2.patterns in Nature

Hornsby Girls High School SL#606258
Preliminary Biology Topic 2
PATTERNS in NATURE
What is this topic about?
To keep it as simple as possible, (K.I.S.S.) this topic involves the study of:
1. LIVING CELLS & THEIR STRUCTURE
2. CHEMICALS MOVE IN & OUT THROUGH MEMBRANES
3. NUTRITION IN PLANTS & ANIMALS
4. GAS EXCHANGE & INTERNAL TRANSPORT
5. CELL DIVISION FOR GROWTH & REPAIR
but first, an introduction...

Cells
Organization of a Multicellular Organism
All living things are composed of microscopic lumps

called cells.
A building is not just a pile of bricks, and an army is not just

a rabble of soldiers. Each has a structure, and levels of
organization so everything works together.
Some organisms are composed of just one single cell.

Similarly, your body is not just a big heap of cells. It has
levels of organization...
a CELL is the basic unit of any living thing.
All familiar organisms are made of many cells;

for example, your body is composed of approximately 300
billion cells... you are multicellular.
a number of similar cells working together is a...

Each cell is a tiny sac of protoplasm... water with a
complex mixture of chemicals dissolved in it, plus many
structures called organelles (little organs).
TISSUE
examples: muscle tissue, bone tissue.
various tissues are combined to make an...

GENERALIZED DIAGRAM OF A LIVING CELL
ORGAN
Organelles
examples: heart, kidney, liver.
a number of organs work together for a specific

purpose. This forms a...
SYSTEM
example: digestive system.
Finally, all the body systems working together form...
YOU
Membrane on the
outside contains the
cell , and controls
what goes in or out
Cytoplasm
jelly-like
liquid fills
the cell
In this topic you will study the basics of the structure and
functioning of living things:
Cell structure
&
Chemistry
Plants and animals have cells with a few important

differences. Organisms such as fungi are different again,
while bacteria have a totally different cell structure.
Vital
Body
Systems
Cell
Division
copyright 2005-2006 keep it simple science
CONCEPT DIAGRAM (Mind Map) OF TOPIC

Some students find that memorizing the OUTLINE of a topic helps them learn and remember the concepts and
important facts. As you proceed through the topic, come back to this page regularly to see how each bit fits the
whole. At the end of the notes you will find a blank version of this Mind Map to practise on.
Major Organelles
Structure &
Function
Types of
Microscope
Identifying
Tests
Differences
between Plant &
Animal cells
Structure
of
Membranes
Diffusion
&
Osmosis
Cell Chemicals
Cell Organelles
Cell Theory
Living Cells
&
Their Structure
History of our
knowledge of
cells
Surface Area
to
Volume
Ratio
Chemicals
Move In & Out
Through
Membranes
Photosynthesis
&
Respiration
PATTERNS
in
NATURE
The need &

Purposes of Cell
Division
Nutrition
in
Plants &
Animals
Structure &
Function of
Leaf
Digestion
in
Animals
Comparisons:
Structure
compared to diet
Cell Division
for
Growth & Repair
Gas Exchange
in
Animals
Gas Exchange
&
Internal Transport
Process
of
Mitosis
Stages
Mammal
Gas Exchange &

Transport in
Plants
Frog
Stomates
& Lenticels
Insect
Circulation
in Animals
Outcomes
Xylem & Phloem
Fish
Closed Systems
Open
Systems
1. LIVING CELLS & THEIR STRUCTURE

The Cell Theory
History of Our Knowledge of Cells
The Cell Theory is one of the fundamental concepts in

Biology. It simply states:
Robert Hooke, 1665

Hooke is credited with being the first person to see cells
and name them. Using a primitive microscope, he looked
at a piece of cork (dead tree bark) and saw tiny boxes like
the rooms and compartments of a gaol or monastery.
(hence cells)
All living organisms are composed of cells

All cells are produced from pre-existing cells.
The evidence supporting the Cell Theory has come almost
entirely from the use of microscopes to examine living
things.
Our knowledge of cell structure and function has
developed as the technology of microscopes advanced over
the last 300 years or so.
Initially, only light microscopes were available, but from the
1930s electron microscopes began to reveal more detail of
cell structure and function.
Comparison: Light & Electron Microscopes

Light
scope
Electron
scope
How the
image
is formed
beam of light
focused by
glass lenses
beam of electrons
focused by magnetic
fields
Magnification
generally about
500 X.
Maximum
about 2,000 X
up to 1,000,000 X
(500 times more
powerful)
about 0.2 m
about 0.0002 m
(1,000 times better
detail)
Resolution
(ability to see
fine details)
micrometres (m)
Anton van Leeuwenhoek, 1676

van Leeuwenhoek used a very simple microscope, but it
was equipped with an excellent lens, through which he saw
living micro-organisms swimming around in a drop of
water.
Over the next 150 years, microscopes improved, and it was
suspected that cells were present in all living things.
Robert Brown, 1827
Brown was the first to discover structures inside cells. He
discovered and described the nucleus inside plant cells.
By about 1840, the Cell Theory was becoming accepted
by most biologists, because cells were observed in every
organism studied. Louise Pasteurs discoveries showed
that all infectious diseases were caused by germs, which
were microscopic, cellular organisms.
1 m = 0.000001(10-6)metre.
1 micrometre is 1/1000 of a millimetre
How Big Are Cells Anyway?

Rudolf Virchow, 1859 and Walther Flemming, 1879
Between them, these two German scientists clarified the
process of cell division, by which cells produce more cells.
This established the principle that all cells come from preexisting cells.
Typical Plant Cell

50-100 m
Typical Animal Cell
5 - 20 m
Bacterial Cells
1 - 5 m
SCALE:
In the 20th century, the electron microscope opened up our

knowledge of the fine detail of cell structures and their
functions.
100 m
Cell Organelles Visible with a Light Microscope

You will have done practical work in class to use a light microscope to view cells in living things.
Generalized
ANIMAL CELL
Generalized
PLANT CELL
CELL WALL
(on outside of membrane)
NUCLEUS
Large
VACUOLE
CELL
MEMBRANE
Small
Vacuoles
(only seen in
single celled
animals)
CYTOPLASM
CHLOROPLASTS
(green colour)
The Major Differences Between Plant & Animal Cells

Plant cells have a tough CELL WALL on the outside of their cell membrane.
Many plant cells contain CHLOROPLASTS. These are green in colour because they contain the pigment chlorophyll.
Chloroplasts are the sites of PHOTOSYNTHESIS, where plants make food.
Note: not all plant cells have chloroplasts... for example, cells in the underground roots cannot photosynthesize, so do not
contain any chloroplasts.
Many plant cells contain a large VACUOLE. Animal cells rarely have vacuoles, and if present they are small.
What the Electron Microscope Reveals

The superior magnifying power and resolution of the electron microscope has given us a much more detailed knowledge of
the cell and its organelles. The diagram below is a sketch of a plant cell similar to the one above, but with the added details
that the electron microscope has revealed. The extra organelles shown are generally NOT visible with a light microscope.
Golgi apparatus
Cell Wall
Cell Membrane
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Vacuole
A network of membrane
structures connected to
nucleus & extending
throughout the cytoplasm
Nucleus
Extra detail revealed
Often has the tiny

Ribosomes attached
Chloroplast internal
structure
Mitochondrion
Site of cellular
respiration
Stacks of flat membranes

(grana) contain the
chlorophyll
Lysosomes
Endoplasmic Reticulum (E.R.) is a network of

membranes which form channels and compartments
throughout the cytoplasm of the cell. Its function can be
compared to the internal walls of an office building which
divide the space into rooms where different operations
can be kept separate so that each is efficient and does not
interfere with other operations.
The Organelles... Structure & Function

The Nucleus is the control centre of the cell.
Inside the nucleus are the chromosomes containing DNA,
the genetic material. There is often a nucleolus present.
This is the site for production of RNA, a messenger
chemical which leaves the nucleus carrying instructions to
other organelles. The nuclear membrane has holes or
pores to allow RNA to exit.
NUCLEUS
Nucleolus
RNA manufacture
ENDOPLASMIC
RETICULUM
Nuclear membrane
with pores, for RNA exit
Membranes
enclose
channels and
rooms
Nuclear material
chromatin
Chromosomes
unwound and
spread out
RIBOSOMES
attached to membranes
The E.R. structure provides channels for chemicals and

messengers to travel accurately to the correct locations,
and for chemical production to occur in isolation from
other operations. Once again, structure matches function.
The Cell Membrane is not only the boundary of the cell,

but also controls what goes in or out of the cell. This is
studied in more detail in the next section.
Often found attached to the E.R. are the tiny Ribosomes.

These are the sites of production of proteins, the main
structural and functional chemicals of living cells. RNA
messengers from the nucleus control each ribosome to
manufacture the specific proteins that the cell needs.
The Mitochondria (singular: mitochondrion) are the sites

of cellular respiration.
Glucose + Oxygen
(sugar)
Membranes
Carbon + Water + ATP

Dioxide
The Chloroplasts are found only in photosynthetic plant

cells. The electron microscope has revealed that the
chloroplast is not just a bag of chlorophyll, but has an
organized internal structure which makes its functioning
more efficient.
The ATP produced by respiration carries chemical energy

all over the cell to power all the processes of life. The
mitochondria are therefore, the power stations of the
cell, converting the energy of food into the readily usable
form of ATP.
CHLOROPLAST
MITOCHONDRION
Stroma zone
Outer membrane
Inner membrane
folded into
cristae
Membrane
stacks (grana)
containing chlorophyll
Respiration
enzymes attached
The grana are stacked membrane sacs containing

chlorophyll, which absorbs the light energy for
photosynthesis. This light-capturing step is kept separate
from the stroma zone, where the chemical reactions to
make food are finalized.
Inside a mitochondrion is a folded membrane with many

projections (cristae). This structure provides a greater
surface area, where the enzymes (control chemicals) for
respiration are attached in correct sequence for the steps of
the process. Hence, the structure helps the organelle
do its job more efficiently.
Double
membrane
envelope
A Summary...
The Golgi Apparatus is a semi-circular arrangement of

membranes which are concerned with packaging chemicals
into small membrane sacs (vesicles) for either storage or
secretion from the cell.
GOLGI BODY
Vesicles pinch-off
for storage or
secretion
Membranes
Except for the tiny ribosomes, all the cell organelles are
built from, and surrounded by, membranes. The
membranes provide: the infrastructure of the cell
channels for chemicals and messengers to move along
packaging for chemicals which need to be kept separate
points of attachment for control chemicals (enzymes)
control over what moves in or out of each organelle, and
in or out of the entire cell.
Curved
membrane
sacs
The structure of the membrane-bound organelles help

the cells various functions to be carried out with great
efficiency.
Lysosomes
form this
way
One type of vesicle produced by a Golgi Body is the

Lysosome. These membrane sacs contain digestive
enzymes which can destroy any foreign proteins which
enter the cell. Lysosome enzymes also rapidly digest the
contents of a cell which has died, so that your body can
clean up the remains and replace the dead cell.
Having these membrane-based organelles is the defining

characteristic of the Eucaryotic group of organisms,
which includes all plants and animals.
Worksheet 1
List 5 additional organelles normally only visible with an

electron microscope. (p)........................................................
q).............................................. r)..............................................
s)............................................... (t)..............................................
Bacteria cells do NOT have all the membrane-type

organelles, and can only operate efficiently by being very
small.
Fill in the blank spaces and diagram labels.

Check your answers in the Answer Section at the back.
The Cell Theory states that (a)..........................................
are composed of cells, and that all cells are produced from
(b)................................................................
Complete these lists to describe functions of organelles.

Organelle
Function
Cell membrane
(u)
Our knowledge of cells is due mainly to the technology of

(c)........................................................
(v)
Partitions cell into channels

& compartments
The (d)....................................... of a microscope refers to its

ability to distinguish fine details. The (e).................................
scope is far superior in both (d) and (f)...................................
Golgi apparatus
(w)
(x)
Cellular respiration.
The man credited with being the first to see cells was
(g).........................................................................
(y)
Photosynthesis
Cell wall
(z)
Label the parts of this plant cell seen with a simple light
microscope.
(k)............................................................
(h).....................................
(i)...................................
(l) inside (k).........................................................
(jj).........................................
(m)....................................................................
Which TWO parts of this plant cell would definitely not

ever be seen in an animal cell? (n)..........................................&
(o)....................................................................
WHEN COMPLETED,
WORKSHEETS BECOME SECTION SUMMARIES
2. CHEMICALS MOVE IN & OUT THROUGH MEMBRANES

Cell Chemistry...
What Cells Are Made From
INORGANIC CHEMICALS
ORGANIC CHEMICALS
These include small simple molecules like water

(H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2), as well as mineral
ions such as calcium, nitrate, phosphate, chloride
and so on.
Organic chemicals are based on the element

carbon, which can form chains, rings and
networks and so build into the extremely complex
molecules needed to make a living cell. Many are
polymers made by joining together many
smaller molecules.
Although these are often considered of lesser

importance, you should remember that all living
things are about 75% water.
There are four main categories to know about...
CARBOHYDRATES
include the sugars and starch.
PROTEINS
are the main structural chemicals of organelles,
cells, bone, skin & hair. Life is built from
protein.
monosaccharides
(mono = one)
are simple sugars such as glucose C6H12O6
Proteins are polymers, made from amino acid

molecules joined in chains.
disaccharides (di = two)

are sugars made from TWO monosaccharides
joined together, such as table sugar
(sucrose).
polysaccharides (poly = many)
are huge molecules made from thousands of
sugar molecules joined in chains or networks.
Examples are:
Starch...made by plants, to store excess sugar.
Glycogen... made by animals, to store sugar.
Cellulose... made by plants as a structural
chemical. The CELL WALL of a plant cell is
made from cellulose.
Disaccharide
Monosaccharide
sugar
molecules
Amino acid
molecules
LIPIDS
are the fats and oils.
sugar
All cell membranes are built from

lipid & protein.
Lipids are used as a way to store
excess energy food. Carbohydrates
can be converted to fat for storage.
Polysaccharide.
Small part of a
Starch molecule
Uses of Carbohydrates in Living Things:

Sugars are energy chemicals. Glucose is made by
plants in photosynthesis, and is the fuel for
cellular respiration to make ATP to power all
cells.
Starch & Glycogen are polymer molecules used
to store sugars as a food reserve. Starch is the
main nutrient chemical in the plant foods we eat.
Cellulose & Lignin are polymers of sugar used by
plants structurally. Cellulose makes the tough
cell wall of all plant cells. Lignin is a strong
material used to reinforce the walls of veins in
plants.
Part of a protein molecule...

a chain of amino acids
NUCLEIC ACIDS (DNA & RNA)

are the most complex of all. DNA is the genetic
information of every cell. RNA is the messenger sent
out from the nucleus to control all cell activities.
DNA is a huge polymer of sugars, phosphate and
bases coiled in a double helix shape.
The Structure of the Cell Membrane
Identifying Chemicals in Tissues

You will have done laboratory work to learn some simple
chemical tests which identify important substances. These
tests all rely on a reagent which changes colour.
The electron microscope and other modern analysis

methods have revealed the structure of the membranes
which surround a cell and form most of the cell organelles.
To keep it simple (K.I.S.S.) these are the ones to know:-
The membrane is extremely thin; just two molecules thick.

The basic chemical unit is a phospholipid molecule; a
lipid (fat) with phosphate groups attached. Each molecule
has two distinct ends; one which is attracted to water
molecules (hydrophilic) and the other is repelled by water
(hydrophobic).
Hydro=water. philic=to like. phobic=hate / fear.
Cell
Chemical
Test
Reagent
Colour in
Pure water
Positive
Result
Glucose
Benedicts
solution
pale blue
yellow or
orange
Starch
Iodine
solution
yellow
brown
dark blue or
black
Protein
Biuret
blue
purple
MEMBRANE STRUCTURE
One phospholipid
hydro-philic
-phobic
Outside of cell
You will have used one or more of these tests on living

tissue and possibly examined the cells with a microscope.
For Example: if tissue scraped from a fresh potato is
mounted on a slide with a simple contrast stain (like
methylene blue) the cells look like this:
Inside of cell
POTATO CELLS
Double layer of
phospholipid molecules
Two layers of phospholipids form each membrane. The

molecules cling to each other, and line up with their
hydrophilic ends on the outside attracted to the water
solution of the cytoplasm inside the cell, and to the watery
environment outside the cell.
Organelles
visible
Cell wall
Their hydrophobic ends are repelled from the watery

surroundings, and cling together inside the membrane itself.
It is like a thin layer of oil floating on water... it is fluid and
flexible, but clings together forming an unbroken skin on
the surface.
If a drop of iodine solution is added, the same cells change

as shown:
POTATO CELLS
WITH IODINE
Other molecules are embedded in the phospholipid bilayer.

Various proteins, many with carbohydrates attached, float
around among the membrane molecules
Organelles turn black

This indicates the presence
of starch inside the
organelles
(these are storage vacuoles)
Membrane proteins
Once you have an understanding of the main chemicals

that cells are made from, you need to realize that all of
these substances, or their raw materials or waste products,
are constantly moving in or out of a living cell.
Outside of cell
Inside of cell
To do this
These other molecules serve purposes including:
CHEMICALS MUST CROSS THE CELL MEMBRANE.
receptors for messenger chemicals from other cells

identification markers, so your body knows its own cells
from any foreign invaders
helping chemicals get through the membrane.
Osmosis
is a special case of diffusion, which occurs when the
concentration gradient involves dissolved molecules or
ions which CANNOT get through the membrane.
How Chemicals Get Through the Membrane

The cell membrane as the boundary of a cell is a bit like
growing a plant hedge as the boundary of a field. It stops
the cows and horses getting out, but a small mouse, or a
lizard can easily crawl through it.
For example, consider a cell which is surrounded by a solution

containing a lot of dissolved sugar. The sugar cannot diffuse
through the membrane to equalize the concentrations. In such
a situation, water (which can go through the membrane) will
diffuse toward the high sugar concentration, as if attempting
to equalize by diluting the sugar.
Similarly, a membrane is semi-permeable; it prevents

most (especially large) molecules getting through, but
allows others to pass through easily. Small molecules like
water (H2O), oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) pass
freely through the membrane like a lizard through a hedge.
OSMOSIS
To understand why these molecules move at all, you need to

learn about the processes of DIFFUSION & OSMOSIS.
Diffusion
occurs in every liquid or gas because the atoms and
molecules are constantly moving... the particles jiggle
about at random in what is called Brownian motion.
(Named for its discoverer Robert Brown, the same man
who discovered the cell nucleus. Revise page 2)
High
concentration
of sugar
outside cell
Sugar cannot
get in through
membrane
Imagine a water solution containing a dissolved chemical,

but it is NOT evenly distributed... it is more concentrated
in one place than elsewhere. As the molecules jiggle about
at random, they will automatically spread out to make the
concentration (eventually) even. This process is called
DIFFUSION.
In this case, the cell will lose water and might shrink and
shrivel up.
The opposite situation could happen too. A cells
cytoplasm contains many dissolved chemicals. If the
outside environment around the cell is more watery (less
concentrated in dissolved substances) then osmosis will
cause water to diffuse into the cell.
High
concentration
later
Equal concentration
throughout
Dissolved chemicals cannot

diffuse out...
Lower
concentration
...so water
diffuses
into the
cell.
In a living cell, there is often a concentration gradient

from the outside to the inside of the cell. For example,
because a cell keeps consuming oxygen for cellular
respiration, the inside of the cell usually has a low
concentration of O2 dissolved in the water of the
cytoplasm. On the outside, there can be plenty of O2.
This is how plants

absorb water into
their roots, even
when the soil
seems almost dry.
DIFFUSION of SMALL
MOLECULES into a CELL
Higher
concentration
outside cell
Comparison of Diffusion and Osmosis

Diffusion is the movement of dissolved solutes, from an
area of higher concentration toward a lower concentration
area. The movement follows the concentration gradient.
Lower
concentration
inside
Osmosis is the diffusion of WATER through a semipermeable membrane, against the concentration gradient
of solutes. It occurs whenever the solutes cannot penetrate
the membrane, but water can.
DIFFUSION DRIVES MOLECULES THROUGH THE

MEMBRANES.
Water diffuses OUT

of cell
Other Ways Substances

Get Through Membranes
Notice that as the cubes get bigger:

Surface Area increases, and...
Volume increases, but...
SA / Vol Ratio DECREASES,
because the volume grows faster than
the surface area.
This pattern is the same for any shape... as any shaped
object gets bigger, the ratio between its Surface Area and
its Volume gets smaller.
Diffusion and Osmosis are vitally important for many

chemicals (especially water) to get in and out of cells. These
processes happen automatically without any effort by the
cell... we say these are passive transport processes.
What about all the other important chemicals which cannot
get through the membrane? How do they get in or out?
Be aware that cells have a variety of ways that they can
deliberately move substances across the membrane apart
from simple diffusion and osmosis. One such process
involves the membrane proteins... revise membrane
structure on page 8.
Whats this got to do with cells?

The amount of food, oxygen or other substances a cell
needs depends on its volume... the bigger the cell, the more
it needs according to its volume.
But, all cells have to get whatever they need in through
their cell membrane, and the size of the membrane is all
about surface area.
These other ways to transport materials across

membranes all require the cell to use energy (ATP from
cellular respiration) to transport substances forcibly. We say
these are active transport processes. You do not need to
know the details at this stage.
Cells must feed their volume,

through their Surface area
The Importance of the

Surface Area to Volume Ratio
Why are cells so small?
The answer requires a mathematical study...
As any cell gets bigger, it becomes more and more difficult

for it to get enough food, water and oxygen because its
SA/Vol. ratio keeps shrinking. Similarly, getting rid of
waste products also becomes more difficult.
Consider a series of cubes of increasing size:
Large cells are impossible... all single-celled organisms are

microscopic, and all larger organisms are multi-cellular.
The only way to be big is to have lots of small cells.
1 unit
sides
2 unit
sides
3 unit
sides
In a later section, the process by which cells divide to make

more cells will be covered.
4 unit
sides
Surface Area:
Six squares, each 4x4
SA = 6x4x4
= 96 sq.units
Surface Area:
SA = 6x1x1
= 6 sq.units
Volume = lxbxh
= 1x1x1
= 1 cu.unit
Ratio of SA to Volume
SA/V = 6 / 1
SA = 6
vol
Surface Area:
Volume = lxbxh
= 4x4x4
= 64 cu.unit
Surface Area:
SA = 6x3x3
= 54 sq.units
SA = 6x2x2
= 24 sq.units
Volume = lxbxh
= 3x3x3
= 27 cu.unit
Volume = lxbxh
= 2x2x2
= 8 cu.unit
SA = 1.5
vol
SA/V = 54 / 27
SA = 2
vol
SA/V = 24 / 8
SA = 3
vol
SA/V = 96 / 64
10
Worksheet 2
The cell membrane is made from a double layer of

(o).............................................................. molecules, with
various proteins embedded.
The membrane is semi- (p)........................................
Simple, small molecules and ions (e.g. water, nitrate) are

known as (a)..................................................... compounds,
as opposed to organic compounds which are based
on the element (b)..................................., and include:-
Diffusion is a process where molecules move from a

place of (q).................................... concentration,
towards a (r)........................................... concentration.
(c)..............................which are polymers of amino acids
Osmosis is the diffusion of (s).......................................

molecules only, against the solute concentration
(t)..............................................., when the solute is
unable to get through a membrane.
Lipids, which are found structurally in the cell

(d)........................................and are also used as
(e)............................................................................
(f)....................................................................... which
include the sugars & starches.
One of this group, glucose, has chemical formula
(g)............................................. and is the food made
during (h)............................................................ and the
fuel for (i)......................................................... (organelle)to
make ATP.
Nucleic acids, of which (j)...................................is the
best known.
Diffusion & Osmosis are both examples of

(u)................................................................ transport,
because the cell does not need to use
(v)............................................... to make things move.
As any shape gets larger, its (w).........................................
ratio gets smaller. This is why all cells are small. A large
cell needs chemicals in proportion to its
x).............................................. However, it must get
substances in through its y)...............................................,
the size of which is measured by its z)............................
.....................................
If Benedicts solution turns from blue to yellow, this

proves that (k)..................................................... is present.
Protein can be identified by (l)....................................
reagent, and if starch is present iodine solution will turn
from (m) ................................ to (n)......................................
The only way for living things to be large, is to have

aa).................................... cells, NOT by having
ab)................................... cells.
WHEN COMPLETED,
11
3. NUTRITION IN PLANTS & ANIMALS

Autotrophs & Heterotrophs
Photosynthesis & Cellular Respiration
Auto-= self.
Hetero-= other... not self.
troph-= feeding
You will have noticed that these two vital processes, when
written as summary equations, are exact opposites.
Light energy
An autotroph is an organism that makes its own food. All

plants are autotrophic, making their own food by
PHOTOSYNTHESIS.
(There are also certain single-celled bacteria-related
microbes that make their own food, but to keep it simple
(K.I.S.S.) only plants will be dealt with here.)
CARBON
DIOXIDE
Any organism that cannot make its own food must be a

heterotroph. All animals are heterotrophic, and so are the
fungi and most bacteria. A heterotrophic animal eats plants
or other animals which have eaten plants, and so on
according to the food chain involved.
CHLOROPLAST - site of
photosynthesis
GLUCOSE
+
OXYGEN
WATER
Photosynthesis in Plants
All plants make their own food from the simple, low-energy
raw materials water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2) using
the energy of sunlight, to make the high-energy sugar
glucose (C6H12O6), with oxygen gas (O2) as a by-product.
ligh
t en
erg
y
WATER + CARBON
DIOXIDE
from
soil
from
air
6H2O
6CO2
chlorophyll
ATP
What is really happening is ENERGY FLOW through the

food chains of an ecosystem. Photosynthesis captures the
energy of light and stores it in a high energy food compound
like glucose. Cellular respiration releases that stored energy in
the form of ATP which can power all cellular and life
activities... growing, moving, keeping warm etc.
green pigment
in chloroplasts
of plant cells
GLUCOSE + OXYGEN
C6H12O6
As you learned in Topic 1, in all ecosystems there is a

constant input and flow of energy via the food chains,
while the chemicals such as H2O, O2, and CO2 simply get
re-cycled over and over.
to
air
highenergy
sugar (food)
MITOCHONDRIA - site of
cellular respiration
The Most Important Process on Earth
6O2
Photosynthesis makes all the food on Earth, for all the

food chains. It also makes all the oxygen in the atmosphere
for us animals to breathe.
This brief summary equation is very deceptive.

Photosynthesis actually occurs as a complex series of
chemical steps inside the chloroplast.
For these two good reasons, Photosynthesis has got to be

considered the most important biological process on the planet.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS in the CHLOROPLAST

lig
ht
Phase 1
In the grana,
chlorophyll
absorbs light
energy and uses
it to split water
into hydrogen and
oxygen
Phase 2
In the
stroma, a
cycle of
reactions
builds
glucose
from CO2
and the
hydrogen
from water
12
What Happens to Glucose in a Plant?
Experiments with Photosynthesis
If photosynthesis only makes glucose, where do all the

other biological chemicals in a plant come from?
The classic experiment you have probably done, is where a

leaf is partly covered with light-proof aluminium foil, and
then exposed to light for several days. The aim of this
experiment is to prove that light is needed for
photosynthesis to occur.
Glucose is a monosaccharide sugar, a member of the

carbohydrate group. (Revise page 7) It is easy for a plant to
convert glucose into other types of carbohydrate.
GLUCOSE
molecules
Lig
ht
Other sugars,
such as sucrose
joined in pairs
Alu
min
s
00 n)
10 tio
in riza
ed e
in ym
jo ol
(p
CELLULOSE
for building new
cell walls
STARCH
for storage of food
Why Iodine? It detects STARCH, not glucose.

Sure enough, you probably found that any part of the leaf
exposed to light turned black when soaked in iodine, while
parts under the foil did not go black. This proves that any
part of a leaf allowed to photosynthesize will build up a
store of starch from the glucose it makes. The first product
of photosynthesis is glucose, but it is rapidly converted to
other things.
THIS IS THE BASIS OF EXPERIMENTS YOU

HAVE DONE
Glucose can also be converted chemically into lipids... fats

and oils, since they contain exactly the same chemical
elements (carbon, hydrogen & oxygen only - CHO).
No light,
no starch
LIPIDS (oils)
Making proteins and nucleic acids is more difficult, since

these contain additional chemical elements, especially
nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur.
Iodine test
shows lots of
starch here
This is where the minerals such as nitrate, phosphate and sulfate

come in. Soil minerals are often called plant nutrients, and a
gardener may say he/she is feeding the plants when applying
fertilizer, but these minerals are NOT food.
They are the essential ingredients needed so plants can
make proteins and DNA etc, from
Soil minerals
the real food... glucose.
nitrate, sulfate etc
Amino
acids
GLUCOSE
foil
After several days, the leaf is decolourized (so the test can
be seen more easily) and then tested with IODINE
solution.
In fact, plants convert glucose to STARCH

so rapidly that the chloroplasts in a plant
leaf become packed with starch grains
when it is photosynthesizing.
GLUCOSE
ium
chemical
conversion
Variations on this same method can be used to experiment

with other aspects of photosynthesis, such as proving that
chlorophyll is needed. In this experiment you might have
used variegated plant leaves which have chloroplasts only
in parts of each leaf... guess where the starch is detected?
PROTEIN
Polymerization
13
The Structure of the Leaf

A plant leaf is a factory for photosynthesis. A typical leaf is
built so that every part of its design is suited to the
achievement of that one objective... making food. It is a
classic case of Structure matches Function.
Structure & Function...

How Plants Get Water & Carbon Dioxide
In order to photosynthesize, plants must collect water and
carbon dioxide. In a land plant, water is collected by the
roots from the soil, and carbon dioxide is collected from
the air into the leaves.
Both roots and leaves require special structures to gather

these vital chemicals.
2
Plants Absorb Water

through special outgrowths on the roots called root hairs.
Each root hair is part of one, very elongated cell. Root hairs
help absorption of water by greatly increasing the surface
area of the root in contact with the soil.
The general shape of a leaf... broad, flat and thin,

gives it maximum surface area for absorbing light and
carbon dioxide from the air. A leaf is thin enough that light
penetrates to reach each layer of cells within, for maximum
photosynthesis.
MICROSCOPIC VIEW NEAR A ROOT TIP

LONGITUDINAL
SECTION
TRANSVERSE
SECTION
XYLEM TUBES
The veins contain xylem tubes for carrying water

and minerals up from the roots, and phloem tubes for
carrying manufactured food away. Being specially
reinforced with tough lignin, the veins also support the
flimsy leaf, and keep it in shape and positioned to catch
maximum light.
Phloem
tubes
MICROSCOPIC CROSS SECTION THROUGH A LEAF

3
ROOT HAIRS
Epidermis layer
Outgrowths from
epidermis cells
The actual absorption of water is achieved by OSMOSIS.

(Revise page 9) The cell cytoplasm is kept at a higher solute
concentration than the water solution in the soil, so water
diffuses into the cell through the cell membrane of the root
hair cells.
6
8
Once absorbed into the root hair cells, water diffuses from
cell to cell towards the central XYLEM tubes which carry
the water (and dissolved minerals) upwards to the leaves.
This upward flow is achieved by the plant constantly
allowing water vapour to evaporate from each leaf
(Transpiration). This creates a suction at the top of the
xylem tube, rather like drinking through a straw.
SURFACE VIEW
OF A STOMATE
9
Alongside the xylem tubes are the PHLOEM tubes which

carry food from the leaves to any part of the plant which
cannot photosynthesize... especially the roots.
Pore
opening
The cuticle is a layer of clear, waxy material. It allows

light through, but is waterproof to prevent excessive
water loss.
Together the Xylem and Phloem tubes form the veins in

a plant. They not only carry substances around the plant,
but are important as reinforcement and support structures.
magnified
14
The epidermis layer of cells is transparent like a

window, to let light through to the cells underneath.

5
The Palisade Layer of cells are tightly packed in an

orderly row immediately under the top epidermis where
there is maximum light. Each cell contains many
chloroplasts. This is the engine room for photosynthesis.
The Importance of Surface Area

Notice that in both the roots absorbing water, and the
leaves absorbing light and CO2, the plant maximizes the
rate of photosynthesis by maximizing surface area.
The Spongy Layer has very loosely packed cells, with

lots of spaces around them. This allows gases (CO2 & O2)
and water to easily move around by diffusion.
It is generally true of all processes such as absorption and

many chemical reactions, that the greater the surface area,
the faster the rate of the process.
The lower leaf surface has many openings, called

stomates. Through these openings or pores:
water evaporates from the leaf (Transpiration).
This ensures that water and minerals continue to
be sucked up from the roots.
CO2 diffuses into the leaf for photosynthesis.
O2 diffuses out of the leaf into the air.
A magnified surface view of a stomate is shown at 9
You may have done a simple experiment similar to this:Same quantity of solid calcium carbonate
Lumps
Powder
Both lumps and

powder react
with acid in
exactly the
same way, but
the powder
reacts faster.
Veins run throughout each leaf. The Xylem tubes

bring water and minerals from the roots and release them
into the spongy layer. From there, some diffuses into the
cells for photosynthesis, while the rest evaporates through
the stomates.
Same quantity of same strength acid
There are Phloem tubes as well, which collect the food

manufactured in the leaf cells and carry it away to feed
other parts of the plant, such as roots, stem and flowers
which might not be able to photosynthesize.
The more finely divided a solid is, the greater its surface
area, so the powder has more surface area than the lumps.
This experiment demonstrates the principle that things
happen faster when more surface area is available for
reaction or absorption.
Veins also act as reinforcing, helping to keep the flimsy leaf

deployed to catch maximum light.
9
Each stomate pore is an opening formed between two

special guard cells. These cells can change shape to
open the pore, or close it up to minimize water loss in dry
conditions. The guard cells change shape by using osmosis
to either pump-up full of water (pore open), or deflate and
shrivel (pore closed).
15
Nutrition in Animals
Different Animals
Have Different Systems
Animals are Heterotrophs... they must eat energy-rich food

made by other organisms, either plants or other animals.
The digestive systems of different animals are often quite

similar, but certainly not identical. Once again, the principle
of structure matches function can be noticed.
The food an animal eats is composed largely of complex

carbohydrates, proteins and fats which must be digested
before being absorbed into the body and used by the cells.
Digestion involves chemically breaking large molecules
down into smaller units which can be carried around the
body and transported across cell membranes.
Digestion in Herbivores
Plant-eaters face a problem... a lot of plant material has a
low nutrient value and contains a lot of fibrous matter
which is difficult to digest. The fibre is mostly the plant cell
walls, made of cellulose... a polymer of glucose, but animals
lack the necessary digestive enzymes to break the cellulose
down.
Sugar
molecules
Starch molecule
ENZYME
Herbivores usually have: flat, grinding teeth to chew the food thoroughly to
increase the surface area exposed to digestive enzymes
relatively long intestines and caecum, so there is more
surface area and longer time available for digestion
bacteria living in their gut which have the enzymes to
digest cellulose. This is an example of mutualism.
Amino acid
molecules
Protein molecule
ENZYME
Digestion is carried out by the digestive system... you have

studied the human digestive system in the past. Heres a
quick revision:-
huge Caecum
HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Chewing the food

begins the
digestion process
Grinding
teeth
Salivary Glands.
Enzyme in saliva begins
digesting starch
Gall bladder adds

bile to dissolve
fats so enzymes
can digest them
Small Intestine
Completes digestion
with cocktail of
enzymes, then
absorbs nutrients into
blood stream
Caecum & Appendix have no
special function in humans
long Large Intestine
Carnivores usually have: sharp, tearing teeth to cut flesh into chunks for
swallowing... chewing is not so important
relatively short intestines
highly elastic stomach, which allows them to swallow a
large meal. The stomach acid and enzymes are vital for
digesting their high protein meat diet.
Stomach churns
food with acid.
Enzyme digests
protein
Pancreas adds a
cocktail of
enzymes to food
Duodenum
First part of intestine
Stomach
more important
Large Intestine
Absorbs water,
vitamins & minerals
into blood stream
Shorter intestines
Rectum stores
undigested wastes
(faeces) for later
elimination
Tearing
teeth
Once again Surface Area is important. The chewing of

food by the teeth breaks the food into smaller pieces, so its
surface area is increased. This allows digestive enzymes to
attack and digest it faster.
Small Intestine
Digestion in Carnivores
Flesh eaters dont need such huge digestive systems. Their
food is much more concentrated in its nutritional value, and
relatively easy to digest.
Oesophagus carries
food to stomach
Liver receives and
processes digested
nutrients after they
are absorbed into
blood stream
Stomach
More on Surface Area: the small intestines of every animal

has a highly folded inner surface, so there is a greater area
for absorbing nutrients into the blood stream.
16
Digestion in a Nectar Feeder

Some animals eat a diet that requires very little digestion at
all. Many birds (eg honey-eaters, humming birds) and
insects (eg butterflies) feed largely on the sugary nectar of
flowers.
Long beak & tongue

reaches deep into
flowers
Sugar does not require any digestion at all, so their digestive

system can be very short and simple.
Stomach
digests pollen
(rich in protein)
eaten with the
sugary nectar
A short-lived butterfly might need only nectar for the

energy its sugar supplies, but a bird needs more nutrients.
Most eat the plant pollen which is rich in protein and oil.
Therefore, their short little digestive system does need to
do some work, apart from simply absorbing sugar.
Very short
intestines
Nectar & Pollen feeding lorikeet
Photo by Diana
17
Worksheet 3
Part B
Fill in the blank spaces.

Check your answers in the Answer Section at the back
Animals have to digest the food they eat. This is

carried out by digestive (a)..................................... which,
for example, break starch into (b)....................................
and proteins into (c).........................................................
Part A
(a).......................................... (e.g. plants) are organisms
that can make their own food, while
(b)............................................... (such as animals) cannot.
There are 4 organs in the mammal digestive system

that produce digestive enzymes. Name them all.
(d)......................................... ...............................................
.............................................. ...............................................
The process of photosynthesis can be summarized as

(c)............... + (d)............
(e)............. + (f).................
Digestion begins with chewing food which increases

the (e).................................................... of the food, so
enzymes can attack it faster.
Photosynthesis occurs in the (g)..........................................

(organelle) in plant cells.
The green pigment
(h).......................................... absorbs (i).............................
energy for the process. This energy is stored as chemical
energy in the (j)..........................................molecules
produced.
Digested nutrients are absorbed into the blood stream

from the (f).............................................., then carried in
the blood to the (g)................................... for processing.
Herbivorous animals usually have:
Thousands of Glucose molecules can be joined

together by the process of (k)..............................................
to form (l)........................................ (used for storage) or
cellulose which is used to build (m).....................................
(h)........................................ teeth to chew thoroughly

relatively (i)................................. intestines and caecum
Glucose can also be chemically converted into

(n).................................. To convert sugar to amino acids,
the plant needs a supply of (o)...........................................
Amino acids can then be joined together to form
(p)...................................................
mutualistic (j)................................... living in their gut

to help them digest (k)......................................... which is
a major part of their diet.
Compared to them, carnivores usually have:
The structures mainly responsible for absorbing water

into a plant are the (q)....................................... which are
outgrowths of root cells and greatly increase the
(r)........................................ of the roots. Water is
absorbed by the process of (s)............................................
then transported up to the leaves through
(t).................................................... tubes.
(l)..................................... teeth
relatively (m)............................................ intestines
Nectar feeders, such as (n).................................................
have digestive systems which are very
(o)......................................and......................................
In a leaf, there are many examples of structure

matching function, such as:
The shape of the leaf gives maximum surface area for
(u)..................................................................................
The (v)................................................ layer of cells,
packed together & full of chloroplasts for maximum
photosynthesis.
The spongy layer of loosely packed cells to allow
(w)............................................................................................
WHEN COMPLETED,
The (x)................................................ which can open

and close and allow water to evaporate out (called
(y).....................................................) and to let the gas
(z).................................................... in for photosynthesis.
18
4. GAS EXCHANGE & INTERNAL TRANSPORT

Gas Exchange in Animals
Organisms Need What Cells Need
There are many ways that animals carry out gas exchange.
This section will compare four different systems... mammal,
frog, fish and insect.
Every living cell, plant or animal, has certain requirements:FOOD
WATER
OXYGEN
Lungs in a Mammal
Using the human as a typical example:
HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Trachea (Windpipe)
Each bronchus subdivides into
WASTE PRODUCTS such as CO2 must be excreted
Bronchioles
Bronchi
A single-celled organism exchanges these chemicals with

the environment directly through its cell membrane.
However, in all multicellular organisms most of the cells
are located deep within the body. There have to be body
systems to: absorb nutrients, water and oxygen
excrete wastes
transport all these chemicals between the cells
and the environment.
(sing: bronchus)
carry air to each
lung
Lung
is not hollow,
but sponge-like
Each bronchiole
ends in a cluster
of tiny air sacs...
the Alveoli
In animals the body systems involved are:

Digestive system absorbs nutrients and water.
Respiratory system (e.g. lungs) exchanges gases,
absorbing oxygen, and excreting carbon dioxide.
Excretory system (kidneys) removes other wastes such as
urea.
Circulatory system (blood, heart, veins etc) transports all
these things around the body.
Each Alveolus has a

wall just 1 cell thick, and
the internal surface is
kept moist
Blood
capillary
Blood flow
Plants also have systems for exchanging gases, and for

transporting substances around their bodies.
O2
CO2
Requirements for Efficient Gas Exchange

Plant or animal, large or small, all organisms need to
exchange gases with their environment. Efficient gas
exchange requires:-
Bronchiole
The lung is not just a hollow space like a balloon. If it was, the
surface area for gas exchange would be about the size of this
page. By dividing into millions of alveoli, the total surface area
inside your lungs is about the same size as a tennis court!
large surface area

in contact with the environment
moist gas exchange membrane
because the gases must dissolve in water before passing
through the membrane by diffusion
The inside surface is always moist, for gases to dissolve and

diffuse, and each alveolus is in intimate contact with a
blood capillary to transport the gases to and from the body
cells.
close contact with the blood supply

(or other transport system) to carry gases between cells
and the gas exchange organs.
AIR flows
in and out
The requirements for efficient gas exchange have

been met.
19
Gas Exchange in a Frog

Amphibians hatch from their egg as
tadpoles which live in water and
breathe with gills. Later they
undergo metamorphosis and
develop into the adult form which breathes with lungs.
Gas Exchange in a Fish

Land-dwelling, air-breathing animals always must have their
gas exchange organs inside their bodies so the moist
membranes wont dry out. In water this cant happen, so a
fishes gills are exposed to the water environment, but
shielded by a tough gill cover to protect the delicate
breathing organs.
However, a frogs lungs are much simpler than a mammals,

and dont have as many alveoli.
Gases are
dissolved in
the water
Doesnt this mean less surface area and less efficiency?

Yes, but a cold-blooded frog doesnt need to carry out
cellular respiration just to make body heat the way
mammals do. So the need for O2 intake and CO2 excretion
is a lot less. Also, the frog doesnt just do gas exchange in
its lungs...
Water
in
Gills
Water out
under gill cover
The gills are a series of feather-like plates around which the

water flows. Each gill plate consists of thousands of tiny
filaments each one a thin leaf-shaped structure packed
with blood capillaries.
FROG RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Simple
FISH BREATHE WITH GILLS
Lung
BLOOD FLOW IN CAPILLARIES
Moist Skin
also acts as a gas exchange surface
Mouth and
throat cavity.
Moist & lined with

blood vessels
The frog makes up for its inefficient lungs by carrying out

gas exchange through other body surfaces which are kept
moist and are lined with blood vessels... its mouth and
throat cavity and the skin all over its body.
WATER FLOW
Note that the direction of blood flow in the capillaries is

opposite to the flow of water around the gill filaments. This
is called counter-current flow, and (without going into
detail... KISS Principle) makes the gas exchange process
much more efficient.
Gas Exchange in an Insect

Insects dont have lungs at all. Along the sides of their
bodies is a series of holes called spiracles. Each spiracle
allows air to move into a network of tubes (trachea)
which infiltrate their whole body.
It needs to be efficient, because remember from Topic 1,

that the level of oxygen dissolved in most aquatic
environments is much lower than the concentration in air.
GAS EXCHANGE IN AN INSECT

Spiracles
Study again each system compared... mammal, frog, insect

and fish and take note of how each system achieves the
three essential features of any gas exchange system...
Trachea
The trachea tubes are moist inside

for gas exchange. Gases diffuse
directly to the body cells, which are
never far from a trachea tube.
The network of tubes increases the
surface area for gas exchange.
LARGE SURFACE AREA

MOIST MEMBRANE SURFACE for diffusion
This system is quite efficient in a small animal, but rapidly

becomes inadequate as the animal grows larger, because of
the Surface Area to Volume Ratio getting smaller.(see p.10)
Thats why theres no such thing as a really big bug!
Hollywood fantasies cannot actually happen.
GILL FILAMENTS
CLOSE CONTACT WITH BLOOD STREAM

or body cells.
20
Internal Transport in Animals
Open Circulation Systems

Invertebrate animals (including insects, worms & snails)
have much simpler circulatory systems in which the
blood (or a fluid doing the same job) does not always stay
inside a blood vessel.
Once nutrients and gases have been absorbed into the body,
they need to be transported to every body cell. In animals
this is the job of the Circulatory System, consisting of the
heart, blood vessels and the blood itself.
OPEN CIRCULATION IN AN INSECT

Schematic diagram
Once again, different types of animals have all sorts of

variations, but in this section only a broad comparison
between two general types of system will be made.
Closed Circulation Systems
All vertebrate animals (fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and
mammals) have a blood system that is closed... the blood
is always flowing inside a blood vessel, pumped around by
the heart.
Heart
pumps
blood
fluid
CLOSED CIRCULATION IN A MAMMAL

Schematic Diagram
O2
Veins
Body cells
receive O2 &
nutrients, get
rid of CO2 &
other wastes
Body cells
bathe in fluid
carrying the
nutrients
Fluid slowly collects back into veins.

Wastes (but not CO2) are taken away
for excretion, and blood returns to
the heart.
Capillary
network in
Lungs
The open system is not efficient, because the blood is not

forced to keep flowing as in a closed system. However, in a
small insect, with its separate gas exchange system, this is
obviously quite adequate... after all, insects are the most
numerous animals on the planet!
Arteries
Artery
CO2
Vein
Alveoli (air sacs)

in lungs
Circulatory
fluid flows out
of blood
vessels
Arteries
HEART
pumps blood
Capillary
network in
body
This system is highly efficient because the blood can be

kept flowing within the vessels, guaranteeing a steady flow
of nutrients, gases and wastes between body cells and the
outside environment. This efficiency allows vertebrates to
grow very large and still function perfectly despite the poor
SA/Vol ratio of a large body.
Photo by Kevin Walsh
Be aware that fish, amphibians and most reptiles do not

have a system quite the same as a mammal, but in all cases
the system is closed.
21
Gas Exchange in Plants
Internal Transport in Plants
The structure and functioning of the leaf stomates was

covered earlier... revise pages 14-15.
Plants have two separate systems for transporting

substances inside their bodies...
What about other parts of a plant?
Xylem
tubes carry water and dissolved minerals from the roots to
the leaves.
Lenticels
are simple structures on the stems and trucks of plants
which allow gas exchange to the cells by simple diffusion
from the air.
Hollow, dead
cells, joined
end-to-end
forming a
tube
Tightly packed
stem cells
Lenticel opening
Cell walls
re-inforced
with rings
and spirals
of lignin
Loosely packed
cells allow gases
to diffuse in and
out
Root Hairs
were covered earlier in connection with water absorption
(revise page 14)
Because they increase the surface area of the roots, root
hairs are important for gas exchange as well as water
absorption. Oxygen in soil spaces, or dissolved in soil water
simply diffuses into the root hair cells, and spreads to other
root cells by further diffusion.
The upward movement of water in xylem tubes happens

without any effort by the plant... it is passive transport.
The evaporation of water from the leaves through the
stomates, (Transpiration) causes a suction effect at the
top of each xylem tube. This draws more water from the
roots.
Rate of Transpiration
You will have done experiments on transpiration to
measure it, and the factors which affect its rate. A common
way to do this is with a potometer:POTOMETER METHOD FOR
MEASURING TRANSPIRATION
Fresh plant
shoots
Ruler
Glass tube filled with water.

As Transpiration occurs from the leaves and
draws water up from below, an air bubble is
sucked in at the end of the tube. A ruler
gives a scale to measure rates of
transpiration under different conditions.
Plastic tube
filled with
water
Typically it is found that the rate of transpiration is increased by:higher temperatures, air flow (wind), low humidity and light. (plants
open their stomates when there is light, to get CO2 in for Photosynthesis)
22
The Use of Radio-isotopes

to Study Transport Systems
Phloem
Plants have a separate set of tubes for transporting sugars
and other food nutrients, the phloem tubes.
The atoms of each chemical element are not all exactly the
same. They have the same number of protons & electrons
(thats what makes them that element), but the number of
neutrons in the atom may vary. Such atoms of the same
element, but with a different number of neutrons, are called
isotopes. Some isotopes are radio-active and give off
nuclear radiations... hence radio-isotopes.
While the xylem tubes are formed from dead cells, the
phloem are living cells joined end-to-end. The ends of each
cell are perforated (sieve plates) so each cell is open into
the next so they form a continuous tube.
PHLOEM CELL
alive and filled with

cytoplasm
The radiation they give off can be detected by

photographic paper or special instruments such as the
Geiger counter. If a radio-isotope is introduced into a
plant or animal, its transport through the body can be
followed by monitoring the radiation the isotope emits.
Sieve plate
between cells
This tracer technique is one of the more important

methods used to study the movement of substances in
living things. This is how a lot of our knowledge of
transport systems has been discovered.
Companion cell has

many mitochondria to provide
ATP to the phloem cell
For example:
If a leaf is exposed to CO2 containing carbon-14 (a
radio-active isotope of carbon):
Soon, radiation is
detected in starch grains
in leaf cells.
The movement of food via the phloem is called

Translocation. It is an active transport operation,
meaning that the plant has to use energy to cause the
material to flow. A companion cell beside the phloem cell
supplies ATP from cellular respiration to power the active
transport in the phloem tube.
Next, radiation
is found in sugars in
phloem tubes
While the xylem is a one-way flow system, the phloem

system can carry food (especially sugars) in either direction.
If a lot of photosynthesis is occurring, the phloem will
carry sugar to storage sites in roots or stem. If
photosynthesis is not possible for an extended time, then
the phloem will carry sugars back from the storage sites to
feed the leaf cells, or supply a growing flower or fruit.
Later, its here
From studies like

this we learn the
details of the
chemistry and
transport systems
inside living
things
Later still, the radiation is

detected in starch stored
here
23
Worksheet 4
In a fishs (n)....................................... there are thousands of

leaf-shaped (o).................................................. around which
water flows. In each filament are blood capillaries in which
blood always flows (p)....................................................... to
the water flow. This (q)...................................... current
flow is much more efficient.
Fill in the blank spaces and diagram labels.

Check your answers in the Answer Section at the back
Part A Animals
The 3 requirements for an efficient Gas Exchange system
are:
In a (r)............................................ circulatory system the

blood is always inside blood vessels, and kept circulating by
the pumping of the (s)............................................................
large (a)....................................................................
(t)............................................... animals have open

circulatory systems in which the blood leaves the blood
vessels and flows directly in contact with the body cells.
gas exchange membrane which is kept (b)............................

close contact with (c)..........................................................
In any gas exchange system, the gases move across the
membrane by the process of (d)..............................................
Part B
Plants
Gases exchange in a plant occurs through the
(a)........................................................... of the leaves, and via
the (b)........................................... of stems, and the
(c)......................................................... in the roots.
(e)..............................
(g)......................................
.
(h)................................
microscopic
air sacs
Xylem tubes carry (d)............................................ and

.......................................... from (e)................................ to
(f)............................................................
(f)
............................
The evaporation of water from the leaves is called

(g).................................................................... It is increased by
factors such as (h).............................................. and
(i).......................................................................
Compared to a mammals lung, that of a frog is

(i).........................................................................
Frogs exchange gases through their (j)..................................
and ........................................................... as well as lungs.
Food nutrients are carried by the (j).........................................

tubes. This transport is called (k)...............................................
and is considered active transport because
(l)...............................................................................................
In contrast, xylem transport is (m)............................................
Insects have a series of holes called (k)................................

along their body which lead into a network of tubes called
(l)............................................... This works OK for small
insects, but means no insect can ever be really large because
its (m)............................................................... ratio would be
too small for sufficient gas exchange.
WHEN COMPLETED,
24
5. CELL DIVISION FOR GROWTH & REPAIR

Mitosis Through the Microscope
The Need For Cell Division
You will have done a laboratory practical in which you used

a microscope to examine a prepared slide of cells
undergoing cell division. Commonly the root tip of a plant
seedling is viewed, and the sketch shows roughly what the
cells may look like...
Single-celled organisms reproduce by simply dividing in

two.
In a multicellular plant or animal cell division is vital for
growth. Remember that individual cells cannot grow large
because as they do, their SA/Vol ratio gets smaller, and
they cannot get materials in and out through their cell
membrane fast enough to survive. So, the only way to grow
is to produce MORE small cells.
Chromosomes
just becoming
visible.
Mitosis is
under way
Cell division is also used to replace damaged or worn out

cells in the body. For example, your body is constantly
producing new blood cells to replace those that wear out
because of the battering they receive being pumped around
all the time.
Most cells look like this one.

No chromosomes visible,
but DNA is being copied
ready for mitosis to start
Chromosomes
have lined up
in the middle
of the cell.
The Process of Cell Division

Cell division occurs as a sequence of steps or phases as
summarized by this schematic diagram.
THIS IS MITOSIS... THE DIVISION OF THE CELL NUCLEUS
Steps
Original parent
cell makes a copy
of its genetic
information
The chromosomes
condense together
and become
visible.
They line up in the
middle of the cell,
then separate into
2 identical groups
Mitosis complete,
Cytokinesis is next
...more information
These
have
just
finished
dividing
Genetic information is
stored in the cell
nucleus, as DNA.
The DNA is contained
in thread-like
chromosomes which
are not normally
visible.
Chromosomes
being pulled
apart into 2
identical
groups
The nuclear membrane

dissolves so
chromosomes can move
right across the cell.
They are moved by
threads called the
spindle which act like
fishing lines, reeling
them to opposite sides
of the cell
Chromosomes become
visible after copying
Once separated, each

set of chromosomes
forms a new nucleus
Chromosomes lined
up in middle of cell
Finally, the cell

membrane grows
to divide the cell in
2 parts, with a
share of cytoplasm
and organelles in
each
Chromosomes pulled
apart
This final division is
called
These 3 diagrams shown how cells in mitosis

are often drawn in textbooks, in a stylized way.
If you need to sketch them, do it like this for
greater clarity
CYTOKINESIS
25
The Results of Cell Division
Where Mitosis Occurs in Other Organisms
One parent cell divides to form 2 daughter cells.
A human baby is more or less the same shape as an adult,

and simply grows bigger, proportionally all over, to become
an adult. In other organisms though, cell division occurs
only in certain parts of the body, and growth is not
proportional.
Each daughter cell is genetically identical to the other,

and to the parent cell. This is because the original DNA
was first duplicated (replicated) then divided into two
duplicate sets by mitosis.
Plants
grow only at certain places known as meristems. These
are located
The daughter cells are not necessarily identical in size, but

each gets a share of cytoplasm, mitochondria, ribosomes
and all the other organelles.
at the root tip

at the buds where new shoots & flowers will appear
in the cambium layer, between xylem & phloem
(cambium growth is how the stem/trunk gets larger)
Each daughter cell can then make more organelles, and

grow in size, until it is full size. Each may then undergo
cell division again. This endless repetition of cell growth
and cell division is called the cell cycle.
Insects
grow differently in two distinct stages.
You began as a single cell. It divided by mitosis, then

divided again and again, until today you are a complex
organism of about 300 billion cells. Each of your cells is
genetically identical to every other, and to that original cell
you formed from.
Most insects hatch from their egg as a larva... caterpillar,

grub or maggot. The larva does not undergo cell division at
all, but grows rapidly by increasing the size of each cell.
(within the limits imposed by the SA/Vol ratio, of course)
Even when you have finished growing, mitosis will

continue in many parts of your body:
Next, the insect larva undergoes metamorphosis and totally

changes its body plan. This is achieved by special disks of
cells which begin mitosis in particular directions, each
forming a different body part such as a wing, leg or kidney.
These disks correspond to the meristems of a plant, as
special sites of mitosis.
skin, to replace the layers that constantly flake off.

hair follicles and finger-nails, which grow all your life
bone marrow, where blood cells are constantly being
produced to replace those that wear out.
anywhere else where injury or cell death requires replacement, although this is very slow in nerve tissue.
A Final Note...
The main store of genetic material is the DNA in the nucleus, but thats not the only place in a cell where DNA is found.
DNA is also located in the mitochondria, and in chloroplasts in plant cells. These organelles are able to reproduce
themselves (at least in part) in mini-versions of cell division.
Nuclear DNA
Chloroplast DNA
Mitochondrial DNA
This occurrence of DNA in these two important organelles (both concerned with food & energy, and its flow in
ecosystems) will be dealt with in a later topic. The evidence points to a very interesting evolutionary origin for these
organelles...
26
Worksheet 5
Fill in the blanks. Check answers at the back.
In a multicellular organism, cell division is necessary for
(a)................................................. and to replace damaged
or worn out cells.
The results of cell division include that the daughter

cells are genetically (k)........................................, and
identical to the (l)................................................. cell.
Mitosis refers to the division of the (b).............................,

while the division of cytoplasm into 2 cells is called
(c)............................................................
Apart from the nucleus, 2 other organelles contain

DNA. These are the (m)........................................ and
........................................................................
Before mitosis becomes visible in a cell the genetic

information (d)......................................................................
Sites of mitosis in a plant are called (n).............................

located at (o)........................................................., and
(p)............................................................. as well as the
cambium layer in the stem.
The genetic information is contained in the chemical

(e)................................... which is built into thread-like
structures called (f)................................................................
Most insects hatch from their egg as a q)............................

which grows by cell r)..............................................,
without cell s).................................................. Later, they
undergo t)..............................................................................
in
which
their
body
tissues
totally
u)...................................................... and are re-built to
form the totally different adult. During this process, cell
division occurs only in special v)....................................
of cells.
The visible sequence of mitosis is:

chromosomes thicken, become visible, and the nuclear
membrane (g).....................................................................
chromosomes (h)......................................... in the middle
of the cell
chromosomes move to opposite ends of the cell,
pulled by the threads of the (i)............................................
Each group of chromosomes forms a new
(j)........................................................ then cytokinesis
divides the cell itself.
WHEN COMPLETED,
27
CONCEPT DIAGRAM (Mind Map) OF TOPIC

Some students find that memorizing the OUTLINE of a topic
helps them learn and remember the concepts and important facts.
Practise on this blank version.
PATTERNS
in
NATURE
28
Practice Questions
8. A brick was smashed into smaller pieces with a hammer.

It would be true to say that the brick pieces, when compared
to the original brick, have:
A. larger volume
B. larger SA/Vol ratio
C. smaller surface area
D. smaller SA/Vol ratio
These are not intended to be "HSC style" questions, but to

challenge your basic knowledge and understanding of the
topic, and remind you of what you NEED to know at the
K.I.S.S. principle level.
When you have confidently mastered this level, it is strongly
recommended you work on questions from past exam papers.
9. The chemical raw materials needed for photosynthesis are:

A. glucose and oxygen
B. water and carbon dioxide
C. carbon dioxide and oxygen
D. water and glucose
Part A
Multiple Choice
1. The man credited with the discovery of the cell nucleus was:
A.Robert Hooke
B. Anton van Leeuwenhoek
C. Robert Brown
D. Louise Pasteur
10. The chemical known as ATP is best described as:

A. the carrier of genetic information
B. the product of cellular respiration
C. the absorber of light for photosynthesis
D. a waste product from the mitochondria
2. The organelle least likely to be seen with a light microscope

is:
A. Mitochondrion
B. Vacuole
C. Nucleus
D. Chloroplast
11. Soil minerals such as nitrates, phosphates and sulfates are

essential to a plant for which purpose?
A. To provide energy.
B. To make starch from glucose
C. As raw materials for photosynthesis
D. To make proteins from glucose.
3. The cell structure never found in an animal cell is:

A. cell membrane
B. cell wall
C. endoplasmic reticulum
D. golgi body
The following diagram shows a cross-section through a leaf.

Use the diagram for Q12 and 13.
4. The function of the ribosomes can be described as:

A. storage of genetic information
B production of ATP
C. packaging of substances for secretion
D. manufacture of proteins
P
Q
R
5. Starch, glycogen and cellulose are all:

A. proteins, composed of amino acids
B. nucleic acids, related to DNA & RNA
C. sugars, of the carbohydrate group
D. polymers of glucose
T
12. A structural feature which helps the functioning of the leaf
is that the cells at P:
A. are transparent
B. are loosely packed
C. contain many chloroplasts
D. open up to let gases in/out
6. A food substance, which may be a mixture of various

organic chemicals, was tested with the following results:
Iodine solution gave a yellow, brown colour.
Biuret reagent gave a purple colour.
Benedicts reagent resulted in a pale blue colour.
From these results you would conclude that the food contains:
A. protein, but no starch or sugar
B. starch, but no protein or sugar
C. sugar and protein, but no starch
D. sugar and starch, but no protein
13. The guard cells are labeled

A. Q
B. R
C. S
DT
14. In a mammalian digestive system, the main chemical
digestion in the stomach involves the breakdown of
A. starch
B. protein
C. lipids
D. sugars
7. The diagram shows a cell surrounded by a solution which

has a high concentration of large
molecules. You might expect:
A. solute molecules to diffuse in...
B. water to diffuse in...
C. water to diffuse out...
D. solute molecules to diffuse out... to/from the cell.
15. An animal with large, flat, grinding teeth and a very large
caecum (a blind pocket of the intestine) probably eats
mainly:
A. nectar, pollen and flowers
B. the flesh of other animals
C. plant leaves and grass
D. fish & other seafood
29

16. Which of the following is NOT an essential feature of a
gas exchange system?
A. close contact with the blood supply
B. large surface area
C. strong protective shielding
D. moist membrane
23. (10 marks)

Name, and give a function, for each part of this plant cell.
(a)
(j)
(e)
24. (4 marks)
Using examples, discuss the difference between the organic
and inorganic chemicals found in living cells.
25 (2 marks)
The cell membrane is described as being semi-permeable.
Explain what this means.
26. (4 marks)
Compare the processes of diffusion and osmosis, identifying
what substances are involved and the direction of movement
(compared to any concentration gradient)
27. (4 marks)
Explain why all living cells have to be very small in size.
28. (2 marks)
Differentiate between autotrophs & heterotrophs,
including examples in your answer.
29. (5 marks)
a) Summarize the process of photosynthesis by a word
equation, including the energy source.
b) Give two reasons why photosynthesis can be considered the
most important biological process on Earth.
30. ( 5 marks)
In experiments on photosynthesis, the presence of starch in
leaves is often taken as proof that photosynthesis has taken
place.
a) Explain why it is starch, not glucose, that the leaves are tested
for.
b) Outline the method of testing for starch in a leaf, including
any preliminary treatment(s).
Longer Response Questions
Mark values given are suggestions only, and are to give you an
idea of how detailed an answer is appropriate.
21. ( 3 marks)
Compare the light microscope to the electron
microscope in terms of how each forms an image, the
magnification, and the resolution of each.
31. (4 marks)
Discuss the relationship between structure and function shown
by the leaf cell layers known as the palisade layer & the
spongy layer.
22. (2 marks)
Using either the nucleus or mitochondrion as your
example, discuss the way that the structure of the
organelle relates to its function.
(i)
(d)
19. Which of the following correctly gives a structural feature

and a functional feature of xylem tubes?
A. living cells which transport water
B. reinforced with lignin, carry out passive transport
C. dead, hollow cells, carrying food nutrients
D. cells filled with cytoplasm, carrying out active transport
Part B
(h)
(c)
18. A plant would probably show the lowest rate of

transpiration under conditions of:
A. hot & windy
B. bright light & low humidity
C. hot & bright light
D. high humidity & cool
The correct
sequence of events
R
is shown by the cells
A. SPQTR
B. RSPTQ
C. RQPTS
T
D. PQTSR
(g)
(b)
17. An animals respiratory system consists of a series of holes

along the body which allow air to circulate into a network of
tiny tubes throughout the tissues. This animal is probably a
A. spider
B. frog
C. fish
D. reptile
20. The diagram

shows some plant
cells which are
undergoing cell
division.
(f)
30

36. (4 marks)
Using simple schematic diagrams, contrast the circulatory
systems of vertebrate and invertebrate animals.
32. (6 marks)
Compare & contrast the processes of Transpiration and
Translocation in a plant, including
a) the substances transported
b) the plant tissues involved
c) the basic mechanism of transport involved.
37. (4 marks)
a) Identify THREE structures in a plant which are involved in
gas exchange.
b) Choose ONE of the structures listed in part (a) and
describe one feature of it which aids gas exchange in the
plant.
33. (3 marks)
Briefly outline how the length and complexity of an animals
digestive system is related to its diet.
Refer to 3 different types of diets in your answer.
38. (4 marks)
Outline the way in which technology, such as radio-isotope
tracing is used to study the path of elements through a
living plant or animal.
34.(3 marks)
Explain the roles of the respiratory, excretory and circulatory
systems of a mammal, and any connection between them.
39. (6 marks)
Describe the sequence of steps that occur in the processes of
mitosis & cytokinesis.
35. (4 marks)
One of the main features of any respiratory system is a large
surface area for gas exchange. Outline how a large surface is
achieved in a
a) mammal
b) frog
c) fish
d) insect
40. (4 marks)
a) Identify the parts of a plant where cell division occurs.
b) Contrast the general pattern of growth of a plant with that
of a vertebrate animal such as a mammal.
31
Answer Section
Worksheet 4
Part A
a) surface area
c) blood supply
e) trachea
g) bronchioles
i) simple/ less S.A.
k) spiracles
m) SA/Vol
o) filaments
q) counters) heart
Worksheet 1
a) all living things....
b) ...pre-existing cells
c) microscopes
d) resolution
e) electron
f) magnification
g) Robert Hooke
h) cytoplasm
i) nucleus
j) chloroplast
k) cell wall
l) cell membrane
m) vacuole
n) cell wall & (o) chloroplast
(p)-(t) (any order) golgi body, endoplasmic reticulum,
mitochondria, ribosomes, lysosomes
(u) controls substances going in/out of cell
v) Endoplasmic reticulum
w) packaging substances for storage or secretion
x) mitochondria
y) chloroplast
z) strength/ rigidity/ protection on outside of plant cell
Part B
a) stomates
b) lenticels
c) root hairs
d) water & minerals
e) roots
f) leaves
g) transpiration
h)& i) temperature/wind/humidity/light
j) phloem
k)translocation
l) the plant must expend energy
m) passive
Worksheet 2
a) inorganic
c) proteins
e) energy storage compounds
g) C6H12O6
i) cellular respiration
k) sugar (glucose)
m)yellow/brown
o) phospholipid
q) high(er)
s) water
u) passive
w) Surface area / Volume
y) cell membrane
aa) many
b) carbon
d) membrane
f) carbohydrates
h) photosynthesis
j) DNA
l) Biuret reagent
n) black/dark blue
p) permeable
r) lower
t) gradient
v) energy or ATP
x) volume
z) surface area
ab) large
Worksheet 5
a) growth
b) nucleus
c) cytokinesis
d) is copied/duplicated/replicated
e) DNA
f) chromosomes
g) dissolves
h) line up
i) spindle
j) nucleus
k) identical
l) parent
m) mitochondria & chloroplast
n) meristems
o) root tips
p) shoot tips (buds)
q) larva
r) enlargement
s) division
t) metamorphosis
u) break down / change
v) disks
Worksheet 3
Part A
a) Autotrophs
b) heterotrophs
c) carbon dioxide
d) water
e) glucose
f) oxygen
g) chloroplasts
h) chlorophyll
i) light
j) glucose
k) polymerization
l) starch
m) cell walls
n) lipids
o) minerals (inorganic ions) p) proteins
q) root hairs
r) surface area
s) osmosis
t) xylem
u) light absorption
v) palisade
w) circulation of water & gases throughout the leaf
x) stomates
y) transpiration
z) carbon dioxide
Practice Questions
Part A
1. C
2. A
3. B
4. D
Multiple Choice
5. D
9. B
6. A
10. B
7. C
11. D
8. B
12. A
Part B
Longer Response Questions

In some cases there may be more than one correct
answer. The following model answers are correct,
but not necessarily perfect.
13. D
14. B
15. C
16. C
17. A
18. D
19. B
20. C
21.
The light scope forms images by focusing light beams with glass
lenses. Electron scopes focus beams of electrons using magnetic
fields.
Light scopes achieve magnifications around 500X and resolution
of about 0.2 um. Electron scopes are 500-1,000 times better in
each department.
Part B
a) enzymes
b) sugars
c) amino acids
d) salivary glands, stomach, pancreas & small intestine
e) surface area
f) small intestine
g) liver
h) large & flat
i) long
j) bacteria
k) cellulose
l) sharp, tearing
m) short
n) hummingbirds
o) short & simple
b) moist
d) diffusion
f) bronchi
h) alveoli
j) skin & mouth/throat cavity
l) trachea
n) gills
p) in opposite direction
r) closed
t) invertebrate
22.
Nucleus- membrane has pores to allow RNA messengers to go
out into the cell.
OR
Mitochondrion- inner membrane is highly folded for more
surface area. The enzymes of cellular respiration are arranged on
these membranes for greater efficiency.
32

23.
a) Golgi body- packaging for storage or secretion
b) Endoplasmic Reticulum- divides cell into compartments and
channels for separation of operations and transporting
substances.
c) Ribosomes- manufacture of proteins
d) Mitochondria- cellular respiration/ release energy from food
e) Lysosomes- packages of digestive enzymes for destroying
foreign germs, or for breaking up dead cells.
f) Cell wall- strength & rigidity
g) Cell membrane- controls entry/exit of substances
h) Vacuole- storage of water/ pumps cell tight like a tyre
i) Nucleus- control centre/ contains genetic instructions (DNA)
j) Chloroplast- photosynthesis
31.
Palisade layer: composed of cells neatly and tightly packed
together under the upper epidermis where there is maximum
light. Each cell is packed with chloroplasts. These features all help
the palisade layer carry out maximum photosynthesis.
Spongy layer: composed of cells that are very loosely packed.
This allows spaces for water & gases to more easily diffuse
to/from stomates & veins and so helps supply photosynthesizing
cells.
24.
Organic chemicals are mainly complex molecules, often
polymers, based on the element carbon. E.g. carbohydrates,
proteins, lipids & nucleic acids.
Inorganic chemicals in living cells are small, simple molecules or
mineral ions E.g. water, oxygen, nitrate & chloride ions.
33.
Grazing herbivores eat a diet high in cellulose fibre. They need
very long intestines & large caecum, so food has more time in the
gut while mutualistic bacteria digest the cellulose to glucose.
32.
a)
b)
c)
Nectar feeders (e.g. honey-eater birds) eat a diet high in sugar

which needs no digesting at all. They have very simple, short
systems since they only need to absorb the sugar into their
bloodstream.
26.
Diffusion is the movement of any solute, solvent or gas along
the concentration gradient.
Osmosis is the diffusion of WATER, against the concentration
gradient, through a semi-permeable membrane.
34.
Respiratory system: carries out gas exchange.
Excretory system: removal of wastes.
Circulatory system: transports substances around the body,
including gases and wastes... therefore connects with respiratory
and excretory systems.
27.
As any object gets larger, its SA/Vol ratio gets smaller. A cell needs
nutrients, oxygen, etc in proportion to its volume, but must get
these substances in through its cell membrane, the size of which
is its surface area.
Therefore, a large cell (with a smaller SA/Vol ratio) would not be
able to take in necessary substances fast enough to survive.
35.
a) Mammals lungs have millions of tiny air sacs (alveoli).
b) Frog has very simple lungs, but increases respiratory surface by
using skin, mouth and throat membranes for gas exchange as well.
c) Fishs gills are made up of thousands of leaf-shaped filaments.
Each is flat & thin, giving large contact area with water flowing
past.
d) Insects have microscopic, branched air tubes (trachea) that
penetrate throughout their body. This gives a large area of contact
with air for gas exchange.
28.
Autotrophs are organisms that can make their own food.
example: Plants
Heterotrophs have to eat food made by other organisms.
example animals.
light energy
a) Carbon dioxide + water

Glucose + Oxygen
b) 1. It makes all the food, and is the basis of all the food chains
2. It makes all the oxygen in the atmosphere.
36.
Refer to diagrams on p21.
The main thing is to show that vertebrates have a closed system
(blood is always inside a blood vessel) while many invertebrates
have open systems, where the blood leaves blood vessels and
bathes the cells at some part of the circulation.
30
a) Although glucose is the immediate product of photosynthesis,
it is rapidly polymerized to form starch. Therefore, starch is found
in large quantities in a photosynthesizing leaf, but very little
glucose could be detected.
b) First the leaf is boiled, then washed in hot alcohol to
decolourize it, so colour tests can be seen. Then it can be soaked
in iodine solution to test for starch. A black colour indicates the
presence of starch.
Translocation
food nutrients (sugar)
phloem
active
Meat-eating carnivores do not need such long intestines because

meat is easier to digest and more nutritious. They have shorter
intestines but a stomach that can take in a large meal, less often,
and digest the high protein meat.
25.
Semi-permeable means that some chemicals can diffuse through
it easily, while others cannot get through .
29.
Transpiration
water
xylem
passive
37.
a) stomates, lenticels & root hairs
b) Root hairs: these microscopic outgrowths from root cells
increase the surface area available. This helps gas exchange (as well
as water absorption).
33
38.
Chemicals containing radio-active tracers are introduced
into living things, and any movement is tracked by detecting
the radiation produced by the radio-isotope. For example,
CO2 gas, containing radio-active carbon-14, is absorbed by
a plant leaf, converted to sugar and transported to storage
in the roots. This movement can be studied and tracked by
the radiations from the carbon-14.
40.
a) Meristems located at root tips, buds and cambium.
b) Plants grow only at the meristems, and usually grow disproportionally in different parts of their body. This means
they may drastically change their shape & proportions as
they grow. In contrast, mammals grow fairly evenly in every
body part and stay more or less in proportion all their life.
39.
(For 6 marks, try for 6 points)
Genetic information (DNA) is replicated.
Chromosomes condense and become visible in the
nucleus. Nuclear membrane dissolves.
Chromosomes line up in centre of cell. Spindle forms.
Chromosomes pulled apart into 2 identical groups.
Each group forms a new, identical nucleus.
Cytokinesis now divides the cytoplasm & organelles into
2 separate cells.
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Hornsby Girls High School SL#606258

Preliminary Biology Topic 2

but first, an introduction...

Organization of a Multicellular Organism

All living things are composed of microscopic lumps

A building is not just a pile of bricks, and an army is not just

Some organisms are composed of just one single cell.

All familiar organisms are made of many cells;

a number of similar cells working together is a...

examples: muscle tissue, bone tissue.

various tissues are combined to make an...

examples: heart, kidney, liver.

a number of organs work together for a specific

Plants and animals have cells with a few important

Preliminary Biology Topic 2

copyright 2005-2006 keep it simple science

Hornsby Girls High School SL#606258

CONCEPT DIAGRAM (Mind Map) OF TOPIC

The need &

Gas Exchange &

Preliminary Biology Topic 2

copyright 2005-2006 keep it simple science

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1. LIVING CELLS & THEIR STRUCTURE

History of Our Knowledge of Cells

The Cell Theory is one of the fundamental concepts in

Robert Hooke, 1665

All living organisms are composed of cells

Comparison: Light & Electron Microscopes

Anton van Leeuwenhoek, 1676

1 micrometre is 1/1000 of a millimetre

How Big Are Cells Anyway?

Typical Plant Cell

Preliminary Biology Topic 2

In the 20th century, the electron microscope opened up our

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Hornsby Girls High School SL#606258

Cell Organelles Visible with a Light Microscope

The Major Differences Between Plant & Animal Cells

What the Electron Microscope Reveals

Often has the tiny

Stacks of flat membranes

Preliminary Biology Topic 2

copyright 2005-2006 keep it simple science

Hornsby Girls High School SL#606258

Endoplasmic Reticulum (E.R.) is a network of

The Organelles... Structure & Function

The E.R. structure provides channels for chemicals and

The Cell Membrane is not only the boundary of the cell,

Often found attached to the E.R. are the tiny Ribosomes.

The Mitochondria (singular: mitochondrion) are the sites

Carbon + Water + ATP

The Chloroplasts are found only in photosynthetic plant

The ATP produced by respiration carries chemical energy

The grana are stacked membrane sacs containing

Inside a mitochondrion is a folded membrane with many

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Hornsby Girls High School SL#606258

The Golgi Apparatus is a semi-circular arrangement of

The structure of the membrane-bound organelles help

One type of vesicle produced by a Golgi Body is the

Having these membrane-based organelles is the defining

List 5 additional organelles normally only visible with an