MEMORY SYSTEMS : STORING VISUAL AND SPATIAL INFORMATION

For over three decades research has been conducted to identify the set of processes that we
use to maintain and researse information that comprises our conscious thoughts. Beginning with
the information-processing approach to memory, formalized by Waugh and Norman (1965) and
continuing with the modal model (also referred to as the information-processing model)
proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968), three different types of memory storage were
identified.
Depicting a model with chronologically arranged stages, Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) postulated
that information can be kept in three different types of memory storage: sensory memory, shortterm memory, and long-term memory. In essence, sensory memory initially receives the
incoming stimulus and retains it for a very brief amount of time. The incoming stimulus then
proceeds into ones short-term memory where a series of complex processes enable us to hold
and rehearse information.
Short-term memory (STM) or working memory(WM) has become the focal point for copious
research studies relating to the complex cognitive processes involve in reading and problem
solving. WM provides a workbench where we can temporarily store and manipulate
information that is pertinent to solving the task at hand. During the first decade of the 21st
century, numerous articles documented a significant relationship between the size of STM
capacity for linguistic material and language abilities () Originally perceived as temporarily
holding and recycling buffer for information, STM is now recognized as an intricate system used
to process information stored in our consciousness.
Since the inception of the early processing models, investigators have continued to propose
increasingly complex models demonstrating the richness and variety of STM processing (). One
of the most popular of these models is Baddeleys (1986) model of WM. Described as a number
of closely interacting subsystems working together to support numerous higher-level thinking
processes, three of these subsystems merit further discussion: the articulatory loop, the visuospatial sketchpad, and the episodic buffer.

The Articulatory Loop

Baddeleys (1986) WM model describes the articulatory loop as a mechanism for actively
retaining information on a temporary basis. This process is accomplished through the use of two

subcomponents: the phonological store, which retains the information temporarily, and the
articulatory process, referred to as the subvocal rehearsal mechanism, which allows for the
rehearsal of information (). Although the term subvocal implies a mechanism that is based solely
on audition, it extends to any form of language that is articulated. Hence, both ASL and speech
that are produced using visual and auditory modes can be used to rehearse information. A
substantial body of research indicates that hearing people use a speech-based coding system
to rehearse and recall information and that this process plays a central role in the processing of
information (). Reffering to this phenomenon as sing an inner voice researchers have
determined that hearing individuals rely on a phonetic code in short-term memory situations
when they are presented with lists of printed words. Studies further indicate that when
presented with word that are similar in sound, the task of remembering them becomes more
difficult than when they are presented with different-sounding words. Similar research have
been conducted with prelingually deaf individuals to determine what primary language-coding
system they rely on for the temporary retention of written words.

Research : Short-Term Memory Encoding by students Who Are Deaf of Hard of Hearing
Studies in this domain have presented a complex picture indicating the heterogeneity of the
deaf population with respect to how and if they use phonological coding to represent and
medicate information in their WM (Miller,2007). Although some prelingually deaf individuals
mediate information phonologically (), this strategy does not appeare to be used by the majority.
Unlike their hearing counterparts who typically rely on their phonological code to maintain
spoken or written information in their WM, individuals with prelingual deafness tend to develop
strategies that are not rooted in spoken language.
Miller(20070 reports findings from different lines of research that describe the discrete factors
that may influence that strategy or strategies used by individuals who are deaf to maintain and
process information in their WM. These includes the primary mode of language (spoken or sign
language), the mode in which the information is presented (orally, visually, or manually), and the
type of information that the person is asked to retain. Furthermore, an additional body of
research suggests that when this population is asked to process spoken language, they rely on
multimodal encoding process. This process includes the ability to record spoken words into their
WM using residual hearing, visual cues, fingerspelling, and /or exposure to print ().

Contemporary research within the field of deaf education has also examined the role of sign
language with respect how it is used in WM to retain and process information. Research
conducted by Wilson and Emmorey (1998,2003) suggests that Deaf native users of ASL use a
phonological loop in sign language that are parallel in structure to the phonological loop for
speech used by hearing individuals. In a series of studies, they report that WM for ASL is
sensitive to relevant signed input that corresponds to the effects of irrelevant auditory input on
WM for speech. This findings supports earlier research conducted by Bellugi, Klima, and Siple
1975) and Hanson (1982) who report that performance in recalling lists of ASL signs is
hampered when interim signs are produced that have similar handshapes or locations two the
phonological parameters of ASL.
Investigating have also been conducted regarding word length and recall from WM for both
speech and ASL. Studies conducted using articulatory suppression tasks have provided
additional insights into the role that the inner voice plays in WM. These tasks involve given
persons a list of specific words and asking them to remember them while also asking them to
say something nonsensical, such as la,la,la, while they are stimultaneously trying to rehearse
(or remember) specific words. Evidence suggests that this procedure makes the retentation f
information in WM far more difficult. Studies in articulatory suppressin have also been
conducted to determine if any differences occur when the incoming word being produced (short
or long), or if the mode through which the word is produced (sign or speech) impacts retention.
Findings indicate that the effect on word length is similar, regardless of the length of the word or
the mode in which it was produced.
In a study with prelingually deaf individuals who use ASL to communicate , participants were
asked to engage in a manual task that is, producing the number 8 while simultaneously
rehearsing specific signs. Results indicated a discruption in the WM regardless of the length of
the sighn that are presented. This result further supports previous studies that have investigated
the effect of articulatory suppression on speech (). This result additionally supports prior
research showing an articulation mechanism that immediately encodes incoming information in
the language that one primarily uses for processing information.
Although Wilson and Emmorey (2003) report that the structure of WM for language develops in
response to language input regardless of the modality that is employed through sign or speech,
they also finding can be attributed to the differing information-processing capabilities of the
visual and auditory modalities. In essence, it appears that individuals who are deaf use spatial
coding to represent the serial order of signs a feature that has n parallel in WM for speech.

The Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad

According to Baddaley (1986) the articulatory loop is the one of the key components in WM. The
loop is comprised of two components: a phonological store that holds memory traces in acoustic
or phonological form that fades in a few seconds, and an articulatory rehearsal process
analogues to subvocal speech. A second key component or subsystem is the visuo-spatial
sketchpad. Working independently of the other subsystem it is responsible for storing and
manipulating visual and spatial information, a process that is critical for performing a range of
cognitive tasks. Based on research conducted by Della Sala, Gray, Baddaley, Allamano, and
Wilson (1999), the two functions are viewed as separate entities. The visual processing
component is responsible for remembering the appearance of an object while the spatial
process is delegated to remembering the positional sequence that relates the distance,
direction, and order with which an object is presented.
Several imperical studies have provided a wealth of information on the capacities and properties
of the visuo-spatial WM (). Working as a subsystem of WM, it serves the function of integrating
spatial, visual, and possibly kinesthetic information into a unified representation which may be
temporarily stored and manipulated (). Functioning in a different capacity from the phonological
loop, it provides a system for engaging in everyday reading tasks, enabling the reader to
maintain a representation of the page and its layout while facilitating such tasks as moving the
eyes accuratelyfrom the end of one lineto the beginning of the text.