EXHAUST GAS HEAT RECOVERY POWER

GENERATION SYSTEM
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
BY

Under the guidance of

2002-2003
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

Register number: _________________________

This is to certify that the project report titled

HYBRID
SYSTEM
RECOVERY
HEAT
POWER
GENERATION submitted by the following students for
the award of the degree of bachelor of engineering is
record of bonafide work carried out by them.
Done by

Mr. / Ms_______________________________

In partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of

degree in
Bachelor of Engineering in MECHANICAL
During The Year
_________________
Head of Department

_______________
Guide

Coimbatore 641651.
Date:
Submitted
___________

for

the

_________________
Internal Examiner
Examiner

university

examination

held

________________
External

on

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
At

this

pleasing

moment

of

having

successfully

completed our project, we wish to convey our sincere

thanks and gratitude to the management of our college
and

our

beloved

chairman

, who provided all the

facilities

to us.

We would like to express our sincere thanks to our

principal , for forwarding us to
do

our

project

and

offering

adequate

duration

in

completing our project.

We are also grateful to the Head of Department Prof.
for

..,

her

constructive

suggestions & encouragement during our project.

With deep sense of gratitude, we extend our earnest
&

sincere

thanks

to

our

guide

.., Department of EEE

for her kind guidance & encouragement during this
project.
We also express our indebt thanks to our TEACHING
and

NON

TEACHING

staffs

of

ELECTRICAL

AND

ELECTRONICS

DEPARTMENT,.(COLLEGE

NAME).

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EXHAUST GAS HEAT

RECOVERY POWER
GENERATION
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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CONTENTS
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------CONTENTS

CHAPTER

PARTICULAR

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
1. SYNOPSIS
2. INTRODUCTION
3. REVIEW OF LITERATURE
4. COMPONENTS AND DESCRIPTION
5. THERMO ELECTRIC GENERATOR
6. ENGINE
7. CARBURETOR
8. EXHAUST GAS HEAT RECOVERY
9. DESIGN AND CALCULATION
10. ADVANTAGE AND DISADVANTAGE
11. APPLICATION

PAGE No.

12. LIST OF MATERIALS

13. COST ESTIMATION
14. CONCLUSION
APPENDIX
BIBLIOGRAPHY
PHOTOGRAPH

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Chapter-1
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---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

SYNOPSIS
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------CHAPTER-1
SYNOPSIS
This paper proposes and implements a thermoelectric waste heat energy recovery
system for internal combustion engine automobiles, including gasoline vehicles and
hybrid electric vehicles. The key is to directly convert the heat energy from automotive
waste heat to electrical energy using a thermoelectric generator, which is then regulated
by a DCDC uk converter to charge a battery using maximum power point tracking.
Hence, the electrical power stored in the battery can be maximized. Both analysis and
experimental results demonstrate that the proposed system can work well under different
working conditions, and is promising for automotive industry.

Fig. 1. Energy flow path in internal combustion engine

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-2
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

INTRODUCTION
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER-2
INTRODUCTION

Even a highly efficient combustion engine converts only about one-third of

the energy in the fuel into mechanical power serving to actually drive the car. The rest is
lost through heat discharged into the surroundings or, quite simply, leaves the vehicle as
waste heat. Clearly, this offers a great potential for the further reduction of CO2
emissions which the BMW Groups engineers are seeking to use through new concepts
and solutions.
The generation of electric power in the motor vehicle is a process chain subject to
significant losses. Quite simply because the chemical energy contained in the fuel is first
converted into mechanical energy and then, via an generator, into electric power. Now the
BMW Groups engineers are working on a technology able to convert the thermal energy
contained in the exhaust gas gas directly into electric power. This thermoelectric process
of recovering energy and generating power by means of semi-conductor elements has

already been used for decades by NASA, the US Space Agency, in space probes flying
into outer space.
Until just a few years ago, however, such thermoelectric generators (TEGs) were
unsuitable for use in the automobile due to their low level of efficiency. But since
significant progress has been made in materials research in recent times, the performance
and output of such modules has increased significantly. To generate electric power in the
vehicle a thermoelectric generator is integrated in the exhaust gas manifold.
While the electric power such a system is able to generate is still relatively small at
a maximum of 200 W, rapid progress in materials research already makes the ambitious
objective of generating up to 1,000 W a realistic and by all means feasible proposition.
This energy regeneration system also offers additional effects, such as providing the
engine or the heating system with extra heat when starting the engine cold. Hence, the
thermoelectric generator is an ideal partner for Brake Energy Regeneration, one of the
features of BMW Efficient Dynamics. For while Brake Energy Regeneration serves to
supply energy in overrun and when applying the brakes, TEG offers its benefits when
motoring is really fun, that is when accelerating and enjoying the power of the car. In
future thermoelectric generators will be able to reduce fuel consumption under realistic,
customer-oriented driving conditions by up to 5 per cent.

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Chapter-3
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

REVIEW OF LITERATURE
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER-3
REVIEW OF LITERATURE

WASTE HEAT FROM EXHAUST GAS GASES GENERATED FROM

AUTOMOBILE APPLICATIONS
The utilization of waste heat energy from exhaust gas gases in reciprocating
internal combustion engines (e.g. automobiles) is another novel application of electricity
generation using thermoelectric power generators. Although reciprocating piston engine
converts the chemical energy available in fossil fuels efficiently into mechanical work
substantial amount of thermal energy is dissipated to the environment through exhaust
gas gas, radiation, cooling water and lubricating oils. For example, in a gasoline powered
engine, approximately 30% of the primary gasoline fuel energy is dissipated as waste
heat energy in the exhaust gas gases; waste heat energy discharged in the exhaust gas
gases from a typical passenger car travelling at a regular speed is 20-30 Kw. A
comprehensive theoretical study concluded that a thermoelectric generator powered by
exhaust gas heat could meet the electrical requirements of a medium sized automobile. It

was reported in that among the established thermoelectric materials, those modules based
onPbTetechnologies were the most suitable for converting waste heat energy from
automobiles into electrical power.

Wide scale applications of thermoelectric in the automobile industry would lead to

some reductions in fuel consumption, and thus environmental global warming, but this
technology is not yet proven. Since 1914, the possibility of using thermoelectric power
generation to recover some of waste heat energy from reciprocating engines has been
explored and patented. A schematic diagram showing this patent of converting waste heat
into electrical power applied to an internal combustion engine using a thermoelectric
power generator is shown in figure.

Figure 9: TE generator in an automobile

In this invention, the exhaust gas gases in the pipe provide the heat source to the
thermoelectric power generator, whereas the heat sink (cold side) is suggested to be

provided by circulation of cooling water. Schematic diagram showing a recent patent

applied to an automobile for converting waste heat directly into electrical power using a
thermoelectric power generator

More recently, Taguchi invented an exhaust gas gasbasedthermoelectric power

generator for an automobile application. A schematic diagram showing this recent patent
applied to an automobile for converting waste heat available in exhaust gas gases directly
into electrical power using thermoelectric power generator is shown in figure. In this
patent, a pump supplies cooling water through each of cooling water circulation paths.
The cooling water circulation path includes a cooling water pipe arranged along the
exhaust gas pipe to pass the cooling water. At stacks a plurality of thermoelectric
generation elements are attached to the exhaust gas pipe and the cooling water pipe
successively in direction from the upstream toward downstream of the exhaust gas gas.
The cooling water pipe and the exhaust gas pipe pass the cooling water and the
exhaust gas gas, respectively, inapposite directions so that the downstream stack has an
increased difference in temperature between the exhaust gas pipe and the cooling water
pipe, and the stacks provide power outputs having a reduced difference, and hence an
increased total power output. This invention is proposed to provide increased
thermoelectric conversion efficiency without complicated piping.

INDUSTRIAL WASTE HEAT APPLICATIONS:

Most of the recent research activities on applications of thermoelectric power

generation have been directed towardsutilisation of industrial waste heat. Vast amounts of
heat are rejected from industry, manufacturing plants and power utilities as gases or
liquids at temperature which are too low to be used in conventional generating units
(<450 K).

In this large-scale application, thermoelectric power generators offer a potential

alternative of electricity generation powered by waste heat energy that would contribute
to solving the worldwide energy crisis, and the same time help reduce environmental
global warming. In particular, the replacement of by-heat boiler and gas turbine by
thermoelectric power generators makes it capable of largely reducing capital cost,
increasing stability, saving energy source, and protecting environment.

In this

application, the thermoelectric device used the temperature difference between hot and
cold legs of a glycol natural gas dehydrator cycle.

Basically the generator consists of an array of modules sandwiched between hot

and cold water-carrying channels. Some of the heat flux which is established by the hot
and cold temperature difference between the hot and cold water flows is directly
converted into electrical power. When operated using hot water at a temperature of
approximately 90 0C and cold flow at ambient.

Watt-100 generates 100 watts at a power density approaching 80 kW /m 3. In this

application, the system was scalable enabling 1.5 kW of electrical power to be generated.
Thermoelectric power generators have also been successfully applied in recovering waste
heat from steel manufacturing plants. In this application, large amounts of cooling water
are typically discharged at constant temperatures of around 90 0Cwhen used for cooling
ingots in steel plants.

When operating in its continuous steel casting mode, the furnace provides a steady-state
source of convenient piped water which can be readily converted by thermoelectric
power generators into electricity. It was reported by that total electrical power of around 8
MW would be produced employing currently available modules fabricated using Bi2Te3
thermoelectric modules technology.

CURRENT & FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS:

Recently, an increasing concern of environmental issues of emissions, in particular
global warming and the constraints on energy sources has resulted in extensive research
into innovative technologies of generating electrical power and thermoelectric power
generation has emerged as a promising alternative green technology. In addition, vast
quantities of waste heat are discharged into the earths environment much of it at

temperatures which are too low (i.e. low-grade thermal energy) to recover using
conventional electrical power generators.

Thermoelectric power generation offers a promising technology in the direct

conversion of waste-heat energy, into electrical power. In this paper, a background on the
basic concepts of thermoelectric power generation is presented and recent patents of
thermoelectric power generation with their important and relevant applications to wasteheat energy are reviewed and discussed. Currently, waste heat powered thermoelectric
generators are utilized in a number of useful applications due to their distinct advantages.
These applications can be categorized as micro- and macro-scale applications depending
on the potential amount of heat waste energy available for direct conversion into
electrical power using thermoelectric generators. Micro-scale applications included those
involved in powering electronic devices, such as microchips. Since the scale at which
these devices can be fabricated from thermoelectric materials and applied depends on the
scale of the miniature technology available.

Therefore, it is expected that future developments of these applications tend to

move towards nano technology. The macro-scale waste heat applications included:
domestic, automobiles, industrial and solid waste. Currently, enormous amounts of waste
heat are discharged from industry, such as manufacturing plants and power utilities.
Therefore, most of the recent research activities on applications of thermoelectric power
generation have been directed towards utilization of industrial waste heat. Future

developments in this area might focus onto finding more suitable thermoelectric materials
that could handle higher temperatures from various industrial heat sources at a feasible
cost with acceptable performance.
Another future direction is to develop more novel thermoelectric module
geometries and configurations. The developments of more thermoelectric module
configurations by developing novel flexible thermoelectric materials will make them
more effective and attractive in applications where sources of waste heat have arbitrary
shapes.

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Chapter-4
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---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

COMPONENTS AND
DESCRIPTION
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER-4
DESCRIPTION OF THE EQUIPMENT

BATTERY
In isolated systems away from the grid, batteries are used for storage of excess
solar energy converted into electrical energy. The only exceptions are isolated sunshine
load such as irrigation pumps or drinking water supplies for storage. In fact for small
units with output less than one kilowatt. Batteries seem to be the only technically and
economically available storage means. Since both the photo-voltaic system and batteries
are high in capital costs. It is necessary that the overall system be optimized with respect
to available energy and local demand pattern. To be economically attractive the storage
of solar electricity requires a battery with a particular combination of properties:

(1)

Low cost

(2)

Long life

(3)

High reliability

(4)

High overall efficiency

(5)

Low discharge

(6)

Minimum maintenance
(A)

Ampere hour efficiency

(B)

Watt hour efficiency

We use lead acid battery for storing the electrical energy from the solar panel for
lighting the street and so about the lead acid cells are explained below.

LEAD-ACID WET CELL:

Where high values of load current are necessary, the lead-acid cell is the type most
commonly used. The electrolyte is a dilute solution of sulfuric acid (HSO). In the
application of battery power to start the engine in an auto mobile, for example, the load
current to the starter motor is typically 200 to 400A. One cell has a nominal output of
2.1V, but lead-acid cells are often used in a series combination of three for a 6-V battery
and six for a 12-V battery.

The lead acid cell type is a secondary cell or storage cell, which can be recharged.
The charge and discharge cycle can be repeated many times to restore the output voltage,
as long as the cell is in good physical condition. However, heat with excessive charge

and discharge currents shortends the useful life to about 3 to 5 years for an automobile
battery. Of the different types of secondary cells, the lead-acid type has the highest
output voltage, which allows fewer cells for a specified battery voltage.

CONSTRUCTION:

Inside a lead-acid battery, the positive and negative electrodes consist of a group
of plates welded to a connecting strap. The plates are immersed in the electrolyte,
consisting of 8 parts of water to 3 parts of concentrated sulfuric acid. Each plate is a grid
or framework, made of a lead-antimony alloy. This construction enables the active
material, which is lead oxide, to be pasted into the grid. In manufacture of the cell, a
forming charge produces the positive and negative electrodes. In the forming process, the
active material in the positive plate is changed to lead peroxide (pbo). The negative
electrode is spongy lead (pb).

Automobile batteries are usually shipped dry from the manufacturer.

The

electrolyte is put in at the time of installation, and then the battery is charged to from the
plates. With maintenance-free batteries, little or no water need be added in normal
service. Some types are sealed, except for a pressure vent, without provision for adding
water.
The construction parts of battery are shown in figure.

CHEMICAL ACTION:

Sulfuric acid is a combination of hydrogen and sulfate ions.

When the cell

discharges, lead peroxide from the positive electrode combines with hydrogen ions to
form water and with sulfate ions to form lead sulfate. Combining lead on the negative
plate with sulfate ions also produces he sulfate. There fore, the net result of discharge is
to produce more water, which dilutes the electrolyte, and to form lead sulfate on the
plates.

As the discharge continues, the sulfate fills the pores of the grids, retarding
circulation of acid in the active material. Lead sulfate is the powder often seen on the
outside terminals of old batteries.

When the combination of weak electrolyte and

sulfating on the plate lowers the output of the battery, charging is necessary.

On charge, the external D.C. source reverses the current in the battery. The
reversed direction of ions flows in the electrolyte result in a reversal of the chemical
reactions. Now the lead sulfates on the positive plate reactive with the water and sulfate
ions to produce lead peroxide and sulfuric acid. This action re-forms the positive plates
and makes the electrolyte stronger by adding sulfuric acid.

At the same time, charging enables the lead sulfate on the negative plate to react
with hydrogen ions; this also forms sulfuric acid while reforming lead on the negative
plate to react with hydrogen ions; this also forms currents can restore the cell to full
output, with lead peroxide on the positive plates, spongy lead on the negative plate, and
the required concentration of sulfuric acid in the electrolyte.

The chemical equation for the lead-acid cell is

Charge

Pb + pbO + 2HSO

2pbSO + 2HO

Discharge

ENGINE:

CONSTRUCTION:

In this project we use SPARK IGNITION engine of the type two stroke single
cylinder of Cubic capacity 75 cc. Engine has a piston that moves up and down in
cylinder. A cylinder is a long round air pocket some what like a tin can with a bottom cut
out. Cylinder has a piston which is slightly smaller in size than the cylinder the piston is
a metal plug that slides up and down in the cylinder Bore diameter and stroke length of
the engine are 50mm and 49mm respectively.

I.C ENGINE

Internal combustion engines are those heat engines that burn their fuel inside the
engine cylinder. In internal combustion engine the chemical energy stored in their
operation.

The heat energy is converted in to mechanical energy by the expansion of gases

against the piston attached to the crankshaft that can rotate.

PETROL ENGINE:

The engine which gives power to propel the automobile vehicle is a petrol burning
internal combustion engine. Petrol is a liquid fuel and is called by the name gasoline in
America. The ability of petrol to furnish power rests on the two basic principles;

Burning or combustions always accomplished by the production of heat.

When a gas is heated, it expands. If the volume remains constant, the pressure rises

according to Charlies law.

WORKING:

There are only two strokes involved namely the compression stroke and the power
stroke; they are usually called as upward stroke and downward stroke respectively.

UPWARD STROKE
During this stroke, the piston moves from bottom dead center to top dead center,
compressing the charge-air petrol mixture in combustion chamber of the cylinder.
At the time the inlet port is uncovered and the exhaust gas, transfer ports are covered. The
compressed charge is ignited in the combustion chamber by a spark given by spark plug.

DOWNWARD STROKE

The charge is ignited the hot gases compress the piston moves downwards, during this
stroke the inlet port is covered by the piston and the new charge is compressed in the
crankcase, further downward movement of the piston uncovers first exhaust gas port and then
transfer port and hence the exhaust gas starts through the exhaust gas port. As soon as the
transfer port open the charge through it is forced in to the cylinder, the cycle is then repeated.

ENGINE TERMINOLOGY:
The engine terminologies are detailed below,
CYLINDER:
It is a cylindrical vessel or space in which the piston makes a reciprocating motion.

PISTON:
It is a cylindrical component fitted to the cylinder which transmits the bore of explosion
to the crankshaft.

COMBUSTION CHAMBER:

It is the space exposed in the upper part of the cylinder where the combustion of
fuel takes place.
CONNECTING ROD:
It inter connects the piston and the crankshaft and transmits the reciprocating
motion of the piston into the rotary motion of crankshaft.
CRACKSHAFT:
It is a solid shaft from which the power is transmitted to the clutch.

CAM SHAFT:
It is drive by the crankshaft through timing gears and it is used to control the
opening and closing of two valves.

CAM:
These are made as internal part of the camshaft and are designed in such a way to open
the valves at the current timing.

PISTON RINGS:
It provides a tight seal between the piston and cylinder wall and preventing leakage of
combustion gases.

GUDGEON PIN:

It forms a link between the small end of the connecting rod and the piston.

INLET:
The pipe which connects the intake system to the inlet valve of the engine end through
which air or air fuel mixture is drawn in to the cylinder.

EXHAUST GAS MANIFOLD:

The pipe which connects the exhaust gas system to the exhaust gas valve of the engine
through which the product of combustion escape in to the atmosphere.

INLET AND EXHAUST GAS VALVE:

They are provided on either on the cylinder head or on the side of the cylinder and
regulating the charge coming in to the cylinder and for discharging the product of
combustion from the cylinder.

FLYWHEEL:
It is a heavy steel wheel attached to the rear end of the crank shaft. It absorbs energy
when the engine speed is high and gives back when the engine speed is low.

TOP DEAD CENTER:

This refers to the position of the crankshaft when the piston is in its top most
position, i.e., the position closest to the cylinder head.

BOTTOM DEAD CENTER:

This refers to the position of the crankshaft when the piston is in lowest position,
i.e., the position farthest from the cylinder head.

NOMENCLATURE:
BORE:

This is the diameter of the engine cylinder.

STROKE:

Distance traveled by the piston in moving from TDC to the BDC is called stroke.

ENGINE CAPACITY:

This is a total piston displacement or the swept volume of all the cylinders.

Power:

It is the work done in a given period of time.

Compression ratio:

It is a ratio of volume when the piston is at the bottom dead center to the volume
when the piston is at top dead center.

Compression ratio =

Maximum cylinder volume / Minimum cylinder volume.

INDICATED POWER:

The power developed within the engine cylinders is called indicated power. This
is calculated from the area of the engine indicator diagram. It is usually expressed in
kilowatts (kW).

BRAKE POWER:

This is the actual power delivered at the crankshaft. It is obtained by deducting

various power losses in the engine from the indicated power. It is measured with a
dynamometer and is expressed in kilowatts (kW). It is always less than the indicated
power, due to frictional and pumping losses in the cylinders and the reciprocating
mechanism.

ENGINE TORQUE:

It is the force of rotation acting about the crankshaft axis at any given instant of
time.

FUNCTION:

The spark ignition engine uses a highly volatile fuel, which easily vaporizes. The
fuel is mixed with air before it enters the engine cylinders in the carburetor. This mixture
then enters the cylinders and is compressed. Next an electric spark is produced by
ignition system ignites the compressed air fuel mixture.

TE-GENERATOR:

Thermoelectric modules have several major advantages over other means of

generation. Thermoelectric generators help tap an unclaimed resource now considered
waste. Heat energy is available in many different places where other sources may not be
available. The modules are solid state and very robust, making them ideal for tasks in
harsh environments such as automobiles, incinerators, and spacecraft. This system is ecofriendly since it does not harm the environment by causing pollution.

DISADVANTAGES:
TE- GENERATORS:

The modules are expensive about $100 per 14W module.

They are only 4% efficient.

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Chapter-5
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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THERMO ELECTRIC
GENERATOR
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CHAPTER-5

GENERATOR
THERMOELECTRIC POWER
Electricity is no longer a luxury; it has become a necessity in our everyday lives. Have you ever
had to live without electricity for an extended period of time? If so then we know what it is like
to lose all the food in your refrigerator and/or chest freezer and shivering in the cold because we
have no heat. Every year thousands, even millions have been in this position when a winter storm
knocked out power over large areas. Not to mention rapidly rising energy costs and an uncertain
economic future. Still many people have become complacent about their electrical energy needs.
Solar panels are a great alternative energy source, but they only produce electricity during
daylight hours. In addition their daily output is significantly reduced during winter months and
cloudy days. Now, using a TEG in conjunction with solar and wind, their combined output can
provide all off your homes energy needs and depending on what state you live in, you will be
getting a check from the electric company instead off a bill!

The advantages of using thermoelectric devices:

They are extremely reliable and silent in operation

They have no mechanical moving parts and require considerably less maintenance;
They are capable of operating at elevated temperatures;
They are suited for small-scale and remote applications typical of rural power supply
They are environmentally friendly;
They can work in flexible power sources.

Thermoelectric Principle of Operation:

The typical thermoelectric module is manufactured using two thin ceramic wafers with a
series of P and N doped bismuth-telluride semiconductor material sandwiched between them.

The ceramic material on both sides of the thermoelectric adds rigidityand the necessary electrical
insulation.

Figure 1: Principle of operation of peltier effect

The N type material has an excess of electrons, while the P type material has a deficit of
electrons. One P and one N make up a couple.The thermoelectric couples are electrically in
series and thermally in parallel. A thermoelectric module can contain one to several hundred
couples.

THERMOELECTRIC MATERIALS:
Thermoelectric materials (those which are employed in commercial applications) can be
conveniently divided into three groupings based on the temperature range of operation. Alloys
based on Bismuth (Bi) in combinations with Antimony (An), Tellurium (Te) or Selenium (Se) are
referred to as low temperature materials and can be used at temperatures up to around 450K. The
intermediate temperature range - up to around 850K is the regime of materials based on alloys of
Lead (Pb) while thermo-elements employed at the highest temperatures are fabricated from SiGe
alloys and operate up to 1300K. Although the above mentioned materials still remain the

cornerstone for commercial and practical applications in thermoelectric power generation,

significant advances have been made in synthesizing new materials and fabricating material
structures with improved thermoelectric performance. Efforts have focused primarily on
improving the materials figure-of-merit, and hence the conversion efficiency, by reducing the
lattice thermal conductivity.

In all of the above mentioned TE materials, performance of the Bismuth-Telluride peaks

within a temperature range that is best suited for most cooling and heating applications.

Figure 4: Performance of Thermoelectric Materials at Various Temperatures

TE-GENERATOR:
Based on this Seebeck effect, thermoelectric devices can act as electrical power
generators. A schematic diagram of a simple thermoelectric power generator operating based on
Seebeck effect.

Figure 8: Working of thermoelectric generator

As shown in figure, heat is transferred at a rate of

Qhfrom a high-temperature heat source

maintained at Th to the hot junction, and it is rejected at a rate of Qlto a low-temperature sink
maintained at Tl from the cold junction. Based on Seebeck effect, the heat supplied at the hot
junction causes an electric current to flow in the circuit and electrical power is produced.
Using the first-law of thermodynamics (energy conservation principle) the difference
between Qh and Ql is the electrical power output we. It should be noted that this power cycle
intimately resembles the power cycle of a heat engine (Carnot engine), thus in this respect a
thermoelectric power generator can be considered as a unique heat engine.

CHARGE CARRIER DIFFUSION:

Charge carriers in the materials (electrons in metals, electrons and holes in
semiconductors, ions in ionic conductors) will diffuse when one end of a conductor is at a
different temperature than the other. Hot carriers diffuse from the hot end to the cold end,
since there is a lower density of hot carriers at the cold end of the conductor. Cold carriers
diffuse from the cold end to the hot end for the same reason.

If the conductor were left to reach equilibrium, this process would result in heat
being distributed evenly throughout the conductor (see heat transfer). The movement of
heat (in the form of hot charge carriers) from one end to the other is called a heat current.
As charge carriers are moving, it is also an electrical current.
In a system where both ends are kept at a constant temperature relative to each
other (a constant heat current flows from one end to the other), there is a constant
diffusion of carriers. If the rate of diffusion of hot and cold carriers were equal, there
would be no net change in charge. However, the diffusing charges are scattered by
impurities, imperfections, and lattice vibrations (phonons). If the scattering is energy
dependent, the hot and cold carriers will diffuse at different rates. This will create a
higher density of carriers at one end of the material, and the distance between the positive
and negative charges produces a potential difference; an electrostatic voltage.

This electric field, however, will oppose the uneven scattering of carriers, and
equilibrium will be reached where the net number of carriers diffusing in one direction is
cancelled by the net number of carriers moving in the opposite direction from the
electrostatic field. This means the thermo power of a material depends greatly on
impurities, imperfections, and structural changes (which often vary themselves with
temperature and electric field), and the thermo power of a material is a collection of many
different effects.

PERFROMANCE OF THERMOELECTRICPOWER GENERATORS:

The performance of thermoelectric materials can be expressed as

Where Z is the thermoelectric material figure-of-merit, is the Seebeck coefficient given

by

Where,
R is the electric resistivity (inverse of electric conductivity) and k is the total thermal
conductivity. This figure-of-merit may be made dimensionless by multiplying by
(average absolute temperature of hot and cold plates of the thermoelectric module, K),

i.e.

And

The term 2/R is referred to as the electrical power factor. In general, a

thermoelectric power generator exhibits low efficiency due to the relatively small
dimensionless figure-of-merit

of currently available thermoelectric materials.

The conversion efficiency of a thermoelectric power generator defined as the ratio of

power delivered to the heat input at the hot junction of the thermoelectric device, is given
by

Limited by the second-law of thermodynamics, the ideal (absolute maximum) efficiency

of a thermoelectric power generator operating as a reversible heat engine is Carnot
efficiency, given by

The maximum conversion efficiency of an irreversible thermoelectric power generator

can be estimated using,

The value of the figure-of-merit is usually proportional to the conversion efficiency. The
dimensionless term

is therefore a very convenient figure for comparing the

potential conversion efficiency of modules using different thermoelectric materials. It is

evident that an increase in T provides a corresponding increase in available heat for
conversion as dictated by the Carnot efficiency, so large Ts are advantageous. For
example, a thermoelectric material with an average figure-of-merit of 310 -3 K-1 would
have a conversion efficiency of approximately 23% when operated over a temperature
difference of 600K.

ENERGY RECOVERY

In the effort to save energy by using a thermoelectric module, it is important that

the amount of energy produced by the thermoelectric module during its life time should
be larger than the amount of energy required fabricating it.
The energy recovery years are 0.1 year or less for thermal and nuclear power
generation currently in use,2 years or less for wind power generation which is spotlighted
in recent years, and 10 years for fuel cell power generation. In the case of thermoelectric
power generation by a Bi-Te-based module of 200C class, the energy recovery years are

0.85 year. Thus, thermoelectric power generation is considered to have sufficient

competitiveness.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-6
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

ENGINE
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER 6
ENGINE
CONSTRUCTION:

In this project we use SPARK IGNITION engine of the type two stroke single
cylinder of Cubic capacity 75 cc. Engine has a piston that moves up and down in
cylinder. A cylinder is a long round air pocket some what like a tin can with a bottom cut
out. Cylinder has a piston which is slightly smaller in size than the cylinder the piston is
a metal plug that slides up and down in the cylinder Bore diameter and stroke length of
the engine are 50mm and 49mm respectively.

I.C ENGINE

Internal combustion engines are those heat engines that burn their fuel inside the
engine cylinder. In internal combustion engine the chemical energy stored in their
operation.

The heat energy is converted in to mechanical energy by the expansion of gases

against the piston attached to the crankshaft that can rotate.

PETROL ENGINE:

The engine which gives power to propel the automobile vehicle is a petrol burning
internal combustion engine. Petrol is a liquid fuel and is called by the name gasoline
in America. The ability of petrol to furnish power rests on the two basic principles;

Burning or combustions always accomplished by the production of heat.

When a gas is heated, it expands. If the volume remains constant, the pressure

rises according to Charlies law.

WORKING:

There are only two strokes involved namely the compression stroke and the power
stroke; they are usually called as upward stroke and downward stroke respectively.

UPWARD STROKE

During this stroke, the piston moves from bottom dead center to top dead center,
compressing the charge-air petrol mixture in combustion chamber of the cylinder.

At the time the inlet port is uncovered and the exhaust gas, transfer ports are
covered. The compressed charge is ignited in the combustion chamber by a spark
given by spark plug.
DOWNWARD STROKE

The charge is ignited the hot gases compress the piston moves downwards, during
this stroke the inlet port is covered by the piston and the new charge is compressed in the
crankcase, further downward movement of the piston uncovers first exhaust gas port and
then transfer port and hence the exhaust gas starts through the exhaust gas port. As soon
as the transfer port open the charge through it is forced in to the cylinder, the cycle is then
repeated.
ENGINE TERMINOLOGY:
The engine terminologies are detailed below,
CYLINDER:

It is a cylindrical vessel or space in which the piston makes a reciprocating

motion.

PISTON:

It is a cylindrical component fitted to the cylinder which transmits the bore of

explosion to the crankshaft.

COMBUSTION CHAMBER:

It is the space exposed in the upper part of the cylinder where the
combustion of fuel takes place.
CONNECTING ROD:

It inter connects the piston and the crankshaft and transmits the
reciprocating motion of the piston into the rotary motion of crankshaft.
CRACKSHAFT:

It is a solid shaft from which the power is transmitted to the clutch.

CAM SHAFT:

It is drive by the crankshaft through timing gears and it is used to control

the opening and closing of two valves.
CAM:

These are made as internal part of the camshaft and are designed in such a way to
open the valves at the current timing.

PISTON RINGS:

It provides a tight seal between the piston and cylinder wall and preventing
leakage of combustion gases.

GUDGEON PIN:

It forms a link between the small end of the connecting rod and the piston.

INLET:

The pipe which connects the intake system to the inlet valve of the engine end
through which air or air fuel mixture is drawn in to the cylinder.

EXHAUST GAS MANIFOLD:

The pipe which connects the exhaust gas system to the exhaust gas valve of the
engine through which the product of combustion escape in to the atmosphere.

INLET AND EXHAUST GAS VALVE:

They are provided on either on the cylinder head or on the side of the cylinder and
regulating the charge coming in to the cylinder and for discharging the product of
combustion from the cylinder.

FLYWHEEL:

It is a heavy steel wheel attached to the rear end of the crank shaft. It absorbs
energy when the engine speed is high and gives back when the engine speed is low.

Top dead center:

This refers to the position of the crankshaft when the piston is in its top most
position, i.e., the position closest to the cylinder head.

Bottom dead center:

This refers to the position of the crankshaft when the piston is in lowest position,
i.e., the position farthest from the cylinder head.

NOMENCLATURE:
Bore:

This is the diameter of the engine cylinder.

Stroke:

Distance traveled by the piston in moving from TDC to the BDC is called stroke.

Engine capacity:

This is a total piston displacement or the swept volume of all the cylinders.

Power:

It is the work done in a given period of time.

Compression ratio:

It is a ratio of volume when the piston is at the bottom dead center to the volume
when the piston is at top dead center.

Compression ratio =

Maximum cylinder volume / Minimum cylinder volume.

INDICATED POWER:

The power developed within the engine cylinders is called indicated power. This
is calculated from the area of the engine indicator diagram. It is usually expressed in
kilowatts (kW).

BRAKE POWER:

This is the actual power delivered at the crankshaft. It is obtained by deducting

various power losses in the engine from the indicated power. It is measured with a
dynamometer and is expressed in kilowatts (kW). It is always less than the indicated
power, due to frictional and pumping losses in the cylinders and the reciprocating
mechanism.

ENGINE TORQUE:

It is the force of rotation acting about the crankshaft axis at any given instant of
time.

FUNCTION:

The spark ignition engine uses a highly volatile fuel, which easily vaporizes. The
fuel is mixed with air before it enters the engine cylinders in the carburetor. This mixture
then enters the cylinders and is compressed. Next an electric spark is produced by
ignition system ignites the compressed air fuel mixture.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-7
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CARBURETOR
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER 7
CARBURETOR

INTRODUCTION

Carburetor is the most important item in the fuel feed system of spark ignition
engines. It is connected between the fuel filter and the induction manifold. It supplies the
air-fuel mixture of varying proportions to suit engine operating conditions. The fuel
enters the float chamber of the carburetor. The air enters the air horn of the carburetor.
Mixing of the fuel and air takes place when both pass through the venture in the mixing
chamber of the carburetor. This air-fuel mixture then goes to the intake manifold.

CARBURETOR
The carburetor is a device for atomizing and vaporizing the fuel and mixing it
with the air in varying proportions to suit the changing conditions of spark ignition
engines. The air-fuel mixture so obtained from the carburetor is called the combustible
mixture. The process of mixing the gasoline fuel with air to obtain the combustible
mixture is called carburetion.
Hence the terms vaporization and atomization should be understood clearly.
Vaporization is the change of the state of the fuel from liquid to vapor. Atomization is the
mechanical breaking-up of the liquid fuel into the small particles (but not actually
breaking-up into atoms, as the name implies) so that every particle of the fuel is

surrounded by air. In order to produce very quick vaporization of the liquid fuel, it is
sprayed into the air passing through the carburetor. Spraying of the liquid turns it into
many fine particles, so that the vaporization occurs almost instantly.
The carburetor supplies the air-fuel mixture of varying proportions to suit the
changing conditions of the engine. The mixture must be rich (have a lower percentage of
fuel) for operation at intermediate speed with a warm engine. The theoretically perfect
mixture of air and gasoline contains 15 parts of air and 1 part of gasoline by weight. An
ideal carburetor would pass the mixture of completely vaporized fuel and air in the
proper proportion to the intake manifold and cylinder. But in the present-day carburetors,
the complete vaporization of fuel is not achieved, due to the heavy nature of fuel and
other limitations. The heated intake manifold and hot spots in the manifold vaporize part
of atomized fuel. Even until the end of the compression stroke in the cylinder, the
gasoline does not vaporize completely, although the heat and pressure during the
compression stroke are applied to it.

AIR-FUEL RATIO
The carburetor must supply the air-fuel mixture of varying proportions to suit the
different operating requirements. The mixture must be rich for starting, and must be
relatively lean for idling and intermediate speeds. It shows the air-fuel ratio for different
speeds of a car. For, starting, the air fuel ratio is 9:1. It is a rich mixture. For idling, the
ratio is 12:1. It is a lean mixture. For intermediate speeds, between 35 to 105 km/hr, the
mixture further leans out 15:1. But at higher speeds 120 to 150 km/hr, with a wide-open
throttle, the mixture is again enriched to about 13:1. For acceleration at any speed the
throttle is suddenly opened which causes a momentary enrichment of the mixture. Two
examples of acceleration are at 25km/hr and the other at 45km/hr.

For different cars, the air fuel ratio also varies with speeds. The mixture must be
rich for initial start, because the engine and the carburetor are cold, the fuel vaporizes
very poorly. Thus extra amount of fuel is needed so that enough will vaporize for
starting. Similarly, by sudden opening of the throttle for acceleration, air rushes
suddenly. Hence extra fuel must come at the same time. The carburetor must be designed
to supply correct air-fuel mixture for all the above operating conditions.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF CARBURETOR.
The carburetors are classified on the following basis.
1.

According to the arrangement of float chamber:

a) Eccentric
b) Concentric

2.

According to the direction of air-flow:

a) Down draft
b) Side draft
c) Up draft
d) Semi-down draft

3.

According to the number of units:

a) Single
b) Dual
c) Four-barrel

4.

According to the type of metering system:

a) Air-bleed jet

b) Metering rod type

5.

According to the type of venturi:

a) Plain venturi.
b) Double venturi
c) Vane venturi
d) Nozzle-bar venturi
e) Triple venturi

6.

According to the pressure above the fuel in the float chamber:

a) Unbalanced.
b) Balanced

7.

According to the type of power system:

a) Manually operated.
b) Vacuum controlled.

8.

According to the method of varying the mixture strength:

a) Constant choke carburetor.
b) Constant vacuum carburetor.

CARBURETORS ACCORDING TO THE ARRANGEMENT OF FLOAT

CHAMBER:
In eccentric float chamber type carburetor, the float chamber is placed around the
venturi tube.
The eccentric float chamber type carburetor does not provide correct air-fuel
mixture when the vehicle is ascending or descending a grade. When the vehicle is
running on horizontal road, the level of the gasoline in the float chamber and the
discharge jet is normal, as at (A) and the carburetor provides correct air-fuel mixture to
the engine. When the vehicle is ascending or descending a grade, the carburetor is tilted
and the level of the gasoline changes in the discharge jet as at (B) and (C). This causes
too much or two little gasoline to be supplied by the jet giving incorrect mixtures.
The concentric float chamber type carburetor does not have this difficulty. The
level of the gasoline in the discharge jet remains approximately constant, which provides
correct air-fuel mixture to the engine in all the positions of the vehicle.

CARBURETORS ACCORDING TO THE DIRECTION OF FLOW:

In downdraft carburetor, the air enters top of the carburetor and leaves at the
bottom. In side draft carburetor, the air enters the top of the carburetor and leaves at the
side. In updraft carburetor the air enters the bottom or side of the carburetor and leaves at
the top. In semi-downdraft carburetor, the direction of air flow is inclined from the top to
bottom.
In most passenger cars, the downdraft carburetor is used. In this type of
carburetor, the gravity assists the flow of mixture. Therefore, the engine sucks it better at
lower speeds under load. Higher volumetric efficiency of the engine is achieved.

The location of the carburetor above the engine is more accessible for inspection,
adjustment or repair. The air entering the carburetor is cooler.

CARBURETORS ACCORDING TO THE NUMBER OF UNITS:

Single barrel carburetor has only one barrel. Dual barrel carburetor has two
barrels, each containing a fuel jet, venturi tube idling system, choke and throttle. It may
have a single air inlet, choke and float chamber, although it frequently has two floats one
for each jet. It has only one accelerating pump. Usually the passenger car engines of
eight or more cylinders are provided with dual carburetors and having dual intake
manifold. Each barrel of the dual carburetor feeds one branch of the intake manifold.
This arrangement provides uniform distribution of the fuel mixture to the cylinders.
Four-barrel carburetor is made up of two dual carburetors in one unit. The primary
side to a complete dual carburetor containing a choke, an accelerating pumps, a power
valve and a complete main metering and ideal system. The secondary unit has its own
float bowl and a dual carburetor main metering system and ideal system.

CARBURETORS ACCORDING TO THE TYPE OF METERING SYSTEM:

Different types and number of venturies are used in the carburetor design,
according to which the carburetors are classified. The carburetor may have plain, double,
vane, nozzle-bar and triple venturi. Each type of the venturi is designed to provide the
decreased pressure of air flow so that it may draw fuel from the discharge jet. Multiple
venturies help to keep the fuel away from the carburetor walls to reduce condensation.

CARBURETORS ACCORDING TO THE PRESSURE ABOVE THE FUEL IN

THE FLOAT CHAMBER.
If the presence above the fuel in the float chamber is atmospheric pressure, the
carburetor is said to be unbalanced. If the pressure above the fuel in the float chamber is
equal to the air intake in the air horn, the carburetor is said to be balanced. The balanced
carburetor contains a balance tube and passages that connect the air-horn with the help of
the float chamber so that the pressure in the air horn and the float chamber remains the
same. In the case, if the air intake is restricted by a clogged air cleaner, the mixture ratio
of the carburetor is not affected. Also it prevents discharge of the fuel through the pump
discharge jet at high speeds.

CARBURETORS ACCORDING TO THE TYPE OF POWER SYSTEM:

According to the type of power system, the carburetors may be either manually
opeated or vacuum controlled. In manually operated carburetor, the power jets for
eniching the mixture are operated by mechanical linkage to the throttle shaft,. In vacuum
controlled carburetor, a vacuum controlled power jet (called a step up system) is used for
enriching the mixture.
When the engine is operating normally at cruising speed, no load, a high vacuum
is produced in the vacuum passages connected to the intake manifold. It pulls the
vacuum piston down against the spring so that it holds the set-up rod in the set-up
(power) jet to keep it closed. When the engine is operating on load the intake manifold
vacuum falls off, and the spring pushes the piston up which raises the step-up rod out of
the jet to allow extra fuel to flow from the float chamber to the discharge nozzle. The
extra fuel supplements the normal supply furnished by the main metering jet. Thus
enriching the mixture.

CARBURETORS ACCORDING TO THE METHOD OF VARYING THE

MIXTURE STRENGTH:
In the constant choke carburetor, the mixture strength is determined by the
varying depression of a fixed tube or venturi. Solex and Zenith carburetors are of this
type. In the constant vacuum carburetors, depression in the choke tube is reasonably
constant and the size of the jet is varied to provide the correct mixture for all engineoperating conditions. S.U. carburetor is an example of constant vacuum carburetor.

SIMPLE CARBURETOR:
A simple carburetor consists of the round cylinder with a constricted section, a
fuel nozzle, a throttle valve can be tilted to open or close the air horn. The construction
and function of each part of the carburetor are as follows:

Venturi:
A venturi is a narrow space in the cylindrical air horn, through which the air
passes. As the same amount of air must pass through the every point in the air horn, its
velocity will be greatest at the narrowest point. The more this area is reduced, the greater
will be the velocity of air. The opening of the discharge jet is usually located just below
the narrowest section of the venturi so that the suction is greatest.
The spray of gasoline from the nozzle and the air entering through the venturi are
mixed together in the mixing chamber, which is just below the discharge jet.

In this chamber, the vaporization and atomization of the gasoline take place and it
mixes with the air so that the combustible mixture is produced. This mixture passes
though the intakes manifold into the cylinder.

Throttle valve:
The throttle valve is a circular disc. It is located in the mixing chamber of the air
horn. It can be tilted to open or close the air horn to allow more or less air to flow
through it. When it is tilted to open, more air passes the venturi sucking more fuel, thus
more amount of air-fuel mixture goes to the cylinder. The engine develops more power
and tends to run faster. When the throttle valve is tilted to close, less air passes the
venturi sucking less fuel, thus less amount of air fuel mixture goes to the cylinder. The
engine develops less power and tends to run slowly. The throttle valve is connected to
the accelerator pedal in the drivers compartment. The driver operates the accelerator
pedal to adjust the position of the throttle valve according to the operating requirements.
Metering system:
As the engine speed increases beyond certain limit, suction also increases.
Specially in simple plain tube carburetors, the flow of fuel from the jet increases faster
than the corresponding flow of air. Thus, the mixture becomes richer. To maintain correct
air-fuel mixture at high speeds, some automatic compensating devices must be provided
in the modern carburetors to maintain the desired mixture ratios at higher speeds. These
devices act either to increase the air supply automatically as the suction above the jet
increases, o to increase the fuel supply automatically as the suction above the jet
decreases. The compensating devices used in commercial carburetors are metering rods,
air-bleed jets, economizers, compound jets and auxiliary air valves. The type of
compensating mechanism used determines the metering system of the carburetor.

CARBURETOR SYSTEMS:
The various systems (or circuits) in the carburetor are as follows:
1.

Float system.

2.

Idling and low speed system.

3.

High speed system.

4.

Power system.

5.

Accelerating pump system.

6.

Choke system.

FLOAT SYSTEM:
The float system consists of a float chamber or bowl, a float and a needle valve
arrangement. The float is closed airtight vessel, pivoted to the float chamber by a lever.
The lever is attached with the needle valve, which sits on the valve seat through which
the fuel comes into the float chamber. Bending the lever lip so that it will seat the needle
valve at different positions of the float can change the level of the fuel in the float
chamber.
The float and the needle valve operate to maintain a constant level of the fuel in
the float chamber. If the level of the fuel in the float chamber is too high, then too much
fuel will feed from the fuel nozzle making the mixture rich. If the level is too low, then
the little fuel will feed making the mixture lean. Both the cases will cause poor engine
performance. When the fuel enters the float chamber faster than it is withdrawn, the fuel
level rises. The cause the float to move up, pushing the needle valve into the valve seat

thus closing the fuel inlet no fuel can enter the float chamber. Then, if the fuel level
drops, the float moves down drawing the needle valve from the valve seat thus opening
the fuel inlet-now fuel enter the float chamber. The float tends to hold the needle valve
pertly closed so that the incoming fuel just balances the fuel being with dawn.

IDLING AND LOW SPEED SYSTEM:

For idling and low speed operation at rich mixtue is needed by the engine. The ai
fuel ratio is usually about 10:1. For this purpose idling system is used. It consists idle
passage for fuel and air. This idling system comes into action during starting, idling and
low speed operation, and is cut out when speed increases to about 40km/hr.
When the throttle valve is closed or only slightly opened, only a small amount

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-8
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

EXHAUST GAS HEAT

RECOVERY
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER 8

EXHAUST GAS HEAT RECOVERY

INTRODUCTION
Waste heat is heat, which is generated in a process by way of fuel combustion or
chemical reaction, and then dumped into the environment even though it could still be
reused for some useful and economic purpose. The essential quality of heat is not the
amount but rather its value. The strategy of how to recover this heat depends in part on
the temperature of the waste heat gases and the economics involved.
Large quantity of hot flue gases is generated from Boilers, Kilns, Ovens and Furnaces. If
some of this waste heat could be recovered, a considerable amount of primary fuel could
be saved. The energy lost in waste gases cannot be fully recovered. However, much of
the heat could be recovered and loss minimized by adopting following measures as
outlined in this chapter.
Heat Losses Quality
Depending upon the type of process, waste heat can be rejected at virtually any
temperature from that of chilled cooling water to high temperature waste gases from an
industrial furnace or kiln. Usually higher the temperature, higher the quality and more
cost effective is the heat recovery. In any study of waste heat recovery, it is absolutely

necessary that there should be some use for the recovered heat. Typical examples of use
would be preheating of combustion air, space heating, or pre-heating boiler feed water or
process water. With high temperature heat recovery, a cascade system of waste heat
recovery may be practiced to ensure that the maximum amount of heat is recovered at
the highest potential. An example of this technique of waste heat recovery would be
where the high temperature stage was used for air pre-heating and the low temperature
stage used for process feed water heating or steam raising.

Heat Losses Quantity

In any heat recovery situation it is essential to know the amount of heat recoverable and
also how it can be used. An example of the availability of waste heat is given below:

1 Heat recovery from heat treatment furnace

In a heat treatment furnace, the exhaust gas gases are leaving the furnace at
900oC at the rate of 2100 m3/hour. The total heat recoverable at 180oC final
exhaust gas can be calculated as
Q = V x x Cp x T
Q is the heat content in kCal
V is the flow rate of the substance in m3/hr
is density of the flue gas in kg/m3
Cp is the specific heat of the substance in kCal/kg oC
T is the temperature difference in oC
Cp (Specific heat of flue gas) = 0.24 kCal/kg/oC
Heat available (Q) = 2100 x 1.19 x 0.24 x (900-180) = 4,31,827 kCal/hr
By installing a recuperate, this heat can be recovered to pre-heat the combustion air. The
fuel savings would be 33% (@ 1% fuel reduction for every 22 oC reduction in
temperature of flue gas.

8.2 Classification and Application

In considering the potential for heat recovery, it is useful to note all the possibilities, and
grade the waste heat in terms of potential value as shown in the following Table 8.1
TABLE 8.1 WASTE SOURCE AND QUALITY
S.No.
Source
1.
Heat in flue gases.

Quality
The higher the temperature, the greater

2.

Heat in vapour streams.

the potential value for heat recovery

As above but when condensed, latent

heat also recoverable.

Convective and radiant heat lost from Low grade if collected may be used for

4.

exterior of equipment

space heating or air preheats.

Heat losses in cooling water.

Low grade useful gains if heat is

exchanged with incoming fresh water.

5.

Heat losses in providing chilled water

or in the disposal of chilled water.

1 a) High grade if it can be utilized to

reduce demand for refrigeration.
2 b) Low grade if refrigeration unit
used as a form of heat pump.

6.

Heat stored in products leaving the Quality depends upon temperature.

7.

process
Heat in gaseous and liquid effluents Poor if heavily contaminated and thus
leaving process.

requiring alloy heat exchanger.

High Temperature Heat Recovery

The following Table 8.2 gives temperatures of waste gases from industrial process
equipment in the high temperature range. All of these results from direct fuel fired
processes.
Medium Temperature Heat Recovery

The following Table 8.3 gives the temperatures of waste gases from process equipment
in the medium temperature range. Most of the waste heat in this temperature range
comes from the exhaust gas of directly fired process units.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-9
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

DESIGN & CALCULATION

CHAPTER 9
DESIGN AND CALCULATION

SPECIFICATION OF TWO STROKE PETROL ENGINE:

Type

two strokes

Cooling System

Air Cooled

Bore/Stroke

50 x 50 mm

Piston Displacement

98.2 cc

Compression Ratio

6.6: 1

Maximum Torque

0.98 kg-m at 5,500RPM

CALCULATION:

Compression ratio =

(Swept Volume + Clearance Volume)/ Clearance Volume

Here,
Compression ratio =

6.6

6.6:1

(98.2 + Vc)/Vc

Vc

19.64

Assumption:

1. The component gases and the mixture behave like ideal gases.
2. Mixture obeys the Gibbs-Dalton law
Pressure exerted on the walls of the cylinder by air is P

(MRT)/V

m/M =

Universal gas constant

303 K

Density of air x V mole

Here,

Molecular weight of air

(Mass of the gas or air)/(Molecular Weight)

=

8.314 KJ/Kg mole K.

253.28 x 10 m

Here,
Density of air at 303K

1.165 kg/m

V mole

22.4 m/Kg-mole for all gases.

Molecular weight of air =

1.165 x 22.4

{[(m/(1.165 x 22.4)] x 8.314 x 303}/253.28 x 10

381134.1 m

Let Pressure exerted by the fuel is P

P

(N R T)/V

Density of petrol

800 Kg/m

{[(M)/(800 x 22.4)] x 8.314 x 303}/(253.28 x 10

LM324.02 m

Therefore Total pressure inside the cylinder

PT

P + P

1.01325 x 100 KN/m

381134.1 m + LM324.02 m

Calculation of air fuel ratio:

1.01325 x 100 ------------------------- (1)

Carbon

86%

Hydrogen

14%

We know that,
1Kg of carbon requires 8/3 Kg of oxygen for the complete combustion.
1Kg of carbon sulphur requires 1 Kg of Oxigen for its complete combustion.
(From Heat Power Engineering-Balasundrrum)

Therefore,
The total oxygen requires for complete combustion of 1 Kg of fuel
=

[ (8/3c) + (3H) + S] Kg

Little of oxygen may already present in the fuel, then the total oxygen required for
complete combustion of Kg of fuel

{ [ (8/3c) + (8H) + S ] - O} Kg

As air contains 23% by weight of Oxygen for obtain of oxygen amount of air
required

100/23 Kg

Minimum air required for complete combustion of 1 Kg of fuel

=
So for petrol 1Kg of fuel requires =
0.14) ] }

(100/23) { [ (8/3c) + H + S] - O} Kg
(100/23) { [ (8/3c) x 0.86 + (8 x

Air fuel ratio

14.84 Kg of air

m/m

14.84

14.84 m-------------------------- (2)

14.84/1

Substitute (2) in (1)

1.01325 x 100

3.81134 (14.84 m) + LM324.02 m

1.791 x 10 Kg/Cycle

Mass of fuel flow per cycle =

1.791 x 10 Kg cycle

Therefore,
Mass flow rate of the fuel for 2500 RPM
[(1.791 x 10)/3600] x (2500/2) x 60
=

3.731 x 10 Kg/sec

Calculation of calorific value:

By Delongs formula,
Higher Calorific Value

HCV

33800 C + 144000 H + 9270 S

(33800 x 0.86) + (144000 x 0.14) + 0

49228 KJ/Kg

Lower Calorific Value

LCV

HCV (9H x 2442)

49228 [(9 x 0.14) x 2442]

46151.08 KJ/Kg

46.151 MJ/Kg

Finding Cp and Cv for the mixture:

We know that,
Air contains 77% N and 23% O by weight
But total mass inside the cylinder =

(1)

m + m

2.65 x 10 + 1.791 x 10 Kg

2.8291 x 10 Kg

Weight of nitrogen present =

77% =

0.77 Kg in 1 Kg of air

In 2.65 x 10 Kg of air contains,

=

0.77 x 2.65 x 10 Kg of N

2.0405 x 10 Kg

Percent of N present in the total mass

(1)

(2.0405 x 10/2.8291 x 10)

72.125 %

Percentage of oxygen present in 1 Kg of air is 23%

Percentage of oxygen present in total mass

(2)

(0.23 x 2.65 x 10)/(2.8291 x 10)

21.54 %

Percentage of carbon present in 1 Kg of fuel 86%

Percentage of carbon present in total mass

(3)

(0.866 x 1.791 x 10)/(2.8291 x 10)

5.444%

Percentage of Hydrogen present in 1 Kg of fuel 14%

Percentage of Hydrogen present in total mass

Total Cp of the mixture is

Cp

(0.14 x 1.791 x 10)/(2.8291 x 10)

0.886 %

msi Cpi

(0.72125 x 1.043) + (0.2154 x 0.913)

+ (0.54444 x 0.7) + (8.86 x 10 x 14.257)

Cp

1.1138 KJ/Kg.K

Cv

msi Cvi

(0.72125 x 0.745) + (0.2154 x 0.653)

+ (0.05444 x 0.5486) + (8.86 x 10 x 10.1333)

=

0.8 KJ/Kg.K

(All Cvi, Cpi values of corresponding components are taken from clerks table)

n For the mixture

(Cp/Cv)

1.11/0.8

1.38

Pressure and temperature at various PH:

1.01325 x 100 bar

1.01325 bar

30C =

P/P

(r)

1.01325 bar

6.6

1.38

13.698 bar

Where,

303 K

(r) x T

Where,
T

303 K

620.68 K

3
P

4
2
1

Heat Supplied by the fuel per cycle

Q

MCv

1.79 x 10 x 46151.08

0.8265 KJ/Cycle

0.8265

MCv (T - T)

4272.45 K

(P V) / T

(P V) / T

(T x P)/T

Where,

Where,
P

94.27 bar

P / (r)

6.973 bar

POINT POSITION
POINT-1
POINT-2
POINT-3
POINT-4

T / (r)

2086.15 K

PRESSURE (bar)
1.01325
13.698
94.27
6.973

TEMPERATURE
30 C
303 K
347.68 C
620.68 K
3999.45 C
4272.45 K
1813.15 C
2086.15 K

DESIGN OF PISTON:

We know diameter of the piston which is equal to 50 mm

Thickness of piston:
The thickness of the piston head is calculated from flat-plate theory

Where,
t

D (3/16 x P/f)

Here,
P

Maximum combustion pressure

100 bar

Permissible stress in tension

34.66

N/mm
Piston material is aluminium alloy.
t

0.050 (3/16 x 100/34.66 x 10/10) x 1000

12 mm

2 x D

Number of Piston Rings:

No. of piston rings
Here,
D

Should be in Inches

No. of rings

2.805

We adopt 3 compression rings and 1 oil rings

Thickness of the ring:

1.968 inches

Thickness of the ring

D/32

50/32

1.5625 mm

D/20

2.5 mm

Width of the ring:

Width of the ring

The distance of the first ring from top of the piston equals
=

0.1 x D

5 mm

Width of the piston lands between rings

=

0.75 x width of ring

Length of the piston

1.625 x D

Length of the piston

81.25 mm

1.875 mm

Length of the piston:

Length of the piston skirt =

Total length Distance of first ring from top of

The first ring (No. of landing between rings x
Width of land) (No. of compression ring x
Width of ring)

81.25 5 2 x 1.875 3 x 2.5

65 mm

Other parameter:
Centre of piston pin above the centre of the skirt

0.02 x D

65 mm

x 65 + 1

33.5 mm

x 12

6 mm

65 x 50

3250 mm

The distance from the bottom of the piston to the

Centre of the piston pin

Thickness of the piston walls at open ends

The bearing area provided by piston skirt

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-10
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

ADVANTAGE &
DISADVANTAGE
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER 10

ANDVANTAGE AND DISADVANTAGE

ADVANTAGES
Efficiency of the vehicle is improved
Small modification is done in the vehicle
Battery efficiency and life time also increased

DISADVANTAGES
1. Additional cost is required

2. Additional space is required to install this arrangement in vehicles

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-11
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

APPLICATION
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER-11
APPICATION

APPLICATIONS
Automobile application

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-12
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

LIST OF MATERIALS
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER 12
LIST OF MATERIALS

Sl.No.

PARTS

Qty.

Material

i.

engine

ms

ii.

battery

li.acid

iii.

Fuel tank

Mild steel

iv.

Thermo electric generator

copper

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-13
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

COST ESTIMATION
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER-13
COST ESTIMATION
1. MATERIAL COST:

Sl. No.

PARTS

Qty.

Material

i.

engine

Mild Steel

ii.

battery

li.acid

iii.

Fuel tank

Mild steel

iv.

Thermo electric generator

copper

Total

Amount (Rs)

= Rs.

2. LABOUR COST

LATHE, DRILLING, WELDING, GRINDING, POWER HACKSAW, GAS CUTTING:

Cost = 1500/-

3. OVERHEAD CHARGES

The overhead charges are arrived by Manufacturing cost

Manufacturing Cost =
=

Material Cost + Labour cost

+1500

=
Overhead Charges =

20% of the manufacturing cost

=
TOTAL COST
Total cost

Material Cost + Labour cost + Overhead Charges

=
=

Rs

Total cost for this project

Rs.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-14
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CONCLUSION
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER-14
CONCLUSION

CONCLUSION:
In this project we understand a exhaust gas gas heat recovery power generatior. Thus the
eco-friendly power generation method can be implemented for domestic and commercial use at
an affordable cost. Since this system requires less power input, it can also be used as a portable
refrigerator. The thermoelectric generator can be used in remote areas where powersource is not
possible to get.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

APPENDIX
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

APPENDIX
APPENDIX

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

BIBLIOGRAPHY
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------BIBLIOGRAPHY

BIBLIOGRAPHY:
1. Air conditioning and refrigeration by B.L.Ballaney
2. Refrigeration and air conditioning by Manohar prasad
3. www.peltier-info.com

4. www.wikipedia.com
5. www.tellurex.com