7.eklei is Ie<! through Ihe cily of
God 10 the temple and before the ahar. The me<!ieval Falhers of th(
Church Interpreted {hiS image as Ihe promlSC of the birth of Chrisl 10 Ihe
Virgin Mary. In relation 1Q Ihe passage 10 Ezekiel ciled abo"e, we find
these words.n the Re\'eia{ion: -Come huher, I WIll shew thtt the bride, the
Lamb's WIfe. And he [the angell carned me away In the Splrll to a greal
and high mountam, and shewed me: that great cuy_ the holy jcrusalt'ITI_
d~endlOg out of heaven from God ... -. The Annunciation of Mary, the
Bride of God and the Mother of Chnst, mUSI therefo~ be setn as closely
relate<! to the Heavenly Jerusalem_
Views of City landscapes arc also encounlered 10 all the olher "auh
scgments of the crossing - wuh one (xceplion: 10 the northern scgment
thefe IS a represcntallon of the lable of the Lord, T he western segment
dep.cts Ihe cuunterpan 10 [he cllY gale Just dI:SCrihcd, namely Ihe heavenly
('Iy defined by God. These four a~as arc framed by an emply oct.lgonal
space in the celhng which allows rhe v.ewer to look up 1010 Ihe apse of Ihe

IIpper church. The believct can thus estabhsh his own MaXIS of heaven or
rtdtmpuon. ~ Sianding before the Mgate of the Lord, ~ thai IS, in the wesl
beneath the nea"enly en;y, he can look up towards the cast - Ihrough the
Mgate of Ezeklel~, as II were_ He I1(lW finds hllnself lookmg up to lhe Image
of Christ In MalCSly in the apse of the upper church_ The image IS frame<!
by the oo:;tagon and the surroundmg representations of the Hea"enly
Jerus.alem /S<"C also diagram on p. 437 ),
The o:kplclion o f Ihe Henenly Jerusalem and Ihe prcstntauon of
archl{ccture featUring the bIMh or nnracles of Chmt arc popular themes of
Romanesque pamtmg. On Ihe one hand, they provide a means of
structuring both piclorial cycle an d narrative, whilst al Ihe same lillie
cont:linmg references [0 the heavenly Clty_ Secn m lIS biblical conleXl, on
the other hand, Ihe New Jerusa lem alludes 10 Ihe POSSlblllly of
redemption. 11 IS also possible Ihat Ihe theme of the clly was so popula r
ballse II ref1c.::led Ihe IIKreaSlllg urballlzallon taking place 10 the Iwelfth
centufy_ ~ foundmg of new Cities always " 'enl hand in hand wllh an
.ncrease III populallon and an upswmg 10 Ihe economy. Nalurally, II also
affecled (he pow~r structures bctwttn Ihe cily populalion and their
bishop. In Inc fonner Carohnglan reg.ons the lower ariSloo:;racy frequently
formed alliances wilh lhe city people agamSI the sovereignty of Ihe church
III order to lake away power from the bIshop. Such COnnlCIS were
encouraged by the wntroversies that raged on a hlgh(r levellx-tween the
chllrch and Ihe empire. For the king, the slluation was very u.scful, as il
enabled him to win alltes against Ihe clergy as well as 10 gain taxes from
the empire's economy. For Ihls reason there was also an ambivalent
clement 10 the depiction of Ihe clly wllhm the sacred place: accordlOg to
Augustine, Ihe hea\'enly cil) IS presente<! as the beller al{ernatl"e {O (he
wordl)' city. particularly as lhe lauer adopted an anticlerical altllude. On
Ihe other hand, the king or emperor liked Ihe Idea of being represenle<!
through an urban environment wl[hlll the sacred surroundmgs of the
church especially smce Ihe ruler oflen aCled as donor for the church.
Produce<! around the year 1220 m a Bohemian scriplorium, thc Codex
GigaS Contains two full'page miJ1iatures which, amidSI a weahh of allusions,
compare the Heavenly Jerusalem and the dcvil cowcring in I-Iell (phOIOS,
p. 437. bonom). As is well known, in ml'dl~val limes Ihe opposition of
Hea"en and Hell referred to the whole of the cosmic syst(m. Man was
lOeICtru:;l bly bound up wnhin that $ysttlll and had 10 prove hml~lf, by
Iookmg barh upwardS:l.nd downwards_ ~hn'$ contt3dlClol'}' POSItion wllhm
the universe IS the sublcct of {he Codex GigaS and lIS encyclopedICally
eXlended Bible. 1loc dcpicrion of the Clly as a to\\'Cnng, monStrous construclion i~ remlnISCeJ1{ of a medie\",,1 Manha[l;ln. Presumably a reference {O Ihe
pollllca l, social and religious d~velopment of Ihe cily in [h~ twelflh and
thlrlctnlh centuries, such an Image mUSI be seen as the anmheslS to l-lel1.

435

Civate. San Pinroal Monle, enl.ance

hall, Ihe Heavenly Jerusalem. Around

>0'"

436

Schwarzrhelndorf. St. Mu,," un<!

Klemens. View from the lower Inlo ,I.e
upptrchurch.
Hea~enly J<tu .. lem
and 0".. In Maloty. Around I1S0

n...

1 Ettbe1's YISIOn
2 The Hea"cnly Jeru .. km
J Octagonal optnlll8 In ,I.e Io""er church
4 Christ In Majes'y In ,I.e upptr church

Codex G,S"S. Bohem.. n. Heavenly

cuy and Hell. Around 1200.
S,ockholm. KunsllS" B,bl,oICk ... Ms.
A 14S

437

Purgg,Juhannes Chapd,south ",..11. \'t'.,

bnw<'Cn cat~"nd mICe. Around 1180

Mirabilia: !hemes of fa masy ar,d a nimal s

The castle in which a batlle rages between mice and CatS {photo, above) is
cert3inly nOt a reference to the Heavenly Jerusalem, bu! rather 10 Hell. We
know this as the piClure was pain ted on the southern nave wall near !he
western wall, where the LaSt Judgement is depiCled. Painted around !he
)ear 1180, the fresw in the Johannes Chapel in Piirgg is part of an
extensi,e MRomanesque BeStiary~ whose images arc distribu ted alnongSt
numerous medieval churches and codices. Even though Bernard of
Clairva ux used ha~h words to wndemn such motifs within sacred surround
ings, there are plinth areas, pain ted wall tapestries, and decorative surfaces
and frameworks swarming and crawling with such creatues. The animals
featured often have a basis in zoologIcal reality; but there are juSt as many
cases where they are based on unreliable sources and are depieted as
monstrous, bi1.arre and fantastic creatures.
In the above fresco, catS and Illiee aflack each other with bows and arrows
and swords. One cat is seen with <I shield on its shoulders and a sword
strapped around its body. In this rather comical outfit, the cat COUICS creeping
up towards a group of mice. Such a subject is far removed from the Christian
nlCSS-1ge of salvation. The imagination of the artist, once released from such
constraints, must have worked in a peculiar way in order toamv.: at this image.
It has to be conceded, however, that Christian themes have never
wholl) excluded anilnal grotesques, strange hybrid creatures, or winged

438

monsters. In their antithetical role as a personification of evil, they form

pan of God's grand schcme of sakation. This becomes particularly
apparent in the areas framing the apse of St. Jakob in Kastellaz ncar
Tramin in the southern Tyrol. The malicious creatures, dating back to
around 1220, include centaurs. harpies, fish -like creatures, and dog
headed monstcrs devouring serpents. Armed with bow and arrow, serpent
slings and clumsy bone tools, these grOtesque creatures are also engaged in
battle with one ano!her {photos, p. 439, top}.
It is unlikely that such creatures were merely a product of the arrists
imagin3110n, or always based on fanrasti.: reports from dubious travelers.
In J.ccordance with medieval aesthetics, as first set out b)" John Scotus
Erigena, demons and monsters can also be regarded as expressions of
beauty. Even if their deformity means that the)" are not perft'Ct, demons
may nevenheless be considered ~re1atively perft'Ct~ creatures. They, tOO,
share in Mbeing,~ and arc therefore Juall)" God's creatures: ~Everythmg
which is takes ilS part in both good and evil.~ The idea of beauty is a
relative one, since there is an imperft'Ct as well as a perfect beauty. It is this
very fact !h:lt makes the monSH'rs so attractive: their aesthetic deformities
encourage the behevcr to seek absolute beauty in God and the saints.
These: thoughts were written down by the aforementioned Irish philoso
pher John Scotus in his treatise De divmls I.ornmiblls. T hey soon gained
popularity in church culture and were therefore worth depicting.
In addition, the so-<alled Mir3bilia~ boost a literary tradition which
can be traced back as far as the middle of the fifth century B.C. and the
Indian reports of Herodotus. Such reports from the east of miraculous beings
were recei>'ed not only from non-Christian authors. Christian scholars, tOO,
continued the tradition, amongst them the encyclopedist Isidore of Seville,
whose Etym%giac from around the year 600 tells of fabulous creatures.
He might well have referred to !he Natllralia historia by Pliny the Elder
which dates from the first century A.D. alld was known in the medieval
period. Pliny had included ;Ibout fifty fabulous creatures in his encyclo
pedia and had provided detailed descriptions. His treatise was certainly
known to the Frenchrnall Hugo of Fouilloy who was aeti,e in the middle of
the !wellth Century. In his own bestiary, he created a series of images depiet
ing monSfTQUS creatures half man, h.~lf beast: there are headless creamrcs with
eres set in their shoulde~ and faces growing out of their chests, followed by
Creatures with gigantic tusks protruding from thei r bodies (photos,
p. 440). Pliny had established a typology of the castern people based on
the fantastic reports supplied by tTa,elers through IndIa. He called
the creatures with the eyes set ill their shoulders ~Epiphagi" and
those with faces on their chests ~Blemm)es~ . The dog-headed creatures
were categorized as the MC)"nocephali~and the call1libais as ~Anthro
pophagi.~

Religious circles r.:garded the ~Mirabilia ~ as perfectly real istic, despite

the admonitions voiced by Bernard of Clairvaux. The monasteries still had
a high respect for the "knowledge of theanciems", that is the vast store of
knowl.:dge handed down from antiquity. For this reason it states in the
Acta Sanctorum, for example, that the Saints Christopher and Mercury
came from the Cynocephali people of the Indian mountains.

IDT A.";O IUGHT

"U{dlu.Sc.J~kob.
F~bu""'H"'~turu.

8(1.011'

"pst. plinth a",:o.

Ik "n~ Venand, cum ""bus.

In S01l1t' respls. slich ~:"llrablha~ can be St'en as approaching Ihr

SlIblt"<:1 of Iht' hfe and Passion of Chrisl via a ~mclaphorical bridge. WThe
besl example of Ihis clann is Ihe "Phys'ologlls, ~ the best-known and best101'cd besll:lry of Ihe Middle Ag('S. which goes back 10 authors from laIC
Anllqlllty.
The grey areas between scholarhnes5 and IInag1l1alion are dealt w'lh in
(he rncyclopcchas of the Middle Agcs. Th,s wa s neccssary in order 10
dlsl1ll8l1lsh the world of lhe crcd,ble and emp,nully I'enfiable from lhe
realm of pure fantasy. One of Ihe firs( empmcal works which can be sa,d
(0 approxlInate 10 strious zoology is Ihe book of hawks D~ Art~ ~n....d,
cum QI"bu$ (On Ihe an of hll1ll1l1g with the hawk ) by the Emperor
FrederICk 11 (pholos. rlghl ). In Ihe 1I1UodllCtlOn, Ihe aUlhor ~Frcderick II.
Emperor of Rome, King of Jerus.1lem and SiCllyW SlatCS (hat he spent thirlY
ye:lrs collt"<:ling material for his work, so that he could sho w ~Ihe Ihings
which arC', as they really are. W[n the year 1248, soon aftcr Ihe completion
of the sixvolume work, it was dcslroyed durmg ar~d confliCi. NOt long
after liS deStrUCllon. Manfred. Fredenck's son. produced a facs,m,le of the
codex whICh is housed today m Ihe VallCan Library 111 Ro~. E\'erYlhmg
wonh knowmg aboul hawks, kcslfe1s. sparrow-hawks and other blfds is
cOilumcd 111 thIS manuscript, along with mformallOil COl1Cermng the
breedmg and lrammg of dogs. Everythmg IS ,1Il1strated m detailed. colored
drawings. After tht decline of {he S{aufen dynasty. {he codex was offered
10 Charles of AniOu. The ,endor. ;I uadesman from :'lIbn, pra1sed the
manu SCript a$ ~ ... a noble work about hawks and dogs ... whose
adlm r3ble bl"JUly and significJncc II IS impossIble 10 exprcss in words. ~

Sou,,,,,,,,

haly. F~Iconry book of Fmknck II

(Manfred "",,,on). An,mal. and bords.
R~, 8.1>1. "posr. Val. Pal.l:a,. 1071.
fol.Uv

Around 1220

_
-_--- .-----.......
-------_
... --..----._-_._- ----------_..--_..- ....
..

=,j

.... --~
....

_1_-,,40

1 !i.., ...--~
-_.....
~

,a

'---

lUT I\:-:U ~IGHf

g"d ilook of H ugo of FOUltloy. Nonh_

l\esU3ry. Abou! wh.I<1. End of the 12!h

((mury. Oxford.lIodlclan I.,hrory, M s.
Ashrnok lSI I. fo1. 86v

W<1!~m

Fr"",. Bes"ary aao.ding'"

Phny. T.... o fohos "'IIh fan!aSliccr'3!urn.
Around 1280.
Malibu, Th( j. Paul Gnt} MuS("urn,
LudwIg Ms. X V4 . fol. 117 nd v

440

Brunn.... pu.1.~t. lbnruh'. p"'y-

"""'00900.
Panl, Bob!. N G'XC. 119,101. 41h

Book il1 umina lion

Ufe of Chrisl
Th~ Lif~ of ChrlSl, his miracles and hIs PassIon consmUI~ Ih~ mum SUblCCI
illuslraltd 10 medlcval codices. Firs!, Ihere are Ihe gospel bookJ or
cvangchSIUICS whIch conla Lll IlSls, cnher In complclc fonn or in SCCtloos.
of Ihc wrumgs of Ihe Evanghsts. h may be ask cd. howc,c.r. wha. pnnciples
govcmtd lhe dl slribulion of Ih~ scenes from Ih~ Ufe of Ch rist, smc~ il was
Importanl 10 avoid rcpetition of eithc.r narrau\"c or pIctorial COnlCnl. An
~xempbry model of th e succrssful organization of text scqu~ncc and
iIlustrati.c pictu rc is thc codcx of th~ Abbess !-Iuda of M~schede, known
as the !-Ilida Codcx.lt was produc~d around the year 1020 in all! Oltonian
scrip!Orium m Co logn~ (photos, p. 44 3).
In the Hltda Codc.x, th~ Life. of Chrost is nO[ arrangtd , " ; I Crclc., bill is
d,strlbuled oo . . "n Ihe four Evangel ists and, Imporla ntly, IS mdc.pencknl
of Ih~ gospel ICXIS. Th~ Gospelaccordmg 10 SI. ~bllhew, th~rdor~, Mgms
wnh Ih~ Tree of Jesse, but makrs no menuon at all of Ihe Annunciation
and the rresenlallon and con la ms only a passmg refe.rence to the Nativi,y.
Nevertheless, th~ artist pamltd these scenrs accordmg 10 Ihe respccti.c
passages in St. Luke. Only the scen~ of the Adoration is taken from Sf.
Manhew. Such an armngcmenl of piclures and tCX{5 from differenl gospels
l' made posSIble by th~ fixtd scqu~nc~ of Ihc Gospels and the v"ry sImIlar
story !Old about Christ by the EvangeliStS. T he Llfc of Chri sl therefore has
Th~

to be told m sccnes reflccling an equal usc of all fou r gospel stories. ThIS
means not only Ihat omiSSIons arc necessary, hUI also that combin:l.tlons of
Image and ICXt ha,e TO be created whIch arc mdcpendenl of lhe $lory told
by the E"angel,s' m question.
Th~ Ihlda Codex is marktd out by another peculiar iconograpillcal
featur~: the PassIon of Christ appeus only as a foomore in the scene of Ih~
Crueifi:.:ion, :and the e,.-ems after his dea th arc nOf Illusuattd at all. It IS
posslblc that the arllS. was followl1lg th~ Iyplcally Ollonian traditIon
whIch pbccd gr~at value on Ih~ representallon of Chnsts miracles. For
pohllcal reasons thc l1Iiracies cenal1ll y proVIded a more effcctl ve scenario
than the I'asslon of our Lord. The cholc~ of K~nes also suggrstS that it W;\S
Ihe artis"s inl~ntion to produce a complct~ illustration of Christ"s enure
hf~. The !,-ltrons whocommlssloncd the work were :abcne all conc~mcd that
Ihere should be an dfccti'~ presentatIOn of positIve Kenrs from Ihe Lifc of
Christ, Th,s v~w is further supporttd by Ihe layoUi of ,h~ codex, whIch 111
lerms of formal drsign :l.nd rypology follows the topoi of forms and Ih~mes
popular .0 Carohnglan and Byzantmc art, Scholars ha'c, for C1lamplc,
dlscovCred that the folio depictmg the ralSl1lg of the young man of Nal1l
c:an be naced baek 10 3 scene of identical desIgn .0 Ihc Carolingian Arnulf
CioorlUm from the Court School of Charles the Bald (a round 870),
Incidentally, the same Kene is eXe(:uted m a ,'cry SImIlar manner 111 th~
church of St. Georg, Obcrlell, on the Is)and of Rcichen au (around 1000).
Obviously, Ihe scenc is represented accordl1lg to a single iconographical
sia ndard, and IS proof of th~ clOS<' amsnc rebllonship bclween CarolingIan
:and Onoman book Illummallon. Such a standard can also be rcgardtd as
symplomalle of Ih~ MaesthetlC conmlerclal exploitallon of th~ Ch rlsuan
message of sa"ation, It is in tum a reml1lder of ,he Church's Slrong
IntefCSl m Ihe effccti" e operation of what IS now calltd public relations.
At Ihat tmle, CarolingIan and Ouoman codices were rcgardtd as
reliable sources of popular formal paflerns and monk vnam paru of
p,ctures showing. for instance, landKape forma llon" are qUIte cI~:l.tly
derovcd from cast Roman mim3turrs of Ih~ laiC classical and ~3rly
Chrl$fla n period. The smooth walls of earth wnh their little furrows, and
the hills rising up lik~ dough, arc tYPIcal featu res of the Bp.antlne
landscape, Both can be secn in Ihe AnnuIIC13110n scene of ,he Hltda Codex
(photo, p. 443, right). Standing m pallenl humllllY, ~hry is approached by
an angel whOS<' foot and wmg prolCCI beyond th~ Idt border of the picture.
On the wall of earth rising up abo,c Ihe angel we sec :I. city, probably a
reference to the ea nhl y realm of Ihe chosen one. ThIs styhzauon is dcnvtd
from th~ plClonal Id,om of th~ Byzant1ll~ penod. A simila r landscape
formallon pro,ides the scllmg for the depICtIon of -Hannah's Prayer(photo, left ), found .0:1. Greek ps.alter dallng from :l.round 900,
The an lSIlC outpLl! of th~ Olloman scnpt orla was :limed at a IImltcd
aud,encc, Th~ abov~ ~xamples show how popular motifs and design
clem~l1fs wer~ used to ensu rc that the s,1Cfcd message contained 111 Ihe
i mag~$ was expr~ssed in an unambiguous manner. Because Byzantine style
and form were the arstheticall y accepted sta ndard, the links 10 Byzantllle
art made a dccim'c conmbution to th~ I ncr~as mg popularity of contemp
ora ry scrlploria and the codices they productd.
W

442

Hild. Codt:><. CoIogn~.n.c "u.ingof It..

youngm.n of N .. n. Around 1020.
D'm"I..h, Hessl>ch~ Lan<ksbibllOlh~k,
Cod. 16~0, fol. 11$,

H'ld. Codex. CologM. AnnU"""lion.

Around 1020. Darmsl.dl. Uessl>ch.
Landesbibliolhtl,. Cod. 1640, fol. 20r

Spanish Apocalypse manuscripts

The Apocalypse manuscripts produced in Spain are a special feafllre of
Romanesque book iliumination. A whole series of different and conflicting
assumptions try to explain just why this exclusive subject-matter sh()IJld have
experienced such an incomparable flowering at that period and In the narrow
snip of Ch ristianity situated between Moorish Spain and the Pyrenees, as
well as in northern Spain. Perhaps it was exactly the remme narure of Christian
Spain, so isol,ued from the TeSt of Europe, that provided theclllnlral brealing.
ground necessary for such a development. Another reason for choos.ing to
give pictorial expression to these eccentric Biblical scenes may have been
the perceived threat to the Christian faith and the need to defend it.
These are, however, mere speculations. There is no evidence that
Spanish Christians were restricted in the practise of tlleir faith under Moorish

rule. If the issue of religious intolerance is in any way relevant, then it is the
alttitude of the Christians towards the enlightened Arabs that must be
examined. The Moors were, moreover, far superior to the Christians in
terms of culture and scientific knowledge. It also seems unlikely that the
much-ci[Cd phenomenon of Mapocalyptic fear Mof the imminent turn of the
mIllennium could have been a seriou s source of inspiration for such
subject-matter.
The isolated position of northern Spain at the lime was also .eAceted in
the extreme paucity of contacts to the humanistically inspi,ed courts of the
Carolingian rulers or to the scriptoria of the Ononians. The Sp<lnish
therefore concentrated on the limited amount of scholarly knowledge that
had been achieved in their own co untry. This manifested itself mainly in
the form of the Etymologiae by Isidore of $cville wrinen around the year

443

600. Thi~ wa~ supplemented by the commentary on the Apocalypse,

wrillen In the 5eCond half of the eighth century, by the Asturian monk
Beatus of Lu:bana.
This compendium is belter known as the Beatus Commentary. Aner
the Bible 1\ was regarded as the most Important source used in Spanish
scriptoria. In this commentary on the Apocalypse, the el<egetic wrirings of
the Fathers of the Church arc bound up wllh der::lIls from the cosnnc
speculatIons of Isidore of Seville.
The well-known Apocalypse manuscrIpt MCodeJ< Burgo de Osma
(photo, p. 445 top, right) IS full of illustrations yihrant with color. The
depiction from the year 1086 of the Mwoman of the Apocalypse takes up
Ihe subject mailer at Civate (pho{O. p. 431) which has already betn
dIscussed. BUI whereas the scene al Civate represents the fight against the
dragon, the Spamsh manuscripl shows how the angels throw the damned
mlO Ihe mouth of Hell. The serpent is secn threatemng the woman whose
baby C:ln be clearly secn inside her body. ThIs Illustration is unusually
faithful 10 another passage from Revelallon (12, 1-5):
MAnd there appeared a great wonder In heaven; a woman clothed with
Ihe sun, and the moon under her fctl, and upon hu head a crown of twelve
stars:
And she bemg with child cried, travalllllg III bltth, and pained 10 be
delivered.
And Ihere appeared another wonder in heaven; and behold a great red
dragon, having seven heads and ten horns, and seven crowns upon his
heads.
And hiS lall drew the: third pan of Ihe stars of heaven, and did CUt
them 10 the eanh: and the dragon stood before the woman which was
ready to be delivered, for 10 devour her chIld as soon as 11 was born.
And she brought fonh a man child, who was 10 rule all nalions wllh a
rod of iron: and her child was caught up unto God, and to hiS thronc. ~
The Mwoman of the Apoca lypse" IS Identified as Mary, and the male
child as Chnst. This poim has already been made In connection WIth Civate.
In the Bealus Commentary, the woman of the Apocalypse is interpreted as
Ecclesia and the boy as Mccclesiae fi lius," the son of the Christian Church.
Using thiS ver~ion of assignment, Bcatus wanted to make clear that
handing over the boy to God constituted a metaphOrical act of penance:
Much man who lurns to God w"h the full ardour of his hean. and
rises from the dead, as " were, through penance, Will be drawn inlO the
contemplallve life once: he has nsen from the actl~ hfe. ~
It is very revealing to compare these lines with a n Ottonian miniafUre
dealing with the same subject. Produced around the year 1020 m Trier or
on the island of ReIChenau, Ihe so-called Samberg Apocalypse contam$ a
folio that also depicts Ihe woman of the Apocalypse with the dragon
(figure, p. 445, bottom, right). The paimer rcframed from illustrating every
detail of the tel<t, almost as if he took for granted an educated audience
which would concentrate more on the reiigious idea rather than its
narrative development. Both the woman and the dragon arc represented as
stylized symbols. The obligatory architecture at the tOP right lacks any
thematic IlIlk to the subject of the picture. The bUlldmg appeal'$ more like
M

44.

a p;lddmg, son~hing to fill a void III the pictorial Sp;lce: and ensure :I.
balanced composillon. The Beallls Commenlary was widely read and
must presumably ha\e been known to both scribe: and anist alike.
NeYenheless, there appears 10 be: a lack of mterest m translatmg the
admIttedly romplocated situallon dcscnbc:d III the: text mto iconographical
form. Fu from bemg II1SPlrcd by a mere na,,e pleasure in narration, the
Sp;lntsh anlsts and scholars who worked on the Apocalypse manuscnpt
also anned at communiC:lung a paTlicular theologiC:l1 perspecllve by
means of the picture.
These manu~ripts relating to Ihe commentary on the Apocalypse arc
often referred to as MMourabic, Ma terril denotl11g the Moorish IIlfluence
quite obvious in Ihis illustration. Although, as IS well known, the Chmllan
Sp;lntards concerned themselves very Imle w1\h the culture of the Moors,
styhsl1c II1fluences did nevenhdess secI' through. The influence: of
Moonsh models C:ln be scm in the pages full of rich color and contraSt,
and 111 the Nsie colors of a golden yellow. a deep and glowmg red, and an
canhy dark brown. Some ooalls such as the $addles of the horses, some
bUlldmg fornlallOfls, and some robes arc also borrowed from the cultural
mIlieu of the neighbormg Moors.
The ArabiC saddles and gowns an: verr obVIOUS in a picture of the four
riders of the Apocalypse from an early manuscript (around 980, figure, p.
445, left). The rich bands of color were laId down by the artist with gre~t
skill in order to mdicale the spatial depth of the riders arranged behind
and above one another. Ju st like hiS colleague from Burgo de Osma did
later, he remamoo entirely fallhful to the text of the Apocalypse (6, 2-8)
and even followed the mSiructlons given on color. The fourth rider (below
right ), Mand hIS name that sat on him was Death, and Hell followed WIth
hlm,~ is shown 5111mg on a "p;lle horsc:~ Cl<actly as described m
Revelation. The first rider is described as slllIng on a wh,te horse, and M...
had a bow; and a crown was given untO hIm ...... Filled neatly mto the
comer of the picture at the top Iell, an angel WIth blood-red feathers peeps
out and "crowns~ the rider. The InclUSIon of such n:ahstic delail adds
viv idness and drama to the story of the four riders who come warmg out
through the first four broken seals of the book with seven seals, III ordcr to
destroy the world. It is quite possible that such a colorful and vivid style of
narrallon was actually encouraged by the -learned Ignorance" of the
amsts and their isolation from the cultural ce:nters of Europe.
Finally, Moonsh influences can also be detected m the: panned
architectural clements and in the design of fauna and flora. Some
Apocalypse manuscnpl$ Include Moonsh ornamentation as well as
stylized ornamental birds and plants. There are also a larger number of
churches built in typically Moonsh style that can be recogniud by the
restricted semicircular arches.
Bolh the: anists and the scribes workl11g in the Spanish scriptoria were
probably far more interested in Arab culture than their Christian religion
allowed. The rich variety of form and the iconographical quality of the
folios make the Spanish manuscripts appear superior to comparable works
produced in Ouonian scriptoria.

four

hor~mm

of the Apoc. lypse.

Around 980. V.lladolld. Cath<:<lul

library. M.nu,,",rip' of th~ Apocalypse,
fol . 9J

PAGf. 6U47

,~

Apocalypse of St. k.~r. Mld..,I~.~n,h

""ntury. Pari>, Bibl. Nat., Mx. 8878. fol.
108v-109

BU'll0<kO.m., Mu,""um of th.

Cath<:<lul,CodexNo. I,fol. 13 \v
BOITOM
B.mbrrg Apocalypsr. T,,~r 111. ~
woman of the Apocalypse. Around 1020.
Bamberg, S... tsb,bhothek. Cod. 140,
foI.29,

445

..-""T

os '-11' 1: ~

1, '-1 m

NOC'Y\l""f iL1.100 " fIS

,T'H'[;"iRN'-1S

1-' '''

, 1 0 'l11 llo ~T

1. U(,,().

Bibl, ItH)ralise", God.he f he.lMuura

world. Aroond 1250. Vi~nna,
Os.er..,,<h,schc Nauonalb.bIoOlh .. k. Cod.

World graph. S.u.burg. Aft~ n

astronomICal manuscript. A.ound 818

.h~

2554.fol.l.

BOlTOM

n.c ph.sesof the moon.nd ,he four

rkrntn.s. As.ronomo:.l-(:ompu"s,
coll""''''n. CoIo!!.n . AfOu...J 805.
Colngn... " .. b,sch. O,O>05On u.
Dornbihhodd:. H$. 8311. 101. 830. u.

8~.

ArIes l.,ber(J/es. It IS. therefore. likely to be a reference to the scientific

aspt(t which forms part of the Creator's work. But what is most important
about this concept of creation is ils ronstrUCl iOll' if God designed a plan
for the world before he created it, then Man sho uld be in a lX'Sition to
fa thom out the design and construction of this plan. Thanks to the
increasingly intensive devdopmettt and progress of scientific activity it had
become IX'Ssible for both scholars and craftsmen to acquire skills and
produce equipment and tools that ~nabled them at least to cOllstruct a
m<.>del of the world. All this happened during the first half of the thirteenth
century. at a time when the universities were reaching a lX'Sition of
monopoly within the state which gran te<! them absolute freedom alld, in
some ca~, even their OWn jurisdiction.
The idea of creating a model of God's work of creatioll in the form of a
pictorial allegory can be traced back 10 the Carolingian period. Such a
Mgraph of the world has been handcd down to us in an astronomical
manuscript from Salzburg (figu.e. above). Paimed in around 818. the folio
depicts a world scheme laid OUI according to the MTw shape gCllera l1y used
at that nmc: Europ<:. Asia and Africa are shown, together wllh the four
parts of the world, or points of the compass in the corner IOndi of the
graph. l lte medallions placed in th e spandrels represent the four elements.
The mea ning of the depiction could N interpreted as follows, MTerra M
represents the center of thc world and is surrounded by Mcosmie mailer".
the elements. The number four is the key to wl~rraM. The underlying
meaning is obvious: it is a reference to the (our Evallg~lists who expla", in
their wTl1mgs. the gospel books. the nature of God's creation 'l1ld its
message of salva lion through his son Jesus Christ. It was popular practice
to transfer th is world scheme to repreSCntations of Christ in Majesty. The
world graph is then replaced by a sphaira of SlaTS and a l1landorla with
Christ sitting on his throne in the center. He is surrounded by the four
beasts of th~ Apocalypse which represent the ~e1ementsM. the (our
Evangelists who are filled with the word of God.
Carolingian ambitions 10 figure the cosmos we re not only of an
allegorical but also of a mathematically scientific nature.
H

Models of the world

A F.ench manuscript from the thmeenth century, the Bible mor(JI,sie,
.hows on ,IS firs. page G<><l the F~.her bending down 10 m~asure . he world
wi lh a p.~ ir of compa~ses (photo, above). Hoidinllihe cosmic orb in his left
hand, he uses his other hand to place one arm of Ihe instrument into the
orb'S center in order to draw a circle. One can already rogni~e the sun
and the moon, and Ihcre is also a band of irregular and broken cloud. 11 is
interesting that the artist who created this picture vuy de li berately painted
the type of compasses used in the building trade at that lime. T hat type
was, incidentally, replaced in the se<:ond half of the thirteent h century by
dividers.
The pris<: cilaraeteril-ation and represctttation of the tool is a tribute
to God the Father the designer. the brill iant era flsman who did nor simply
Mereate" the world but calculated and planned it carefully. The compasses
are an attribute of gcomelri(J. one of the representa tives of the Seple'"

448

I"dore of SeYllle, F.tymulopu.

IltnNik,;""mlf, Gon"""ig. s..:ond lulf
of,,," twolhhuntury. V",nna.
ichischt N"fionalb,bho,htk. Cod.

o.,....

"
All astronomical-compmisl collecl1ve work produced ill Cologne in
805 conr:!.Ins ~ighl diagrams alld lexls relat ing to Ihe writ ings of Isidore of
Seville .Ild Ih~ of the Venerable Bcde {photo, p. 448, bottom}. The laner
IS conccme<! wuh the cakulatioll of the phases of Ihe moon and Ihe four
scaS<)Il$ alld also comains speculations aboul the COJlstruction of the world
which is held together by the four clements.
This speculative imerprelalion of the world as all evellt rela ting IQ the
doctrine of salvation and the attempt to repr~nt il in the form of
allegories or diagrams, undcrwcm a decisive change ill the treatmem of
Isidore of Sevilla'S Etymolograe. Compiled around the year 600 or soon
after, and produced at the suggestion of one of Isidore's friends, the Bishop
Ilraulio of Zaragoza, the ~mOSt impo.>rtanl handbook of the Middle Ages,
COlltained the whole wealth of contemporary Lmowledge in collected and
classified form. For the Spanish scholar Isidore it also provided an
opportu nity to g;lin access to Ihe knowledge of Classical antiquity ill tM.
midst of the busy cultural scelle of the Moors. Bralliio ediled Ihe work alld
published il ,n twenty volumes.
This "ery e"tcnsil'e work was written and illustrated by monks in a
scriploTlum In !'rUfening between 1160 and 1165. Of the original twenty
volumes only the first nine hal'e surviled. Another ~Isidore m,,"uscrip'w
(Bcncdiktinerstifl Gortweig, around 1180} coma ins a ske"h showing the
Spanish universal scholar, balancing a sphai ra model on his raised hand
(figure, above). In the lOp circle Ihere appears a small cross, repreknring
Terra, wilh the world revolving around il. According to medievallhought,
the planets, including the moon (LUII'I} and the sun (Sol}. revol"ed around
th .... earth. The divine cosmology of the firmament and irs planetary
movcmenl$ found concenrraled expression in the simple sha]J'CS of Ihe
circle and the sphere. Man felt himself 10 be pan of this system since he
W3S able 10 observe fhe nlO,'cmems in the sky. He therefore regarded
himself as an integral part of ,he SYSlem, of the plall of creatioll, and
therefore as a creature of God.
The corrapondence between man and the universe has its origins in
I')thagoras. It is thanks to Isidore of Seville Ihal this idea alw became
known 11\ Ihe high Middle Ages. The in terplay of world and man, of
macrocosm and microcosm, is illusnated III the system of Ihe so-called
~macrocosm man (photo, right). The model is based on the following
idea: Mall who carries God's creation wilhin him must be identifiable as a
kind of reflection of the world. Growing out of the tree of life, he receivcs
his physical form from God, or one could say he rcceiva his elementary
existence \'ia hands, shoulders and legs from th .... four elements, fire, air,
water and earth. These correspond to the four temperaments of man ,
namely the choleric, rhe sanguine, the phlegmatic, and Ihe melancholic
tenlperalnents. His head is su rrounded by the heavenly sphere in which the
planets rc\"Olve and relate 10 his senses: Luna and Sol originale from his
eyes, Jupiter and Mercury from his cars, Mars and Venus from his nose,
and Sarurn from his moulh. Tracmg the senses back to the characteristics
of the planets would be IQ go tOO far, although it is absolutely possible, as
the se,'en planetS do represent the seven ages of ma n. In th at capacity they
arc linked ro Ihe four elemenls as well as to the twelve signs of ,he Zodi ac.

Glossa" ... m Solomon ... Monastory 01

Pmlomng. Roprovn,ation 01 m.n ..
...necliOll of tho world. 1158/65.
Mumch, lIayeri..,h.t S,a."b'bl,oth.k.
Om iJOO2

The complexity of the medieval wncep,ion of ,he world tS tru ly

aSlOunding. One of the central themes of Ihe humanist philosophy of the
Renaissance, namely the harmony between microcosm and macrocosm,
was already being explored in great detail in ,he Romanesque pe riod. The
direction of thought is dearly Ih is: il might never be possible to look into
the workshop of God m order \0 understand the mathematics behi nd his
creation. Nevertheless, God has given us many signs enabling us to create
a symbolic or allegorical model of his universe.

449

Rt"hen.uIObc:ruli. S" Gturg. Wall

I",nn"g. around 980

ru.

The Gtu$Cnt dtmoIHac II)

Cf."-TRF.
Th~

Hoahngof 'heSd (11

WlTOM

The SlOrm on

r~

I.k. (3)

Wall painting: th e na rrative sly!.

Th e ~uccess i" e na"alive sl ylc in 51. Goorg. Olxnd llR eichcnau
The church of 51. Georg in Obcrzell 011 Reichenau is the home of one of
Ihe few narrati,. pictu re cycles on the $uhlfi:! of ChriSt's miracles to han'
su rvived as:\ com plete ~I (photos. on the left, and al$O p. 45 1). II belongs
[0 the 0110n;30 period 31ld is thought to have been created before t he turn
of the millennium. It was certainly painted by Rr1.3min(,'lraincd artists
who conllllued dICIT rr:wels after completing Ihelr work in Obcrull. $Q far,
no other contemporary wall p3U1lings even approaching Ihe quality of
rho~ in 51. Goorg have been discovered in the nnmedi;ue or broader
environs of Reichenau, This fact supports the doubts about the previously
memionw assumption of a school of paiming at Reichenau which has
bttn asserted again and agam but probably did nOt exist.
It is more (han likely that <I continuous palnled cycle runnmg around
the walls of Ihe nave was designed (rom Ihe very beginning as a nanati"e
cycle. With one single exception (the ~Storm on Ihe Sea of Gahltt~l, Jesus
enters each scene from the leil, Ihus estabhshmg the direction of reading:
from left to righ t. The viewe r entering Ihe space will also start on the lefl
side, Ihe norlh wall. There we ha "e firsllhe Gerascne demoni ac, followed
by rhe Healing of rhe Sick. Ihe Storm on rhe Sea of Galilee, and the Healing
of the Man who was Born Rlind.
The south wall contains the following scenes: the Healing of the Leper,
the Raising of the Young f.. lan of Nain, the Healing of Ihe Wuman of her
Issue of Blood, Ihe Ra ising of The Danghler of Jairus, and the Raising of
Lazarus from t he Dead.
The sequence of reading gives us some firSI clues about the
dramarurgical consTruction of the narralive. The fir.;l ftw scenes deal
merely with the casting OUI of devils, the lammg of nature, and Ihe healing
of t he sick. Gradually Ihe dIseases becolne more serious and finally appear
incurable. Eventual1)", ChriSI conquers dealh Itself. The miracles of Christ
have become an allegory for man's paTh through life, defying ev il, overcoming sin, and Taking part in hfe elernalthrough the sacrifice of ChrISt.
The active champIon of this scheme for salvation is the dragon fighter
and patron saini of Ihe church, Saint George, who defeats evil III
exempb ry fashion. The narrat",e can be reconStructed on two levels. The
first and most important lnel is represented by the performers of Ihe
action. The second level, a kind of Inetkle"d, is found III Ihe architeclUl("
which runs as a continuous band ~behtnd~ the frame into which Ihe
picture has bttn set by the aCll1al, const ructed arch ltccture. In This way. the
self-(:ontainw scenes are li nked with one anot her, and i n t~resti n g
associalions and breaks occnr. The seco nd fresco on the north wall,
showing the Hea ling of the Sic k (phOIO, left , centre), includes a building on
the right with a white wall IlIa de of ash lars. The 5.1lne wall can be seen on
the left-h and side of Ihe adjoining pictu re (photo, Idl, bollom) and then
suddenly stops. This is where the Sea of G alilee begtns. Also visible is the
boat which is soon to find itself in a storm and at the mercy of high wa ,es.
The whi le ashlar wall5 described above mUSt therefore form part of the
fortification of Ihe city which reaches down to the harbor.

450

1 "The G;n._ dnnoma.;:

2 TMH ... h.. ofthtSock
J "Thr 5101'" QII tht k~ of whit..
<4 TM It~~h .. of tht />'''n 110m IIhnd
5 "Thel lul"'softhtl .... per
(; n.. R.",nsol tht YounSMan ul Naln

R~nIO'-ll

5c.~,

U'allp.a.ntlngaround 980.

n.. I kaltn5 <.>1 ,ht W""",n of htT l\Ioody

l.iUC' 111

7 TlI('lltah"soflht\l'omanolht,

lll00dy ImM:
S Th~ R''''''8 of J'''u,', cloughl" .nd
lhe ROllonS of Lazaru.

Thus the lellons of Chrisl and his disciples rake place m d,{ferem spots,
although allltlthe same geneml area, Accompanll:d by Ihe observer, Chrisl
proceeds 10 ~rform his Intmculous healtngs,
A scene on Inc !iOUlh wall shows Ihc l!calmg of thc Lc~r (photo, p.
450. nllddle), At Ihe righI-hand edge of Ihe pl"ure. Oil<' notices a slender
linle lOwer whICh might ~ibly be a bell tower or a lower In the town.
The same lower. aUJelt somewhal Shorlened. ap~ars on Ihe lefl-hand Side
of the picture wlIh the Sea of Galill't'. This is presumably a way of marking
chaplers as reg.1rds subln:t maner: Ihe ~slorm,~ the ~ 1I13 n bom hlmd,~
and the ~Ieper~ arc allusions 10 fauh, orlgmal stn, and the forgiveness of
sin, respecllvely, On the boot, ChTlSI causes hiS diSCiples 10 be ashamed
(~Why are )'e fearful. 0 yc of litde fallh~R). With the ~man that was born
hlmd~ Chmt makes a st:1Iement about the eoncept of ongm.al Sin by
exonerallng all blmd people from sm, SIIlCC they wtll ha'-e thetr Sight
reslored on the day of tnc judgelTlCflt, HowC\"er, he reminds the doubling
PharlSCCli of the" own sms. In rhe scene of rhe Je~r. a man whom rhe I3ws
of Inc IlnlC dn:brcd fatally ill and fOf'Ced 10 remam outsIde the city walls IS
healed by Chnstthrough the unerance of the words: ~Bc thou clean!~
Tht' IWO rowers divide the whole cycle 11110 Ihrt'( pariS. The first part
conSISI$ of Ihe IWO plCtur('S dealing wllh the ~caSllngout of Ihe demons~
and ~dropsy, ~ Thest' of course represent suffermg Itt both bod)' and soul.
The sc.-cond part IS (Oncerned wilh the Issue of o n glllal Sill, as described
abo'e. The thlTd pan rt'presc'nrs Ihe 5(;enC$ where Chnst IS raising various
people frot11the dead,
It now becomC$ apparent thai the p3tnted archnt.:lural elt'mcnts fulfill
an Imponalll functton wilhtn the narrat,,'e, They structure the: overall
5Cenano accordl1lg to aspeclS of Ihe salnllon SlOry. At the s.anlC Itrnt rhey
lT3n5(;cnd, as II were. tnc boundaries of tht' aC"lual church archlll'Cture
bringtng the scenes together as a homogmcous chapler 111 Ihe LIfe: of
ChriS!.
Archltt.:l ure also serves as an Imponant means of aniculation wllh
regard 10 the dclatled narrallve Structure, Chrm IS almost always shown
emer~lIIg from a baldachin-like construction, followed by his di SCIples,
The baldachm with Its turned-up curtalllS proVides a SUitably digl1lfied
framework for Christ and his followers. Then he: would moct Ollt: or
somel1mes several people who are poslltontd tn fronl of a cily backdrop.
In thiS way two places whIch are planned In a chronologICal sequence. art'
brought mlO a chronological relationshiP with each other, TIll: piclure
Illustratmg Iht' SIOry of Iht' ~man who was born bll1ld~ provides a
partKubrly good example: of thiS kmd of ~archnl'Cture of su.:cess,on. ~
The young man ap~ars to emerge from a bUlldlllg. allows Chnst 10 PUI
clay on his eyes. and follows his Instruct ions 10 go to 51103h in order to
wash hIS e)'es :l.nd ga", his SIght. Immed"lId y 10 the Tlghr of Ihis partial
scene. tht' 53mt' youlI~ man IS depicted a 1-C'C0nd tllne. Nor o nl y does he
seem to have turned around, but Ihe bOlldlllg, too. It is ncow pbced
perpendICular to Ihe adl oining bUilding and Ihus sepa .... tes tW() chronological periods. The same narrallve 5Cheme can bot obser",!d in Ihe
~nultnn3te fr~o (pholo, above), Here II 15 Ihe: artlSI's cOllcern to put two
5Cenes whICh are mJ)l:ed up wllh one :l.l1other, e,'en 111 Mallhew's gos~l,

11110 Ihe sanll: sphere of a",on: while Jesus IS calltd to Iht' supJl'OSt'dly dud
daugltler of jalTUs, a woman suffering from blood)' I<;.SUt' IS reachms OUI
R
fOf" hiS garrtlt'llI: ~And jesus turned uround and healed her, and
Immediately wt'm on 10 dedicale himself to the lillie daughter of rhe
worned j3trUS. Th,s -tum"'g maneuver. ~ represemed by a change of
figureli. IS slJged In a "ery dramatIC wa)'. wllh Ihe buildmg sectIons
emphasi1.lng the two spheres of aClion.
The calculated interplay of figure and archltccture ach,evt'd pc:rfn:llon
at Rdchenau and wa s ne,'eT eq ualled m Ouonian painting, Even book
t1luStr:lIlOI1S deal ing wilh comparablc sublt.:t matte:r exhibit nt'lther Ihe:
narTat ... e drama nor Ihe sophisticated Interplay ben"cen figure: and
arehltccture prt'S(nt to fht'S( fTCliCocs. 111'5. morco'er. is anOlher reaSOll
why It 15 hard to bdic:ve Ihat works such as Ihe Gos~1 Book of 0110 Ill,
for ex~mple, or the Egben Codex were produced on the Island of
ReIChenau: their narTar;"e conStrl1Cflon USC$ simultancous images,
narram'e: scq"ellCt'S set to umformly constructed spaCeli, ~nd falls far
behmd the mastt'ry of the Oben.ell frCKOe!i. Indeed, Iht're are only rwo
sources which could be clled as modcl~ for ~uch a narrall,'e style:: the
Carolingian wall paintings of SI. Johannes 111 l\'luslJir (phOIO, p. 407), and
the Rrlantme mosaics of Ravenna or Rome. Since at Miisl air, toO, the:
lIy1.anl llle "'([lIence is vcry obvious, one I11USt cOl1clude Ihat Ihe lIyzant ine
codiCes were the true aniSlic source of the p1clortal narrati ve. This will be
dl5(;usscd further 111 the followll11: pa!lt'$.

4"

The Old Testament picture cycles in SI. s.. .. in

The fresco cycle m the ..ault of the mon;lSIrry church of St.Savmsur
Ganempe was pamu.-d 100 years after thai of Obencll. There is hardly
anythmg In common berw.-cn Ihe twO cycks. In St. Sa.. in the use of
archlla:ture as a structural clement for the- plClonal and narram'e
sequeno;es IS largely no n-Cl<IStenl. The SlIuallon, on the OlhCT hand, 15
formubted In a more viVId and figur:lll\'e manner. The figures art' more
dynamIC and are harmoniously inlegralcd mto Ihe group COmPOSIIIOnS.
This may well be a result of the lack of plctonal architecture, and also of
the fact that the arlists chose 10 depICt the aCfl(ms within a landscape
selling.
The first reacllon of a vimor to thIS church is one of confusion, 3S he or
she scans the ceiling in vain for a unified and logICal sequence of scenes.
The ..auh is di .. ided mto twO nonhern and twO southern seaions or stnps
(Stt dIagram on p. 453). The re:ldm/l. dll'IIon IS from west 10 eaSI, bUI IS
inlerrupted by erratIC lumps and aoout-lurns from one tnp of scenes to
11K< other. The dlagr.rm on page 453 not only shows the-; seq~no;e of the
Kenes but also Indicates lhe reawn for the mtricate nature of the narratIve
order. One is struck by the fact that, WIth the exceplion of tM, first thrff
bays m !he non hem Stion which depICt the Story of CreatIOn, the scenes
shown In rhr h'ghr<I_l'hCf'ti nn"hr.n ... ~re a .. ~ngcd ' rOIR w~' '0 e~S'
and then switch over to the adloinll1g highest wuthern SirlP where they
run from cast 10 west. There they connmle wllh the story of Abraham in
the southern arcade strip which ruds from Wesl to east. After that the
obsen'cr has to return to the founh nonhero bay 10 order to follow the
stOl')' of Moses as far as ~Mount Sm:"w which 15 represented m the
nonhern arCllde strip and has 10 be read m an nStern d"ection. With one
smgle u:cepuon -thai of the wu thern arc;rde trip - all scenes are laid out
10 be read from left 10 righl.
The reawn for such a wsnail_like w narratwe layoul IS a pragmatIC one.
It 15 known from documents that the decoralion of the ceiling was
supposed 10 be completed in lime for the consccrallon of the church.
Dunng the last construction stage, the pamlCr~ al ready bcg3n on Ihe
church and climbed OnlO the sca(fold ll1g where the bncklayers were still
plasICnng the vault, While the laller were slIlI working on the arcaded
sccllons of the ceilmg, Ihe artists began pall1tlllg Onto Ihe already plastered
apex area of the \';(Ull, After the masons' work w35completcd, the-; pamters
could then connnue theIr cycle in the arcade sea.on.
Only one scene can be regarded as a sImultaneous pICture, I.e. a pKture
whKh conums evcots that unfold m chronologICal sUCCC5$ion but arc
represented In uOlfied pictorial space. The scene depicts the creallon of
the first human couple (photo, p. 454, topl: God the Father 1$ $<"Cn bendmg
over the reclmmg Adam and removlIIg one of h,s ribs. Then Adam 15
deplclCd standmg upright ne,,' to his creator, listenlllg 10 his admonitions
and winking at Eve. Eve, who has her back turned 10 the Irte of knowledge, turns round and together with her husband leaves the Garden of
Eden afrer the Fall of Man, Twice the change or turn of figure OCCUI'$
which causes the breaks bet ..... een the sccn~ wlthm the unified space: the
figure of Adam .s depicted twice, 00 ra:limng and 00 standlllg up

i"

bchmd hIS own reclining image, and E..e mo ..es 10:.11 seml<ircle around Ihe
tree of knowledge. nus IS a typICally Byunllne system of narrallon. It
appeal'$ 10 thIS specific form prob;rbly for the first IIIne m the SO<alled
Vltnna GenesIS (pIlOtO p. 456, bollom), a Byunllnt manuscrIpt dnmg
from the- last third of the Sixth century.
With regard to the construction of the narUllve sequenc~, Byunllne
and Olloman style are very SimIlar. N,,enhclcss. an Individual ~wcstern~
slyle of narUllon developed whIch was IlluStraled, for example, m Ihe
Ollonlan frescoes on the island of Relchenau. At St. 5.1"111 SII11I13l1l1es wllh
Ollonlan frescoes and mimatures Me ohservable in lerms of the
comblll~l1on of architecture and figure. In [he cycle of Jost'ph whICh
utends along the malor pan of the southern arcade st rip , for eJ<ample, the
aerion of the figures is linked to the accomp;my1Og archllC(;lural clements
In a SImIlar fashIon 10 St. Georg 10 Obenell, The narrati"e begms wllh
Jacob who sends Joseph to "'SII hIS brOthers.. and ends wllh the triumph of
Joseph. Pans of the-; frescoes are so badly dal1klged Ihat Ihe accompanYIng
archllcnur.rl smp cannot alW;lYS be follo ....-ed. llIc story of Jowph and the
WIfe of 1'0l1phar is framed by lhe great vaulls and arches and the lillie
turreu of the archllectural sclllng. POllphar's WIfe IS sho ..... n makll1g
advances to Joseph and holdmg on to h,s garl1lenl as he is Irying 10 escape.
A h"l~ 'u .. h~. '0 .he lef., :tg:."n n:tnd".s ""n~a lh an arch, we $<!C her
handing Joseph's gown over to her husband and accusing the young man.
The narrall ..e SItuation is full of pIquancy: wllh her left hand, the woman
pomls to Joseph as he flees from her m the preceding scene, whdsl her
other hand pomlS to the gown already lymg on POllpharslap. Thus lhe-; he
1$ made dIrectly ~Islblc for the Viewer, bUI nOl. howel'er, for POllphar who
wllh h,s nghl hand points towards lhe pilson.
As III Olloman wall paml1ng, lhe role of archncnure herr 15 alw
desIgned 10 pl'e slruerure 10 the successIve Kmes - either by scparallng
connecrmg elements, such as j oseph ~nd Potlphar's wife, or by conncnmg
separa tmg elements, such as the woman who appears [WICe, and the
Joseph of the first scene:. Since the narrallve sequence does 001 follow the-;
read ing dIrection of Ihe cycle, the conllnuous succeSSIon of aCllon IS
broken up. The architectural features can therefore be regarded 3S mere
represtntative allnbutes of indI vidual e..ents,
The scene of "joseph mrcrprcllng the dreams of Pharaoh includes '"
magnirlCent example of city archlla:ture whICh is developed 11110 an exedra
$lml13r 10 the on~ already $<"Cn III C::Irohnglan minIatures (photos.. pp.
423-25). In front of the exedra, we !ice Pharaoh smmg on his Ihronc,
leJ.mng on hIS scepter and, head shghlly mchncd, hstmmg to Joseph'$
reporn. Rent forwards and full of lC'Verence, lhe laller stands outSide the
J.rchllcnural (raIRe. One of the guards lakes hold o( Josephs tied h3nd~
and points 10 the Phar:loh In a grand geslure. The followll1g scene,
~joseph'~ Advancement," lakes place III front of a similar cily scenario.
I!cre, Joseph cnlers Ihe scene from the left and lurns his back on [he other
Image of himsdf. which had jusl bn seen bendll1g over 3nd intcrpr~til1g
the I'haraoh's dreams.
As $Uted hcfor~, the narrall ve snuallon IS 3 complex one. The general
sequeo of the narration, the- ad ..ance from one pICture space to the neXI,
W

----~

I The: cru"on of,ht finna"",'"

2 1M crn,ion of Adam and F.w,he
F"lIofMan
3 Cam and AI>c.
4 The:murd.. of Abel
5 The: cutS(: of Cain
6 TIt.t ,,,,n.lalion of F."<.>eh
7 TM annUUllCtmcn, of lhe Flood
8 Noah',Ark
9 Noah Itav.. ,I>c ark
10 Noah', ..cnf"",
II The gral'" harves{
12
drunkenness of Noah
13 Animalsand
14 Theeu ..... of Can un
15 The Toy,er of Ilabel
16 God apptar. 10 Abraham
17 Abo-aham and 1-01

n..:

runs from left to right, that is in exact opposition to the direction of

reading,
However, the individual scenes depicted within each pictorial space arc
arranged according to the normal reading direction. In most cast'S, the
same applies to the di rection in which the figures are moving. In order to
give at least some compositional surity to this recursive narrative
situation, the painter constructed a conti nuous architeclUral strip which
servcd at least to indicate the continuity of the action and to balance the
interrupted flow of the narration.
T he vault frescoes of St. Savin should certainly not then be iudged
merely by their formal or narrative qua lities. The art ist's concern was a
different one: he had the task of represen ting the story of Moses:, from the
creation of the world until his death, and it had 10 be told by means of
selected and exegerically representative scenes which were to be
distrihuted alt over the vaulted ceiling. When establishing the na rrative
composition, priority was therefore given to the arrangemem of narrative
events rather than to the continuous narrative flow. Thus, popular subjecTS
such as the building of the lower of Babel, or NOah's Ark, were made to
stand OUI in specTacular fashion (photos, p, 454, centre and bottom), The
scene showing Ihe building of the Tower of Babel even turns into a kind of
visual instruction in the state The of medieval building trade: the roughhewn ashlar blocks are carried along on men's shoulders. H olding an
angle-iron in his right hand, we Ce an architect STanding on the tower,
about to take up a stone which somebody is handing to him. A mason in
the foreground is taking mortar out of a buckl"l. Next to the bu_cket there
is a cable winch used to pull up the container. Then, suddenl)', God the
Father makes his appearance in orde-r to punish the- workers' anions with
the confusion of tongues.
Set in a ce-ntral place within the vault, th is fresco is in distim;t comrast
to the olher frescoes, thanks to its light and spacious composit ion which
helps to relieve the often tigh tly constructed sce-nario, It is of iconographical interest that the picture opposite, its thematic ~connt{:rpan, ~ as
it were, shows the- curse of Cain who has just murdered his brothe-r. Thns
we- have- two representations of the curse of God: the fi rst referring to an
individual, an d the- second to;l wholc nation. It is perfectly plausible [hal

,=

18 Sodom and Como".h

19 Abraham's burial
20 Jarob$(:ndsJ~ph '0 Y'S'I his

brothers
2 1 Josoph" sold by his brothtrs
22 Joseph and the wife of rotipha,
23 Poupha,'. wife accu ... Josoph
24 J~ph in pr,son
25 J~ph imerpretli the drtam, of
Pharaoh
26 P""rauh puts lhe: ring on JO$(:ph '$
fing..
27 The tnumph of Josoph
28-29 Thee,,,,,,ingof the Red Sea
30 The p,lI.r of fire
31 llt,.,pilt..rofcluud
32 God honds the Ttn Commandmen"
to Moses

this link was consciously songht and exC"Cnted.

Another pop ular pictorial snbject WaS Noah's Ark. As was com mon
practice in the Middle Ages, the- artist who created this picture sho wed theark as a lateral ele-vation. Judging by its hull, the- ark is a Viking ship wiTh a
stem fortified by monsters, and a threc:-storey supe-rStrUClU re and small
whedhouse JUST as described in the Bible. It takes up the enti re picture
space. Animals look out through the round-arched wind()w$, and Noah's
family crouch above. Corpses float in the water below, while in the sky
above we see the dove hover, annou ncing the imminent end of the journey
and of the Stor m. All this implies that the ark has been at sea for some
time. Its passe:nge~ might even be about to look for a place to drop
anchor, for Noah's sons Can be sponed going astern and climbing about on
the stem.
While the- Tower of Babel formally relaxes the ove-rall design of
the vault paintings, the- pictnre of ~Noah's Ark~ reprcsenTS a ki nd of
~narrativc turning-point.~ It is a pleasure to spe-nd time before- the image
and take in the details, It is possible to identify the animals and to check
the ship as to its seaworthiness. Some- observers might like to establish the
exact moment in Time depicted in this biblical sea jonrney, and look for thedove's message. The man of me-dieval northern Europe- was not very
~spoilt~ as far as pictures we-re conce-rned. Biblical events apart, he- kne-w
vt ry lillie about the- world, althongh he had probably hea rd a lot about
strange and foreign things. Seeing a picture of Noah's Ark was probably
his first introduction to snch exotic animals as tigers, lio ns, o r tropical
birds.
The artists of the vaul t painti ngs seT great store on accompanying
anributes, This applies nOT only to the cityscape- described in the Joseph
cycle, but e<Jually to portrayals of medieval bnilding practices or the grapeharvest in the sce-nes relatiog to Noah. Morcove-r, again and again theviewer comes across plants and animals inserted into and betw~n the
scenes and functioning as attributes. At St. Savin, the story of the Bibletnrns into a concise: accoun t of the history of civilization of the medieval
world.

453

oPI'QSm:PAGE
St. s..ym",uI'Canempt. f'MOOcyd.. In
,h aul, of .he mona~to'l' church
~R

Tht,..,.""n of Adam and Ev.

CE....'TRE

Th. To_. of 1:1;0""1

IIOno.\!

No.Ih .. A.k

454

MQu' .. rC .. Dd .... l l)iblc.T",,,s. Scenes

r~ Ilook of Gtncsi .. Around 840.
London, Bn""" Museum. Add. Mo.

from

t0546. foL j b

Vltnn. ~i<. eon... n"...",le (?I.

Scenes from ,he 1If. of J3<oo. ArouDd
570. Vi.",u,
richi""he
N">on aibobl..,.~k. Cod. TIotuL c~.
1"'8. t4

o.....

lOp, on the left, Eve is shown standing IlextlO the trcc and reaching for the
apple. She !urns around and hands it to Adam. This figure turn, th is
suce<:ssion of scenes, is one of the standard themes of 8)7.antine picloriaJ
narrative. A particularly dear example of this can be found in the Jacob
cycle of the "Vienna Genesis.ft In a folio conlaini ng the scene of "Jacob
and the Angel, ~ the same angel figure is depicted back to back with
himself in order to bring Oll! mo~ clearly the drama of the fight in such a
brief sequence of scencs.
Th('" same narrative theme is also found in Ouonian book illumination
where it occurs in many variations. Only one example will be referred to
here, the Gospcl Book of Otto III. One folio depicts Christ lurning to his
disciples (figure, p. 457), and then turnillg round and kneelillg down to
pray at the Mount of Olives. The abrupt change in scene and time of the
act ion is marked by a small, delicate tree, In this miniature, simultaneity
and ch ronological succession are connected with one another in the mOSt
ing('"nious manner: Christ sel5 out on his way to the Mount of Olives. He is
followed by his disciples who take" rest by the mountain while Christ ~is
sweating blood and water.~ The artist wanted to capture the momem in
which Christ, JUSt before climbing the mounl"in, encourages I'eter to pray
so that he would not ~ led into temptation. Peter looks up at his lord
while the disciples arc already sleeping, an act iun that is supposed 10 lake
place later in time.
Inc bringing forward of chronological evems and drama"c sequences
brings out the mcss.1ge of the story, namc1y Christ's "dmon"ion and his
fear of death, a fear that remained unnot iced by his discipl es. This use of
limelap5e within the dramatic Slructur.: of " narrattve sequence is a
typical fealLlre of medieval pictorial narrative.
As we have secn, timelapse and figure change belong to the most
dominant narrative t<'chniques used in Ouonian book illumina tion.
Usually they are employed when it is rendered Ilecessary by the biblical
story, for example in the scene showing the storm on the Sea of Galilee.
Apart from the miniature in the Hitda Codex, there is probably no other
Book illumination
Simultaneous imagC$ in Carolingian alld Ollolliall milliatures
Reference has already beell made to the important role played by 11y7.antine
codices in the devdopment of the narrative style found ill Carolingian and
Ollonian book illuminalion. Without the iIlusrralions in !he "Vienna
Gellesis, ~ the !>Cents from Genesis in the Grandval Bible from lours
(around 840, figure. above) would not have beell possible. In th" cycle of
"Jaeob and Rachel, ~ the Ilarrati'e 5equene<: is strUClUred by means of
strips of carlh, groups of trees, and sections of buildings shown in
elevation. The differences are, of course, obvious: the dramatic and
impressionistic style that char:lcterizes the Byzan!ine modd, was
translated in the Tours manus.;ript inlO an incremental narr:ltive sequence
thanks to the clear layout of the pictorial Slructure. The strips are arranged
like lincs of text mak ing the "picture text~ more easil) legible. The U5e of
trees and figure changes as a means of structuring the individual ,;cenes is,
on the other hand, a typically Byzantian device. In the lhird strip from the

456

Go.pd Rook of Otto III.

Tr;". 11). Around 1000.
MUOICh, ~r"',b,b!",'''''k.

am 4453
I.UT

lbc: Sea of Gal, I..,. fol. I03v

KIGHT

Gt,h""mat>t.

depiCtion of the Sea of Galilee which does not make usc: of these principles.
We have already looked M the picnlre in the church of St. Grorg in
Oberlell in which this subject is interpreted in a masterly sryle (figure, p.
450, cemer). [n the miniature from the Gospel f:I.ook of Ono (figure,
above), the S<lrlle scquence of events was designed accordingly: ChrlSl is
seen resting in the stern of the boat. Above him we sc:e Ihe billowing sari
hinting at the imminent storm. Now I'eler bends down to him to waken
him. Next to Peter, on his righl.hand side, we see Ihe awakened Christ as
he calms the pale, horne<! gods of Ihe wrnd.
It is the boat which enstlres stich a clear sinllJltancity: simullancuus
actions depicted visually can only be IX' made 10 appear consecutive by
repeatedly depicting individuals or groups of people. The ~SlOrrn on the
Sea of Galilec~ therefore constitutes a special casc. Simultaneous space
always requires the depiction of a hornogeneous landscape, which in rnost
casc:s is articulated by hills, trees, or architectural elements.
In addition to its function as a stage sclllllg, the combination of
landscape and architecture also plays a narrative rol<'. Not only can it
scparate two successive scencs in order 10 indicate different poinls in lime,
but il also stretchcs the narrative now emphasizing the sequence of
aCTions. This means that one scene can be divided in such a way Ihat the
progress of Ihe action is illustrated quite clearly as an event happening III
time. The Golden Gospel f:I.ook of Henry Ill, produced around the ycar
1045, contains a depiction of the ~Raising of the Daughter of Jairus from
the dcad~. Christ and his disciples approach the house of Jairus who is
SI<lnding uUlside the door. He points inside, allowing Chrisl [0 enlcr.

fol.14~v

Christ is already engaged in raising up the girl laid out on her deathbed,
her eyes already open. The ISO-degree figure change exC(:uted by Jairus is
marked by the door jamb. Christ keeps up the direction of both his walk
and his gaze, as if he were already contemplattng his n<'XI miracle. The
inSide and outSide. or, the before and after, become langible by means of
the figure tum, by Jairus's rotaTion in the cerner of the composition. Both
architccture and landscape are mere aids for the representation of periods
in time.
Any event is defined by a temporal situation and a related spatial
s,tuation_ In th is sense, the biblical alpha and omega must be understood
as the cumbi naliun of space and time: at the end of all days, when time has
lilerally run Out, Ihe space is folded up. This is indeed how thc last days of
Ihe world are reveale<!lo John in his famous vision on Pattl'os.
The marty varialions and possibilities of represerning biblical eventS.15
successive action might, indeed, IX' .seen as allusions to this space-lime
continuum of salvatiun. E.lch event within the space-tmlc conllnuum
brings man duser 10 the throne of God. Pcrhaps it should nOlix> rrgarded
as a mcre accidcrn that the lime factor within p'ctorial replTSCntauon
gained such significance JUSt around the turn of the millennmm.

457

Tap"... ied< &y~ux. Ely >pec,al

""rm,."on of ,he Ci,y "f lUy~ux

,iN.

,h. . . ,her r..

N"rman ptOple
h"w ,h~ Eli,hop Ono 01 Fr."ing
",I,rred. on cha.mmg unders'.,."",n,.
'0 ,he d<s.:cnd.n, .,1 , he Vik,ngs ,n ,to.,
""ddl~ of 11>0 ,welf,h ccmury. In ,to.,
ele,."",h .,"",ury, ,h.y aOOndoned mO~'
of ,he" b.So<S ,n Sc.ndin ia and
concentra,.d ,hc" diM,. on !.Ou,hern
haly .nd S;"ilr nd Nor",andy. !Oday
part of north,, ..,orn Franc . Th. >'.. r
1066 $,:I'" 'he de."h "f 'he Anglo-Saxon
king F.d",.rd 'he Coof..""r. The crown
wa. rdosed '0 \"('ill,am, Duk. of
Nurmandy. who . .,. rel"iv .,f Edward.
had bn rtrogn, ..d b> ,he lan.r h"
"ghdol h.". In ....d, ,he (rOwn waS
glYen '0 Ibrold, repr""'n""'" of ,he
Anglo-Saxon n'''OIlal groups. There Wa'
no f.ar of attack on 'h, ,oland. wh",h
",a" afte. oil, onlr ",ochahl. by a .... ,d<
Slwch of ",..er. ,h~ Enghsh Ch.nnel.
wlli<:h served OS a b.",,,, from fa.off
Nor",andy. The Angio-SaxOfl' OO.ioo.ly
und.re>uma,.d ,to., 'rad",on 01 ,he
Norman ... who. ,n ,to., ".ry .."'" y.ar.
1066...med ,h.msehCl; ond let "If f"r
England o."'g ,!>e wc1I-,6,d -Viking
me'hoo."
Tooay w. a", /om,h .. wub almos' every
de .. il "I ,he N<>rman camp.. gn .g.. n"
,1>0>< Anglo-Saxon, ,,110 h.d brok.n
'hcir word. In IOn . ."her Qoccn
"'a"ld. Or g,.hop 000 of lU~ux
comm","olled a ,."""try
Ix made
",h",h 'oday me>sot'C1 220!tt, by aboo'
20 inch ... This unumal work 01 an
f.a,ur.. fift> ...
embro,ded sn~
relhng ,he $,ory .,f , he m,h,.ry C:I."'paogn.
and IS now k~pla' ,h. Muse., d.Ja Re,ne
t.blh,lde, on .igh'ttn,h,,,,,,ury bUlld,ng
Oil ,he ""mhern .,de of 'he c.,hedral of
1U>eux.
Th. key "",ne (figure, p. 1]8. bot,oml
.ppurs ncar ,he ~nd of
firsl Ih"d of
lhe "I""try: Haro]d. ,to., ,"vourue.,f lhe
AngloSa~on famon, " dep;",ed ,,,ear,ng.n .... , h hefo .. Wil!iam ,h .. he would
r..cogm'" h,m 05 'he "gh'ful k,ng .f,..
Edward, du,h. Hi, tlgII, h.nd is .... ing
on a r~loqua'Y' and h,s lerr on lhe al,.r.
S""ng"" ,he ,hron~ . word in !>and. ,n a
rul .. pose. Wilham ,. ",.,<wong Ihe
Q""h. The "cc"mpanying ,nser;p,;un
.ho.~
sc~n.
re.ds: "Harold
sacra"",n'um Ic.;i, WilIdmo duei." $.c,
.hov~ 'hi' ttmllOflial scroe i. 'he royal
Ix.... ,h.e lion. ind",a"ng ,h. fUlu
k'[\gdQl1\ of Wilham. A f.w $t>CS 1,....
Edward '. Sttn dy,nt;. "'tlh dull .nd "rCJ
~~, III. Shortly .f'~rward. H.. old "'
h,mlelf crowned King .,1 Engl:ond by
Archb"h.,p S,ig;ond in ,h~ p""'''''' of
,he Anglo-Saxon nob,lity. A".",loger'
.nnOune~ 'he 'p]><",all" of " rome,
IS

'0

,gh,

,h.

,h.

458

.bov.

wh;.,h " plac~d

Harold, palac.
lik, .n anOW of fire. A m..",ng of
bad I,d,ng ,he come, " r~k .. nc~ to
,he coun"f'"ac,iOfl 01 William. who ,m'
med",ely beg",s '0 prepa'e fo' h,.
'o .... '''on. He m.k .. " .... to he kilN and
\'ik,ng.h,ps '0 be built .Iong ,he co.1t 01
NQntlandy (21. In ,he 'OP .nd bur,om
",argm. of ,h. Ta"",,">. uneasy lookong
amm.ls ~ccomp.ny ,he 'Clion. Th~
viewe, con Stt how f.lled ,r........
SUtpped of lhe" bark, .pl". and made
,n,o plank, for ,to., .h,,,,. Then. wtlh
b,lIowong .. ,I "':',lh3ms flttl cros~ ,he
Channel .nd land. on ,he co." of
England (3). Th~ .n,mals ,n ,h~
accompanying margm. have .1"" lormed
,he",,,,I ... ,~to troo", and march on ,he
$,:Ime d'r"on .s ,he cooq ... rors.
Will,;m h,. ba .. ly moored dnd sen' 'hc
first ,roops to !<'OJ'" ,he hintc,l.nd.
w!>en ".., Stt h,,,, m.king ~nqu,,~ as 1o
,h e,ual whereahoUls.,1 Harold .nd hl$
army. The wid ..... , meanwhil~. set fire '0
3 hou .. from ..h",h 0 "'01113n n...., her
arm held up ,n .kkn""~ ]lCS,u .... nd
holding boy by ,h. hand. (<4). A
messenger corn.. chargong op wtlll
lo ...",ed lanee. ad""ng Wilh.m of ,h.e
approach of his cnemy. The conqueror
hd> al ..ady changed from h,s -" 'clmg
oulfi, ,n,o. magn,flCen, 'Uti of armour
romple ...... i'h " coal of cham ma,l.
h.lmet, and spurred 00<Hs. On horseback
and .ccon,p.nred by ,he ne,vou,ly
lumpong ito,," ,n the laJl<'S"y oorders,
Wilham "des I<)ward, ,he .i'e of ,he
OOnle (5 ) .... h;.,h ... Iready unfold,ng 'n
,he follo""ng s.-:e ..... N.,w ,he ,",mal ...
'00. become .CI,ve: ,h. 1o" >natches
..,me poultry. wh,le lhe woll stands
growling'l a goa,. AI ,he cI,max 01 ,he
OOttle. ,,," 3ni",.I. d,$,:Ip""ar f,om ,he
lowe. marg,n and make foom for Ihe
approach,ng .rchers. Ihnd-,o-hand
figll"ng b",.h oU', .... "h .",ord, being
r.ised and I.nees subb'ng 31 bod,.. (6).
W.1e<: ,h. fi." dead .",oog" Ih~ enemy.
,he.. mu"la,ed and he"dlCl;, bodocs
lumhhng ,o",ard. ,he bonom ",argm of
,he ra]><"ry. The battl. " "'011. and
"Harold rex "'''rlmus ~,." An arrow
",;k.. ,he ey~ of ,he Engli.h king. He
stumblcs. A Norman horseman comes
ch.rgong up and butcher,; Huold w'lh
his .",ord. The lower ma'S,n of 'he
U]><S1'Y shows ,he defea,ed putt,ng 'hcIt
weapons on ,he ground. Some .'"
Stripped of ,h~"eoa .. of ch.", maol.
The nar""i., slyle of Ih,. u"'que ,,n<k of
arl follows ,he mudd of By... n"n.
codic ...
The 'ndiv,dual Ie'!uenc.. of ,h~
.ucceedlng ",'enlS .rc separ.red by me.ns

01 5f)'h.N I.ndscape 10.m.l1on. and

"rch ..'ur~1
<kmenn.
F".
f.om
Imerrupting 'he nU.am'e flow. ,hi.
dr"K' helps !<, kp It gOing. IlnC< the
"hap" Qf bUlld,ngi. "res or h,li. a..
dfcctlV, "".. ura. .nd POint !O the
fQllo"'"'g SCene. One uampl. of ,hi. "
,he scene ",he.. we oec the sh,pof H old
returning '" England. h '. ,t..."ng
towards. palacclih building wi,h a
b.lustrade on which an Anglos..~on
man In fyp"'al lookou, po .. annOun"",
,he atrlval of H3fold. Th. fo.mallayoU!
of ,he whole of ,he !Openq' is in8.noously
u!.Cd !O p.o.idr both the compos,,,on,,1
p"nclple and na"a",.. 'Ir""'n".
The U... of S<'<ondary n3rration In the top
and boItom ma.Slns uf ,he .. peslry IS
"I"" ",ma,kabk. Tah" f."," an AngloS"xon coll""tion of labl ... ,h. dep"'"o",
of the .",m.ls may he intC'p",ed a\ the
.ymbolic p ..... n "on ol,he p.;""ip"1
aClton. Whtn the ba"l, .."he, II>
d.ama,,,, chmax the anlllUl, dIsappear '0
make '0011'1 10. ,he ,u,moil 01 ,he
battlefield d"icc which undoubtedly
undo,Ii"". th. ';gntf",."". 01 tht conAocl.
FUlally tlu: fo, mal desIgn 01 the uJl"'try
~uld be c""s;do.e<!. To our .yn the
figu.es appea. ungaInly In ,I>oi.
clongallon. "hll, !O wntempo.ary
I;',.,e.. ,hey ,.,wld ha,', bttn undrrstood styit.tic drvice denQung
elegance and nohllny. The clonga"""
.lIowed" high dcgr... 01 move",..nt and
v.r .. ty of g<>w", MQffl),'.r the", I, a
'endr,,,,y 1O",,,,d. dop"'t"'!; Indil'idual
leatu.es - thIS i. p"rt;';ol"ly app" .. m III
the draWing of ,h~ phySIognomy of .he
maIn cha<acte1'S. Edward. Harold. and
Wilham. 1>1."y indIVIdual scen"" slOCh u
a h.nque, 0. , he <lepKt;"n uf a .ule for
exampl., follow .he then custom.ry
11'10,,1$ f.m,l,.r from book IllumInatIOn.
The fo.w3fdlaeing rul., a.,omp.n .. <1
by both K<:Ondary secul., .nd rehglou.
figures und .. an arch""",u,.1 b.aldach,n
may be understood a. a ",.Ilknoll'n
lormal.iwrwgraphi'al '<>p<>s. The ban .
quCl t> n~arly alway. a yarta,,,,,, 01 ,he
obligatory -\1:'.d<lmgol Cana.~
n.c 'apeS"y may be Interpreted a. 3
poh ...,,1 """nlk.IO. h. d",'gn "'...learly
e"abl"he<l 110'" a NOli",,, persP<"<t;'.
Th. voc.ory at the Banle of I-la.ungs on
October 14, 1066 IS glorified. and wllh II
the p.",eipal cha."'ter, Willl.m .he
Conque,u,.l)uke of Normandy aoo Kmg
01 Englan<i.
The story 01 tn.. tapeStry n........ not
only the 'Wr$( 01 h,Stor" evenn or
dnail. 01 .ultural h.Sto.y, sueh .. tht
co.onat;on ceremony, h .Iso tncludes
<veq-day n,. In ,h.. mlng subsIdIary

SC<'n.,. whICh ... skIlfully in, woven

wllh th. main subl" The vicw
W, ........... 10. enmple. ,n.. p"pa,,,,,on
and "''''lng up of chICken.
on the
SP" -. good oppotlunllY '0 ha,,,, look
at the ;111..,'" and Impl ..... nts 01 a
mcd,,,''') k,t,hen. An"'her ,n.. rlu<l.~
,hoWll how the ""nIp of Hast;ng. w"'
bUll!. TWQ 01 the work"..n are ongagw
in an argum.", whIle ,he ",he .... and
about <lUlng n",h'ng. They only bcgln to
work when Will"m appeat1 on the
ocrne.

",.",J

459

s. .. "w glass "'lnd",... of ,he Monas,ery

of AlpirsMch. S.l1U<>n ",uh 'ht cIty gates
ofGaza. 1180-1100. StUtlprt.
Wiirllemlxrgisc,,",1..andesmu ... um

Staint<i glus windows

On. of the dtvriop"",n tMt mark .1...tnd of Romanc-sque art is .he II ... of
srntntd gl.ss. Tht dIaphanous "rueture
of GoIhic archnc<c.ure resul.cd In ,I...vtnual elimination of the COIltinuous ",.11
sp.ce. ond thus Iht "",tn vehicle of
1'1<10".1 rep...,..nu.;on u...d in R""",n .
esque p.tnung. Tht compoct ",.11 sp'''''
of the Romane[ue peflOO wos trans
formnJ tnto. lueid system of pilla" and
wiOOows.
"Tht ne'" pril>Ciplesof compooluon c.n be,
oh ... rvN In .he s'al""d glas> wtndow of
,he Ablxy of Alplrsb""h (photo. right.
top). Staln.d gla .. wiOOow . r<:hnology
"'qulttd a smn Struelur. of both o'c,.11
piclU'" .nd dt",l. Th,s. In 'urn, ""_
manded clea, .n.. ula.ion of both 11"'and figures, and an ex",1 Imca, dtlimiT.,ionof "".all. The p>c.onol .p.o"< of
Ro,""nc:squ, .rl " brok.... up In,o
<olo .. d ,haPc5 "",tn!5n' of mosaic.
As ill.,... il$ .pattal dtplh iTlu,ns into a
me .. orn."",n,. 1 p.... rn In relation to
tht aCliott. "Tht principle of .h.
ornorncn 1 desIgn of ,hc figure spa"".
and Ihc emphaSIs of ,he figu .. ",,,h,,, ,h.
dc.:or
"rueIUIt. bc-comes Ihe ""mraJ
,he"", of 'he Go.h .. """"d glass win _
dow .00 .he Guthic min ... ture.
"Tht fir>! GoIhic >I'''I<d gl... w,ndows
(pl>oto. "&h', boltoml "'cr. "eated in
Pari._ S.in.-Dtnis. .lmO$' 100 yeari
Ixfor. tho cnd of ,he Roma""sque period
tn Germany nd about forty y.ors pnor
to the ...ork in Alpirsbxh . "Tht differences bet ...een .he 'wo examples are
conSldor.ble: wh.le s"moon "" In a
.poc< dtfined by "",an. of arclutCClllr.1
clcme"... nd wall, of earth, ,ho figu<C$
tn s;'tnl-(Hnt< a", ""<gra,ed in.o :In
orn.""",,,II"Uom ... hich simultaneously
aCls .s
and as 0 .. h.dt to
coo,oy ...... u"S.

.It,.

d""'It""

SainT- Dnu._ Mon."el)' church .

mbulatory. Signum Tau from Ihe los.
Passion window. 1140-44

460

Appendix

.....

0 6"

".

"'"

'.'"' .

" OJ

..,

Politi("al map of Eu rope during the Romanesque period

_.-......

,, , ,

KlNQOClM Of' f RANCE

Coo..wl1y 01 Blois

Duchy of Brittany

, """'
,
,
,
""
" ""'" " """'"

_.

County 01 An;ou

County 01 Tounoine
County 01 PoiIou

0ucI1y 01 ....",
AquItaioe

"""'.County 01 Toulouse

Ouctly 01 Borgoocty
CounIy 01 ChampafTOl
CounIyol~

County 0/ Artois

462

,.n

......

HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE

"""'

_."""

Ouctly 01

s.a.~

Duchy 0/ I'I>rner1IniII

"n" KlnIJdom
"'""
",., """"'''''''''
""
""'tria
"

01 BoIlemia
LandgraviaWo of Thuringia
0ucI1y 01 ~ Lorrar.e
Duchy 01 Upper LomW'oe
Ouctly of FnInc:onia

Duchy 01 Swabia
Duc:hy 01 &av.rIII
Duc:hy 01

,,,,,

_._._.-

Ouc:tty 01 StM<ma ....

0ucI1y 01 Klmten
Marchu 0/ v.ron. and

""
" ......
"'" """"'"
"
,.""
""

Kingdom 01 ArIes

DI.dIy 01 PJOYenCe

Ouctly of T'-'Y
Romagne Mel P8otapoIis
Papal Stales

""
""
.,""
""
"
U

_.""'"

0u::fIy 01 ' * - 0

Duchy of Salerno
KIngdomol~

KIngdom of "''''"''''''
PmdpPIy 01 EdesN
PTtncipaliIy 01 Anlioct\

County 01 Tripoli

Lac;, Kingdom 01 Jerusalem

KIngdom of Cyprus

Maps p. 463-65: Romanesque centres of an for

architecture, sculpture and mosaics

,
1

<

--.

.-

t;;j

,,

,,

,,

v-

463

li'
\~
r

<

"

<

hWl! I

<

.,
,

,
,

.!

"

rJ I.}!

t-j

in!' ~

I' ~!

II I

<II(

&>
+.
_'- ....F.- _..- .
.--'
_.
-

<:l
2

-.
-,.-.
_.

(?,

~.

"

,
"
2

I ,,,, . r~

465

Glossary

Abacus, 115ually I<lU~"" "l'ptrrnQSI

Barr,,1 vaule. wml'i:ylmdncal vaull

O<:reslOry. lhe hl"nOr wall of a nav"

1"" of a c<>p,tlIl.

... nb ,,",nil.! abullnm", and of

(q.v.), ahowe lhe ""'el of lhe IIsles

CORSlam cross-Kcnon.

(q.v.), ... "h WIndows.

Ac;;ullb..s. a thlilk.hkc Mecilleruoxan

plam whoK KTUtW 1cJ,'-(:$ WCft: ,flc,
ITKI<kI f.,.. Cor,nth,an cap""I., and 1$
often mod,focd and used as a
~ora""f

mOflf 00 Rom;tnesq,",

feuu.., In It.. I... n~

OoKtCT. quadnla ..... l enclosure

used In .h.. book, a r:tangular

surrounded by cov.red walkways. lhe

huilding with a dellnlte ori"manon

Ii.. sy""..r",,1 .bo<Il 1M

nIl'(: of a~mlfy fOf lhe inhabltanu of

Iongttud.nal .Xll onlyl, """"'''''A of"

cenl..1""..., (q.... ) and sode aISles Iq ... )
s.eparaled by coionlUdes, wnh or

~ .. p'Clk.

Aide. the lick of I na,'( tq.,'.,

sep;truw from 1M nave proper by
colonnade; by el<,ensl()t1, I ,amiJ~r

Bu ilicoc, In.he arch"""" ..l sm,.,

a monal.lory.

CorKha. JcnII-ofOlla. nic:hc wllh

sc:nu-domc:, u~ually all<:d an ~p$t.

wulco ... a ".n,.,pI' (q,v.). Cf. Gmttal .

plan.

Iq.. ) or chQ"

Conwle, ornamcmal brack ... Ihal

pro,ectS from.he wall; alw ""lIN a

Iq.v. j.

Bay. a ""ul,w d,vISion of a"".

Ambubl"'1'....o.I"""Y around , ....

a..lt, clw:>cr Of IranKpC Iqq.v) alonJ "'

Iongcrudmal u.s.

"""".

clloi often I COIlllnUJOOn of the SIde

Ilsles of the nave. Cf. Radianng

Bifori um, wmdow d,v,ded mto two

Cros-ing, Ihe area of. church where

dupds.

arched area. hy a CftIlral ooIumn.

lhe IUve IIlntfl'XCled by.he IT.cacpl' .

Crypr, underground chamber bcn<:a.h
.he alIa. In. church, ~uallr
conlainlng a sa.m'. relics. Though ,he

Anlcpmdium, or .lln &ontal.

Blind (arch.. arcade), an arch or arcade

omamenlal oovt"nng for the froot of

wnh no opmlng. usually as

an alur. ong.lluUy made of ~abrlC;

<kct>ral1Or1 on a wall.

laler pMhICW In stOM, wood,

preciou. metal. or tnamel; oftm

.;onl<"'ns figurlllv( or Iymbc.toc

CaIO'lle, lhe ,"I"nor of a small dam.

or donucal uull.

"""'~.

Capital. lhe head of a column.

Apocropaic, oblect, picm", c>. symbol

chamber I. undernea,h the (hOI" II

an I>OInc l11J'1e1 ""U1KI as far a, .ho

CI'OOA"I- 1111 nor always complcrdy

_.ron

ul'ldetground.
~lrar al'(:

Cmmolplan building, buildmg

evil; 'mporunl le;>,uR of

symmrtr",al about'" ennral po,nl,,,

weK

Iq'resmtal ...... ' of an,nuh I .n<!

Untralplan buIIJ'R may be round.

sqcure, poI~1 Of CtO$5.sJu,pod. Cf.

and chocr.

B.:u.lica.
ApR', a seml-c ....:ulu Or pol)1:onal

v.ulted
cburch.

."" b"h,nd 1M aI,,,, on a

Archivol.,

'.'Tie<! on

moId,,, around tho I:ace: of

an arch.. oftm omamnual.

Ashlar, hewn Or squuw
Slone facing.

result. vc:ry .mpraslvo n,ghts of ""fIS

some nmes budllOconl1'l IUvf

Dendrochronoiotly, lreenn, dmng.

IIl<:lhod of daung.he age of .Tttl by
the number of .. ngs. The varying Ir

Chaned. Imerchang".bk wuh ChOl'

(q.v), JOIl'InIn>e:J, the area In front of
,hoalllL

growth in dry and ""'" rnn .... 1dl'S

unCYen roanT nngs; because of .h,f, 11

Chcyec. an apioe (q.v.), typICally ... nh

" poss.bk .0 "'" IIffS gro"'r1 OYCT I

penod of II..... In lhe same ,lImal"'o

A... idiok. $I1l311 lpfC'-hke ehapd.

Aradc. a senes of arches
PIC" Or columns.

lha. the choir and

considerably

hIgher Ihan Ihe n",'o and alsleJ; 1$ a

uK<.! prunanJy in folk an to WOJ.d off

demons on ROfMnes.que Irt.

aD

ambulalOry (q.v.) and radianng

produce a 5filuc,,",. of "_"ngs. This

d"'pds (q,v. ).

In .urn makes

II ",,"Ible: 10 da.c.he
..'00<1 used In bu.Id.118S pr'!lCIT.

Choir, Inm borro"'ed from ClaSSIQI

Grttk ,ho.l.r. used In Ch'WI1.n

archllecture to reltl" 10 lhe arca a. II'M:

Domial Yaull, a domelii nult wllh

deasonal and Ir'n$verse nJge

tlbs.

used mainly In , he Lu. Rocmt>e:squ"

"nJ of Ih. n,v" whlCh.s rcsI:rYw for

.he d,,"lY o. monu, and whICh
con",,,,,,.he al .... ~nd chov .. alb..

architecture of JOu.h~ fn~ and

the "'esl sode of an Eatly Olnsnan

,hutch, onguuUy 1M opm omlral

Choir Slalls. Ii,., rows of mppod sc:.",

Oonjoo!, CftIIt.I 11, AronS 'OYol" In

on ('11M' SIde of.he choir, faCI",

Frcnc:h OIlS.1c:s whICh. unhk".he kp.

for,",oun of a Roman hou;;c, d.

inwards, for Ihc u'" of thc dcrgy.

S.OIIO, Of

Wdfph.ol~.

Atrium, the colonnaded foro:oun on

Gahltt.

466

was desIgned for perman"".

tc..bllallon.

Dorn\ilory, lhe room wh.eff monks

slept In monasl~ Ind l.u~t. when
md,v,dual cells w~re ,mroduced . ~
.nm was apploed.o Ih~ bu,ldlnS or
floor ",hod! comained lhe ullt.

loonosnp/ly, 0."'11<111,,1 ... dliC.plo""

COtlCfrned ... IIh determ.tn,,'i CIaMlCal
ponralls. In an hlSlOry, lbo,
researcllinS and mlerpren.l~ of the

MaDdorla. aLmond-sn,ped styloud

Profile. JIJOO of a bu,ldmg tlemml

glory of Ioglu enclostng ucud figures

such as a tob, Jamb 0. cornOCf.

luch as lhe enthroned Ch'''1 or

Madonna.

oonll'fll and S)'mbohsm of Ikpocted

Pu ller. a book comaonm8.he t~Xt of

UO Old Tesramem psalms.: II ., an

Ih~

ob,rcu..nd III p>"lCUlar, Chrutlln

Meander pallmo, or Glftk key

lho"arf p1Iery. a low Ienor PUJaSO:

poctuu lhemes; an Importanl fnlUU

p>rtem, a oonnnuous

hI by an fquaUy low arndt. 1U5I

lS.he consKier-lIIon and usearchmg of

conSisting of Iones luml"''' nghr

$uch uillanlt$ and mltrprt!a!>ons

below the roof of a buM,", and

literary IIOOrces m ph.IOSoo"hy and

Ihcology, whICh influen.ced Ihe vanous

Ingles 10""" lno{he .

the Old Tesla"",n!. QcQslOl'lally

mOllfs and .he way They were

Nanhcx. the sin81~lro.ey porch of an

Early Chml;an church.

usually ,n the apst of a church.

Enaaied column, a column embedded

deplC1ed.

ot'tUmcnt

,n a wall, no{ flft-5tand,"I'

01

OOITU""n!atles 0' interprtr.toonl of 1M

Ntw T.-su""'nt are addtd.
Rom~nesq ...

psallers and the ..

,lllKlrano'" are particularl" ""portanl

lmpoa,

III

church archottaUre, The

Nue, lbe area

a.

balJ8d!." or ~I book,.
IIIurpcal book C.... ndwnllm In II",

cowv of ..""" the lop of a column

or polastt. from whICh the an:h or

M,ddle AgtS, p.,med lalnl ~ontaln'''I

vaulr spnngs. and which fl'lnsfcrs

III

the complele leXI of the Gospds.

welghl 10 fhe columns or brICkwork .

Ennso:IJa.ies are among the most

.... lso: Voussoi .

,mpn;ss,y( examplt$ of ."w'cval book

,Jlummalion.

IntradoJ. lhe mner face of an arch

0.

01. church between

sources of Informanon for

the ~de and CfOSSlll& or chorr,

undersTand,ng.he symbolic COII'm! of

'peciflClUy he anll'lll Imt bnwttn

.he aisles (q.v).

med~vallrchlteClUn.1 K"UIPfu~.

Nimbus, 1M disc or halo, usually

from the ambulatory, and arrangrd In

a ~m,,,,,,,cuJa. fa~hl()fl.

Radi~.in,

golden. behond.he held of a U,nt: the

halo somcnmes con.. ,ns a cross.

hena: cnociform nimbus.

vaul! .

Fraco. wall ~innns done wllh

I'lsmmlS suspended In W;1ler, whICh
a.e pa,"~ 01110 wn pla$ler; lhe

Jamb, the pan of I wall (d. ReYeal)

lying aT an angle

10

lhe lides of

p's"",nlS au uniled !",.ma""n!!y wllh

windowl or ponals, frequ-emly

confllinmg columns

0.

na,tuuy wnhon

chapeH. cha!",11 leadIng off

Rd'Klory, dtn'ns .... ll

normall,

the plaster as lhey dry.

Octagon. e.ghl-IJded cemral plan

building, or any buiJd,ngwnh eight

III

III.

lnORI'Ituy,

the otenon of .he dOISI"r

oppmlle.he church.

lides; occurred frequently on lhe

Rdic, mOll3llTmams, or belonging!!.

Middle Ages, not IU" on archlteClUrt

of a Ulllt.

but also In .he old'S" of c.owns, as

each slepped area. Cf. POrlal.

Galilee. a chapel or porch at
emn.ncr to a chureh.

Imponant prayer book III monIsteroes

and iffq...... t!y conlaUU: add,!>on,

"'pt wu corwdered 10 be a perift;!

1M

number.

Respond, long II<1troW ool"mn or

enpgrd column, rnaJIIly JII GothIC

c:astles, u5<'d a, an ob$nv:I non ~

and last ref"", for lOOse IoY,ng ,n lhe

(kuJu., a small c,rcular open'ng

arches and nbs of grOIn vaullS or lho:

mbune, runnmg alonS.he lOde of a

casTle, and. unloke the don ton (let:

admllllRg light a he rop of a dome.

profiles of arndt arches.

bUilding and open on on~ Side 10 the

IIlTeno.; In a church (Ns.hcal above

p. 446), 001 deslgnw for I",rona""m

Kp, rail. $ItOn1to..-".

Gllluy, an upper Slorey, JJm.lar

10 a

III

med...... 1

habnallon.

archllt\lK, which suppot1S lhe

I'cdimc11I.

gahlc suppomd actually

the side IIsles, over d\~ ambulalOry

(unullplan mllldmg) Ind allO over

lean'lo roof, a "",,Aded pnched roof

.he ..nt md. '!'he gallery w.. u5<'d to

normally anaehed

kp "lin grotJps of ..-ooh'ppen

bo.llld,,,,"

lmk,nS a round dome or

Lntne, 0.

supporn", drum
belo.....

a~n

or app.;arendy on columns.
10 a

h'f,he. wall or

(wOOlC'n, noblemen).

Guat Ha ll, mam hy,ng qUlners of a

castle or Imperial palau.

pllul~r

smp, a yerlical

strip deslgnw 10 6"~n8Ihl1l a .... all;

.... 5 no base or capllal, a .... J in

R~.able,

altarp,ece, an a nlsllcally

decorated back

~""llhat

.,

permanently anached to rho:

alf~',

PmoimliYe. curv'ng Ir\llngular area

10

III

lhe square sp.ace

ReY~:aI.

the p.;an of I door. lreh or

" 'moow lamb which lies a. an angle to

.h~

wall.

II

Romanesquc: architecture lescnes w~re

PiIaSltl', a rectangular or polygonal

p~r used hnwttn doors 0. w.ndow.,

Rib, I $Iructural mouldins of 'ault.

not al ..... ys v,s.ble beau...., II 01

G.oin vaull, Iype of "Iult,ng cau5<'d

often conllft;ted 10 each od",. by

which, like I column, has I base and

by IWO fquaU,,1argr ba'lTl uuln

(q.v. ) Cf'OM,ng II rog.lll ansla; the

""'"" of blind arches or ,_nd arch

t:;1potal.

occaslONlI, Sltualed OUI of Il&ht on

lhe upper sodc of the vaul .

friele5.

angle formed by lhe .nterxctmg ~aullS

'5

tinld. homonral

,he grom, hence the leron .

~lOnc 01'

tlmbe. a.

the .op of I door or windo)w.

PlaIt fritlt, fntlC COl1'posed of a

Ri u ..o:I, IJTIlIllll<1rrow IOW~. on

number of plales arranged

the roof tldso:. frequeml" used a, a

honzontally.

Hall church. church wOOse nlve (",v. )

and alSa (q.v. ) au of fqual he,&IlT;
JJll'lllar form has. raiKd

11<1".,

but no

CleUSlory (q.v.). LOOSoely, an alSk-okss

church.

beilcooe on. the crossmg of a church;

panicularl, Importanl ftalUIT of the

LUndte, Km,-c,rcula. space

doolS and WIndows.

abo~

1Offi<:nrne5

framed and ckcorated.

Ponal, a doorway. A porIaJ rUS>ed

m seeraJ "cps was frequentl" u5<'d on

churches of Cio.ercia ... and mend""nl

OIdtrs. altheM 00 no{ haw: lOWers.

Romanesque arch"CClu~ IhlS meam

.h.aIIM often rdall""ly small e11lrancr
WU gi''m con,dtrable t1T1phu,s on

Rood K reen, the Krem d,YI<It", lhe

cho .. lq.Y. , from lhe nnt (q.y. )

.he fa~ade.

467

Rustication , rusticated uhla"

muonry wilh a rough 5urfa~ finish;
Ihe from S1;on projectS and Ihe
slone block's Mgt:\' are gIVen a narrow
smllgJ" edge 10 mah II easier 10 mon
Into p<>:'i1l1OO.
Sacramm lary, the l;turgioll book used
by t~ cdebnlnl al Mass. and
oonlaining his pan of die service.
Pope Gregory Ihe Great had alru dy
undenaken a refonn of Ihe mus. and
under Charkmagnc I~ varIous texU
we", co1Jcacd and 51andardized; the
emphasis of t~ iUUSlral;OnS In the
book is on suessing ,,""nic:ula. in;l1al
lenen. The pielotlal program ",dlKk$
t~ CrucifiXIon, ChrISt 10 MafC'll}',
'''''''" from t~ Lik of OmS!, a nd
pielurcs of the Evangelisu and 53101$.
Sanctuary, t~ pan o f a chu"h or
tcmple cootalnlng the shrine; in
OmSl1an churdleS thc cholt and 111gb
allar.

468

Scriplorium, t~ room 10 " medieval

monastery where manUKI;plS were
oopied; also applied 10 ,,"".n;cular
$Chools of wtl llng or painting thai can
I:IC identiflCd by stylistic
charanerisrOcs.

Tetramorph, a comp<>:'ille figure

combining t~ symbols of ,he foo t
Evang<:hsu derived from Revelation
and F.ukiel; St. Jerome and Gregory
the Great .... ere the first to anribute

Trull;, conIcal, stoneroofed buJldmg'l

used as dweUings in south-<:~Slern

the angel or man 10 Manhcw, the lion

to Mark, the ox (or bull) to Luke and

the limel of a monumental doorway

Or window.

Spolia , pans of a building, such as

the cagle to John.

columns. capi lals. friezes ;md oomices,

that were originally in older, often
dU.",al buildmgs, and were then
reused when medieval buildlllgll such
as churdleS were built.
Spa ndrd, t~ approxim.:udy
triangular space betw1l1:~ cu~ o f
a n arch and the (usually nXTangular)
cnclosing moldings.

Transept , sectIon of a church at right

angles to t~ nave and in from o f the
ChaiL

Trifonum, space above the naVe (q.v.)

arcade (q.v), I:IClow t~ dercstory
(q.v.) 1M Triforium btt:amc genenll in
the Romancsque period.

Iialy Iha l date back to the Slone A~.

Trumcau, the cefllnl p,er supponmg

Tympa num , in Classical limes, the

rriangular area enclosed by a
pedllmnt, flnl""ntly <kcOnlted wllh
sculpturrs; In medIeval chu:htS, the
atea abon a ponal enclosed by an
arch, and the most imponant sic for
$CulplUrtS on the exterior of the
chu:h.

VoussoU-, SCI: Impost.

Triptych, picture, such as a .... in~d

Squ inch, a series of arches placed

di agonally at each OOmer of a squa",
area to link II and Ihe round dome

altarpiece. made up of three panels.

the outer ones beIng hmged so thai
they can be moved.

Strainer arch, an arch insened into an

intcrnal space, such as a navc or
btt....ttn TWO buildings, to prevenl lhe
walls being pushed in .... ard s.

Triumphal arch, in ancient Romc an

arch oonStfUCled for the entnfICC of a
victorious ~neral and his army. In the
ChristIan basilica, the arch .... hich
forms t~ border between the cholt
and crossing, and t~ navc.

,"""".

WesTWork , a 51rucrure with tOwers to

the west of the nave of an episcopal Or
monastery church; Irs lower storey
often oonta,ns the ponal, or the
paSSllgeway from the ponal lo the
nave, and the upper storey ConSiS1S of
gallenes openmg 'ntO the navc.

Bibliography

Tho: bIbliography follows the Kquc""c

Gurjewi\Sc:h. A.... on j., On Wdtb,ld

of """Y' In .h .. ~olumc. I" it.

do m",cI.h.didocn Mcn.d",,,.

combmanon of .M lCCondary
IlIe,allll'<' \lord by exit aumo.. and

Munoch 1986
HcD, Vmo and Hdlmul, Doc sroGc
Wallfahn des Monclahen. Tub..,.

'uggnIJOJOnlI

for

furt~ rca~

ThIS

....,an, mat QC(a$~1 rrpmnQn$ of

toties 31'<' un.>'oodabk. Re:,1kn should
~ar in ru",d ,hal nell Slwn is only
~lo:.:tK>n of ,IIOC' ava,l>bk h.(,,".urt.

ROLf TOMAN

Introduction

Aries. Philippe, B,ldn ZUt G.oschoc:hrt

~

TodM. Munoc:l1IVimn:o 1984

Bandmann. Gunia, MmcIIaIIhdoc:

Al'dmd"u. OIls BninlrunguflIljft".
Bo..lm 19'94 pOlh Nonon)
Baml L AIt ... , Xaner, ..."iI. Fn~

Gaboril.()u)ptn. D., Rom.lndche

Kunst. F,!');! volu....,: Mind und

S.. lklltupJ. Mumch 1983; 5ond
volume: Nord und Wnuuropa.
Munich 1984

8cc:k. Ramer 1f'i.I. IkrTod. fun

[.(xbuo;b von den kmm I)invn.
Munich 1995
&umann, Helmut (ro.).
Ka;scTgtS,ahcn des Minda.hers.
Munich 1\185

Boockmann, Hoot, Elnfuhtung In die

do MlllclJ,I,,,"- MII,noeh
1985
Bors'. "mo, Ldxnsform('u,m
M,ndahcr. FrankfunlBoerhnlVicnna
~lucllfc

1979

DinUlbachcr, Peter (cd.), E:urop~'sc,",

Memalu~tssachKhte. Sruugart 1993
Droste. Thorlitm, Rom.;an,,;che Kunst
In Fr2lIkrroch. Cologne 19'12
Duby. GcorJeJ, D", Zen dt".
Kad.rdnlm. Fnnkfun 1930
Duby. CeoI'lJC'. D,e dr ... Ordnungen.
Franklu" 1981
Duby. Gtorin. I)", Kun" doer
z.~rn>t1UCr. Scungan 199 3
Durli:II. Mara!. ROfNniKhe K\UUt.
h..,burg 1983
Durli~I, M~ruI. D~ Kllnst des fruhm
M,ndallrr$. F~,burg 1987
Duriiar, Marcel, Ronumsches
Sranim. Wunburg 1995
Fischer, Hugo. Doc Gebun doer
wC$dw;hen ZmloNoIIOll a ... doem c....n
des roman,schcn Monchtu,TI$. Munoch

."

Fno.nz, H. Gerhard, Sracror~n,k und

FruhgQf:ik (Kllnn der Welt). 8.adoen
8.adcn 1969
Fuhrmann, Horst. Deutsch.:
Gnchochtc ,m hohcn M,ncblter.
GOn~ 1978
Fuhrmann. Hool. EmlJ.dlll"lg inS
M,nclaltcr. MunICh 1987
~,Uwc, Re),qu,cn~crchrun8 und
HerrKhaftsvcrmonlung. D", ~i3le
Bc.chaffcnhcII dt. R.loqu~n im
fruh.cn EhubcthkuJr. Darmstadt and
Marburg 1984
Gocn, Hans" 'cmcr.ub.-n. 'm
Mlnebb .... M ..... lCh 1986

470

...

Hmnemann, Jiirwcn, Formcntchan

dcr Rom3mk. Wilnbur8 1993
Hcrnnann, Bernd (ed.). Mcnsch und
Umwelt un Mntcl.aJrcr. Sfung.an 1986
KubKh, Eneh; 81och, Peter, Fruhund
Hochroman,k (Kunst dc-r Welr).
8.adenBooden 1964
lambcrl. Malcolm. Knu~1 1m
Monclahcr. MunICh 1981
l.tgne Anton (cd.). Omamem3
Ecdcs,u. Kunst und Kunstler de.
Rom..nik. VoIli. I-J (catalogue-I,
~198.S

l.egna-, Anion; Hi.nmr, Alben .nd

Irmprd, o.....ncht Kunst dtr

Romanik. Munoch 1982
u Go.>ff, j aC<!UCI, D,e Geburt des
F"rfeucrs. Stuttgan 1986
Lc Go.>ff, JKClUCI, D", In.clld.tucllm
1m M,ntlaher. Stuttg;lrt 1986
Lcrichc-Andn..., Fn~,
Elnfuhrung In doc roman,sche Kunst.
W'unburg 1985
L""kh.... dl, Jochen; Niehoff, Fnnz
(eds.). Ht.n'lCh d~r Lowe und sc,ne
Zeit. VoIJ. 1-3 'a.~lOCIlC', C$uysl.
Munldl1995
MirJcXr. Alben. R....ISIOII de.
euro~lKhcn Gnchx:hce.
F.r,bufJIMunif;h 1971
MOIKk, Ha ....j~him, ROfNn,k.
u.pz,g 1972
0u~1. R~)'mond; Srierlin. Henri,
Arc:hlt~kt\lr der Welt: Romanik. Scrlon
(undated)
Ourscl. R~ymond, Roman&hcs
Frankmch. II . Jah.hundc:n.
Wllnburg 1991
Olirscl, R~ymond. RomamschC$
Frankreoch. 12.Jah.hllndcn.
Wunbu.g 1991
Pcmoud. RCginc. Doc Hc'hget> ,m
M,ttc\.ah(r. MunICh 1994
~. Andrea" RomanlSCM Kun~.
Cologne 1995
Sch ...aig.... Ceo.. (~.) Moncht\lm,
O.den. Kloster. Ein lex,kon.
MunJ<:h 1993
Sim!KIn. O..... Da' MmelJ.her II. Dai
hohc Monelalter (Propylam
Kumtge:tchlChtc, .. oI.. 61. Berlon 1972
Toman. Rolf f~.), 0". hohc
Mlneblter. Iko.x:hu,WIg eoner ]1,rllM1
Zen. Cologne 1988
Wamh. Manin. Sau und Obc.bau.
SozIol""" <kr m,nelalcerlif;hcn
Archlltkt\lr nuh doen Schr,ftq ...d~n.
Frankfun 1984
" 'oIf, A.. o.....nche Kulrur un
Hochmmeblrer. 115()...llSO.
Eisen 1986
Wollasch, j., Mondlfum des
Mmebltefll zWltchen Kirc:hc und
Welt. MunICh 1973
" 'oIlschl:igcr. Ham, Dir: bcw.>~cro
Wallfahrtcn get> Jcrunkm. Gnchx:hrr
doe. K,..,llU .... Zuric:h 1" J

WOLFGANG KAISER
Rvman<:>lqu" archilcaure in G..rmany
Adam, nut. 8.aukulUt ....
Mmtl.allC"t"S I and II. Frankfurt 1968
Adam, Emst. 8.aukunst dtr Scau]1,n.cn
In SadenW'unltmbcrg und ,m f.INo.
Srutlgatl 19n
Badstlib....., f.m.t. Klosterk'rc:htn 1m
Mmelal.e~ MunICh 1985
Bandmann. GUllter. MltIc~lterlIChe
Archllekrut als BcdcUNngsfUget.
Berlon 1951
Binding Giinrer; Unrermann,
MauhiQ. Klt,ne Kumtgc,.:h..:hte der
mlIItialterlif;hcn O.densMukuml on
DeuIKhland. Dar ...... ~dt 1985
Bnunf,b, Wolfgang, Doc Wdt dc:r
Katohnge. I1IWf ,hre Kun~.
MunICh 1968
8raunftb, " 'oIfg:mg, Karl der G~.
Hamburg 1972
Dehio, Georg. Handbtoch dct
deu.schtn Kunmlcnkmale~ Baden
W'ummbcrg I. Munich 1993
~tein. H:uu, D", roman'iChe
Archntktur. Cologne 1975
Enhard. Vita utoli Magno. Stunpn
1971
Fillitl, Hermann, Du MIf.elaltef I,
Propyl<itn KunSlgeschichtt vol. 5.
Berlon 1969
Fnnz, H. Gerhard, Sp;ittonUmk und
FruhsocIk.Ibdcn8.aden 1969
HUI, Walta, Roman,k In Booycrn.
Sturtpn 1985
Hahn, Hanno, Doc frohc
K,rc:henbaukunst der Z.. ten,en$oer.
Scrlon 1957
Heinrich de. LOwe und .nne Zcir,
~oIs. 1-4. (,m,bIllOll Rnuu:w..:k 1995.
Munsdll995
Hun, " 'alter. Handbo.x:h der
Kunlitdenk",,1cr on EIsa und ,n
t..ochnngen. Darmstadt 1970
Jantun. Hans. Ouomschc Kunst.
Hamburg 1959
KaiKrin Thcophanu, vok. I and 2.
",m,b,non Schnutget> Muscum.
CoIop-I991
Kictow. Gottfried, ROfNnik In
HC$scn. Sfutlgan 1984
Kubach, Hans-Eric:h; Bloch, Peler,
Fnih und Hochromamk . Saden.
Saden 1964
Kubach, Bus-Erich. EJbcrn, VKlOt
H., o"s frohm.nclaltctllChe Impmutn.
8.adenBooden 1968
Kubach, Ham-Erich. Vtrbttk, Alben
Rom3m tcht 8.aukunSlln Rhe,n und
Maas.3 >'015. Berlin 1976
Legner, AnIon (ed.l. Omamcnla
Ea:boac. Kunst und Kuniller dtr
ROfNnIk. vols. 1-3 (cara1otl:ucl.
Cologne 1985
MC$SCfcr, Wilhelm, KatohnpcM
Kunst . CoIOCnc 197J
Ea:1C$;1>C, Om3mCnta. K111\51 und
Kun"ler <ifr Romanik. vols. 1-3.
exh,blllon Schnutgcro Muscum.
~1985

Das Rrich du s..iier. ahlbnwn of.he

RUmIKh.Gf:rma~

Unlralmuoeum m M:unz.
Sos=onngm 1992
Rhein ulld Mus, Kunsl und Kullur
800- 1400, vols. 1 and 2, Uhlhluon
Schnulg<:n Muoeum. Cologne 1972
~h utl, Bmlhard; Miiller, Wolfg.;ang,
I)euIiCM Roman,k, 0",
K,~h.m~uten 00 Ka~r, Blscoofe
WId Klosier. Frclburg 1989
Scadduft. H~I'CI und I\cudmondo,
Ic Stadt urn 1300, uh,b,"on
LarnlHdmbnabml BadenWurncmbel'J! and ZurICh. SlUtlpn
1992
Thummler, Hans, Romanok on
Westfa"'n. Recklingwu!<'n I~
\\,Khcnn:onn, H rinfried, RomanIk m
Badcn-WU"I.-mberg. Sfut",," 1987
\\'iscto.crm..nn. Hrirofritd, Spt)'(r 1OMrlqungen:wm Dombau Konnd~
II. und H~nnch$III., IkrIChle und
FOf"Khun&Cn Iur Kunngesc:hlChlc vol.
II. Frc,bul'J! 1993
Die Zc:il de.- Staufer, vols. 1-5,
uhlbnion Wumembel'JllsclIes
Landesmuoeum. SIU"pn 19n

"'UCKMCLEAN
RomaMtqIK ardlllcctun ,n IlaI,

Anthony, E. W., Early Florenune

A"hJl1ure and Decoranon.
Cambrldgt', M ... 1927
Sandmann, G., Mllidallerhd",
Arc:hl1eklUl als lkdcutunplr.lJtt
&rIm 1994
Sandmann, G., Zur BWnirung decr
romamKhen Apm., In: WallrafRochanz-jahrbuch XV /195J), 28--46
&1" D'Elia, P., t..:. Pugha. MIlan 1987
"",un fels, W., Mnldaherhd.e
Sladtbaukunsl in der Toskana. l\erhn
1988 (6,h edmon)
Sus..... ni. A.; 8cncini, R., I.e ,hleW
d. F,I'CIlH': ,Ilbnmero d. San
GH)nInn,. FIonna- 1988
Cadc1, F.. L'Umbr~. Milan 1994
CIUaici, 5., t..:. Lombard.a. MIlan
1991
Ci"ardli, D., I... SicIlia. MIlan 1986
Conant, K. j ., Carohngian and
Romanesq"" ArcIuI1UR 800-1200.
Harmondswonh, New York 1987
Coronro, R .. Archuellura R~noca
dalla meta del m,I'" al promo '300.
Nuoro 1993
Cowdrey, H. E. J., The Ago- of AbbcM
l)n,ooius: Momecassmo, II\.( Papacy,
and ,I\.( Normans IIllhe EJtvcnlh and
F.arly TW(lfth untunes. Oxford 1986
/2nd edmon)
D'Qnifrio, M.; Pace, V., La
Camp.1nia. Md"n 1981
Delj!O\I, R .. L'uchnmura ck
mcd.ocvo m Sardegna. Rome 1953
Demu" 0., ~ Church of 53n Marro
In VenlCC'. Washington DC 1960
Fanueci, Q., La Ibs-Ilica dl San
Mml"IO "I Monte sopra FirenU'. In,
It~ha Sacr" II (1933) 1137-1207

Fricdm,.,., 0 .. Floren"ne l'kw TOI'Rs.

Cambndsc, M ... 1988
Guyfl', 5., Ocr Dom In Pis>_ ulld das
Raloello(lnc' F.nmehu"" "~,
Mundmer Jahrbuch der biJ.lenden
KunS! 1932,351_376
II Romanic-l) Pinoicu nO tuoi
rapponi con l'anc romanio.:a
ckll'ocridmle. AnI decll con,~
IntellllllOOak dl MOO, mccbocvah dl
no...a e d'arle. p"looa 196.s

jones, P., &:onom~ c SOCif13

ndlhalo. mcd,cvale, I. legmda della
OOl'Jlhcsla, In Slo"a d'ilalia: Oal
fcooahsmo.1 eapllaLismo. An",,11 I,
nI. R. Romano and C. Vivanti, Tu"n
1978,1IJ7-372
Kling. M .. RomamKI\.( Zcnlrllbooulm
III Obcnlahm: Vorlaufcr und
AnverwandlC. HI~Im, ZurICh,
New York 1995
Kraulhrimer, R., lntroducnon I() an
-konography of MnlI3evnl
Archu1urc-, In: S,udies in F... rly
Cbnsllan, Medieval and RcnaISS>R
An, New York 1969, 115--150
Lcccitocri, T .. Le VlCCf1de della Bas,bc:a
dl MonleaoHlno a"raven.. La
dccu",.,nla~

"rcbroqlQ,

MIKCIJanc:a CauIl1eJC, 36, 1973

Lillie, L K., Rel,SIOUS PoYmy and tlw
Profil Economy'" MnI,eval Europe.
Ilhaa 1978
M clean, ..... Sacred Sp;lce &: Public
Pobey: The O"S'"s, Decllnc and
Rcvlval of Prato's f'lazza della P'C'C.
PrincClon UnIVersIty, Diss. 1993
Moretll. I.; $copaN, R., La. Tosc;ana.
Milan 1991
Parlato, E.: Romano. S.. Roma C II
LaZIO. MIlan 1992
PorICl. A. K., Lombard Archn1Ure.
New Haven 19\7
Prandi, A.: Chierici, 5.; Tamanli, G.;
Region, F.. La b...,[,ea dl
Sanl'Amhrogoo a MIlano.'oreR

".,

Rill, B Swlom 1m Mmdaher: Oa.

ReICh der Araber, Normanncn und
Slaul Sounprt, Zur..:h :1995
Rivoira., G. T.; Rushfo"h. G. M.
(trans.) Lom~rdic Archi"!CIure: Irs
On8Jn, Ocvtlopment and [)crovauons.
2 vol$. O"ford 1933
Romanini, A. M. and othl:1$, I.ane
mcd.evaJe III ltal .... Rol'Cllcc 1988
Romano, C. G., La Ballbcala, La
Calabna. MIlan 1988
Salmi, M., DecOfllloonc Kornanoc.a on
Tosan~, on: Sp,aZIO 2:4 (1'951). 1--4
Salmi, M., l 'archnCllura romanICa In
Toscana. MIlan, Rome 1927
Salmi, M .. thle~ romanK:M della
Tosc:ma. MIlan 196 1
Sanpaolni, p.. II Duomo dli P,U e
I'archnellura romanoca 10!1Ca"", del'"
on"ne. pog 1975
Sanloro, R.; Canall, G.; CooI"nl.no,
G,: Schaffran, E.. Doc KUlUI dcr
Land~rdm III Ilahm.Jm.o 19-41
Schill>.. H. W., Dl::nkmakr der Kun~1
dC'S Mluelallen In Umerit.ahm. " ~ols.
Dresden 1860

Seidel. M., Domboou, KreuuUlSKI

und ExpanslOrupolollk. Zur
Ikoroographle de. P,sanfr
Kalhedralbaulen, In:
Friihnulldahcrhch( Siudlen 11
( 1977),348-350
Sma, R., t..:. SuMgna. Milan 1989
Sbnrcr, c., The Rmalssann: of
Archnccture In Soulhern haly.
Cambndgc 1935
Silu, R. A~hilmura dd IOCOIo XI
nel tmlpo della "forma prqrcgo .... na
In Toscana, In: Crnoca d'Ane XUV,
163- 165,1979,66--96
Slocchi, S.,l'Em,lia Romagna. MIlan
1988
Suimer, G .. 1.e VenelJC. Molan 1991
Tlbaa:o, G., Po .... er and 51","", for
Hegemony In MedlCYlll 1I"ly,
Cambod~ 1992
Thummler, H., D~ Baukunst des II.
Jahrhunderu In Iialom, In: RbmlKhes
Jahrbucb fur KUnSlgeschochle 3,1939,
14 1-226
TonQII, P., 510.... ddl'ane Italll"'"
dal'" ori"n; alia fine del 5010 XIII.
Tunn 1927
T.-.dllmbn-g. M., Gothidhahan
GothIC: ToWllros a Rcdefml1lon, m:
jSAH 50:1 (1\-!arch 1991),22-37
VenlUri, A., Slorli dc:JJ'arte lIalia"",
III. MIlan 1904
Vcrtir BomS(nn , C .. Portals and
Pohnc~ in II", Euly halian CIty Sl3le:
The Sculpture of Nicholaus 'n
Comexi. Parma 1988
V=<IO(, P., I:arc:hIlHlura religlosa
dcll'aho mcdKlCVO nell'lt.al~
SCIICtllr>O"",le. MIlan 1942
Waky. D. P., ~ leah"n C.ty
RtpubllC$- London, New York 1988

Monasteries and Ih( Idtal Cily:

Draunfels, W., MonastcrlC'S of W""lern
Europe:, The A~h"1ure of the
Ordec1$. Pnnccton 1972
Oy""' W., Tht MnlloC'ul CIotSIer as
Pmco of 5,;"Iomon, In: (;csta: The:
Clower Symp<KIum XII 11973).
62--69
~lom, W., On II\.( On"ns of tbe
Medlcval Clolsler, In, Gnla: The
CIo.~ter SymposIum XII n973}, 13-52
Horn, W., Th,( Plan of 51. Gall. A
Slooy of lhe Arc:hn1UR arM!
Economy of, and Lof~ In a
Paradlgmalic CarolingIan Monastery.
Ikrkcley 1979
Rosmau, H .. Thc Ickal Cty: lu
Arc:lulrural EvolutIon In Europe.
Cambndgc 1983

DERN H", RD AND UI_RIKE LAULE

RomanesqllC archileclure in F......,.,

Conanl, KcnMlh John, CMolLngo.an

and Romanesquc Archl[e<;Wre,
1100-1200, Pdican Hmo..,. of
An, 1959

Conpis Ar~1IC dec Frw>ec, nl

Socmi fr,,~a,!<' d'archiolOSIe. ParIS
183~ ff.
G. Dl::hio and G, v. Bnold, O,e
korchhche Baukunsl de$ Ahffid!andes.
Siungart 1884-1901
Lr diClionnaire des fBliscs de France,
5 vois., P"nl 1966-1969
Enlan. Camolk, M:anuel d'arc~
fra~lSC, 3 "015., 3rd edmon. PlInl
1927
Frankl, Paul, D~ ftuhmutda!terhche
und [OmanoKhe Baukun" (Handbuch
dcr KUnSIWlSSCnKhaft). Wildpark
Potsdam 1926, IS Iff.
La~ed"n, Picrr<:, HISloore de I'a".
Moyen Ag<: n Temps modc:rnes. Paris

,,..

dec LaSlcyric, Robert, t:arclul1Urc

rel~ en Franu i I'ipoq...,
romanc, 211d edllion. Paru 1929

DUl'Jlundy a nd tcrnlories belonging 10

and weslern
Swilurbnd),
il/Ni~ernais

Anfray, Maral, t:uchlUCture

reh~uSoc du N,vcmatS au moyen-ig<:.
Pans 1951
Arml, Cemmt Edson, 5,;"on,PI."hMn
al Toomul and 1M ..... 11 !lySlnnl of
finl Romanoque arc:hll1UR. D,ss.
ColumbIa University, USA 1973
Conant, Kennelh j o hn, Cluny. Le,
41.S6 ella malWn du ehc:f d'ordre.
Miron 1968
Erlande-Brandmbu .... Alain,
kf.mogl':>ph", de Cluny III, In, Bulletin
Monumental 126 ( 1968), 293-332
Gall, Ernsl, Doe Ahte,k,rc:he 5,;",nlPh,hMn In Toomu,"- on: Dl::r CK:cronc
4 ( 19121,624--636
Gall, Ernst, Swdien ~ur Gesch"hle
des Chorumgangs.. In, Mon:mhcfte fur
KunslwlncnKhaft 5 (1912), 134--149,
358-376,508-519
Gall, EmS!, Sa,m-Philihcn In Toornus.
In: Zell~hroft fur KUlUl&C'C'hochC( 17
( 1954), 179--182
~lahn, H.. Doc fruM K",bcnbaukunSl
00 Z'SICflomscr. Berhn 1957
H ubert , Jean, l'archllKture rehg!Culo(
du haUl moyen-age en Fr.lICf. Pan,
1952
M"nno Malon(, Carolyn, In foulllCll
ck Salntl!m,gnc de DIIOO
(1976--19781 et '" probl<:",., dec 1'~'10(
de I'an mIl, In: Bulle",n Monumenlal
138 (1980), 253ff.
0ursc:1, Raymond and Anne-Maric,
lei 4l'ses rOfTUnc:s de L'AuIOlIOI~ CI
du Bnonnais. Macon 1956
Salet, Francis, Cluny III, in: Bulleun
Monumental 126/1968).235-292
Salt!, P.. la Madeleine: de Viulay.
Melun 1948
Schlink, lIOilhc:lm, Saml'!krugnc III
01100, Unte1$ldtun~n Iut
Ahtelk,rclw Wilhc:lms von VoIpo.ano
(962-1031). lkrhn 1978
So:nnhauKr, Han. Rudolf,
Romaonmol!Cr und PayerllC. Studlcn

471

zu, aUlll<lun5er~n:hlfdclur des II.

Jahrhurnkm on do., Wcscsch ..'ftL
Rud 1970
Srnllford, N., I.cs b:iummts do. l'abb;ayt
de auny a l'q,oq ... m6d0rnr.... Eal des
quesoons. on: s.uu.ru. Monwnmuoll50
(1992) .JIJ.-..411
Vatlery- Radoc. Jtta, S:lInl-PI'1I1ibm de
Toumus. P~"s 1955
Y..-ty, Jean. Paray-.... Momal et Ie
tgI,ses du Boonruus,. P,ns 1926
WoKbmnann. Hrinfritd Ad OIMn,
s',m Ph,loben m Tuumul.
Raugcschoch!e und
archlfekturgeschochdoche S~l1u"8llenc:hle und Fonchunam wr
Kunstphochle 10. """~ 1988
WullaKh, Jo;w:him, Cluny - Lieht do..
Wlh. Auf.st>tg und N,e!krg..ng de,
klosm1ochen GelTll<onKhafr. ZUrICh,
Dusseldorf 19%
Northern Franct (Ch.... P"'8I't.
Nonn,ndy, Bdsi.....r,
Anfray. Man:d. L',n:hlfecturr
nonn:on.dc-. Pans 19J1
8 aum. juli us, Ronun'Khe Raukunll
on Fr:ank,.,ich. Stull",n 2nd ftIn,O<I
1928. V
Ba)''', MatUs. La Tnnlf~ de Cam. S,
pl,.;e danll'h"loo", de l'ar.:hncctu",
et du decor romans. I',.n. 1979
Btllnunn, F.. Zu. &;au urod
Kunslgu<hochll der S"fn;.k"d"" YOn
Nivllle. Munoch 19"1
Bony.je;m. La m:hmq ... OO/"1Nnde du
mut ~p.1o'S i ltpoq ... rOrJl;l.nt. on:
6uIleM Monurnenlal98 {I9J9).1SJff.
Carlson, Ene: G., Tht ,bbty cbull'h of
S,'nl-Enmno: at Cam on I},.., I hh and
tarly I2lh ~tunes. DI5I. Yall 1968
CarIS(ln, Erit. G . EJccavallons at s"m'
E"m....,. Cam (1969). m:
10
(1971).21Jff.
Chant"'X' Hfftri. L'abbt Therry et b
tgl,w:s de Jumoqes. du Mun,S"nl
Michel C1 de flernay. ,n: Bulletm
Monu_nf<1J 98 (I939). 67ff.
FroOckvalix. YvaMark. L'~
abbana" de Ctnsy-laFurn. in Les
Monu_ms Hl5lunques 103 (1979),

em...

W'udImrwm Hrinfntd _I odICn,

D .. romanllChc IUrchenba ....kunSf der
Nonnan-d .. - eon
enlWocklungsgcschochllochc. Versuch.
fIe.ochle und Forschungen Zur
KUMlphochle 6. F.nburz. 1982

()cyrn, Martd, If 00nJ0a .Ie

Lansa'" on: f\ulletm Monumen.al
128 (l970). 179-19J
Dt.rrcs, Marcel. In Chattaux do.
Foulqua Nlrra. on: l\ulktut
Monumental 1321197"J, 7-28
Emoud, F~s. Ch.irc.u. fom m
France. Pans 1958
Harmand.. Louis, l'loud,n C1

De,....s, Man:d. SaUllt-Foy de

Conques:, ,no Bulletin Monumen.al
123 (1965}. 7ff.
Ou.h.l. Marcc:I, La bas,hque SI.
Sc-rn,n de Toulowor. ,no Bullt:c,n
MonulDmlall2l {l9(3), 1'19ff.
Habcn, Klaas, Dtr J,kobs.... q..
W..-sbadtn 1986
Kubach. Haas Erich; Bloch, P., Ffuhund Hochromamk (Kunst do~ Welt).
&;aden Baden 196<4. 8"ff.
lesuocur. F~, s,'n .....:roy de
Conqun. ,no Bulleton Monuo:nc:n.al
12<4 (1966), 259ff.
du R~, H. and E.. L'~isc s"n.
Paul dlssOlre. ,n: Bullet,n
Monumtn",19" (l9J5). 27i'ff.

soecle. ,no Bullenn MonUmtntaI 127

(1969),188-207
Harm...d. I.ouiJ, If Donlon de
Houdan. nudt$ complCmenlauu. on:
Bullet,n Monumtnlal \30 (1972).
191-212
HaIOl. PitrH, L'~ des donlon
d'Etampes e.do. P,<"ns. on: Mbno.m;
do. III Socine rtallonalc: des anllqu.aim;
do. Flarocl (1'167). 28!!-J08
Htbot. PitrH, La Genbc des clLiltaWl
de- pilln l"tCIa"&ub,,,, m Frano;c C1 m
An8letel"lT. in: lIulletm de la Soc.ere
nauonolc: del ant'qua,m; do. France
(1'165),2J8-257
lI.i"n-, Raymond. Ch.i.eawr. don(OfU
C1 plauJ fones. La.clmtute
m,luaore fra",a,sc:. P.r,s 1953
Salch, Charb-Lau""", Doctlonna,,,,
des chaleaWl C1 des fomfocatoon. du
Moyal ~ at F.antt. Snalhours

".,

I"CvoIut>on des donjORS au XlIobnt

W""lnn FraDCC tAquiwne.l"oilOU.

Maa",,):
CrGlel, Rnoi, L'an .oman n, POllOU.
Pam 19<48
Crolel, Rtnof, Fontlt>'faul., UJ: Con&ri:t
A.cltiGlogoq"", (196<4). "26-181
Dann~. Ot .. La Carhtdrale :)a,mPocrrt d'Angou)emt, on: Bull,,"n
Monumtn,al 120 (19621, 2J Iff.
Erlandc:Br:aadenbw-s, Alairr.,. If
MQme'Uc:rr des ROtS Mi FGnll,..""uh,
on: ConcrU ArchMogoq ... (1964),
"82~92

Roox, J., La blos,loque s"n.l'ronl de

PC",,,",x. h"IUCUX 1910
s,lct, F.--:d, Not,.,.Damt de
Cunauh. Lcs camp.1ol"" de
CGnt.ru.cfoon, in: Congr~
Archrolog'quo: (196"), 63~,76
TOfIftCbn. P. M. A. La Catbl-dr:ale
d'Anaoulbtw. on: Melanges ofkm;\
Rtnof Crout, vol. I. POlllers 1966,
507ff.

3311.
Gutrin, Jcan.1...es abbloyes dt C:.ln, m:
Les MonountnlS H,stGnqua 103
(1979). Hff.
(jns, Rrinh.ard, Dtr fruhroman'Khe
Kirchenbau dt$ I I . J.h,hunderts ,n
de. Normand,.,. Analyten und
MOfIOWaphoen do., Haup'bloutm.
MunICh 1967
Mmel,jun, L'tgI.sc Saml-EIlenne de:
Caen. on: 1.."" Mon"m~nrs I IIifOroque:f
1<4 (1968}. 62ff.
Monan, A.. La CoIJisiaJc Sam .....
Gertrude de l\,yrlles.l\,,rllc:s 1962
Ra"e, ralll Qn ...in. De. Empo.enbau
,n roman'Kher und fruhg<)usdlCT
un.lIonn. Le,pug 192<4
VailtryRadoc, j ClUl,lf MomS,'m
MOCMI. T.avaUJr CI" dko\lunn. .n:
Congm All'hrologoqllC' (19661. "l3lt

Noack-Halcy, S.; Arbcotcr. A.,

Asrunscht Kon",bloutm des 9.
j,h,hunderu. (Madrider flenr:a8e 22).
MaUll 1994
SdtIunk. H., Am ......... am
~ (An H.$pamae Uf. ~bdnd

Auben, Marui. L'archllcctuu

.... ~tcrclnl ... en Franct, 2nd ~I,toon.
Parl'll947
Lault:, B. and U.; V;~sdocnna"n, H
Kun$ .lenknula m Sudfr:ank,..,och.
Darm.. ad. 1989
""" i Cacbfalch, J La sCogtaplut: et
Its OI'"nrs du prnn"" art ..-nan.
Pans 19J5

Scollar buildirtgJ:
Babfion,je'" ~1...J.I.lf Ch.ileau
no Fr:ancc. Pans 1986

",.

8 RUNOKLE.lN
Rorroanesquc ..dllfeo:t1!n in Spauo

''''Gentnl:

DorIoa., M., HUp3noa tOmanta. Dore

hoM Kunst der roman'li:hen Epoc:hc:
,n Sp4Inom. V,enna, Mun,ch 1962
GQmcy Moreno, M., El ant romhoco
rspailol. Madnd 19J"
Gudiol. Ricard. J.; Nuiio. Gayaj. A.,
ArquJlcctura y escul.ura rumanas
(An H,spanoae V). Madnd 19<48
Whilm ill, Muir W.. Sp;tnosh
RomanHq'" An:h"ectur~ of me
Eleventh Cent...,.. Oxford 1941.
"'pt,nl 1968
<Ie Palol, P.; Hirmcr. M . Sp4In,en:
Kunlt d" friohen MJllelall~" yum
Wn'lJQfmrnch bot zum End. .Ie.
Roman'k. Nrw ftIouon MUnICh 1991
SpaniSCM KunJ~idll~. E,ne
Emfuhrung. Vo.l I: Von de. Sp;tranllke
b.. tur f.uhen Neuuu. Ed. Srl"""lt
Hansc:land Hlnnk Karge
!Iocr"n 1992
Vinayo Comakz, A.. L'ancicn
.oyau_ des lfon roman. La PI"'",.
q"'-Y'~le 1972
Yana, j .. AI'Il y arquIIKrnu en
Espal\a 500-1250. Madnd 1987
Prt-Romancsquc archi .ecture:
""""'I, j . F.. La arquncctura
modrabt. &;arcc\ona 1972
Fonlaane. J., L'An prtroman
h'span'qut, I. La P'~rre--qu,-yW'" 1973

Crout. 11.., e,l'l roman m N.varrlll

Arag<)n. Condnoonl h'SI<)<'qUH. In:
Cahlft"S do.]a 'lYlhoanon mC-dob-alt 5
(19621,35,",1
Ou,lilll, M., ean roman m Nan.",
CI en Aragon. In: Cent,., mt~rna"onal
d'kudes romanes 197J.I. 5-18
0urIw. M . La Ca",1ogne C1 ..
~.,...,nucr an roman ~ In: Bulletm
Monumental 1"7 11989), 209-238
j unym., E., Ca.a\ogne romane. La
P.. rrc-qu,v'y.~ 1960-61
ICrii&cr.K., Dore k:I",IlID1IC}""
Kaplftlbkulprur des elftm
Jah,hurnkrts. In: Mmellun,m der
Cad Ju .. i-Vele'n~un8 5 (1,)93),

,....,

do. Lo;cndio. LM., Nn ", roma ....

La I'lerre--qu,v,yrr 1'167
Lormte. E.; F... ncuco,j.; Calm
Mani, F.; Garcia Gualas, M., FJ
n.c'm....,IG do.l a"~ romanoco en
AraiJOn. ArquJlcctura. Zara&OU 1982
f'Io'l i Cadafalcb,j., L.c P"'fIUf' an
roman. P.... 19J8
Pui, i Cadafakh, j .; do.. flltlucra. A.;
Goday i Casals. J.. L"qu"C'C1ura
rorrLiDlca ~ Ca lunya. Ibralona
1908-18
An:hillW~ aIona doc pi,,"m l"OU'Ie:
1Ioniata", Y.. Les ,},..,mms do. Sa'nl-

Jacq ..... Pans 1964

Conanl, K. j ., The Early Arch,uxrural
I-[,s.ory of San"ago de Compostela.
C:.mb.idgt 1926
D'EmiIio. j .. The l\u,ld1ll1: and dlt
f'llpuns' Glude. In.: J. Willtams, A.
Slone (c-ds.1 The Codex Cah.nnus ~nd
lhe Sh"...., of 51. James. Tub,ngen
1992,185-206
Hnbcn., K Mil t,1lCm
mllle]aI.~rhc""" P1l&erfiihtn"
un.t~ nuh s,nnag<). 2nd ftInoon.
T UboRgen 1986
liii",n AIRItCh, E, Las emp'n,as
con~IrIlC1l""'s.le S,ncho ~ M;,o.)'Oc Es
eaSllUo do. I..o.atrr. In.: Arch,m &panol
de Ane "J (19701. J6J-373
La",ben, E.. L.c ~lc:gnn~gt de
Compos,eIJc. Ewdt$ d'h"eo'",
mtdotvalc:. Pans, Toulouse 1'59
Mora\cio-Al .....n, 5., The Codex
Cahxllnus as In An-H,storlCll
Source. In: J. Wilhams, A. S.unl/t<is.1
The Codex C:.hxnnus an-d tM Shnnc
of SI.jamcs. Tubongen 1992,
207-227
V'odlard, j .. l..c gwde du ~knn de
Sa,mjacqun de Compoltelle. 5,h

Wlllon, !'ans 1984

Williams, J., '-" arquit",,!ural del
Cam'lIQ de Sanuago. In: Co
mosrdanum 29 (1984), 267-290
Williams, J.. San Isuioro mUOn:
Ev,dence for a New H,slory. In: An
Rullenn 55 (1973), 170-184

Regionalisms in rhe middle o f rhe

t ... d r. h ceniUry:

RincOn Garcia, W., Art. mW,.Yal. In:

Summa Artis. HiSloria gr: ...... 1<kl
An. vol. XXX, "Art. portuguk."
Madrid 1986, 11-238
H~y, C. K., Th. SalmantlN: ,-",.rns:
TMir Ong,n and iXYciop .... n'.
Cambndge 1937
Gaya Nuilo, J. A., EI tOmanLCO en la
provincia <k Soria. Madrid I H6

N .... lendencin to ... ards

lnlmlationalisation and regional
Iradil ions:
M0r3lcjo-A1vara, S.. le por<:h. de
Glo". de 1;1 Cathedr3k de
Compostdle - Probl~m.s de $Otlr"". et
d'interpretation. In: les Qlr-.iers d.
Sa,ntMicl>el <k Cun 16(1985},
92-116
'-"mbert. E., les cha~11es octogonales
d'EunaTe et de Torres d.1 Rio. Pu,s
1928
Lamben, E. L"an gOlh'que en
up.ogne. Paris 1931
Dathe. S.. Die K,rcM '-" Vera Cruz in
SrogoY,a. Untersuchungen zur
Btdeutung dn roman,,;chen
Z.ntr3lbau~. In: Mllle,lungen d.. Carl
Jus!iV.... inigung S ( 1993). 92_121
Maninell, C .. I.n monas!ern
,",terclens de Pobler er de Sanrn
C... us, In: Congm ar<:hwlogique 117
(l959},98- 128
'-"mben, E., La cathidrak de Linda.
In: Congrts ar<:hwlogique 117
(1959},136-143
Lar2 P~nado, F.. unda. '-" Sro
.nugua. Lenda 19n

HEINFRIED WISCHERMANN
Romanesque archirecture in G ... al
Brilain
Andr ...., Manin, Chichnter
Ouhwral, The Problem of lhe
Romanesque Choir Vault. in: Journal
of Ihe Bmish Ar<:hacologtcal
Associauon 135 (1982), 11ff.
Aylmer, G. E. and Reginald Cant, A
H,nory of York Minster.
Oxford 19n
BAACf (British Ar<:hacolOSical
A&SOClar,on Conk ... nce TranSllcuons)
I, 1975 WOrSter (1978).11, 1976 Ely
(19791,111. 19n Durham. IV, 1978
Wells and Glastonbury! 198 1). V,
1979 Qlmerbury iI982}, VI, 1980
Winchester ( 1983), Vll, 1981

GIoucc-sterfrewkesbury (1985). vm.

1982 Linoo]1l (19861. X. 1984
london (19901
Band mann, Gilmer, D,e
Rlschofskapelk tn He ... ford, tn:
Festschrtfr H. yon Einem. Bonn 1964,
2ff.
Barlow. Frank. The English Chur<:h
1000-1066. London 1979
Barlow, Frank, Wilham Rufus.
London 1983
Barlnw, Frank, TM Norman
Conqunl and Beyond. london 1983
Barlow. Fr3nk, Thrnnas Bht.
london 1986
Bennett, Paul and othtn, Xca"""ons
al Qlnlerhury Qlsrle. Camerbury 1982
Biddl Manin, XUY3[lons near
Winchesr.r QI,itedr211961-1969,
1910
Bony, Jean, T.... kesbury er Pershoredeux elevations a qll<lr ... etages de la
fin du lies., tn: Bull. Mon. 96 (1937),
28lft,503ff.
Bony, j ean, Le r""hntque normande
du mur ~pa.s. tn: Bul!. Mon. 98
11939},IBff.
Bony, j ean, Durham CI la Iradllionne
uxonne, In: Festschrift Lou ..
Grod""ki. Pa ... 1981. nfl.
B... tt. Manin. TM Enghsh Chur<:h
under Henry I. Oxfurd 1975
BrO"'n, Reginald Allen, The Norman
Conqucsi and II>e Gwnls of EnglISh
Callies, in: ChateauGailiard 1966
(1969) Iff.
Bu!,by, Frederick, Winchester
CathedtaI1079-1979. Ring ... ood
1979
Chamber., James. The: Norman King.
london 1981
Ch<1T)', Brid8el, Romanesque
Ar<:hn~re in Eastern England, In:
Journal of rh. anush Ardulcologocal
Association 131 (1978), Iff.
Oapham. Alfred. EnglIsh
Romanesque Ar<:hir~re before the
Conquesr. Oxford 1930
Cbpham, Alfred, English
ROlll.;lnesque Ar<:hir""rur. afrer rhe
Conqucsr. OKford 1934
Colvi n, Ho ... ard, Th. H,slory of Ih.
KIng'. Works. I. london 1963
Cronne. H. nry Al fred, The: Retgn of
Steph.n.london 1970
Crook, John and o thers, Winchn!.r
Cath.dral. Chic"""er 1993
Douglas, David C, Wilham the
Conqueror. london 1977
Dr3~r, Peter, R""her<:"'" recenrn sur
l'archn""Ture dans les iln bmanRlqun
it la fin de I'~poque rOma ... el au
d.'but du gOlbJquc:, ,n: Bull. Mon.
144 (1986), 305ff.
English Romanesqu. An, 1066-1200.
london 1984
Fa ... cett, Richard. Sconish Abbeys and
Priories. london 1994
Felfljusson, Peler, Archnecru ... of
Solnude: C'Slerc,an Abbeys ,n 12th
cenTUry England. Pnnceton 1984
Fernie. Eric, Enclostd Apses and
Edward's ehur<:h a, Weslrrun~ter, ,n:

An-hacologLa 1()4 (1973), 235ft

Fmlie, Eric. The Ar<:hil""lure of rhe
Anglo Saxons. london 1983
Gem, Richard, TM Rom3nesque
R.build,ng of W<'Slmmsrer Abbey, In:
f'roc~lngs of rl>e Ikmle Conf.... nc. 3
(1980}.33ff.
Gem, Richard, CblChesrer Catitedr2l:
When was rl>e Romanesque OUr<:h
Begun? tn: Proc~tngs of rhe B,,"le
Conf.rence 3 (1980), 6 Iff.
Gibson. Malfljarel T., Llnfranc of Ike.
Oxford 1978
Gocg Thomas,
und Praxis
der Restauri.rung.m Gothic R.yival:
Die Restauri.rungsbe ....gung der
~Ecdesiologists.~ Diss. Fleiburg 1981
Guillaum. Ie Conqu" ... nt eJ son
temps, Rouen 1987/88
Hum. Millard E. The Rectangular
Ambulatory in Englisr-. Med,eval
Archuecture, in: Journal of SocLaI
ArclueoIog.caI HlSfOl'y 30 (l971). 187ff.
Hum, Millard F.. Rornsey Abbey, tn:
Gesta 14 (l975), 27ff.
Hobbs, M ary and o lhen. Chichesrer
Cathedral. Ch,,""',er 1994
Kahn. Deborah. Canterhury
Cathedral and liS Romanesquc:
Sculprur. London 1991
Kenyon. John R.. Mwieyal
Fonir",allons (fhe Ar<:hacoiOSY of
Mwieval!lrualn). leic:e~ter.
london 1990
Kidson, Peler and olhers, A Hisrory
of EngI.sh Ar<:hucctu ....
HarmondswOrlh 1965
Kno ... ln, David. Th. MOMSIic:
Order In Eniland. 940-1216.
Camb"dge 1940
Kno ... I.., Dayid, Th. MonaSl'"
Consmuuons of Llnfra"". Cambndge

n..."".

"..,

Knowln, Dayid and otbers. The

Huds of Rehgious Houses: England
and Wales 940-1216.
Cambridge 1972
Leh mannBrockhaus, Ono.
'-"te,nische Schrihquelkn zur Kun" ,n
England, 4 yols. Munier-. 1955-1960
!.inle, Bryan, Ar<:hncclure ,n Norman
Rmaln.london 1985
McAleer. Philip. Th. Romanesque
Church Fa~a<k In Bmain. D,iS.
London 1963
M US ..I, l ucien, Anglererre Rom:",e. 2
vol5. '-" Pierr.-qu,yivr<: 1984-88
Nonon, Chri"oph'r; David Park,
Cist.r<:ian Art and Arch,tectu ... tn !h.
Brirish ]sln. Qlmbridg. 1986
Phillips. Derek, EKCavarions ar York
Mmster 11: Thc: Cathedra] of
Ar<:hb,shop Thomas of Bayewe.
London 1985
Platt, Colin, Mwiry,1 England: A
SocIal H.story and Arc""cology from
rl>e Conqun! to AD 1600. london.
Ne ... Yo.k 1978
Renn. Derek, Norman Castl<'S m
Bnum.london 1968, 1973
Rowl~, Trevor, Th. Norman
H.rnag . london 1983
Schiinke, S..... an ... , Enrwicklungen tn

den Chorformen englischer K'r<:1>en

yom 11. bis ms 13. Jh. Diss.
Cologne 1987
ServM:e. Alaslair, Th. Bu,ld'ngs of
Bmaln: AngloSaxon and Norman.
london 1982
51011, Robc:n Th.; Roubier, j ean,
B.uannia Romanica - Die hOM
Kunst de. romanischen Epoehe m
England. SchOltiand und [rland.
Vtenna, MunICh 1966
Warren, Wtlf... d L., Henry II.
london 1977
Watkin. DaYid,Enghsh Arch[{~r.,
A Conci.. H'slory.london 1979
W.bb, Gcoffr~, Ar<:hitcctur. in
England: The Middle A8es.
HarmondswOl1h 1954
Wilson. Duid M., Th. Bayeux
Tapesrry.london 1985
WiI50n, David M., D,e Schlach! von
Hasrings und das Ende der
angelsadwscl>en Herrschafr. tn:
Sach .. n und Angelsachsen. HambulfIj
1978,117ff.
Wischmnann, Hcinfried and Olhers.
De! romanlsehe Kir<:henbau der
Normand,. - .in
cnfWlcklungsg...:hlChlhcher Versuch
(BuF 61. F..,bulfIj 1982
Wischmnann, H.infried and OIhers,
Die romanisehe Katitedr31e YQfI
WOr<:nter - Baugeschw;ht. und
ar<:hi!ekrulfljeschichdiche Sl:ellung
(BuF 9). FreibulfIj 1985
WlSChermann, Heinfriw.
R'p~nge ... olbe d.r Kathedrale von
Durham _ Oberlegung.n ~ur Fr(ih~.i,
der Gotik m England (BuF I2J.
Fr.,burg 1996
Wood. Margarel. Norman DomestIC
Ar<:hll""rure.london 1974
Zarn""ki. Gcolflje, Engh~h
Romanesqu. SCulp!U.... 1066-1 140.
London 1951
Zarnccki. Gcolflje, '-"ter Enghsh
Romanesque Sculprure. 1 140-1210.
london 1953
Zarnccki, Gcolflje, Romanesqu.
lincoln, The Sculprure of rhe
Qllhedr21. uncoln 1988

0,.

Archit""lu.e in Scandinavia:
An ker. Peler; And.rsson, Aron, Can
sandm..... '-" Pie~uiVi ... 1968/69
Bugge, GUllnar, Stabk'n-l>enMntelalterliche Baukuns' in
Norwegen, RegensbulfIj 1994
Donnelly. Marian C .. Architecture lfl
lhe ScandlluY,an Counme5.
Cambridge, MA 1992
Phleps. Hmnann, Die norwegisehen
Srabkirch.n. Spr3che und Deurung
der Gefuge. Karl.ruM 1958
Rin8bom, SiKten and OIhen, Konsten
,Finland, Helsmgfors 1978
TuulK. Armin. Scandlflav,a
RomaRlca. D.. hohe Kunst d.r
roman,schen Epoel>e ,n Danemark.
Nnrwrgen und Sch ... eden. Vienna,
Munkh 1968

473

K""",", Antal, K... nst In U"",rn.

8ud...~ 1966
MrrhanIO~'. Aanb. Ronun,seht
" ... nil In Polm, du TscMchQsl"wakt,.
Ungarn. R... man,cn. J ...gosLowitn.
PraglW: 19704
OtrcHnyi, Ot.n<i, De. kOnlglichc
Palul von Entergorn. Bud...pe5t 1974
Otr,,""yO, Oc:uO, Romamsdot
B.:ooukunSlln U"",m. Bud...pe5t 1975
Ctnrhoa. Is","'. Kunsrdonkmaler ,n
Ungam. M ... nlCh.lkrlln 1974
Zadlwarooria, , .... Polnlsct..
Arc:hlr~kfUr bos lur Moue des 19. Jh .
Warsaw 1956
Ka,o". BrUft. 1M Archlftu~ of
Pobnd. I..ondoo 1971
Swlccho",oki. Zypnunl. Roman<:Sque
An In Poland. Warpw 1983
loziMki"rn.y z.. Kunstdrnkmaler in
Polen, Sudpoltn. Warp ....,
l.eoplIg 1984
Bachmann. Erich and "I.....,
Romanok In BQhmen. M unich 19"
K",han, Jm. Doe no'neLohtrliche
fbukunn drr ZurtrntnteT in BoI!nxn
und Mah~n. Munich.lkrhn 1982
Podot. Emanuel. Kuns,denkrru ..... ift
drr TKMc~ktl: 80hmm ... nd
Mah,m. Ibrnuu.dl 1986

UWECEESE
Rorna~ue K'U 1ptu~

Ants, P., ~h~hte des T.,des.

Munoch 1982
Bandmann, G., Mllltialrerl",ht
Archlfekru, ai, I\oedrurungslragtt
Ikrlon 1951
Batnl, 1.; Aha, X.; A..... , F.; Gabc>rilChopin, D. (edS.1 Ronun...:ht Kunst.
First volume: Mllld- und Sudruropa
1060-1220. M ... noch 1983; tond
volumt": Nord- und Wma.rop;l
1~1220. MunICh 1984

RQrdla. M., Modena ~ po'oYlfICia.

Guilb an;srica e monumel1laic.
I\Qlogna, undalw
8Qrst, 0 .. AUlagslehm 1m MIff~lalter.
fra nklu" 1983
Br~"'mp, H., Dit nordspanische
Hofskulplur und dot FIl',he" del
8Jldhauer, In: H. Bk. K. Hmgt\'Q$$D.... k"p (W,. ). Scudom zur ~hichtt:
drr noropa,..,:hm SIo:uJprur ,m \2JJ3.
Jahrhundrn. Vol. 1 Text.
frankfun 1994
BrNc:kamp, H ., RonunJSCiM: Sl<ulpru,
all Exptnmennemld. In.:
HanseW11'p (eds.), Sp;oMhe
K... lUtgeKhochle: Eone Eonfuhrung.
V"I. I: Von dcr S~ram;kt b,s tu'
fruhen Neuwl.lkrhn 1991
Br~klmp. H .. WaUbhn als
Wrsuchung. San Man", III f romlSfa.
In: Kun~tgeschochle - Abn .... ie?
1k,lon 1991
8uddt, R., Deu'SCft Rornaniscloe
SkuJplur 1050-1250. Ph<xographs by

Alben H,rmer ~nd Irmprd

Emlfmt"lCf"tlormer. M ... noch 197'1
BuSma.... , K.. BufKUnd. KunOl.
Gnch~h.e.undschan.

Cologne

19n, 1987
Chitrici, S.. Ro ..... nlKhe Lombardel.
WU'lbur, 1978
Chitrichrtli, S.. Wrona. l1I ustr~.ed
anl~{OC g"" de. Milan, und...ted
CI~ ... _. P. C., Kun~tlennKhnften,
in: Omammta I'.a:~iac:. Edllbo'l()II
cllalosue. Cok>gnt 1985, vol. I.
263ff.
]);nt!, A. K... n~dtnnschnnm ab
Quo:IIe fur Scatul und
Stlbsrvmundnll ron Boldhautm. ,n:
H. Bk. K. H~Durkop (cds.),
Studom lu, Gctchochte drr
noropa.Khm SkulT"ur im 12JIJ.
Jahrhunden. Vol. I Text.
Frankfurr 1994
Dinrelhadotr, P. E... ropiiKhe
M en{aln~"leschochte. s.-urrgan 1993
Dro.le. T . Romanlsche Kun~t III
f'ankll'ich. Colognt' 1989, 1992
Du.by. G., Sc:ulp!"'~. The G~al An of
lhe Middle Ages from.he Fifth 10 rht
F,freemh Cmrury. New York 1990
Dvrlia., M., La sculpture fOm,Inc: til
Rouss.1)on. Vok. IIV. Perpognan
1952-54
Ourllat, M ., RonunJSCbes S~nom.
W"''lbu'1 1995
CO, U.. KUIISI und Sc:honhe" ""
Mmtlallu. Munoch 1991. 1993
Eliade. M ., DM: Religo<>nc:n und d...~
HClh~. l)"mSladr 1976
FtStrJ. H .. Provence, COlt d'Azu,.
DauphlnC, RhOneTal. Rl.ams
Kunnf... hrcr Frankreich. Vol. IV.
StUll"," 1967, 1975
fOllin., H., Das MmeLolru I.
Propyl:im Kumr:gt:Khoch.e. Speoal
aimon. Frankfun, Btrl,n 1990
fOrchtr, Pact and Ol ......
Kunsrdenkrruler III Rom. Vol. 2.
Ib,m~u.dl 1988
Fischer, H. J .. Rom. ZwCltlnhalb
Jahnau:smde Kun .. und KulNr III der
F w'VII Sc.d . Em Rn ...bq~k"cr.
Cologne: 1986
Fo",rr, K. W.. lknt<lmo AnleLom .
Der g'oSe romallIsche Bildhautr
h aloen,. Mumch 1961
Crimme, Eo G .. ColdKhmotdckunu
un Milltlaittr. f onn und Ikdtulung
des Rcllqulars won 800 bos 1500.
Co/Qcnc: 1972
Gurlnmsct., A. j .,!)as Ind;yiduum ,m
M,ndahtL Mun",h 199$
Hti .. rido drr LOwe and Jrint Ztil.
HtrrIC""ft und Reprumu.ion der
Wdfm 1125-1235. Vol. 1-3, ed. by J.
Luckha,dllnd F. Nidooff. Exh,b",on
caulogue Brun~wock 1995. Mun~h

199'

H uiti" S-. J .. HtrMt dH ~lIntlalttrs.

Srullgan 1969
Kauffmann, C.; An~x, B.. Toskana
{ohne Florenz). KunSfdcnkmiler und
MuSftl'l . Redam, Kunstfuhrer halom.
Vol. m . 2, Siullgan 1984
Kauffmann, G .. EmlbaRomagna.

Markm. Umbntn. B.audenk.mler und

MuS'll. Reclams K... nufuhrtr Ilalien.
Vol. IV. Srutlpn 1971, 1987
KnKha, G .. Btncdocrus Amtlaml
oder da, fbT"luenum von Parma.
K... nst und kommunales
StIM",erSl~ndm'. Dlss. Munich 1986
K.,.cr, R., Kleone Weir ,n Etfenbeln.
Dresden 1967
Lester, R., Apuhtn (DuMon. KunS!R~'aduhrerl. Cok>gne 1987
1.tJIer, R. ungutdQc - RouuiJkm.
Voo dtr Rh6nc: bi, .u den Pyll'llam.
Cok>gne 1981, 1985
ltptr, A.; HtnIItr, A. and I., Da.rsclw:
K ... nsc der R0ffi3I1lk. Munich 1982
lyman. Th. Htrely and tbc HIStory
of ManwnmlaJ ScuJpnue In
R0ffi3n<:Squt E... ,ope, Ill: H. Bk. K.
HtngevossDiirkop (eds.), Scudien zu,
~hochlt dtr aotOpalKhen Sk ... lpfU'
1m I2JIl. Jahrhundtn. Vol. I Text,
Frankfun 199~
M(ndt. U.; Hi ......., A. and 01: .....,
Die Broru:~turcn des Mlnclalters
800-1200. Mun~h 1994
Meyer, Schapiro, Roman'Khe KulIS{.
Cologne 1987
MitIw:! , P., Titre ah Symbol und
Omammr. Mogbchkeortn und
Grenttn dtr IkorooogrlpbJSChen
Da.IWIg. ~mgr am IImp>eI dH
Zu",her GroBmUlUlerkmupngs.
Wocsbaden 1979
M,nne-5ive, V Romano",,1w:
KaThC'dnlen und Kunsucharu III
Frank:och. Eltvllle 1991
Monni. I.; Siovani. R., RomanlKhe
Taskana. WUnburg 1983
Pact, V. Kunmlmkntiltr in
SOO,,"loen. Darmstadt 1994
P.Iol, P. dot. Sp,anom. KUIUI drs fNhen
"""d.hers vorn Wesrgmcnrcoch bls
.um Endt drr Romanik. PbQI:ogr:ophs
by Max. Alben and Irmprd H,nntr,
Munoch 1991
PtrOnl, A.. Wih,,.]m<,I von Modena:
Enxterung .um Koot""', Ill: H. Beck,
K. Htngevoss:-Durkop {eds.), SrudJftl
lur Gctchochle dor curopaoschen
5k ... lprur ,m 12113. Jahrhundcn.
Vol. I Te"T, frankfun 1994
Pcttold, A.. RmnanoKhe KunSf. An ,n
Contt"T. Lond"n. Cologne: 1995
i'4:v,ner, N .. llerksh ..e. The Budd,,,,,
of EngLond. Harmoodswonh 1966
i'C>'Iner, N .. WillSh, .... The Bulldi""
of f.ngland. llarmondswonh 1963
I'hilippowidl. Eo von, Elftnbe,n.
Munoch 1961. 1982
Romanik in Minddeutscbland.
Wtrn~ l 994

Rupprecill, B.. R<>rnanlKhe SkuJprur

Frankrn:h. M ... noch 1975. 1984
Schomann, H.. Kunsrdenlunak, ,n drr
Taskana. Darm,ud. 1990
Schomano, H .. lombardri.
KunSldenkm.ile, und Mu....,n.
Reelam. KunSlfuhll'r hali~n. VaL l, t,
Scu"",,, 1981
Scocchi, S., RomanlKM Em,lIa '
Ronugna . Wunburg 1986
Tntlaff,I., RonumllChe Kapntlle ,n
III

fnnkrtich. Lowe und Schlan&e,

Strmc unci Engd. Cok:ognc: 1976. 1992

Wolkmtm. R., Abruucn (DuManl
KunSl Rnscfuhrtr). Cok>gne 1990
Zimmtf1'tloar1fl. K., Umbntn (DuMont
Kunsr Reuoefuhrcr ). Cok>gne 1987

BARBARA DElMUNG
MaiievaJ church ponaJs and Ihtir
imponanu in lhe hiSlory of law

Effnwtn, w.. Doe hroltngoKh

ononuochen Baultll ZU Werden, mi. I,
Scniburg 1899; vol II, Berlon 19U
[ven, H. C .. Too, Mxhl und Ita ... m
III Bereoch der AtChJl~kfUC Munich
1939;2ndedJllooI970
Erltr, A_, Das StraSburger M Linsrtr ,m
Rh.slcbcn dH M,lIelahers.
Frankfurt 1954
Hahnlootr. H. R., "Urk ... nden z... r
Btdtutung des T,;mngs," in
fe$TSChr'ft f... r Er",h Me~r zum
~hllgslm Gtburutag 29. Oktobtr
1957: Sn.>d"'n .... Wtrktn III drn
Sammlungm drs M IUt ... ms fur K... n~t
und Gtwcrbc Hlmb ... rg. HambtJ'1
1959,125_ 146
Wen:bncucrr. O. K., "The Lnlel
F"'I1"""'1 Rtprntnll,,& Eve from
Salllt-l..ua~. Aurun." Journal of Iht
Warburg and Courtaukl insmu.6, 35
(l9nl,I-3O
ClaIl<Stft. P. C., ChanresScud",n: Zur
Vorgt5Choch.c. Funklion und Sk ... lprur
dtr Vorhalltn. Wiesbadm 1975
Vo:nir Bornsttin, c., P"nais and
1'0101"'" ,n the Ea,ly hallan Ciry Sla.e:
The Sc:ulprull' "f Nicholau. In
Con't"t. Parma 1988
8andnoamo, G., Mmelalurloche
AreNlt!cru. al~ BakutuogSfragtL
Ikrlon 1994

EHRE."WRIED KLUCKERT
RomallCS<juc palllrillJ!
Auurno. R.. 0.. Theone drs ScMntn
1m Mmelalttr. Coklgnt 1963
Ba..... G., Corvey oder Hildesht,m.
Zur O(lonischen 8uchmalell" ,n
Norddc:ulJehland. Ham""rg 19n
Ba ..... G.. Abc:ndlandillChe
Grundlagcn und byzanl. EmfluSM: III
drn Zcnlfcn de. weslhdoen
BIIo.;h....,lem, In: Kunsl .... Zoe!uittr
de, K"MOM 1'b.-opb.anu. ~
1993.155-176
ikd<wltb,j .. Dot Kunst des fruhm
M,nelahal. Darmstadt 1967
Br, EoJ., Zur 8ucbrnalem dr.
Z,Sltn..",..... ,m obtrdtut..,hm Gtboer
des 12. und l3.jahrhundtru:
fbukuns. und 8ildkunst ,m Sp~1
InI~m:o""naltr FOf"Khung. FesfIChnn
fil' E. Lo:h mann.lkrhn 1989, 72-87
BcntmeO, P. , Sild und Tu", .... kru,.
Ellie Analnc drr Iktitbllll8en von
U1u~.nll()llll.yklus ... nd T"", ,m
Roland,h..! des pfafftn K.,nnod.

Frankfun 1984
Bloch. P.; Sdlnil1kr. H OM:
OI.onlK~ Kainer 8uchmalern. 2
voIs . Ousseldorf 1970
Blume. 0., Wandm...le,cl als
OrdnYngspr(lpapnda.
Bildp'osnomme im Oorlxffkh
f,anzl$kanIKhcr Konvnnc halifns bis
~ur ANtc des 14. Jahrhunderrs.
Worms 1983
Borindd, K., Doe Anukc on PQOf{lk und
Kunud\e(}roe.2 voIs., Darmstad. 1965
Bornheom; Schilling, W. Bemalle und
gtnYltc urollnllKhc A:rurckrur, In:
DtuIK~ Kuru( und Omkmalpflctr:
J6 (1978). 7-20
BalV'", L. Doe Hunmidskon,gon dnApobIYl*" on dn- Kunst des
Mltf(lahcn. 1937
!konUJ. 0 .. RonumKhe
WandnulerC1. MunICh 1968
Dod,,cll. C. R.: Turner, D. H.
Rcoch.mau Ronsldc,~. 1965
Frodl, W. Austria. Medicval Wall
Paintings. New York 1964
GUts. j., M,"ct..he,hc:he Wandmak,cl
on de. pfalz und on Rhc.lnhesscn. In,
Goes. f. mlltn,heonlKhe
KJ:~hod!tc. 1981
Hamifdlfcvr, E... Doe Bamlxrgv
Apoblypw. s.:Ultpfl 198.
"T"bt: ~ Ap' of the: Anglo-Suon
An 966-IOU, uhlbnion ClItIJosuc.
BrJlJ.h Museum. london 1984
Hauck. K. Karohngosc:hc Taafpfalun
1m Splt&"l hofnahe:r DlChlung.
Gotnngen 1985
Hh J. K., Die fruhmonelaltcrliche
Wandm.lercl dC'll 8o<k~gebicts.
SogmulngC1l 1979

Hnnncb der LOwe unci ICinc Zeit.

C;uaJosuc. for the AU$Ucllung
BrunSWICk (eds. l. Luckhardt and Fr.
Niehoff). Muruch 1995
Hinkle. W. 1.1., Tho: kol\O@r.>phyof
.he apsodal Fresc:o of Mommonllon,
In: Munl1cnner Jah,buch dcr
Slldendcn Kuns. 3. no. 23,
1972. J7-62
H"ffmann, K. Buchkunst und
Kd'''g!um 1m <:>nonlscnm lInd
uhschcn RClCh . 2 voIs., Smnpn
1986
H"ffnunn. K., OM: E.... nse.~uenboldu
des Munchner On... Evanw:1oa ... (Om
4453). Ul, z.,IIKhnft des DeutK""n
Vercms fur KunJlWIJocruchaft.
bit. 1f2. XX. 1966
HoII.inda-. H. Die Kuru( des Fruhm
Mlltcl.ltc.... Snmgan 1978
HuddC1lbroich, J . Tnt und
illustratIon In dc. BerIIQC' HandKh"ft
til" "Enclde" des HClnrich von
Vddeke. Wunoo,g 1985
Hunger, Sltgmiilln- and (>Ihen. Doc
Tcx.ubcrhef~rung <kr anli1ccn
L"eruur und de. Bibd. M mlCh 1975
Imdahl. M. Sprac:hc: und Sild. S,id
unci Sprac:he:. Zur M,mnw' dcr
Gcfang.nlluhmc 1m Codex qtocm, on,
FCSI:sc:hnn fur G. Bon lUm 60.
GcbunSlaJ. Dannuadl 19H7, 15-22
Klan, 1.1 Schopfungsdan:tcUUlIF"
mlllcbhe,llChe:r Wandma .....,...., In
B.aden Wumtmtocrg und in dtr
Nord""hwclL Frcloorg 19112
Klemm. E Das sognlann!le
Gcbctbuch der Hlld~gard \"On 8ongen.
In; Jah,buch der Kunsthosl<:>rischcn
$amml,,"gtn In Wi.n (V'terml) 74

(1978).29-78
KObler. W.; Mulhcrid. f., OM:
urol.ngtschcn MmJaIUfC1l V.
Betltn 1982
Kuhml, E... Drachc:nponale. on,
ullschnft fu, Kunsno.~ssenKhaft vol.
<4 (1950). 1-18
Kuder, U. Oo:r TcpplCh von R.:oycux.
F,ankfurt 1994
Kllpfn. M lI.omanesquc. Wall
PAonnng In Ccmral F"once.
Tho: Pol""", of Narranvc.
New Haven 1993
LanflOKh. K. Poviile des la,nnlK,,",
Mlllcbhel"$. Dannsudt 1965
ManiA. K.. OM: ottonuchcn
WandffC$kcn dcr s.:. Gwrpkin::hc.
RelChcn:ouOhcrull. Sigmanngcn
1975
MayroHaning, H. OnonlK""
Suchrnalerci. Darmstadt 1991
Maul. 0 .. Suchkunst de. Romamk.
Gran! 1978
Miithcrich, E. S.ud,en ll1r
mllldahcrl~hen Kllnst. 800-1250.
Fntsch"ft fUr f. Mutbcrich.
MunICh 198.5
Mllrbadt, E., Zilhs, Zurich. freloo"
I. Sr. 1967
Nitschke. A.. Doc Wcgc <kr TOlen.
Ikobac:hluncm iWr inschcn
Ornamenl1k. on: Fnucrum M.
GoKbruc:h. MunICh 1984.49-60
I.csnct". A. (ed.l. Ornament<> F..ccbou.
Kunst und Kunstler dn- Romanok.
Exh,bition cataloguc Schnu.gcn
Museum. Cologne 1985
No,dcnhagcn. P. J.. St:lldJO"S in
8runton. and Early Medlcnl
Pamnng. London 1990

Pichi. 0 . Tho: prc-Carolm&LJ.n lI.oou

of early Romannquc. An. In: St:udoes
In Wntrm An 1 (1963).67-75
f'Ioluk.J. M . Anfinp' dnOItonlKhen TncrEchtcrnachcr
Suchrnakrcl. in; WalltafRlCharn
Jahrbuch .n (1970), 7-36
PIoluk. J. 1.1 Darstdlungspronzlplcn
m de, OItonlschcn Echtcmuhtr
B...:hmalercl. In: ~hcntr
K"nnblancr41 (1971).181-189
Prins. F. (ed.). Mooch,,,m und
GcKIiKhaft 1m Friohm,"c1altcr.
Oarmuadl 1976
Rudloff, D., Kosmlsc"" Blldwtlt der
Romamk. St:ungan 1989
Schrador. H., Doe romamKhc Ablcrn.
Cologne 1963
Siein. H. Doc roma.mschen
Wandmalernm In der KloucrkJ:hc
P'llkn,ng. Rcgcnsburg 1987
Weilanclt. G., Gcl>thchc und Kun>!.
Em Bellrag ~u' Kuh,,' dt. OItonlKh
uhKhen Reichskirche und IU!
Veranderung kolnstlcmche, Tnd"'011
,m sp.l.en II. Jabrhunden. CoIog.nc.
WeImar 1992
'llli'crkmristn, O. K., lrisch nonhllmOr'schc Buchnulcrct des 8.
Jahrhundcns lInd II"IIOnaSl'SChc:
Sponlllah,at. 1967
'llli'einm..nn. K s.:"dlCS on ClaSl'al
and Byununc Manuscnpt
lIIumona'Km (ed. H. Kessler).
OJCago 1971
\\Oischum.ann. H. RomanIk In B;tdcn
W"'lIemhcrg.SlUngan 1987

Index of
artists' names

Adtmar de Cabannes 377

HugoofFouilloy 438; ,lIus. 440

An~lmo

da Campione JOI
Amolfodi Cambio lOS
Bari... n"$ of Trani J5S
Bemdel10 Antdami 280, 286. J02,
306; ill"$. 302, 305
Ikrnardu$ Gdduinu$ 258
Bo,manQ ofP, ... Ill, 355
Srunll. of Samt-G,lIes-du-Gard 284
Campm,

Ro~rt

326; ,1I"s. 326

Jacobus Roman"$ J08

Jobin, Bernhard 324; in". 324

Konr:od of Aupburg 355

unfnIRcoof MO<kna 9 1, 300; diu,.

30'
Leo of Momccasslno 405
L,uthar of RelChenau 404
Lochner, Stephan 325, 327; ,lIus. 325

CarnplOflrse 30 I

C,mabue 3113, 04

Co.mu "'mlly J08

Co.mu.. Jarobu$ J08
Cos""'I, Lucas J08
Cosmall 305, J08

O,,"io 383, 434

Einhard 35
~.lanu$ofTournu$ 258; illll$. 2$8
Gilabo:rtus of TOlllou~ 280

GiallO 327, 383, 416, 434; illll5. 327

Giovanni da GubbIo 103

Giskbcrrus of Aumn 274, 280, 331,
345; ill"$. 274, 275, JJZ-33J. J4S

Giu<.kno da Como 305; illus. 306

GUido of Arttl'o 85
Godfridu$ ofChauy'gny 336; ,II ....

257,335

lI.hgmardo74
lI.hgistrl KAmdam," 302
Magistrl Keomaemi" 79
Maner Alpa,s ilius. 367
MaSTer of ,he Archangel Mi(:haei of
Sainr-Gilles..d,,Gard 284
Maste. Ikmhard 1M Elder of Sanllago
<k Composlela 289
Master Ikmhard of Sanllago <k
Composlda 289
Mane. Bourln"s of MO<kna 30 I
Mane. of Cabesuny 257, 280-281:
,lIus.28o-281
MaSle. of Ihe C"",,,.,nl levnd 396
Master of Dona Sancha 292; ill"s. 292
Master of SI. Donn,nus of Fi<knza 302
Maue. Mateo of Sanllago de
Compostda 208, 209. 299; ,lIuo.
298
Mane. Matulo of Pomposa 300; ,lIu.

Ma.ter ofOwnTIQn 388

Ma.,er RobenoofLuca 305; illu .

306
Master of Uncasrillo (Ihe $CCond) 293;
illu . 294
Mellini family 308
Neumann . gnat MIChael 46
NlCColod, An~lo 308; dlus. 309
NlCo(a P,sano 305
Nicodemu.of Moscufo 310; ill". 311
Odens,us of Ikne~en,o 355; illus. 359
Odo of Men 32
Otto of A"gsb"rg 355
Pelrus Dumba 214
Ren,erofHuy 3SS
Roben ofJumieges 416
Robert ofSanllagode Compostcla 289
Robenus of Moscufo 310; ,1Ius. 311
Roge. of Helmershausen (Theophdus
Presby,er?) 325, 377, 379, 381;
,1I"s.369
Theoph,lus Presbyter, sec Roge. of
Helmarshausen
Torrili,Jacopo 434
Vusaleno family 308, 309; ,lIu . 309
Vassaleno, Ponro 308; ill" . 309
Vassaleno, fa'M' and son ill" . 30S

300

Harlmann of Coslar 314; ,lIus. J IS

Hollar, Weruel2JJ
Hubsch, Heinrich 46

476

Mauer Nia:olo 302; ,lIus. 302

Mauer Ni(:l>obs of gtrento 310; ,lIu.

BO

Wil,selmu.of Modena 'II. 257, 300,

301-302: ,II" . 301

Index of place
names

A~c""n

17,32,33,35,44,70,74,

216,233,382,383,384,385,391,
400,407,412,421,422,423; ilJus.

33,374,402,407,420,412,423,
425,427
Abinger 250; ,lIus. 250
ACUfO ,lIus. 351
Agnam 396
Aix-.,n-Proven 166, 169
Akos (Ads) 254
Akt-IesBains 165; ,lIus. 165

Akxandru 78
AlmennoSan Bartolomw illus. 29, 81
Alp;rsb~cb 57, 346, 460; ill .. s. 56,

346,350,460
Allon Towers ill .. s. 367
Ah'astra 253

Amalfi 119; i1l1l5. 362

Ambleny 176
Amman 20S

AnagmJ08
AlICona 74

Andaha (nut Soria) 210

An<krnach 66
Angers 225
AngOtJIt'me 156,

In, 266-267; illus.

156,266
Alluoch 422
Allly-le-Due 133, 141; iliu,. 31. 13]
AORa 186,396

Aquilel379
Ardmore 248
Areuo 74, 75, 102, 1 14, Illus. 98
Arbus 252
Aries 120, 166,283,284--286,301,
30S; ili ..s. 30, 286-&7
Aries-sur-Tech ]64,256,258; ,llus.

lS7
Ashburnham ilius. 40S
Ashby de la Zouch 250
Ashley 250; ,lIus. 250
A,,'~'103, 106, 107, 114, ,lIus.103
Ath~ns 406, 422
A.hlone250
Augsburg 355
Aulnay-de-:).),mogne 1S3, 271, 342,
,lIus. 270, 342
Autun 8, 84, lJ 1, lJ3, 274, 2n, 284,
321,330-331,345, illus. 27, 132,
274,275,325,332,333,3-45
Auxerre 120, 1n, 384. 408, 418. 430,
,lIus.ln,408,430
Aval.;," 133
A~ebury 320; illus. 320
Av,gnon illu$. 177
Avila 201, illus. 206, 2!J!J
Babel 453, illus. 453
&acharach 66
Bad Miinslere,fel n
Bad Wimpf~n n
Bambe-rg 40, 62, 325, 326, 404, 444;
iUu . 61, 318, 445
&arlona 180,387,388: ,lIus. 346,
348,353,388,4 10
&arfreSIOO 244; ,lIus. 245
Ball 106, 107, 108,310; illu . 106,
3 10,340
I:\:Isd 40, 60, 61, 62, 110,314, iIlus.
61.316
Sanle Abbey 16, 21!J, illus. 21!J
Sayeux 217, 248. 24!J, 250, 458, 45!J:
,lIus. 218, 458, 459

Beauheu-$ur-Dordognc 329: ,lIus. 328

Bebenhauscn 68
Belkair 388
Bene-'emo 355
Bergamo 114
IIrgen 252
IIrhhJr~ 243
IIrlin illus. 353, 361, 365
IIrmondsey (London) 228: illus. 230
IIrnay 137,139,219:ilIus.1J9
Be..u-]aV,lk 387, 409, 4 12, 418, 419,
,lIus.411
Besahi illus. 18
Besan~on 120
Bethany 320
Binham 238
Bllomo 107,310;,lIus.107,31O
BobblO 400, 405
Bodman 70
Boldov.254
Bologna 117
Boluono/BQu:n iUus. 325
Bonn 64, 338, 412: illus. 66, 336
BordeaUJI 146
Borgund 252; ,lIus. 253
Boruna 98, illus. 99
Braga 198
Brauweiler 391
Brioude 387
BrisloI244,321
Brix~nIBrt:'!I ... no..., 393
Brunsw,ck 67, 326, 355, 392; ilJus.
355.356.377
BUlldwa. 244, 248
Bulzi ,lIus. 99
Burgal388
Burge,slBurguSlo J93
Burgl"cld.... 392
Burgo de Dsma 444: illu . 445
BUrg<>'l196, 200, 215. 294; ,lIu . 370
Bury 51. Edmund. 216, 227. 228. 233.
250,416, illus. 227
Byland 248; ,lIus. 248
Byzamium 108.205,382.383,388,
408. 4 IS. 416, 422
Caootany 257, 280; ,lIus. 280
Ca .... 66, 107, 131,140, 142, 166,
2 19.220.222.226.236.238, iUus.
141,142
uldrgas 387
Cambrid8" 240; ,lIus. 240
Cana. 459, illu . 453
Canterbury ]4, 2 ]6. 2 17, 219, 220,
222,223,224,225.227,236-37,
238,248,250,252,320,388,391,
400,416,42 1; ,lIus. 2]7, 220, 239,
25 I, 320, 390, 391
unn. 396, 405
upprnberg ,lIu . 378
Capua 355
Ca.o;.aSS(lnne 164
Cardona 184, I'll, 192: illus. 184, 185
Carh.Je250
Cashd 248; ,lIus. 248
Castd dd Monte] 14, ,l!u~. 114
Cas.d :).)ntElia di Nepi 396, illu$. 399
Castellane 166
Castelsardo illus. 99
Casldscprio 406
CaSIIe Acre 233, 250; illus. 234, 235
CaSl1e RISing 250
CaSlor 243, illu . 243

CatalaitaZQr 180
CaunesMlntrvo" 165
Cefalu 111, 111,396,412,419, ,lIu .

'"

Centula 36
Ceri.y-!a-ForeI140, ]44,ilIus. 143
Chapa,u 122, 123. 124:illu. 123
Charlieu 272-274, 342: illus. 272,
273,341
Chartres 286
Chatillonsut-Scme 121, 122
Chauvigny 153,336,343: ,lIus. 257,

Cheb255
ChepslOw 250
Chert..,y 240
Cherval illu . 29
Cht"S[~r 219, 235
ChlCh.-slC' 219, 233, 320, 321, illu$.
235,321
Cbristchurcb 238
c'leaux 68, 119, 134,207
CiVllle 396, 405, 43 1, 434, 444; ,lIu .
431,436
Civ,dalc 79, iltus. 79
Civray 153,267, illus. 267
Clairvaux 210, 2B
Clayton39 1
ClermontFerrand Ill, 149, ISO; illus.

'"

Clonicf1 248
CLuny 7, 8, 9, 12,46,53,56,68,84,
102, 118. 121. 122, 124, 126, 130,
131,133,134. 164,166,180,187,
]96,207,212, 2n, 274, 277, 386,
387,391,400,428; iIlus. 274
Cluny 11 56, 121, 122, 126, 130, 13 1,
133,139,164,228
Cluny 111 102, 1 ]9, 126, 129, 130,
131,133,139,142,166,225,233,
258, illus. 118,128,129
Coimbta 197, 198, 199, illus. 198.

'"

Cokhesler 238, 250

Cologne 37, 42, 44, 52, 58, 63, 66,
3 12,321,361,391,404,41$,419,
427,442,449; illu$. 16,26,28,31,
38,52,
64, 3-46, 347, 3-49, 353,
365,375,377,379, 41S, 419, 443,

n.

44"

ComQ 79, 82, 186, illu$. 31, 84

Conl$brough 250; illus. 25 1
Conques-en-Rouergc 144, 145, 146,
149, ISO, 188,289,327,329,336,
343: ,lIus. 145, 147.327,329-331,

'"

Consla""" 17,40,50,404; illus. 36

ConSianunople 33, 74, 75, 78, 388,
396, 40S, 406, 409, 422, iIJus. 404
Coplord391
Corbie400
COrdoba 179, 180, ] 83, 210, 387
CorneiUa-de-Conflent 164
Corntng (N.Y., USA) 377
Concy 36, ilJu$. 37
Cosmwin 94
Crwiton 219
Crmlona91,32S
Cunault 154, 164;111u$. IB, 154
CunC(l396
Curwinsk 255
DarmSladl415

477

DaZQvice 255
Diako'"~ 255
DijQn 81, 121,216; illus. 122
DiMn2S0
DiStntis 3S
DQh:!ny2SS
DQI2S0
DQnzio illus. 361
DQrct.e.lec 2 19, 222
DQ""'laFomai"" 174,250
Dresdtn 317
Druyn-les-Bdles-Footames 176; ,llus.

'"

Dryburgh 249
D...,iias 288
Dunfermline 248; ,llus. 249
Dunwich 238
Durham 219, 235, 236, 238, 240, 248;
,llus. 27. 236-237
Durro388,400
Eberbach 68
Eboucum 225
.chillais 154
Echtemach 400, 404. 424
!:ger 254
Einsitddn 56
Eke 397; illus. 397
1'.1"" 10, 16'1;illus.10,278
Ely 219, 228, 238, 24 1, 244, 321;
,llus. 228, 229, 323
Embrun 164
Emmaus illus. 362
Empolt 102, lOs; ,nus. 95
Ephesus 78
Erron 325
uStn 44, 391; ,lIus. 26, 42
uslingen 12
Eszlerg<>m 254
~tampt'S 174
Eunate 210; illus. 210
Ev<"$ham230
~vora 197, 1",205
Ex"'er219,240
Externsteine 313; illus. 313
Frcamp 222. 238
Feldtbro2S4
Fenooux ,lIuI. 10
Ferrara 84, 302, 324, 326; illus. 302,

325
Fiden .... 302; ,llus. 303
Fieso'" 97
Finstrom 253
~lav'gny.ur-Oura'n 120; ,llus. 28
Florence 91, 94,95, 97, 102, lOS, 108,
114,280; illus. 91, n, 93. 117,304.

Fontdroide In;illus.ln
Fontenay 119, 134, 170, 112,244;
,llus. 27, 134,246
fomevrauh 154, 156, 157, 159, 177;
illus.157
Founta,ns 244
Founta,ns Abbey illus. 119,246
frankfurt am Ma,n 16.35,324,325;
illus.324
f=kenhorsl 34, 314; illus. 38
Freiberg 317; illus. 317
freiburg 62, 12, 317, 326; illus. 12,
317,326
Freising 339; illus. 337
Fr<'jus 166, 169

478

Freudtnsladt illw. 3 19, 350

Fribourg 12
Fromista 194, 199,256,288, 292,
342,344; illus. 193,257,290--291,

3<3
Fulda 35, 400, 423, 424; illul;. 36, 425
fumeS!5 248

c,....a 308
Galliano 396, 405
Gdnhau~n 70; ,llus. 70, 314
(1 ...,,'a 120
c",r illu$. 353
c",rasa 450; illus. 450, 451
c",rm'[tJIy-Pm 35, 128, 3M, 428;
ilIus.384
c",rnrode 37, 40, 43, 312-3 13; illw_
39.40,312
c",rona 388
Girono 183
G,sors 174
Glastonbury 244
Glendalough 248
Gloucester 219, 227, 230. 23 1. 232.
235; ,llus. 23 1
Gniano254
Goldbach 392
Gomorrah ilIus. 453
GosLar 70, 233. 314, 324, 391; ,llus.
71,315
Goth<:> 250, ,llus. 250
Gonwe'g449
Grafschaft 16
GraSS<" 166
Gra,"t'done ,1Ius. 23
Greal Malvern 230
Greal PaxtOn 217
Guebwiller61
GumlOsa25J
Gu.k393,415
Gyubfehirv~r 254
Haguenou61,n
Halberstad. 62, 63; illus. 62
Hamar 252
Hammarland 253
Ha.dham391
Hastingll08, 217, 218, 250, 459
Ht'darrd 2H
Ht'dingham 250
Heidelberg'llus.326
Heiligenkreuz 405
Hdmarshau~n 38 1; illus. 369
Hen Domen 250
Hereford 219, 216, 232; ,llus. 226,
227,233
Herfan 219
Hersfdd SO; illus. 50
Hildesheim 16, 17,40,42.4,1,44.48,
H. 63, 84, 312, 321. 391; ,Uus.20,
21.25,40,41. 315, 354, 357, 3n
Hirsau 50, 56, 57, 62, 63, 67 . 392;
illus.56
Hi.\chst35
Holub,ce 255
Houdan 174; illus. 174
Huriel174
HU$,lrby 253
Hyere 164
Jfney 244; illus. 245, 312
Igu'kel288
Ingelheim 70, 384

Inver fO,"I2S0
lssoire 149, 198;illu$. ISO
J~ca

191, 192, 194, 288,292, illu$.

191,292
J.ik 254; il!us. 254
Jarrow421
Jedburgh H I , 248-249; ,1lU$. 249
Jeri<:how 67, dluJ. 67
JerpOlm 248
Jtrusa"'m 75, 79, 82, 97, 98, 121, 146,
178,209,240,312,314,320,334,
387,435
Jervaulx 248
Jumirgn 107, 1 10, 139, 140,217;
,llus. 138
Kalocs:o 254
Kalundborg252; iIlus. 252
Kuden ,Ilus. 12
Kaslellaz 438; illw. 439
Kells 400, 421; iilus. 421
Kelso 248
Kcmpley391
KemM,m illus. 25
Kilpk 244, 321, 322, 339, 342; illuJ.
323,337,343
Kirksta1l244,248
Kladruby 255
K"'illkomburg illus. 20
Knn:htSfrden 391; ,llus. 391
K6niglluner 63, 300; ,Ilus. 63
Koprzywl1Ia. 255
Krakow 254; ,llus. 255
Krunwica 255
Ky~ (near Pragut) 255
La Chaiu-IeVi<:omle 341: dlus. 34 1
LaChariti-sur-Loire 126, 128, 133,
145;illu$.126
La Stu dUrgelllg4, 186, 189.214;
illu$. 186
Lambach418
Lalla 393
Lalldsberg 71; illus. 71
Langeais174,250
LangrCli 122
Laon66,248
Lautenbach 61
Lavaudi~u 387; illt". 387
I.e Ik<; 220, 223. 235
1.0: Mans illw. 373
1.0: Puy 146, 188
1.o:Thoronet In, 173;i!lu$.173
Ubmy2S4
1.o:ict5tet$hi.~ 250
1.o:iden 377
LeomtnSler 243; ,lIu . 243
LeOn 180.194. 196.199.206.259,
288,289,324,388, illu . 289, 362,
363,389
lesSaimes-Manes..:le-IaMer 167,
284;illus.167
lessay 144
1.o:wes 228, 233, illus. 235
Ltc:hfield 219
Li~ 8, 355; iIlus. 355
Limburg all der Haardt SO; ,]Jus. 51
Lmburg an der Lahn ,lIus. 65, 66
Limoges 144. 146, 188; iilus. 367,

373,3n
l.incoln 219, 222, 235, 243, 250; ,lIus.
221

Lind,damc 235, 238. 400; ,l1us. 239,

."
Lsblerg illu$. 366
Lisbon 197,198, 199; ,Ilus. 199
Lleida (Urida) 212, 214. 215; illu .

'"

Loarre 192, 194,288;illu . 192

Lodi illus. 304
Lorn 252
London 2 17, 218, 219, 220, 224, 227,
233.244.250,320,321; illw. 2 17,
224,233.243,244.250
Lorsch 33, 34, 430; ,lIu . 34
Ltibeck 12
Lucca 94, 108.305,339,346; ,lIus.
98,306
Lund 252, 253; ,llu . 253
luxMlil400
Lyon 16.430.432
Mdrid292
Magdtburg 40, 43, 325
Matnz4O, 49, 57, 60. 61, 64, 70, 326;
illus. 48, 49
Malay illus. 6
MalleslMals 384, 393; illus. 385
Malmesbury 244, 321; ,lIus. 323
Mantua 405
Marburg II
Muc:evol 164
Mafia laach 58. 64; ,llus. 22, 59
MaflrnbergIMonte Mafia 393
M .. flemal (near Hdmstedt) illus. 340
MannOutlCr 53; ,llus. 54
Marse,lles 166
M~ulb(OIl1l68, 212; illw. 26, 68, 69
Mdlillfonl248
MdroseH8
MeranolMua1l384,393
Merseburg 313, illus. 313
Metz400
M,ku!cicc 2S5
Mdan 79, 82,95,106,114.117,361,
396; il1us. 82. 116,117
M,levsko 255
M,"d~n 37; ilIus. 39
MLllail35
Modell .. 84. 88. 9 1. 94, 107, 108.257,
300,301.302: ,llus. 86, 88, 301
Mohelnl2S5
MO'l\c 146. 259-262. 265, 284. 286,
294,344, ,llus. 260-263, 344
MOfl:lsm-delCamp 165
Moo.eale 112; illus. 112
Mont-SaulI-MlChel 107,139, 140.
219,220;,llus.140
Monukino 102
MontePedale431
Monte S,ep<' 97; ,lIus. 94
Mont>:cassino 102,llg, 119, 128.
387,396, 40S, 406. 412; illus. 118
Montefiascone 74
Momierellder \21, 136
MommajQur 166, 169; illus. 166
Mootmo.illon 408; illw_ 408
Montoiresur-Cher 386; iUu$. 386
Mortrueb 207. 210, 212; illus. 213
Moscuio 310; illus. 311
Much Wcnlock 244
MtinSlcf 325
Murbach 53. 223; ,Uus. 55
Murrhardt il1us. 30
Mumn 12

Ml.Ut,lIr 35. 384, 393, 406, 407, 451;

IUUS. 12. 35, 395. 4{)7
Nam 450; ,Uus. 443. 451
Narbon..., 172
NalurfM)/NaIUrf\J 35, 384, 393;
IUus.385
Ncuss 66; ,Uus. 30
Never,/N,evreI126, ]28, ]49, 150,
165; ,lIu" 116
NKca3U
NilmrgHl70
N,yrl\es 121, 136; ,lIu,. 27, 136
NQnh fJm~m 238
NorwICh 219, 226, 228, 236, 238,
241,250; ,lius, 238
Noumllrlm 253

Nonr.3'n
Noyon I ....
NuremberJ 326
Nylbla 253
Nykfr 252
Nylarsker 252
OIxrt.hnSle,n 72
Obmui72
Old Saturn 222, 223. 240; ,lIus. 222
OIoron ,lIus. 325
0101: ,lIu,.348
0lskfr252
Opa.6w255
OraOW 283
Owa 103.306; ,1Ius. 307
Orclnl 14':1; ,UUl. ]49,352
Or5fansJ5. 136.384
OrvlC1o 114
Oska 254
Osl3yany 255
Oslo 252
0s$q8255
Osfabn 146
Osr<:.larskfr 252; IItUS. 252
Onmars/>e'm ...... 216; illus. 43
o"Jedo I n"lIus. 179
Oxford 241. 244
Padrrborn 44, 313, 325; Illus. 45. 324
Padron (In ~1a""II46
Pa~rmo 108. 110, III, 112. 114, 205,
38S. 396, 406, 412; IUUI. 110, 3~,

'"

Pamrlona 187,293; illus. 293. 371

Pannonhalma 254
ParayieMonlal 131; IUUS. 130
Paris 176, 382, 428, 460
Parma 84, ':II, JOl, 305. 367. 373;
IUUI. 86, 305
PaloSau325
Pamxboumr 244; ,lIus. 244. 245
Paulllwdia 57; ,lIus. 57
Pay.. 79, 84, 106, 186,220; ill ..... 23.

8S
Pa~nM:

124. 126; Illus. 124

Pia 254; IlIu,. 254
I'I:n8l>eUX 146, 156, 159; IlIuI. 158
Perptgnan 257, 280
Pe"yIe!;Fo,8t'S 324
Pershore 230, 23 1; Illus. 232
Pelerborough 22g, 238, 24]; illus. 242
Pe,erlhau$tn 17
Pia,enu 91
p,llJ 254
p,sa 74, 91, 94, 97, 98,102,107,108,

112.305; ,lIul. 'n, 97

P1xk397
PlJlOIa ':1-4. 102, 108; ,Uus. 94
Plur 255
~hey250

Pobkt 212
POI"en 146, 153, 156, 159,205.266,
261.408; ,lIus. 23, 159,267,269
Po1tro...,405
Pompota 78, 79, 81, 82. 85. 95, 114,
300; ,UUl. 78, 300
Ponngny201
Portchem'. 250; IJIUS. 251
Porto 198
Porto Torrn ,lIus. 99
Poman254; dlus. 254
Pra81>e 255. 405; ,UUI. 255
PrII079,94, 102, 114; illus. 95
Provlns 174;,lIuI.175
Prufffl'", 393. 449
"""nlede la Rtma 146, 188;,lIul. 188
Pur" 438; IIIUI. 438
Puyperoux 266
Quu"Rle 164
Quedlmburs 62, Illus. 62. 315
Ramsbury 222
Rarosne IUU'. 351
Ramborl,lIus. 67
Ravenna 17,33, 74. 75, 79,32.102.
114, lOO, 3~, 406, 451; iIIus. 7$,

Read,", 243, 320

R~burgS.16.40,

72,316.324.
392,400,404; ,1Ius. 72, 317, 429
Reidlenau 34. 392, 393, 404. 424,

...

Rl\Chenau Mlllel~dl

44

R~\ChenauNie.:leIU11419; iuus. 419

Rek:hell~uObtl'1tll SO, 392. 442. 450.

451,452,457: ,1Ius. 42, 450, 45 I

RellTlS 121, 1J6,1J9,140,145,216.
386,391,400,416,422.423,427;
.1Ius. 1J7,422
Rmnes250
Rcun40S
Rnnhngm72
Revello 396
Rhuddlan 250
R,IIe 252: ,lIus. 252
Rlbeauville 72; dlus. 73
Roesc:nbk (near Tklenburg) 3 13;
,lIus. J II
Roeux M1II~rvOlS 169: illus. ]6~, 280
ltICYaulx 244: IlIlK. 247
Roe~ 16~

R'np.e.:I252
Roou1l267; ,l1us 268
R,p255
Rlpoll 180, 181. 183.214.293; ,lIul.
180,295
R,vol,a d'Adda 342; IlIu$. 24, 339
Roche 144, 248
Rochtsfe. 219, 223. 224. 228, 240.
250: IIIUI. 222, 223
Rome 17,34, 3S, 74. 75, 79, 82, 108,
114, 1l0, 140, 146, 18 1,220,308,
334,382,384,396,400,405,406,
409, 41l, 411, 418, 422, 434. 451;
,lIus. 89. 90, 91. 114.lO8.lO~, 351.
398,412,43~

Roma253

Romalnm6t1C1" 122;,II\1S. 123

Ronuq 240, 2-41, 320; ;nus. 241
Roshnm 61, 72; ,11"$. 60
Rosk,ldr 252: .lIus. 252
Rouen219,225
Ro"ffach 61
Ruew,lIerg 326
Sulfdd 16
S:occargta 102
5.oh.,Un 196, 197; illul. 196, 197
S;llm Ouen 219
5.o1ll1A0gn3n-surCIM:,386
Sa1ll1AndrC-dc..somk 258
SalnlAmon1ll ,lIu . In
S;llnl!enoit-su,.lo,.., 16, 1l8, 133;
IlIu . 22, 127, 129
S;lInlBertnnd-dt.CommlngQ ,lIul.
161
5.o,n.SIaIM' 210
5.o1ll1Chef 387, 432, 434; IUUS. 118,

m
S;IlRlDrnl' 17, Ill, 144,220,227,
400.460; illu$. 460
Sa1ll1Dona.164
s..llll--G~bllellllu . 167
S,"nlGm.. -defonlaUitl 165,257,
258; .lIul. 258
Sa1ll1Gllles-du--G;ord 146, 166, 188,
283-284,286,300.301.324; ,lIul.
282-285
Salnl.(;uilhem.... D.:sert 146, I~:
,1I,,1. 162, 164
Sa'n'Hlt.i...IAudr 281; mu . 281
Sa1ll1Juhen-dt.}QlUy 274; ill" 272
Sa1ll'Ju,d,r.Vakabrmillus.160
5.o,nlMartln-deBoschtrvdle 144
S:oln.Mar"n-defCnouilla.d 387
Saln,Marnndtlondrts 166: illu$. 25
S:o,n,Marlln-d,,Cantgou 121. 164;
.lIu 162, 163
Sa1ll1M~"rlCe-dApune 121
SalmMocheldr-Cuxa I~. 180, 186,
278;,1Ius.182
Sa1ll1Mochd-d'En''''rgucs Illus. 20
Sa,nlNraa,.., 149, 150; diu . 151
Sa'n'.PIlllben-de.(;"'ndl ..... IlI,145
Sa1ll1P't.ncard 387: dlus. 386
Sa,n,Qu.mlln..oe.Rancannes 342
S:o,n,Rfmy-deProvtrlof;l: 284
SarnlSavtn.urGanempe 153. 164.
386,387,452,453: illus. 152.
453-455
SalnlSe.'c. 24; m"s. 2 4, 446-447
Sa.mes 146.271; ilIus. 17,271
Salanuoca 199,200,201, 202, 205,
214.215: ,lIus. 29. 201. 205
SalemCl IlIul. 362
SalISbury 219,222
Sallb"... 384, 3')3, 397. 448
S:on CaKiano Val d. Pesa 280; ,1Ius.

28.

San Esleban (Andon-a) 388

5.on G,rntgnllno 114; dlus. 115
SanJuandrIaPenatllu. 187
Sl.n Juan dr Orteg;l ill"s. 146
San MI8uei ,n Exe1S1S Illus. 371
Sail l'e.:I.o de Roda 183- 184. 192.
194:llIuI.181.281
San]'lC1ro1llValle,ll .... 100
Sl.n Salvaoordc: uyre 186, 187; dlus.
186
San Sl.Jvaoo.dr Ta.-ara 405

Sang","" ,Uus. Jl9

SantAngoelo ,n Formis 396, 409. 412.
416,419,429; oIl .... ~, 409, 417
Sant'Annmo ]02;,lIus.lOO
Santa Cruzdr t. Se.6s 292
Sanies C..,U$ 21~ 214; illu. 2 12
Sanlla80dc: O:>mposlda 9. 126, 128.
144,145,146,178,187,188,189,
191, 194, 1~6.198, 19~.200,201,
205,206,207,208,209,210,226,
25?, 2n, 288, 289, 299, 322, 334,
342,343;iIlO5.I46, 189, I ~, 191.
1':1-4, 196,288.298,342
SaRlO Domtnso de s.1oI.(~) dillS. 9
Sau],,,u 2n: IIIUI. 275
Schaffha,""" 57
S.:hortm.$ollensrt<k ;nu . 20
So;h ... abtsch Gmund 72
So;h ... ablKh full 72
So;hwanrheu..,iorf 63,391,412,413,
418,419,435: ill .... 64, 4 ]3, 4 18,

m
Sedl 255
Stgovia 209, 210: ill"$. 210. 2 11
Selby 240
Sell.'Stal61
Se1tgrnsudf 3S, 36; IlIus.3S
SeIJq219,233
Smtu,.".,8rionna's 10,274: ,1I"l. 10,
30,272
SENnque 170, 172;.Uus.l70
Sentis 144
Sen,248
Senabone 165, 184. 278; ,\Ius. 183,
278,279
$eo dUrgeli 388
SIIe.bo.ne 216. 2 19. 222
Sqb"rg 16; IlIu5.360
Sigena 388
S'glun~ 253
S,]~h451

Silos 196,200,294-299; dlus.

296-297,338,370
SolvxaM 170.172;oIlus. 170-171.
Sltara 253
Sodom ,Dos. 453
SoQI 44. 391, 393, 414. 415. 416,
418,419,432; Illus. 45, 414. 432
Soouon. 144,400,412,423. IUUS.
402,423,425
Solsona387
Sofia 206; illus. 207
$oru 252
Souillac 262, 265, 338: ,11"1. 264-265
Soulhwell240, 241; ilIus. 241
Spc'yer Il, 36, 46, 48, 49. SO, 53, 57,
58,60.63,226.233.253; ,UUI. 28,
30,46,48
SJeIkappel .l1uI.31. J 15
SpoIeto 103. lOS, 106,305; IlIu . 103,
105,307
St. AltN.n. 219, 224, 288, 238; ,U"l.
22J
St. And..,w. 249
SI. 81asom 56
S,. Dav,d's 248
SI. Evroul249
ST. Gall"n 17,34.35.43. J 18. 400;
IlIus.34,118
Stamfo.d 8.idK<' 2 18
Slad IIokst.v 255, 391
Stavanger 252
Slembach (near MichelsTadl135, 36;

,HUI.. 36
SfOckbolm 39', ,llUll. J66
Slow 217
Sln.sbou'140, SO, 61, 62, 324, 413,
,Hus. 324
Srrulno255
S... b'aoo 301
S... kJ6w2SS
S... I~b"''144, ,II ..... 31
Suktsfehlrvar 254
Szcksdrd 2S4
Sum8ouh',d 254
Talmon.,II ... ,.I55
Taralron 167
Ta,broJ87
T.rngona 212, 214, 21S: ,litIS. 214
Tan~II250

Taun {T.hull, Tah ... IIJ 186, 346, 388,

409: ,U ... 183, 346, 388, 410
Tnall.386
TcpU 255
Tewknb ... ry 230, 231, 232, 233: ,llu

2J2
Thnfotd21~,2JI

Thum 2SS: illu . 25S

Tihally 2S4
Ting<'ls.ad 2S2
Tin~rn 244
Ti5ma 25S: ,lIus. 2SS
Tio.now lSS
Tivob 308
Tokdo 179, 1~6, 215
Tomar 209: ,II ..... 208,211
TopanQ2SS
TOfO 199, 200, 202,20S, 206 214,
21S: ill ... s. 201, 202, 203,
Torln dd Rio 20~, 210, illus. 211

48.

TouiwK-102, I4S, 146. 149, 188.

226,258, 26S, 281, 336; .11us.. 29,
141.259
TournaI 144:,UuJ. 144
To ... rnus48, 121.122.123, 12<1, 126,
128. 133, 145, 2SI; ,lIus. 125, 258,

To un 32,S3. 121, 14.5, 146. 149, 188,

386.400,404.456: illuo. 456
Tounour 113
Tram,nfTcrmeno 393, 438
Tran, 107,108: ,Llus.108
Tra~tcvc", 94: ,lIus. 90
TrtbK255
T~r (TfCVft) 32. 40. 44. 3S4, 38.5,
400,4<14.42<1.427: ,Hus-D, 403,
407,424
Tnme396
Tnfels (near "nnweder) illUl.. 13
Tro,a 108,355; ,lIlIS. 107, 3S9
Trondhe,m 2.52; ,111,1 2.52
Trusmcnno 2SS
Tunn 396
Turk... 253
TUfCIn,.,II ... s.105
Ulm72
Unasullo 293: ,llus. 294
Uppsala lS3
UrTItS 2.52; ,1Ius. 252
lh~hr400.416.42J

VlIlOn-1a RomaIlJC 166

V.knell 32<1
V,knzano 106;1l1u5. lOS
V,Uadol,d dlus. 44S
Varnhem 253
Vaucan422

Vckhrad 25S
Vtnuque 169; ,lIlK. 168, 169
Vena 76, 78,84.106,1.56,159,363,
396,406; ,lIlK. 76, n, 158,396
Venou 108
Verdun 120
Verona 8S, ~I, 302: ,llus. 8S, 304, lS8
Vent'uulltktr=t 254
Vkzprim2S4
V~lay~, 133, 14], 146, 188, 208,

2n,283:,Hu. 133,276,2n
Vibo'1 252
VIC 180,183
VlChJ87
Vttnna 3n. 422, 435. 4.52. 456; ,Uus.
422,448,4S6

V_IX 120
Vipry 136
Vi,oIo Man:hest 81. 82: ,Hus. 80
Vikwy" lS2
Vi1hnscn 72
Vy""hard40S
Wachok 255
W:ahh,m 21~, 240: iIlus. 220
Warcham 217
Waverky244
Wnrmoulh421
Well,219
Wcnlex-k228
Werden 44. 324, 326. 391: oIlus. 324
Wmmln'lll...- (London) 217, 218, 219,

22.

Wimbome 243
Winehe5lcr 219, 225. 228, 23S, 244,
388,391,400,416; ,111,1 225, 226
Wincrtn, 217
Wolfellbund 3n: illus. 380, 429

Won:ettrr 219. 227, 230. 231. 232.

23S, 320; ,Hus. 2JO
Worktop244
Worms 60, 61, 67, 325, 326, 41S;
,111,11. S8, 326
W"nk 250
Wrodaw2S4
W ... n:burg 32S, 400
Wymondham 238
York 219, 224, 225, 228, 233, 2<18,
250; ,lIlK. 225

Zibori 255
Zamon 199.200,201.202. 20S, 206,
208,21<4,215, ,II.... 200, 201
Z,ILt, 391, 393: ,IIUl1. 393, 394
Z,~2S4

Znoimo25S,397
ZUmbt!k 254; 1111,11.
Z~d40S

25~

Acknowledgements

The great majOrlfY of photographs nOi

he", have bn ~pecially taken

for lh,. book by Athim SWIIOn:. He
,,"as commisslonw by the publishers
10 phOlogr.lph Romanesque archltecli~IW

lure throughout Germany. frar>ee,

Italy 311d Spain. Klaus Frahm look the
new photograph. '" Engbnd (sec.
btlow).
The publishers would like 10 thank all

the museums. arch;",:. and pholOgraphers Ihal ha"c assisted III 1M preparaIIQn of rlu. book and have gIVen kllld
permi.OIon for
photographs 10 be
"prod"""d:

'M"

Adam. Hdmul: 438

Anckn, Jarg r.: 353 "sht, 414 bonom

Bahm, Osvaldo: 77 bonom, 396

B.,...,ham Wood, Heru, MrQfilm Ltd.

'1'

Calve.as, j ordi; Sangristii, Joan: 346,

348,353 left. 388, 410
Charpy, Jtan-Jacquts: 422 kft
Domkapi tal Aachm (Folo Munchow):
() iIlus. 374 bottom Ht and "sh'

FT2hm, Klaus: 221, 222, 223 Ith.

righI, US, 21710P righI, boIlorn,
22810P, OOI'lOm, 229, 230, 231,
2J2 Idl, righI, 234, 2J6 lOp,
bolfOm. 237, 2J81dl, ecmer, nghl,
2J9 oonom, 240, 241 lefr, eemer,
"gIll, 242, 243, 244, 245 lOp lefr,
lOp nght, bonom lefr, oollom nght,
246 lop, bollom lefr, bollom "ghl,
247 lOp, bonon., 251, 320 lOp,
center. bouom, 321 lefr. righI, 322.
32J TOp, bollom lefr, bo!fOm "gh!,
39O,391!op
C G~lIim~rd - Dcssin Jacques Pnson
(maps]: 146,462,463,464,465
G~lIim~rd - PIlOlO Piere
Belze~uxlR ~ph.o: 372
Gallim~rd - PIlOIO Jean 8 emaud: 460
bonom
Gallimard - PIlOIO Robcn Emmet
8righIl R~ph.o: 362 righ!
Gf2mlM'i: 364 bouom
John Gibbons Studios: 8 left, center
Kersting, A, F.: 224, 239, 249, 250
Kim, Bernd: 378
LandesbildSlc1le B~den: 68 tOp

LandesbildSTdle Rheinland Pfall: 5 I

top righT
Liepc:, }iitgen: 365
M clean, Alick: 92 TOp "ghl, 99
Monhcim, Florian: 69 tOP
Mues-Funke: 361 left
Nalional Monu menls Rtrord: 227
tOp left
C PIloto R. M. N .: 373 lOP
C PIloto R. M. N. _ Arnaude.: 367
bottom left
Psil",: 364 tOp
Rhei nisches Bildarehiv: 369, 375,
376,377 lOp
Scab: 75 TOp light, 76. 90 tOp. 103
left. 110 left, right. lllTDp "ghl,
bottom "ghl, 11210p lefr, lOp
rlgllI, botTom, 113,280 top right.
305,35 I rrghT. 398, 431. 436
Zodiaque: 78, 82, 85 boltom, 88, 98
lefr. 140, 141 centcr. righ., 1421efr,
"SIll, 199,208 right, 3J9Iop, 370,
413 right

481