Analog Electronics Sample

Analog Elecctronics-EC
Postal Correspondence Course
SAMPLE STUDY MATERIAL
Electronics Engineering
EC/E & T
GATE , IES & PSUs

Analog Electronics
Postal Course ( GATE & PSUs) 2015 ENGINEERS INSTITUTE OF INDIA . All Rights Reserved
28-B/7, Jia Sarai, Near IIT, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016. Ph. 011-26514888.
www.engineersinstitute.com
CONTENT
1. DIODE APPLICATION 03-29

2. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER.
30-46
3. TRANSISTOR BIASING AND STABILIZATION ...
47-60
4. BJT AT LOW FREQUENCY ..
61-73
5. BJT AT HIGH FREQUENCY .
74-93
6. FET AMPLIFIER .
94-101
7. OSCILLATOR ..
102-112
8. FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER ..
113-123
9. POWER AMPLIFIER .
124-131
10. MULTI VIBRATORS AND WAVE SHAPING CIRCUITS ...
132-138
11. ANALOG ELECTRONICS Practices Set .
139-156
12. ANALOG ELECTRONICS IES Objective( E & T).......................
157-225
CHAPTER-1
DIODE APPLICATION
1. Rectifier: A diode rectifier (alternating to unidirectional converter) forms an essential building block
of the dc power supplies required to electronic equipment.
Alternating (DC value = 0)
FWR
Unidirectional (Pulsating DC)

(+ve DC value)
Important Terms
1. Ripple Factor: r
RMS value of AC component

DC value
Vac rms
Vdc
2
Vrms
Vdc2
Vdc
V
rms 1
Vdc
Vrms Vac2 rms Va2 c
RMS value Vrms
Form factor (F) DC value V

dc
Hence,
r F2 1
Note: Ideal value r = 0, F = 1 (AC component = 0)
2. Crest Factor:
Peak value
RMS value
3. Ripple Voltage: Ripple voltage is defined as deviation of output voltage from its DC value
+
Output of rectifier Pulsating DC

DC value = Vdc
RMS value = Vrms
4. PIV (Peak Inverse Voltage)

It is maximum voltage applied to diode in reverse bias condition and decide voltage handling capacity
of diode circuit.
Note: PIV should be low.
5. Transformer utilization factor: It shows the degree of utilization of the transformer in rectifier
circuit.
It must be very high and decide cost of circuit
Output Rectifier
V VDC VAC
Vrms (VDC ) 2 (VACrms ) 2
2
2
VACrms Vrms
VDC
Example: Let V 4 2 sin t
V
6
4
2
d
VDC 4
VACrms
2
2
2
Vrms
2
4
16 2 18
2
2
Ripple Factor (r)
Form Factor
F
VACrms
Vdc
2
1
2
0.35
4
2 2
Vrms
18
1.06
VDC
4
Rectifier
1. Half wave rectifier
2. Full wave rectifier
(a) Centre taped rectifier
(b) Bridge rectifier
Half Wave Rectifier
The half wave rectifier utilizes alternate half cycles of the input signal.
+Vm
Vm
Vo
Vm
Diode
ON
Diode
OFF
Diode
ON
During +ve half cycle of supply voltage diode on and during ve half it is off.
1. Vavg = VDC
V
1
Vm sin t d (t ) m
2 0
1
2
V
2. Vrms Vm2 sin 2 t d (t ) m
2
2 0
3. Form Factor
Vm
Vrms
F=
2 1.58
V
VDC
2
m
4. Ripple Factor

r F2 1 1 1.21
2
2
5. Crest Factor:
Peak value Vm
2
RMS value Vm
2
6. Rectifier Efficiency:
P
DC output power
100 dc
AC input power
A AC
Pdc Vo Io
Vm I m Vm I m
2
RMS output voltage Vrms

RMS output current I rms
Pac Vrms I rms
Vm
Im R
L
Vm
2
Vrms
V
I
m m
RL
2RL
2
Vm I m Vm I m
2 2
4
Vm I m
2
Pdc
4
(%)
2 40.53%
Pac Vm I m
4
Vm I m
2
Pdc
0.286
7. TUF :
VA rating of transformer Vm I m
2 2
Voltage is available for full time period and current is available for half of time period
Note: Transformer is under utilized
8. PIV: Peak inverse voltage = Vm
9. Ripple Frequency: Source frequency

f r rs
Transfer curve of H.W.R. (Diode is assumed ideal)
Vi
D
Vo
Vi 0 ON Vi
Vi 0 OFF 0
Thevenin equivalent of half wave rectifier
Rth
RL
Vth
I dc
IL
VTH
RTH RL
Vm sin t Vr
Vm sin t
RS RF RL RS RF RL
1
I dc
2
I dc
1
2
I'
m
I L d (t )
I m' sin t where I m'
I L d (t )
1
2
Vm
RS RF RL
I m' sin(t )d (t )
VTh
Vm /
RS RF RL RTh RL
Thus VTh
Vm
RTh RS RF
Drawbacks :
Excessive ripple factor =1.21
Low rectifier efficiency
Low TUF
d.c. Saturation of transformer secondary
Precision Half wave rectifier :
Vo
super diode
10. Full Wave Rectifier

In the full wave rectifier, rectification takes place for both the half cycle of input signal.
1. Centre Tapped F.W.R. (Using Ideal Diodes)
Note: Ripple frequency = 2 (source frequency)

fr 2 fs
(i) Average Value

Vaverage VDC
2 Vm
1
Vm sin t . d (t )
(ii) RMS Value

1
Vrms
1
2 V
Vm2 sin 2 t d (t ) m
2
0
(iii) Form Factor

F
Vrms
VDC
Vm
2
1.11
2 Vm 2 2
(iv) Ripple Factor

r F 1
1 0.48
2 2
2
(v) Crest Factor

C
Vm
2
Vm
2
(vi) Rectifier Efficiency
Pdc
4 Vm I m
100 2
Pac
Vm I m
Vm
Im R
L
8
2
4
Vm I m
2
Pdc
(vii) TUF =
0.672
VA Rating of transformer 0.6035 Vm I m
Note: In FWR case utilization of transformer takes place in both +ve and ve half hence TUF increases.
(viii) PIV = 2Vm ; Higher PIV is disadvantages to circuit as it effect diode operation.
Transfer Curve of FWR

Vo
Slope = +1
Slope
=1
t
Vi
Thevenin equivalent of full wave rectifier

R th
Vth
Vth
RL Rth
I th
IL
I dc
RL
Vm sin t Vr
Vm sin t
Vm
I m' sin t I m'

RS RF RL RS RF RL
RS RF RL
1
2
I L d (t )
2 I m'
2Vm /
RS RF RL
Vth
2Vm
RTh RS RF
2. Bridge Type FWR (Using Ideal Diode):
Vm
t
t
Vm
Vo
+ Vm
D1 D2 ON
D3 D4 OFF
D1 D2 OFF
D3 D4 ON
D1 D2 ON
D3 D4 OFF
2
Floating resistance may acquire stray charge from environment.

(i) Average value: Vaverage VDC
(ii) RMS value: Vrms
(iii) Form factor: F
2 Vm
Vm
2
2 2
1.11
(iv) Ripple factor: r = 0.48

(v) Rectification efficiency = 81.06%
Note: As waveform is some for centre tapped and bridge type FWR hence above (v) quantities are same.
(vi) TUF: TUF = 0.812
Note: Transformer is proper utilized.
(vii) PIV = Vm
Key Points:
10
(i) Both full wave rectifiers are better than the half wave rectifier in so far as voltage ripple factor,
rectification efficiency, TUF and crest factor are concerned.
(ii) TUF of bridge type FWR is better than centre tapped FWR therefore transforms required in the centre
tapper FWR is bulky.
(iii) PIV of diodes in bridge rectifier is half of that of the diodes used in centre tapped FWR.
(iv) Overall, a bridge rectifier using four diodes is more economical.
Filter Circuits:
As the output of the rectifier circuit is pulsating DC containing AC and DC component filter circuits
are used to suppress the AC component.

It reduces ripple factor to negligible value.
Important components of the filters are capacitor and inductor.
Types of Filter Circuit:

1. C Filter
+ Vo
D1
1L
RL
D2
Vo
t
Rectifier
+
Vo
RL
Here, ripple voltage is approximated as triangular waveform and on this basis d.c. and r.m.s value is
calculate.
11
A capacitor C across load R L offers direct short circuit to AC component, these are therefore not
allowed to reach the load. However dc gets stored in the form of energy in C and this allows the
maintence of almost constant dc output voltage across the load.
C-filter is suitable for load having low current (High Load Resistance)
HWR with C-filter
Ripple factor r =
FWR with C-filter
Ripple factor r =
1
2 3 f CR L
1
4 3 f CR L
1
Vdc Vm Vrpp
2
Vrpp
Vdc
FC RL
Vrpp
2Vm
1 2 FC RL
(ii) Inductor Filter (L-filter):

Rectifier
L
RL
An inductor L in series with load R L reduces the ac component or ac ripples because L in series with
R L offers high impedance to ac component but very low resistance to dc.

L-filter is suitable for loads requiring high load current (low value of R L ).
Note: In both C-filter and L-filter, time constant should be large for better waveform i.e.,
L
CR L should be high.
RL
(ii) Ripple factor (r) =
3 2
X
1 L
RL
where, XL L for HWR

= Z L for FWR
12
(iii) L section or LC Filter:
Rectifier
L
C
RL
An LC filter consists of inductor L in series with the load and capacitor C across the load. This filter
possesses the advantage of both L filter and C filter.

2 XC
3 XL
Ripple factor r =
Note: (i) Ripple factor (r) is independent of R L
(ii) r
1
f2
Voltage Regulator
Voltage regulator is a circuit whose purpose is to provide constant DC voltage between its output
terminals.
Voltage regulator circuits can be implemented using Zenner diode, transistors, etc.
1. Voltage Regulator Using Zener Diode:
R
+
Vi
I
+
V2
IZ
IL
RL
Vo
Vi is output of the filter circuit.

Zener diode should be RB and breakdown.
IZK K NEE current = The minimum current flowing through the zener diode when zener
breakdown has just occurred.
IZ m = The maximum zener current.

PZm = Maximum power dissipated in zener diode = VZ IZm
13
For satisfactory operation of circuit.
I IZK IL
Vi Vo
I ZK I L
R
Example: Find PZ Given VZ 15V
150
+
Vz
50 V
Vo
Solution: Voltage across reverse bias zener diode =
5
50 1.612 V
150 5
This voltage is less than VZ hence zener is off and IZ 0 hence PZ VZIZ 0
Example. If in the above problem 5 resistor is replaced by 100 resistor. Now find PZ?
Solution: Voltage across RB zener diode
Vo
Now
100
50 20 V
150 100
Vo VZ
Hence, diode will go into breakdown mode.

Hence,
(Vo VZ 15V)
50 15
0.23 A
150
15
IL
.15 A
100
IZ I IL 0.23 0.15 0.08 A

PZ VZ IZ 15 0.08 watts
= 1.2 watts
Clipping (Limiting) Circuits
These are used to select the part of waveform that lie above or below some reference level.
14
(i) Positive Clipper:
Clipping above reference level.

VR
+Ve
Clipper
(ii) Negative Clipper:
Clipping below reference level

VR
Ve
Clipper
(iii) Two Level Clipper:

+vR
Two level
Clipper
vR
On the basis of position of diode w.r.t load
(i) Shunt Clipper
(ii) Series Clipper
R
D
Vi
D
Vi
Vo
VR
(Shunt +ve clipper)
Range of Vi
Vi VR
Vi VR
D
Vo
OFF Vi
ON VR
Series +ve clipper
Range of Vi
Vi VR
Vi VR
D
Vo
ON Vi
OFF VR
15
Transfer Curve
Vo
Vo
VR
VR
VR
Vi
VR
Vi
Wave form
Vo
Vo
VR
VR
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Analog Elecctronics-EC

Postal Correspondence Course

SAMPLE STUDY MATERIAL

Postal Correspondence Course

GATE , IES & PSUs

Postal Correspondence Course

1. DIODE APPLICATION 03-29

3. TRANSISTOR BIASING AND STABILIZATION ...

4. BJT AT LOW FREQUENCY ..

5. BJT AT HIGH FREQUENCY .

10. MULTI VIBRATORS AND WAVE SHAPING CIRCUITS ...

11. ANALOG ELECTRONICS Practices Set .

12. ANALOG ELECTRONICS IES Objective( E & T).......................

Postal Correspondence Course

Alternating (DC value = 0)

Unidirectional (Pulsating DC)

RMS value of AC component

Vrms Vac2 rms Va2 c

RMS value Vrms

Form factor (F) DC value V

Note: Ideal value r = 0, F = 1 (AC component = 0)

Output of rectifier Pulsating DC

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4. PIV (Peak Inverse Voltage)

Example: Let V 4 2 sin t

Ripple Factor (r)

(b) Bridge rectifier

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RMS output voltage Vrms

8. PIV: Peak inverse voltage = Vm

9. Ripple Frequency: Source frequency

Transfer curve of H.W.R. (Diode is assumed ideal)

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I m' sin t where I m'

10. Full Wave Rectifier

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1. Centre Tapped F.W.R. (Using Ideal Diodes)

Note: Ripple frequency = 2 (source frequency)

(i) Average Value

(ii) RMS Value

(iii) Form Factor

(iv) Ripple Factor

(v) Crest Factor

(vi) Rectifier Efficiency

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Transfer Curve of FWR

Thevenin equivalent of full wave rectifier

I m' sin t I m'

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2. Bridge Type FWR (Using Ideal Diode):

Floating resistance may acquire stray charge from environment.

(iii) Form factor: F

(iv) Ripple factor: r = 0.48

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are used to suppress the AC component.

Types of Filter Circuit:

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FWR with C-filter

(ii) Inductor Filter (L-filter):

R L offers high impedance to ac component but very low resistance to dc.

(ii) Ripple factor (r) =

where, XL L for HWR

Postal Correspondence Course