valid for describing a Gaussian distribution such as RJ. Moreover, a simple RMS
or peak-to-peak number cannot sufciently describe the characteristics of different types of jitter. Overall, we need
more-accurate jitter and noise models to
allow better predictions and characterizations of devices subject to jitter effects.
One difculty with jitter analysis is identifying the different jitter components contributing to TJ.
Deconvolution algorithms such as the TailFit algorithm
can separate TJ into its random and deterministic components.2-4 Another method uses a real-time sampling
oscilloscope to capture the timing information of each
edge transition in a data stream. Proper techniques can
then extract jitter parameters directly from the acquired
data set. We can further decompose DJ to model the different impacts of its subcomponents on link performance. This article presents models that allow for such
further jitter decomposition.
Editors note:
Gigabit data rates in high-speed interconnects require careful modeling of
jitter and its effect on the bit error rates. This article presents a comprehensive
analysis of jitter causes and types, and develops accurate jitter models for
design and test of high-speed interconnects.
Dimitris Gizopoulos, University of Piraeus
302
Jitter definition
Jitter is the deviation of a signals timing event from
its intended (ideal) occurrence in time, as shown in
Figure 1a. Traditionally, an eye diagram, like that shown
in Figure 1b, has served to specify signal integrity limits,
including jitter. Its possible to express jitter in absolute
time or normalized to a unit interval (UI). A UI is the
ideal or average time duration of a single bit or the reciprocal of the average data rate. An eye diagram is a
composite of all the bit periods of the captured bits
superimposed on each other relative to a bit clock
(recovered or available from the source). We call the
area within the eye the eye opening.
Ideal
timing
event
Periodic jitter
(PJ)
(a)
Data-dependent
jitter (DDJ)
Bounded uncorrelated
jitter (BUJ)
Jitter
Duty-cycle distortion
(DCD)
Intersymbol
interference (ISI)
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303
xs
PDFleft
PDFright
0.5
0.5
xs
Figure 3. Obtaining the bit error rate from the total jitter
probability density function.
1 PDFLeft ( x )d ( x ) +
1
BER( x s ) = CDF ( x s ) = x s
PDFRight ( x )d ( x )
Random jitter
The following subsections discuss the types of noise
that cause RJ and how engineers model RJ.
Causes
304
J RJ ( x ) =
( x )2
2
2
where JRJ(x) denotes the RJ PDF, is the standard deviation of the Gaussian distribution, and x is the time displacement relative to the ideal time position. Hence, a
Gaussian RJ is completely specified by a single parameterits standard deviation.
Deterministic jitter
The next subsection discusses how system component interaction causes DJ, and the subsequent ones
present a model for each DJ subclass.
Causes
DJ arises from the interaction of different system components. Its major causes include electromagnetic interference, crosstalk, signal reection, driver slew rate, skin
effects, and dielectric loss.3,10 Electromagnetic interference
is the interference from radiated or conducted energy that
comes from other devices or systems. Such radiation can
induce currents on signal wires and power rails, and alter
the signal voltage biases or the reference voltages.
Impedance mismatch between the cables or traces
and a terminating resistor contributes to signal reflections. As a signal propagates and reaches the receiver,
part of the signal energy reects back toward the transmitter. Its possible to estimate the percentage of reected energy relative to signal energy.11
%reflect =
Z L ( ) Z ( )
100%
Z L ( ) + Z ( )
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10
305
Duty-cycle distortion model. The sum of two functions can represent the jitter due to DCD.2
Modeling
deterministic jitter
We assume that DJ
magnitude is bounded.
The following subsections
x
(x W/2)
(x W/2)
present a jitter model for
each DJ subclass. We
have written a MatLab
Figure 5. Probability density
program that simulates
function for duty-cycle distortion.
signal behavior through a
hypothetical transmission
medium modeled by a linear filter with a nonlinear
phase response. For our study, the filter contributes a
signal amplitude distortion, thereby simulating the
amplitude noise and frequency-dependent phase delay
generally encountered in a transmission system. For this
reason, the specic accuracy of the lter model and the
models effects on the transmission medium are not critical. The filter we used in our study has a cut-off frequency of 2.1 GHz and rise and fall times of 0.25 ns.
Signal value (V)
0.5
1
0
1
0
5
Time (ns)
5
Time (ns)
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Time (ns)
0.6
0.7
(a)
1
0
1
(b)
1
0
1
No. of occurrences
(c)
0.15
0.20
(d)
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
Time (ns)
0.45
J DCD ( x ) =
W
W
) (x + )
2 +
2
2
2
(x
0.50
0.9
0.55
1.0
0.60
306
Repeat
pattern
P3
P2
P1
P4
x2
t0
t2
t4
t6
t8
Bit
time
x1
Figure 8. Four distinct edge patterns in a 7-bit pattern.
Figure 7. Intersymbol interference model
probability density function.
J ISI ( x ) =
P ( x x )
i
This information lets us calculate the occurrence probability of all edge patterns, which in this case is 1/4.
Figure 9 is the simulation result for transmitting the
bit pattern in Figure 8 over the same transmission path
model as in the previous cases. Figure 9a shows the
transmitted signal, and Figure 9b shows the signal at the
output of the transmission channel. Figure 9b shows the
distortion introduced by the transmission path model
onto the transmitted data pattern, where the amount of
distortion is frequency dependentthat is, dependent
on the data pattern. The eye diagram in Figure 9c displays ISI jitter. The simulation results illustrate four lines
in Figure 9d, derived from the results shown in Figure 9b,
thereby supporting our assumptions about adequately
modeling ISI through a summation of functions.
Periodic jitter model. PJ causes periodic deviation of
transitions from their ideal values over time, as shown
in Figure 10a. The square wave represents a transmitted
signal, and the sine wave represents the periodic edge
deviations. A summation of cosine functions with different phases and amplitudes provides a model for PJ:
i =1
where JISI(x) is the ISI jitter PDF, N is the number of distinct edge patterns, Pi is the probability of occurrence
of edge pattern i, xi is the jitter magnitude for the ith
edge pattern, and x is the time displacement relative to
the ideal time position. Measurements can provide the
jitter magnitude xi of edge pattern i.
Figure 8 shows a repeating 7-bit pattern with four distinct edge patterns, labeled a, b, c, and d. The bit-time
axis labels t0 through t8 designate the beginning of each
bit period. To calculate Pi, its necessary to nd the total
number of occurrences of each edge pattern i over a
given time period. Our simulation repeatedly transmits
the 7-bit pattern in Figure 8 and records edge shifts for
each pattern edge. In practice, the number of sampled
repetitions depends on the per-edge-shift averaging
required to reduce RJ and PJ effects to negligible levels.
JulyAugust 2004
PJ Total (t ) =
A cos( t + )
i
i =0
2
2
A x
J PJ ( x )=
0
307
No. of occurrences
1/A
(b)
t
A
308
Total jitter
We presented RJ and DJ as separate jitter components. In actuality, however, jitter doesnt exist as separate entities but rather as a combination of different jitter
components resulting in TJ. In the time domain, TJ is
simply the sum of its RJ and DJ components. However,
(a)
1
0
1
0
5
Time (ns)
10
1
0
1
No. of occurrences
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309
No. of occurrences
0.15
No. of occurrences
(a)
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
Time (ns)
0.40
0.45
0.50
0.55
No. of occurrences
No. of occurrences
310
Data
Data in
Trigger
Golden
PLL
Measurement
instrument
curves represent the jitters cumulative distribution function. However, such jitter estimates based on BERT measurements tend to overstate RJ.6
Transmission of a clocklike data pattern permits direct
measurement of DCD by measuring the periods of logic
high and logic low. ISI doesnt exist in this case, and RJ
can be averaged out with a large number of samples.
Using the same clocklike data pattern lets us estimate
the peak-to-peak PJ on the histogram. The histogram,
captured by an oscilloscope or a TIA, contains both RJ
and PJ components. Because the tail portions are the RJ
Model properties
Measurement methods
Equipment
Random jitter
Gaussian distribution
Real-time sampling
oscilloscope, TIA
histogram tail t
BER bathtub curve
BERT
Random nature
Frequency domain
Spectrum analyzer
(any distribution)
Real-time sampling
oscilloscope, TIA
Oscilloscope, TIA
Real-time sampling
oscilloscope, BERT
Real-time sampling
oscilloscope, TIA
Periodic nature
Oscilloscope, TIA
autocorrelation estimation
method
JulyAugust 2004
311
components, simply measuring the peak-to-peak separation in the histogram provides a PJ estimate.6
Its possible to measure ISI jitter by transmitting a data
pattern containing both long and short bit runs. The ideal
timing event for the ith edge in the pattern relative to a
reference edge would occur at n UI, while an actual
timing event can contain deviations expressed as n UI
+ Xi, where Xi denotes the displacement of the ith edge.
Devices such as a TIA, which can accurately measure the
time between two timing events, let us measure Xi for
each edge. The measured Xi values contain random and
periodic components, which averaging can remove. The
distribution of averaged Xi is the ISI PDF. The need for a
repeating pattern limits the use of this method.
Spectral analysis offers another way to measure PJ,
DCD, and ISI. Because a PJ component has xed-frequency components, it will appear in the spectral graph
as a large-magnitude peak. An inverse Fourier transform
lets us compute the PJ magnitude after isolating it from all
other jitter components in the spectral graph. Because
DCD and ISI are pattern dependent, they must appear in
the spectral graph at multiples of 0.5/N, where N is the data
pattern length.13 The application note in the previous citation describes a method that amounts to rst performing
an inverse transform of the combined components, then
constructing one histogram for each of the rising and
falling edges. The difference between the two histograms
mean values is the DCD, while the difference between the
histograms peak-to-peak values corresponds to the ISI.
These measurement methods let us specify jitter PDFs
according to the models we presented earlier. TJ for the
serial communication system under measurement is then
a convolution of all the jitter PDFs.
Jitter measurement instruments have characteristics
that make some instruments better for certain types of
applications. A fast real-time sampling oscilloscope
acquires as many samples of a signal as possible in one
pass and interpolates to reconstruct the signal waveform
for display. In such cases, we can recover the clock
using a golden clock data recovery (CDR) circuit, working on the signal bitstream. Comparing the recovered
clock with the acquired data determines each edges
timing error. Spectral analysis then uses the resulting set
of error values.2
A real-time oscilloscope can also construct a waveform eye diagram and t waveform eye masks. Another
type of oscilloscope, the equivalent-time sampling oscilloscope, acquires signal samples in many passes and
reconstructs the signal waveform by overlaying different samples captured over the multiple passes.2 This
312
Acknowledgments
We thank the reviewers for their valuable comments
and suggestions and extend our very special thanks to
Reviewer 2 and Reviewer 4 for the extremely detailed
and constructive review. We also acknowledge
University of British Columbia SoC Lab members
A.K.M. Kamruzzaman Mollah and Roberto Rosales for
their valuable discussions and suggestions.
References
Nelson Ou is an ASIC design engineer with VIA Optical Solutions in Taiwan and a former member of the SoC
research group at the University of
British Columbia. His research interests include jitter measurement, SoC design methodologies, and DFT. He has a BS in applied science and
an ME in electrical and computer engineering from the
University of British Columbia.
Designcon2002.PDF.
4. Jitter Analysis Techniques for High Data Rates, Agilent
Technology, application note 1432, Feb. 2003.
5. Y. Cai, B. Laquai, and K. Luehman, Jitter Testing for
Gigabit Serial Communication Transceivers, IEEE
Design & Test of Computers, vol. 9, no. 1, Jan. 2002, pp.
66-74.
6. Y. Cai et al., Jitter Testing for Multi-Gigabit Backplane
SerDes, Proc. Intl Test Conf. (ITC 02), IEEE CS Press,
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