^itn;nj
%:-i^:
''''B^..
St OS
1
vv
v.\
KEyiiKT-lIJCE
TO IROK LOSS.
DISSEKTATIOU
SUBMITTED TO THE BOAKD OF UNIVERSITY STUDIES
OF THE JOHIB HOPKINS UUIVSRSITY
BY
PAUL SOUGH AGHE77.
JUHE
1911.
r^
--oOo
COHTEETS.
PAGE.
1.
Introduction
2.
Lletlxods
3.
12
4.
20
5.
25
6.
7.
Bearing on Design
53
8.
Distortion
54
9.
Effect of
V.ave
43
64
10.
Summary
66
11.
Bibliograj^hy
68
12.
Biographical Sketch
72
Intr oduction.
1-^
1,
This ideal
currents respectively.
In the actual transformer neither of these con-
Hence
t.vo
the ratio may be less than the ratio of turns, but this
is a condition v/hich is never met in practice.)
fur-
-loreover,
^vith
the
the secondary
-3-
deterraine, in part,
v/ill
be shown
Figure
2 shov.s
Figure
shows a
fev/
typical
T. Kobinson,
6,
l.o.
28;,
130,
p. 1005,
-4-
toward the
lov/
It is an in-
lo.?
dG\vn
instead of
//ith
belovir
acteristics.
At ^5 cycles
tlie
/b
of
ratio increases
^^^rad-
from 10
'^
-5-
'J.'he
'(ib
figure 4.
experimental
"by
tlie
curves in
ildgcTirabe
Edgcumbe gave no
6^,
p.
163,
it therefore
1910.
might be theoretical errors in the method of measurement used, or, if not, //.ether some light might not
be thrown upon the nature of the iron losses at such
Iiany
I'hese
this
v/ith
Z,
'I'he
electromotive
6,
electromotive forces,
vvhere I2 R^ ^^^
^"^
^^ ^^
'^
^'^^
the
zero.
riplit and K^
tlie
adjusted for
A resistance shunted hy a
iiioving
rection
-.vliich
6,
p. 29^, 1909,
Reprint 130.
R-j^iRi;
and
termined.
(^
tlie
second-
dry.
8)
figure
etc. ohm.
thin mica.
tv;o
C C.
numbered studs.
ohrn,
Lj^.
L.^
1;^
L-^
millimeter
wViioh may
V.e
taicen
rnothoii
in v/hioh a
p. 468,
19 09.
of tho electrodyni'.'noyoter.
Koblx.rcn*
Trans. Amer
he UBOB
H!i
.?-
dot*^.ctor in ply.ce
electrod3''naniomct?r
oaronoun
30
\)e
This comjriutator
is
drivnn by a syn-
not or and
thvt it may
of an eloctrometor or an
.-neasurod
The
A-Tier.
/-ho
have uloo
have also
inBtoad of
suf^^t^ofitod
'ohe
v-.3ed
t.'.o
measure-
to a null method.
They
-101
at light load,
rent.
'.vhich
^^\i,
1910.
For example, if
v/e
assvaae
-/o
rents would differ from the ratio of the primary and second-
similar statement
phase angle
.vould
/j.
-11But it is to be noticeu
vvhicli
lii^tw
Liie
rotating commutator
it
that the
tiie
secondary.
This fol-
This would of
tliat
required in
ations hold for the electrometer method since they necessarily define the quantities in precisely the same way.
The phase angle does not suffer
tiie
sanie
ambiguity
amometer
t]ie
.anci
correct defini
..Ions nut
theoretically
12-
'.'."hile
Figure
If
forr'ier.
9
.ve
let
= flux,
ll
= primary current,
1^
= seconoary current,
Eii
-13-
<p
= magnetizing current,
=^
= ratio of currents,
tlie
11
in phase vvith
_!.
LI,
cosd= n I^ +
1-^
Li
sin
+ F
cos
(1)
Squaring
3ind=
(1)
L:
cos(p- F sincp
(2)
I;,
(M sin
<p
-^
LI,
F cos
<p
-14'.R =
^
I^
n^
^ ^
sinf h F
(l:
cos f
I.
= ^ (1
^ ^
i:
sin
sinf
li
f
-f
F cos fj
^p^^^^^
F cq sf
(3^
by
tan ^ = M cos f
n I^
I.:
-t
- F si n
sin
f>
-\
(f
(1)
F cos
<f
I_^
tan
A-
" " f n I^
JLsin^
(3)
^^^
proximations made in the derivation may safely be neglected, unless the measurements are carried to extreme-
sin9=
and cos
if
= 1
15-
R - n
1^
(5)
tan
ir
n I^
(6)
current
la
very-
little effect upon the ratio, while the core loss will
determine
t}ie
tlie
phase angle
exciting current
,vere
figure 11.
lilec. Eng.,
29_,
p. lidOV,
191u.
The priiT^ary
at
transformer until the dynaraoraeter sho.-ed no deflection, v.hich indicated that its field was in quadrature
with the primary voltage of the transf orrr.er, and therefore in phase with the magnetizing current.
transformer
v/as
3^ was then
The phase
^to
the moving
former F are
'dl
shov.-n
.-.'ere
lli
and 13,
for db and 60
-17-
1^0.
amperes.
ohiri.
;ah.
I.:axiinum
"
It v/ill
"
IjG
tlie
25
700.
"
of
'
is
vorable.
'I'he
Of course, the
as for example,
errors
dv.o
to
wave distortion.
A check measureiaent of the ratio by an entirely dif.
f erent
tj:e
iflortiirup
hot
.viro
parator.
I'iie
com-
-IB-
making use of a single potentiometer and a deflection instrument, for holding a direct current through one
alternating current.
.vire v/as
But as it
.vire
v;as
I'he
com-
of
hot
t>v'0
t.,o
-.vires
The
tv/o
observation with eye piece and scale so that any difference in the expansion of the
flection of
lel with
t.vo
ti.e
scale.
These
shunts R and
t./o
.vere
current.
The
ei-^'^or
-In-
direction,
xiie
t./o
resistances ^^ and K^
maize
ol"
the potentioaeters.
xi
farther pre-
sai-ie
ratio
tlie
J*'
forma of
are correct.
4.
^'tn
gle Curves
;nay
be ex^^ressed
where
'ii
ft
(7)
g =
K,
= K 3-
icaxiraum
flux density
If
c_
current
v.l.en
v/hen q
it ..ill decrease
For by
(5)
the
ratio
K = n
Y-
ratio of turns.
be
as proportional to
ta'-cen
tiie
maximum flux, If S^ is
primary and
E.
F =
n^
and
lii
I;^
nW
A'l
ji
=
3 E
n];V
xrx~B^
e
X Const. = 3 K^
nV*
n^b
Kji
If
lino.
strai.'^ht
then the
.ve
assume
sanie
con-
Formula
(9)
purpose.
Some interesting relations connecting the shape of
the ratio curve with the exponent,
tion (10).
.ve
- ^5 ic
-'
I:i
v/e
So that
v/c
= K, (c-^)
(c-3)
1-"^
have
Katio = n
Slope = K
(c-.:)
l,,^-'-
I_"^
Curvature = K (c-_)(c-aj
i^*^""^
fi'om
be given later.
./ill
which enters
.;-)
slopes
dov/n,
The
is con-
cave up, and the curvature decreases with increasing current, - all of v/hich are
ments,
i.loreovor,
current transformer.
I^
sin
F GOs <r
(3)
bis
(4)
bis
I ^
tan ^ =
i:
COS
f
n I
-7 3in<?
a
and the iron loss exponent v/ere exactly E, then both the
straight lines,
''^ut
this result
//ould
be expected since
ilL-
t::tj
v.ictiis-ui
vvojld tlien be
.:;c;j.'
equivalent to u c^iuait
the exponent
ferentiating
(9)
of
is a true constant;
otherv/ise,
in dif-
with respect
to
_3
v/ould
enter.
W = ZB
will not accurately represent either the hysteresis loss
or the total iron losses, and so it has become customary
to Sj-eak of
tlie
I.';iin-
of 1.6
it=
.vith
the induction.
-LJ6-
iicthocla
v/ith
a constant,
if
..e
differentiate
log
77
d (log
c
= ^
d
is
= log
-.7)
IQP:
IC
Log 3
d (log 3)
-7)
(11)
(log B)
tlie
Equation (11)
-ki7-
dW
d3
"
'.y
dB
d3
iniist
is
:i
of the cxirve.
Wn
and
x'hus
11)
but has
be e::fressod
no lon,er a
(
if
-%
<^
tv/o
points
.vhere the
exponent
_z
= Z S^
nov; a
is
(It)
variable.
It oay first
i'/hich
To consider that we
is nianifestly absurd.
have an exponent
./hich
troduces complications, as
v/ill
,70uld
tjie
exponent as
V/
= log
^C
log
dz +
4 Z log B
Differentiating;
li
^-^
ay-
g.i
Jl
d3
Tlie
3 |z
B log
"^
cTB
(16)
lo^^-
If
2_
V7
against B
is a constant
ponent,
_z
3 log B
dB
B
(17)
sarjo
as the
exponent
methods in common use in the determination of the exponent where the latter varies.
is
;:iethods
derivative.
is
:/hat
.vill
not give even the average value of the exponent over the
10^
equation (14) the quantity thus i;iven is
liow
if
v/e
take
ll 1~ ^1 ^^
'^V
^^fr
ii.
very near
-^
Q^. H'
B-^
1."^
^^^
^^^
log Bi
B
^^, -^^^^
^^ ^^^ 1-
ai-
I'he
::iany
sucli as,
for
it
For
;vhen the
be en-
:uay
tirely accidental.
It seems, therefore, advisable to liave some simple
expression which
,/ill
shall
iTor
1:1.
the suggestion of
van orstrand.
this,
term
am indebted to
variation in geometrical curves of the general parabolic foi m and ,ihose e^rponents are of the order of
16 the curve y = x~
^ together
""
..ith
constant.
tion is 4.3.
2 the
It .vill
ratio of varia-
tiio
ratio
much like one recently published for the hysteretic exponent for silicon steel at high inductions in which
33-
p. 139,
g-iven',
"l^ut
lyil.
Very prob-
erscplained
The data
is positive
;/hen
':
t'ir'ure
aiid
helo.v in f injure
17.
t.vo
^i
more sur-
it
-34-
ii:iethod
in the coefficient.
For sample if
vie
consider the
which
is
dentical
v/ith the
v/e
got the
region also
ti;o
be calculatod
anci
iDa}:
be used in calculating
if
.also
raa3:i;m;m
for
y)
(lo.H-
d Uofi y)
d
(log X)
(lor y)
log y =
y =
llov/
^ Q
(log X)^
^
- cd (log X)
log X
-f
log K
.X
log K
K X
be determined, then
y
yo
_ KX^
KXo"
From which
log y
-t
Zo log 3o - log yo
log 3
^.B
36-
and K = 1_
(ly)
iation over a
\7ide
data deteimined by
v/as a
silicon steel.
The ob-
table
37-
It is
very high values ror both the silicon and the ordinary
steel, while the change in the exponent above 2000 lines
is extremely slight.
38-
Table
-38aTable II ^
_Exp neirts
Flux
39-
course, inde-
ol'
^B
where
W = K B^
becomes
W = K
(ocB^)^
z
= Kc:t
z
B-L
value.
rffhich
y_.
stant.
-40-
change the
\aiit
in which 3 is expressed
for example
Another difficulty arises in computing the exponent from equation (18) for values of B approaching
unity, is that small errors in the experimentally de-
computed exponent
becoming zero.
figures 20 and
kil
In
It is much
41-
is
intervals.
-.vhen
Ivlany
tional exponents.
It is of tr.e form
W = a B + o B^
where a and
'-^Lumiere
are constants.
favorably on it.
-42-
variation for iron whose losses folio-/ such a law cannot be greater tnan 2.
= a d B
"17
a 3
--
p_B
B^
^B
-43-
ffux/4.
3i
^^
F in figures 18 and
X^
I.'oreover,
as our present
;:I,
that if the
'Z ,
-4 4-
universally met
v/ith.
VTe
foregoing investigation of the relation between the exponent and xne ratio or variation, and oT the methods
used in their determination, and we may now find a
5y equation
the ratio
n + -
where n is the number or turns and F the core loss component of the exciting current.
Ej^,
Eii
I =
En
?,=
Ea""
nff
r;j
(21)
la
R = n +_^_X-
Differentiating
dE
di ^
U,
dW
- 2 W
d l,
l^
1;
i:;
nW
- 2
I2
(22)
sar.e
flux.
dE
dl
_j;^
1-^'
"~r~
"dB"
- 2
(23)
V
Either (22) or (23) shows that the ratio of a current
transformer will rise with increasing current
wlien
the
46-
measurements of transformer
J?"
2ff
2 at
for
lov/
4 7-
Table
III
-48-
With
tlie
difficulty in obtaining sufficiently accurate determinations of both the ratio and the core loss at the low
loads.
-i^ftien
the magnitude
b'OT
example
lov;er
1235
gausses.
2 at
2 at
low voltage to
'.'.'hen
-49-
passed through a
S;^
vvith
transformer P.
.vhose
ratio curve
showed a tendency to turn down instead of up at the extreme low current end of the curves, and although passed
over at the time as possibly due to errors of measurement,
it seems entirely probable that these transformers would
or more.
measurements
density.
v/ere
),
for with
measuremenxs.
lov.-
6 p.
see:
this
-51-
Figure H^)
By Sj^ecial manipulation
of load,
hov/
nearly
the same form the ratio and phase angle curves may
take,
coincident.
:Jag.
3887.
23, p. 225,
Wild, Electrician,
5_6,
1906.
Proc
548, 1908.
_7
P* 3^^.
1910.
l-Ing.
30, p.
139,
5'^'
tlian 2.
As in
termination.
measuring instrument.
ments,
Ac-
53-
V/hile
inductive load
v.'ill
usually give
lov/
hysteresis
Of
It
-54-
angle small.
It would also seem to follov>f that for a given
There has been a considerable amount of discussion as to whether wave distortion in a current trans-
enters.
signed to it,
lias
-56-
iUner
1909.
tv/o
pos-
The
(page
In
ir^de
K^.
1-^E
will appear in
l^B.^
The advantage of
than of
I^ijR^,
and hence it
Stoall amounts
t.vo
of impurities in the
t>
From an analvsis
tJie
data derived
"
"
"
"
by dynamoneter
"
U.511
observed
"
bth
"
"
"
"
3d
"
"
"
5th
"
"
amp.
0.500
0.00496 volt
0.00487
16 %
"
soc. current
"
"
0.13
%
fo
0.03 $
"
part inl^QOOO.OOO
in order
58-
in
-.vhich
the enf.
/7
mometer
v/hile a ciirrent
deflection
is
The resulting
flect back and forth, following the continuously changing phase relation, the maximum travel either side of the
Only
ov.-n.
The de-
-59-
millimexers.
The distortion found for a
Table IV.
so
Evidently
far as
/<ave
the
highest figure obtained, and that under severe conditions, being but U.36 % of tne fundamental, and this
Jj',
Ahich
v/as
part in a million.
v/as
con-
having
5 to
I'ho
most essential
(figiu-e 6)
-Bi-
vv'ould
be no resultant
ki8.
For
tvo
separate instruments
ing coil was comj)ensated and the coil set at the position
of zero mutual inducxance.
I'wo
dynamometer could be thrown in or out of the primary circuit by the switch M, v/hile tho
adjust
Ri;
1.1
being 0',en.
A]^
ea-
il
right
and.
con-
cycles, are
siiovvn
in table V.
Table V.
Transformer
K
"
S-j^
"
Wave Form
ZQ'/o
dimple
2056
peak
2C^ dimple
20^0
peak
In phase
In quadrature.
0.00050
0.00017
21
51
77
28
32
33
Total
-63We may concludo fron the results of these determinationa of the magnitudes or the distortion introduced by
current transformers
it
does
'.Then
we
SO^b
of third
tlie
available
It also follows that there is no appreciable dif-
ference in tne ratio of transrormation whether it be defined as the ratio of the mean effective values of the
no.v
rotating commutator
v/ith a
-64-
9.
'iThile,
for::aer,
I'his
iiO
the value with a sine curve, while v/ith the large impedance
in the secondary the corresponding change is only 0.15
fo
distortion.
^
At
less.
ol'
the measureinonts
v/as
0.02 %.
The dimpled wave raises the ratio and the peak v;ave
Bulletin,
5,
p. 381, 1909.
small.
form
20
peak
fo
Phase angle
33.8'
sine
35.0'
20 % dimple
35.6'
/igain,
'"itli
certainty.
66-
prac-
tice.
Summary
10.
1.
',7hile
it
increasing cur-
2.
.iiay
3.
qualitatively predicted from the value of the Steinmetz exponent if the latter he assumed to be constant.
4.
v.'idoly
tlie
67-
coordinate paper.
It is proposed that this logarithmio slope,
or
exponent
The methods now in use for determining the "ex-
'.Y
= B^, unless
z^
is a constant.
The
rormer may
"be
negligible
Thile tne errect of variations in wave form on
ratio and phase angle may be detected by accurate
measurements. It as too small to be of practical importance, being of the same order of magnitude as the
effect of small changes in frequency.
-68-
9,
Bibliography.
11.
bibliography of the current transformer, but it is believed that all the more importajat papers are included.
1.
CAilPBELL, A.
SCHROTTKE, P.
Ueber Drehfeldmessgerfithe.
'TIIJDSE,
E. L.
Elec. Journal,
L.
4.
CU5.TIS,
5.
DRY3DALE, C. V.
ji.
I,
p. 4tl,
1904.
ey-
6.
DRYSDALE, C. V.
7.
MAKO,;'EK,
7ki6,
7B3
iyu6.
J.
A.
Eleo,
9.
HARIIAK, E. S.
'.Torld,
51, p. 1044,
1908.
DRYSDAIE, C, V.
EDGCU1.1BE,
11.
LLOYD,
K.
LI.
Elec.
12.
Y/hat
V.'orld,
is
rJur.
Standards,
j6,
p. 1,
1909.
The determination of
6,
p. ii81,
to. 130.
1909, Keprint
-70-
14.
OivlICH,
E,
electrome"cers zu
'
echselstronmessxaigen,
Electrotocimische l-eitsciirift
(A diacua-
ROBIKSOU, L. T.
transformers
Trans. Amer
1909.
16.
TOBEY, K.
Vi'.
Discussion, p. 1040.
appa rat us
\7ERNICKE, G.
L!essinstruraente, p. 59.
Braxinsoiiweig, 1909.
18.
STERZEL, K. A.
(Viev/eg u.
Stromwandler
flir
Sohn)
'./echselstrom-
Leistungsmessungen
Electrotechnische I.'eitschrift
19.
GEKKIK
7i'.
Sur les
30, p. 489,
'
1909
-vi-
ae.
YOUL'G, A. P.
transformer.
Jour. Inst. E. E. 45, p. 670, 1910.
21.
CAluPBELl,
A.
22.
217)
BARBAGEIATA, A.
EDGCULCBE, K.
llotes on
instrument transfcrmers.
LAWS, F, A.
instrument transformers.
Elec. VTorld, 55, p. 223, 1910.
25.
SHAKP,C. H. and
CHAV.'Jj'OKD.
VJ.
'.V.
Some recent
1910.
}
26.
-72-
Blographioal Sketoh.
Agnew was born July 3, 1881 in Hillsdale Comity, Michigan, ana was prepared for college in the local high
year at
tiie
:.:ichigan State
formal College.
In January
li.
L. in June 1901.
In Feb-
v/as
During the
enrolled as a graduate
.73-
Zahra,
choosing Physics as his principal subject under Professor Ames and Applied Jfilecxricity and Mathematics as
^y
V;,-.
.:.
<.
,! Vector
Ditit;raa.
ox
of Cuxreai
Nonlnduotivj Load,
Inauctive Load,
'
.IGGQJ
jo40JoduiO'5
>ifrart
Cxponeni-
1o Full
Uoad
Sec,
FOLD OUT
FOLD OUT
1
<o ru
Load
kM^^^*^^
^*^
\
v^
X\
1^
^: