Graduate Project
MEDICAL PHYSICS
NASIR IQBAL
Govt. College of Science, Wahdat Road, Lahore.
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Student Name:
Nasir Iqbal
Class:
BS (Hons) Physics
Roll No:
2277
Semester:
Signed by:
X
Prof. Dr. Ejaz Ahmed
Head of Physics Department GCS Lahore
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Experience
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Table of Contents
Sr. No.
1
Title
Chapter-1 Introduction
Page no.
1-9
1.1
Radiations
1.2
Types of Radiations
1.2.1
Ionizing Radiations
1.2.2
Non-Ionizing Radiations
1.3
Detection of Radiations
1.4
Radiation Exposures
1.5
Radionuclides
1.6
Production of Radionuclides
1.6.1
1.6.2
1.6.2.1
Nuclear Fission
1.6.2.2
Neutron Activation
10-19
2.1
10
2.2
11
2.2.1
12
2.2.2
13
14
15
17
2.4.1
17
2.4.2
17
2.3
2.3.1
2.4
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2.4.3
3
18
20-26
3.1
Introduction to PET-CT
20
3.2
20
22
3.3
Computed Tomography
23
3.4
23
3.5
24
3.5.1
Distance
24
3.5.2
Time
25
3.5.3
25
3.5.4
Shielding
25
3.2.1
27-29
30-35
5.1
Gamma Radiations
30
5.2
Shielding Calculation
30
5.2.1
32
5.2.2
33
5.2.3
Hot Lab
34
6
6.1
36-47
37
6.1(a)
37
6.1(b)
38
6.1(c)
39
41
6.2
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6.2(a)
42
6.2(b)
43
6.2(c)
44
6.3
45
6.4
46
Chapter-8 Conclusions
50
Chapter-9 References
51-52
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List of Figures
Figure no.
Description
Page no.
15
17
Radioactive Labels
18
19
Physics of PET
20
21
Functioning of CT Imaging
22
10
23
11
25
12
36
13
40
14
44
15
44
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Chapter-1
Introduction
1.1 Radiation:
Every particle is composed of atoms. Some of the atoms are the lighter ones like hydrogen and
some of them are heavier atoms, such as uranium. Normally, the heavier atoms have more
unstable nuclei as compared to lighter atoms. This is because of the imbalance in the proportion
of the neutrons and protons in the nucleus. These unstable nuclei gain their stability after
emitting excess energy in the form of fast moving energetic particles. This energy is known as
Radiation and such unstable nuclei are called radionuclides. The emission of radiation by these
radioactive nuclides is referred to as radioactivity.
1.2 Types of Radiations:
Radiations are classified on the basis of intensity of energy, frequency and wavelength. The
higher the frequency, the lesser would be the wavelength of a particular wave. Following are
the two main types of radiations.
Ionizing Radiations
Non-Ionizing radiations
Alpha radiations
Beta radiations
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Gamma Radiations
Neutron Radiation
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Beta particles have an extremely small mass as compared to alpha particles. Thus for a
particular energy, beta particles have higher speed, low LET which enables them to possess
higher penetrability over alpha. Therefore beta particles have a small energy loss, which means
that their ability to penetrate in any material is much larger than alpha particles. The reaction
for the beta decay is as follows,
p + e- + Ve-
n + e+ + Ve
When shielding the beta radiation, we came across the electromagnetic radiation which is
simply the secondary X-rays commonly known as Bremsstrahlung, produced by the fast
moving electrons. Shielding for beta radiation should be made of those materials which have
small atomic number to decrease the amount of bremsstrahlung produced. The penetration of
beta particles depends on their energy. For example, beta particle having energy of 1 Mev will
move about 3.49 m in air. Following table gives the thicknesses of materials in inches to absorb
beta radiation.
Energy (Mev)
Plastic (inches)
Concrete (inches)
Aluminium (inches)
0.5
0.11
0.06
0.06
1.0
0.2
0.09
0.09
2.0
0.31
0.19
0.19
3.0
0.42
0.31
0.31
Gamma Radiations:
Gamma radiations are the type of electromagnetic rays and are denoted by the Greek letter .
It is a high energy ionizing electromagnetic radiation having high frequency and a very short
wavelength which is measured in some nanometres (billionth of a meter). Particle interactions
such as the process of electron-positron annihilation and radioactive decay produce gamma
rays.
Gamma photons have energy of about 10,000 times as the photons in the visible range of the
electromagnetic spectrum. They have no mass and are not charged electrically. Gamma
photons move at the speed of light and can travel up to thousands of meters in air due to their
high energy. They can penetrate in different kind of materials including human tissue. Owing
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to this property these are used in medical imaging. Dense materials like lead, concrete are
commonly used as shielding to reduce the intensity of gamma photons.
Neutron Radiations:
Neutron is the form of radiation, similar to gamma radiation, which have a great ability to
penetrate in the materials. Neutrons are not electrically charged, therefore they are unaffected
by the electric fields of atoms of absorber materials. Neutron attenuation is achieved mostly
through elastic and inelastic scatter, which decrease the energy of the neutron until it is
absorbed in the material used for shielding. Elastic scatter is where the neutron collides with
the target nucleus and bounces off exactly like the collision of the two pool balls. The neutron
loses some of its energy and this energy is transferred to the target nucleus during the collision.
Light elements are best for slowing down neutrons by elastic scatter and so materials with high
hydrogen content, such as water, concrete, and plastic are used for this purpose.
Inelastic scatter is a type of scattering in which the incoming neutrons impart some of their
energy to the scattering material and excite the target nuclei. The excited target nuclei emit
gamma rays as it return to its ground state. Neutron capture is the process where neutrons are
captured by the target nuclei which then de-excite by emitting another particle or gamma ray.
Neutrons are most effectively shielded by materials containing low atomic number absorbers.
Neutrons are slowed to thermal energies by elastic collision and then they are captured by
nuclei of the shielding material. Materials commonly used to shield neutrons are concrete,
water, and polyethylene.
1.2.2 Non-Ionizing Radiations:
Radiation with sufficient energy that can make the atoms to move in a molecule or enough
energy that results in the vibration of atoms but do not have the tendency to remove the
electrons from their orbits, such radiations are known as Non-Ionizing radiations. Radio waves,
Sound waves and the visible light are the common examples of non-ionizing radiations.
1.3 Detection of Radiation:
Our senses cannot detect the presence of radiation. We can detect radiations indirectly by using
some scientific method or techniques. As light affects the Photo-Films, similarly radiation also
does affect. So, these films are used to detect and record radiation levels. There are also other
materials which emit light when exposed to radiation. Such materials are known as scintillators
and the detectors made of these materials are known as Scintillation Detectors. The intensity
of light emitted by the scintillator is proportional to the radiation intensity. Another type of
instrument is the Geiger-Mueller counter, which is the most commonly used instrument for
easy and quick detection of radiation. In this, electric current is measured which is produced
when radiation passes through an inert gas. [1]
Following are some of the instruments used to detect radiation.
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Ionization Chamber
Proportional Counter
Geiger-Mueller Counter[2]
41.2 eV
Si
3.6 eV
Xe
22.3 eV
Ge
2.84 eV
The above table shows the comparison of energies (required to produce an electric signal)
between the inert gases and semiconductors. Hence the amount of ionization produced for a
particular energy is an order of magnitude greater which results in increased energy resolution.
So these are more sensitive as compared to gas-filled radiation detectors. But their disadvantage
is that it is not possible to build large scale detectors since process of crystal growth has its size
limitations. But by integrating many smaller detectors together large area position sensitive
detectors have been built. At single photon level it is possible to build detectors for high and
low radiation fields. [3]
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1.5 Radio-nuclides:
Radionuclide is also known as radioactive nuclides, is basically an atom having unstable nuclei.
It is considered as the nucleus having excess energy which is available to be transferred either
to a newly created radiation particle within the nucleus or to an atomic electron. Many types of
cancer are treated by the help of these radiations emitting radio-nuclides. These are introduced
into a particular region either surgically or by ingestion or injection attached to a
pharmaceutical which is then taken to the specific cancerous tissue.
1.6 Production of Radio-nuclides:
Although there exist naturally occurring radionuclide but in nuclear medicine, we use
artificially produced radio-nuclides. Because in diagnosing and therapy of cancer, only those
nuclides can be used which have the half-lives of few minutes so that diagnosing and therapy
can be done. Radio-nuclides which are used in nuclear medicines are produced by radionuclide
generators, nuclear reactors or cyclotrons accelerators.
Following are the technique of producing radio-nuclides.
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neutron activation uses the (n, ) gamma emission method because thermalized neutrons can
only induce in some low atomic mass target nuclei. All radionuclides which are produced by
neutron activation decay by Beta-Negative particle emission.
The common examples of neutron activation produced radionuclides which are used in nuclear
medicine are listed below:
P (n, ) 32P
Cr (n, ) 51Cr
Phosphorous 32 production:
31
Chromium 51 production:
50
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Chapter-2
10
Nuclear Medicine
The detection of the emitted gamma radiations by a detector which is placed outside
the body but close to the skin surface.
The detecting instrument which detects the emitted radiations is known as Gamma
Camera.
A nuclear medicine facility consists of at least a gamma camera, a qualified physician and a
nuclear medicine technologist. When more than one technical member is there, a technical
director is responsible for supervision of the technical staff. [6]
Nuclear medicine is a medical facility which uses safe practices to image the body. It is
matchless because it is an anatomy (Internal study) based technique which tells about functions
of organs and their structure. Nuclear medicine is used in the diagnosis, therapy and prevention
of many diseases like cancer etc. Nuclear medicine mechanism is one of the most safe and
sound diagnostic imaging techniques which are currently accessible.
Following are the specific scans which can be obtained by using nuclear medicine procedures:
Gastro-intestinal system
Endocrine system
Genito-urinary system
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Skeletal system
Pulmonary system
Diagnosis of infection
Myocardial perfusion
Nuclear cardiology
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imaging of a specific organ can be obtained and a wide variety of diseases can be diagnosed.
It gives 30% better diagnosis as compared to the traditional gamma camera alone.
Determine the effects of a heart attack on areas of the heart like cardiac muscles.
Identify areas of the heart muscle that would benefit from a procedure such as
angioplasty or angiography.
Assess brain abnormalities for example tumors, memory disorders and other central
nervous system disorders.
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Internal radionuclide therapy is similar to diagnostic nuclear medicine in which the patient is
administered by a radiopharmaceutical which goes to the targeted area. In this case, the
medicine is a combination of a pharmaceutical and a radioisotope which is usually a gamma or
beta emitter. The short-range radiotherapy is becoming the main means of treatment and it is
known as Brachy-Therapy. Iodine-131, being one of the most successful radio-therapy nuclide,
is commonly used for the treatment of thyroid cancer.
Another common example of radiation therapy is the treatment of the disease known as
leukaemia which involves a bone marrow transplant. In this case the defective bone marrow is
first killed off with a lethal dose of radiation before it is being transplanted with healthy bone
marrow from a donor.
To eliminate and control the dispersed cancers, a recently developed therapy is used which is
known as Targeted Alpha Therapy (TAT) or alpha radio-immuno-therapy. When the alpha
emitting radionuclide goes to the targeted cells, the short range highly energetic alpha
radiations suddenly transfers its energy which results in the eradication of the cancerous cells
in the particular tissue. Targeted Alpha Therapy using lead-212 can be used for the treatment
of pancreatic, ovarian and melanoma (skin) cancers.
Radionuclide therapy has increasingly become successful for the treatment of many diseases
with less harmful side-effects. The basic idea in any therapeutic procedure is to focus the
radiations to well-defined target volumes of the patient.
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Entrance should be limited so that the general public must not access the controlled
areas because the exposures in such areas are very high. There must be a separate toilet
and a waiting area for the radionuclide administered patients. Only the authorized
occupationally exposed workers should have access to such areas.
The storage of radioactive waste should be in those areas which cannot be accessible to
the general public.
Every precaution should be taken to make sure that the radiation doses received by the
people should be less than the dose limits given by the nuclear regulatory authority.
The imaging or the scanning rooms should be large enough, having a minimum area of
approximately 30 meter square. Because the imaging machines like gamma camera,
PET/CT etc requires large area.
The Hot Lab should be in particular order, having separate workbenches for keeping
the record and making certain radiopharmaceutical. Hot lab is basically the area used
for storing, preparing and dispensing the radio-pharmaceuticals (combination of
radionuclide and a particular pharmaceutical).
Sufficient shielding should be done to the Hot lab. Radiation protection officer should
calculate the amount of shielding required for the Hot lab depending upon the emission
of radiations, intensity and the usage of radioactive nuclides.
The waiting area of injected patients should be separated from the staff and from the
people of the general public. It should also display the radiation warning signs.
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There should be shielded bins in every injection rooms so that the injection syringes
must be completely disposed and the emission of radiation from syringes can be
stopped.
Injection rooms and the Hot lab should be close enough to each other in order to
minimize the transportation of radioactive materials.
Radio-pharmacy and the storage area of radioactive waste should not be accessible to
the members of the general public.
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Different colored labels give different dose rate which are as under:
I- White
D 0.005 mSv/h
II- Yellow
III-Yellow
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Chapter-3
PET/CT
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The process of annihilation also occurs at higher order like 3 or more than these photons may
be produced but they are about 0.03 % of the total annihilations that is why they can be
neglected. The annihilation process in Positron emission tomography has many useful
properties which are very beneficial for imaging techniques. For example, the photons which
are emitted in this process are high energy photons which fall in the gamma rays region in the
electro-magnetic light spectrum. So these photons have enough energy and probability to
escape from the body and the detectors which are placed outside the body can easily detect
their presence. One more positive use of the property of annihilation is that it gives quite good
approximation of where the radioactive material was present in the body.
Figure 8 Table taken from the book PET Physics, Instrumentation and scanners by
Michael E. Phelps
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These areas must be properly shielded in order to provide maximum protection against the high
energy electromagnetic waves to the authorized personnel and other staff working in the areas
closer to these rooms. These waves are photons having high energy of about 511 kev.
3.5 Radiation Safety and Controlling Exposure of Radiations:
To have a radiation safety against the harmful effects of the radiations, there are four main
techniques by which the effect and intensity of the radiations can be reduced. By altering these
below mentioned factors, the exposure of the radiation can be controlled.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Distance
Time
Contamination Control
Shielding
3.5.1 Distance:
Radiation exposure rate from its source is dependent upon the distance. Exposure and distance
are related with inverse square law. When the distance is doubled, the exposure rate from the
source becomes . Mathematically this can be written as,
X2 = X1 (d1/d2)2
-- 3.2
Where,
X2 is the final exposure rate after altering the distance, at point 2.
X1 is the initial exposure rate from the distance at point 1.
d1 is the distance at point 1.
d2 is the distance at point 2.
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Equation --
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3.5.2 Time:
The amount of the radiation exposure also depends upon the time spent with the radioactive
source. If the time spent of person with any radioactive material is large enough so ones
exposure would also be very high. So the time factor should also be taken into consideration
when dealing with radiation protection. Different radioactive sources have different exposure
rates. For example, while diagnosing patients by simple x-ray source, the time spent for the
radiation worker should be minimized in order to have maximum radiation safety. This can be
done by not operating the x-ray machine when the staff is near to this radioactive source.
3.5.3 Radiation Contamination Control:
Radiation contamination is also commonly known as radiological contamination. According to
the International Atomic Energy Agency, it is defined as the radioactive substances on
surfaces, or within solids, liquids or gases (including the human body), where their presence is
unintended or undesirable, or the process giving rise to their presence in such places. This
terminology only explains about the radioactivity but not give the corresponding involved
radiation hazard. The methods of controlling the contamination are designed to avoid its spread
to other work surfaces and also to reduce the interaction of the radioactive material and the
personnel working in that area. [11]
3.5.4 Shielding:
To minimize the radiation exposure in diagnostic nuclear medicine and diagnostic radiology,
shielding is the common technique used to prevent and reduce the exposure to patients, staff
and the members of the general public. As already discussed that different radiation have
different exposure rate so the amount of shielding required would also be different which varies
with the radiations. This shielding depends upon the intensity, energy, number of the
radioactive source and the geometry of the radiations produced by the radioactive material. The
shielding material should have a good absorption coefficient or technically known as
attenuation coefficient in order to reduce the exposure of the radiations. The calculations of the
shielding thickness can be done by using traditional formulas or by computer based software
commonly known as Monte Carlo (e.g MCNPX code).
The radiation exposure rates in nuclear medicine facility can ranges over 100Rem/hour (1 Rem
is equal to 10 milli-sievert). Specific exposure rate constant () also known as gamma factor
is used to calculate the exposure rate from a radioactive nuclide at any distance. Its unit is
R.cm2/mCi.h . Mathematically its formula can be written as,
Exposure Rate = A/d2
Where,
= specific exposure rate
A = Activity in milli-curie
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This specific exposure rate constant measure only the significant amount of radiation exposure
and ignore the photons below certain energy which do not have any adverse effects. For
example, 30 means that the specific exposure rate constant for photons having energy greater
than or equal to 30 kev (kilo electron volts.) [12]
For shielding, Materials like lead, tungsten and the lead equivalent glasses are used in nuclear
medicine facility to reduce the exposure from the small syringes and containers having
radioactive material. During dose preparation and dose administration, syringes are shielded
which reduce the exposure to the radiation worker. Person carrying radioactive material should
wear disposable gloves, lab coats, lead aprons, TLD ring and body film badges (Dosimeters).
Following figure is the tungsten shielded syringe containing radioactive material.
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Chapter-4
27
Literature Review
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to other imaging techniques. Different occupancy factors are also given for different areas in
this study. [14]
In another study carried out by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in their
Radiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine Department safety report series no. 115, IAEA,
Vienna (1996) explained some of the main safety standards which should be taken into
consideration in order to meet the requirements given by this authority. The precautions which
need to be taken in the nuclear medicine department are Design consideration, dose limits, the
radioactive patients, the special problems related to some kind of accidents and transportation
of the radioactive material inside and outside the department. [15]
A study conducted by Jerrold T. Bushberg et al. in The Essential Physics of Medical Imaging
explained the techniques of medical imaging by using gamma camera and computed
tomography etc. They have also mentioned the functioning and basic operations of these
machines. Specific radionuclides and radiopharmaceutical, and their unique characteristics
which are used for the imaging techniques are also included. The production and the processing
of these radionuclides are also given. This study also explained the production of radionuclides
from different cyclotrons, nuclear reactors and radionuclide generators. Different types of
detectors and their functioning is also mentioned. These detectors include Gas filled Counters,
Scintillation detectors and Semi-conductor detectors. It also explained the radiation protection
against the radioactive sources and the effects of harmful ionizing radiations. [16]
Jon A. Anderson et al. at the department of radiology, The university of Texas South-western
medical centre at Dallas, demonstrated site planning and radiation safety in the PET facility in
this study. This study explained some of the basic problem which are associated with PET-CT
clinic and the implementation of the safety standards while handling radioactive materials. The
safety techniques which are mentioned in this study can be made practical in any other situation
after appropriate changing for different workloads, the number of radiopharmaceutical
administered to the patients, use of different radioisotope and other operating considerations.
[17]
In a study performed by Michael E. Phelps et al. in PET Physics, Instrumentation and
Scanners explained one of the recently developed PET-CT, a nuclear imaging technique. This
study mentioned the functioning, advantages, precision and accuracy, and the basic physics
behind the Positron emission tomography. The process of annihilation of positron and electron
resulting in highly energetic two photons, their range and their non-colinearity are also included
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in this study. The detection and the material used for the detection of these highly energetic
photons are also discussed. [18]
James E. Turner et al. explains in the study Atoms, Radiations, and Radiation Protection
about the protection against the externally present radiations. He focused mainly on the factors
by which the radiation exposure depends which are distance, time and shielding. He
demonstrated the importance of the shielding factor especially for the shielding of high energy
gamma rays. Few other important concepts, like interaction of photons with matter, are also
mentioned which are very necessary to understand while dealing with radiations.[19]
In another study presented by Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority, Helsinki Finland
describes the dose constraints and the limits made by international nuclear regulatory authority.
The instructions and precautions which should be given to the patient both orally and in writing
are also mentioned in this study. Handlings with the different situations when abnormal events
in the use of radiations take place are also discussed. [20]
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As already discussed, in PET-CT clinics, highly energetic photons are emitted from positron
emitting radionuclides of energy about 511 keV. These are extremely penetrating radiations
therefore; heavy shielding is required in all aspects of radiation protection. Different clinics
require different shielding. There are different methods for calculating desired shielding. But
the method used for estimating the required shielding in this thesis is based on the formulations
mentioned in the report of AAPM task group 108. Following are the factors, on which the
amount of shielding mainly depends,
When choosing the material for radiation shielding, the first consideration which should be
taken into account would be the personnel protection. An appropriate shielding will reduce the
large amount of energy of radiation in a small penetration distance without emitting any other
harmful radiations or secondary radiations like Bremsstrahlung. However there are also other
factors which have an impact on the choice of shielding materials. They are mentioned as
under,
The effectiveness for the shielding material is determined by the interaction between the
incident radiation and the atoms of the absorbing medium. This interaction is mainly depends
on the type of radiation, the energy of the radiation and the atomic number of the absorbing
material. As mentioned in the beginning, the alpha and the beta radiations are not energetic as
compared to gamma radiations and they do not have sufficient penetrating power, so they do
not contribute in shielding calculations. Gamma and the neutron radiations are highly
penetrating and require enough shielding. In this, only gamma rays will be discussed, as
neutron radiations are not used in hospitals for medical purposes. [21]
5.1 Gamma Radiations:
Unlike alpha and beta radiations, gamma rays do not lose its energy continuously when it
passes through a medium. This is the reason that gamma rays have much penetrating power as
compared to alphas and betas. When gamma rays passes through the material used for the
shielding of radiations, it is attenuated by an exponential factor. This means that gamma rays
cannot be stopped completely no matter how thick the shielding material is used. But it is
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possible that the energy of radiation can be decreased to a permissible level. Mathematically,
the dose rate of gamma rays can be calculated is written below,
Dt = Do e-t
Where Dt is the dose rate when radiation passes through the shielding material of thickness t
and is the linear absorption coefficient. This coefficient of linear absorption is dependent
upon the type of material used for shielding and the energy of gamma rays. In S.I units, the
unit for linear absorption coefficient is m-1. This equation is only true for the narrow beam of
radiation coming from the source.
For the case of broad beam, the term Dose Build Up factor is used, which is gives below,
Dt = BDu e-t
Where, Du is known as dose rate from the unscattered gamma rays. The value for the build-up
factor B is dependent upon the energy of the incident radiation, shielding material and the
thickness of the shielding material used. The values for this factor normally looked up in the
tables and are not calculated, when shielding a nuclear facility. The concept of half value layer
(HVL) is normally used when quickly estimating the required shielding. This is defined as
The thickness of the shielding material required to reduce the intensity to half of its incident
value. The mathematical expression for using the half value layer is given below,
Ds = Do (HVL) n
Where Ds is the desired shielding dose rate, Do is the initial dose rate and n is the number of
half value layers.
Uptake Phase
Decay phase
These phases are specifically related to the patients. However, the rooms in which radionuclide
are made and stored also need to be shielded. Therefore the rooms which must be shielded are,
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Hot Lab
Imaging Room
Cyclotron Room
32
The radioisotope used in PET technique is F-18 (Fluorine-18). It is normally used because of
its longer life time (109.8 min) and has average dose rate constant. If this radioisotope is taken
into account while shielding, then rest of the all radioisotopes will automatically be shielded.
Its radioactive can be determined by using the concept of the total dose. The total dose is given
by,
Dt = (Do/E) (1 - e- Et)
Rt = (1 - e- Et)/( E t)
Now substituting the value of E in the above equation, the equation becomes,
Rt = [1.443 T1/2 (1 - e- Et)]/t
Where Dt is the total dose, E is decay constant, Do is the initial dose rate. T1/2 is the half-life
of radioisotope and Rt is the dose reduction factor.
Where Ao is the average activity administered to the patient, tu is the uptake time and d is the
same distance between the source and the point of interest.
If Nw be the number of patients per week then the weekly dose Dw can be calculated as,
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Equation--- (B)
Where P is the maximum permissible dose, U is the use factor and T is the occupancy factor.
Example:
Calculate the transmission factor and wall thickness for patient waiting room where
administered activity Ao is 500 Mbq, uptake time is 30 min, number of patients per week
are 50 and the dimensions of the room are 10 10 ft2. The wall thickness of room is 4.5
inches of concrete.
Solution:
Since F-18 has a dose rate constant = 0.143Sv.m2/Mbq.hr , d = 5ft = 1.52m + 0.3m + 0.11=
1.94m , A = 500 Mbq and P= 20 Sv/hr, T = 1, U = 1, Rtu = 0.91, tu = 30 min.
Putting these values in the following formulation,
B = P d2/ [(Nw 0.092 Ao tu Rtu U T]
B = 0.0717
Using the table, the required shielding thickness = 9 cm of concrete.
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Where, tu is the uptake time. Now the weekly dose for the scanner room could be formulated
as below,
Dw = [Nw 0.092 Ao tI RtI Fu]/ d2
Equation -- (C)
Equation -- (D)
Or,
B = P / [Dw UT]
Example:
Calculate the transmission factor and wall thickness for scanner room where
administered activity Ao in patient is 500MBq, uptake time is 30 min, number of patients
per week 50 and the dimensions of the room are 1010 ft2 and imaging time is 20 min.
The existing wall is 9 inches thick.
Solution:
Since F-18 has a dose rate constant = 0.143Sv.m2/Mbq.hr , d = 5ft = 1.52m + 0.3m + 0.23=
2.05m , A = 500 Mbq and P= 20 Sv/hr, T = 1, U = 1, Rtl = 0.94, ti = 20 min, Fu = 0.83.
B = P d2/ [(Nw 0.85 0.092 Ao ti Rti U T Fu]
B = 0.1663
By using the table given at the end, the shielding thickness = 6 cm of concrete.
5.2.3 Hot Lab:
This is the area where all the radioisotopes are stored. So the activity in this area is very high.
Therefore it is necessary to shield this room accurately. If At be the total radioactivity present
in the room, d be the distance between the source and the point where the shielding is needed
to be installed. be the dose rate constant associated with it. Normally the one foot of distance
is also added to the point of interest in all cases for calculating radiation shielding. Therefore,
the equivalent dose rate can be calculated as,
Ho = At / d2
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Bo is the transmission factor for the hot lab and Po is the permissible dose made by regulatory
authorities.
Example
Calculate the transmission factor and wall thickness for hot lab where maximum activity
is 50 104 Mbq and dimensions of the room are 1010 ft2.
Solution:
Since F-18 has a dose rate constant = 0.143Sv.m2/Mbq.hr, d = 5ft = 1.52m, A = 50104
Mbq and P= 10 Sv/hr.
Putting these values in the expression, we have,
Ho = At / d2 = (0.143)(50104)/ (1.52)2
= 3.095 104 Sv/hr.
Therefore the transmission factor can be calculated as,
BL = Po /Ho
= 10/ (3.095 104)
BL = 3.23 10- 4
Using the table for above transmission factor, Shielding thickness = 43mm of lead.
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Chapter-6
36
The shielding calculation for PET/CT facility of Shaukat Khanum Memorial Cancer Hospital
is based on the requirements and parameters which are given by the hospital. The different
parameters used in the calculation of shielding are given in the table below. Furthermore, it
should be noted that the estimated radiation shielding in this report is carried out by using the
formulas given by the AAPM Task group report no.108 PET and PET-CT Shielding
Requirements.
Name of Parameters
Symbol
Value
F-18
Fluorine-18
Half-life of F-18
T1/2
110 min
Nw
30
Ao
370 MBq
Uptake Time
Tu
90 min
TI
20 min
0.143Sv.m2/Mbq.hr
Rtu
PH
10 Sv/h
PU
20 Sv/h
PI
20 Sv/h
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0.3m
1.17 m
0.3m
1.67 m
1.52m
Wall # 1
Wall # 3
2.44 m
Wall # 4
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As already given the maximum permissible dose P= 20Sv, occupancy factor T=1, the use
factor U=1 from the parameters given by the hospital and d= 1.67m taken from the above
figure, the transmission factor and the required shielding for wall 1 and 3 are calculated. Results
are discussed in the following table. The shielding calculation is carried out by the formulation
provided by the AAPM task group.
Calculations for wall 1 and 3 of patient uptake room
Parameters
Symbol
Values
Reference
Weekly Dose
Dw
417.43 Sv
Equation: A
Transmission Factor
0.0479
Equation: B
24cm concrete
Now calculating for the wall 2 and 4, and the distance between the patient and the point of
interest is taken from the above figure, which is d= 1.17m
Calculations for wall 2 and 4 of patient uptake room
Parameters
Weekly Dose
Symbol
Dw
Values
850.44 Sv
Reference
Equation: A
Transmission factor
0.0235
Equation: B
29cm of concrete
0.3m
0.3m
2.66 m
4.19 m
Wall # 1
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4.3m
7.3 m
Wall # 3
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39
Wall # 4
By using the given parameters and the distance given from the figure above d = 4.19 m,
calculations of transmission factor and the shielding thickness of the material for the walls 1
and 3 are discussed in the following table.
Calculations for the walls 1 and 3 of Imaging Room
Parameters
Weekly Dose
Transmission Factor
Thickness for Shield
Symbol
Dw
B
X
Values
10.61 Sv
1.88
Already Enough Concrete
Reference
Equation: C
Equation: D
Now the distance for wall 2 and 4 between the source and the wall which need to be shielded
is given by the above figure, which is d = 2.66m. The transmission factor and the required
shielding are discussed in the following table.
Calculations for the walls 2 and 4 of Imaging Room
Parameters
Weekly Dose
Transmission Factor
Thickness for Shield
Symbol
Dw
B
X
Values
26.31 Sv
0.78
5cm of Concrete
Reference
Equation: C
Equation: D
Wall # 2
0.3m
1.29 m
0.3m
2.48 m
Wall # 1
2.57m
xcv
Wall #4.96
3 m
Wall # 4
Now again using the provided factors by the hospital and distance d = 2.48m, the required
shielding for the walls 1 & 3 is calculated and mentioned in the following table.
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Symbol
Values
Reference
10.75 Sv/h
Equation(E)
Transmission factor
0.93
Equation---(F)
2 cm of concrete
The distance for the walls 2 and 4, d= 2.57m, is taken from the above figure and discussing the
required shielding for the walls 2 and 4 in the table given below.
Symbol
Values
Reference
40.08
Equation(E)
Transmission factor
0.25
Equation---(F)
13cm of concrete
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6.2 Karachi Diagnostic Centre, Shaukat Khanum Memorial Cancer Hospital and
Research Centre, Karachi:
The calculations for shielding the PET-CT clinic of Shaukat Khanum Memorial Cancer
Hospital and Research Centre Karachi can be carried out by using the same parameters
mentioned above, which are provided by the hospital.
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0.3m
1.65m
0.3m
1.77m
2.7m
Wall # 1
Wall # 3
2.94 m
Wall # 4
Using the parameters given by the hospital and d=1.77m taken from the above figure, the
resulted transmission factor and the required shielding for wall 1 and 3 of uptake room are
discussed in the table given below.
Calculations for wall 1 and 3 of patient uptake room
Parameters
Symbol
Values
Reference
Weekly Dose
Dw
578.12Sv
Equation: A
Transmission Factor
0.035
Equation: B
25cm of concrete
Now calculating for the wall 2 and 4, and the distance between the patient and the point of
interest is taken from the above figure, which is d= 1.65m
Calculations for wall 2 and 4 of patient uptake room
Parameters
Weekly Dose
Symbol
Dw
Values
670.19 Sv
Reference
Equation: A
Transmission factor
0.0298
Equation: B
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27cm
0.3m
0.3m
2.4 m
3.9 m
Wall # 1
4.2m
7.2 m
Wall # 3
Wall # 4
By using the given parameters and the distance given from the figure above d = 3.9 m,
calculations of transmission factor and the shielding thickness of the material for the walls 1
and 3 are discussed in the following table.
Calculations for the walls 1 and 3 of Imaging Room
Parameters
Weekly Dose
Transmission Factor
Thickness for Shield
Symbol
Dw
B
X
Values
12.858 Sv
1.55
Shielding not required
Reference
Equation: C
Equation: D
Now the distance for wall 2 and 4 between the source and the wall which need to be shielded
is given by the above figure, which is d = 2.44m. The transmission factor and the required
shielding are discussed in the following table.
Calculations for the walls 2 and 4 of Imaging Room
Parameters
Weekly Dose
Transmission Factor
Thickness for Shield
Symbol
Dw
B
X
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Values
32.68 Sv
0.611
6cm of Concrete
Reference
Equation: C
Equation: D
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0.3m
1.75 m
0.3m
2.16 m
Wall # 1
2.92m
xcv
Wall # 3
Wall #3.66
3 m
Wall # 4
Now again using the provided factors by the hospital and distance d = 2.16m, the required
shielding for the walls 1 & 3 is calculated and mentioned in the following table.
Calculations for the walls 1 and 3 of Hot Lab
Parameters
Symbol
Values
Reference
56.7 Sv/h
Equation(E)
Transmission factor
0.17
Equation---(F)
15cm of concrete
The distance for the walls 2 and 4, d= 1.75m, is taken from the above figure and discussing the
required shielding for the walls 2 and 4 in the table given below.
Calculations for the walls 2 and 4 of Hot Lab
Parameters
Symbol
Values
Reference
86.30
Equation(E)
Transmission factor
0.11
Equation---(F)
19cm of concrete
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Walls
Uptake Room
1&3
2&4
20 cm
27 cm
1&3
20 cm
2&4
25 cm
Shielding
Required
6 cm
1&3
25 cm
15 cm
2&4
25 cm
19 cm
Scanning Room
Hot Lab
not
30
25
20
15
Uptake Room
10
Scanning Room
0
Wall 1 & 3 Existing
Shielding
Hot Lab
The above chart explains the comparison between the Existing Shielding in centimetres of
concrete and the Calculated Shielding of SKMCH Karachi.
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6.4 Comparison between Calculated Shielding of SKMCH Lahore and SKMCH Karachi:
30
25
20
15
Uptake Room
10
Scanning Room
Hot Lab
0
Wall 1 & 3
SKMCH
Lahore
Wall 2 & 4
Wall 1 & 3
SKMCH
Karachi
Wall 2 & 4
The above chart explains the comparison between the Calculated Shielding of SKMCH Lahore
and SKMCH Karachi.
Table: Broad beam transmission factors at 511kev in lead, concrete and iron (For lead
the X is in mm, for iron and concrete X is in cm). Calculated by AAPM task group in its
Safety report series number 108.
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This above table is extracted from the Monte-Carlo simulation and constant TVL method which
shows approximately the same result. [22]
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Chapter-7
48
In this study, radiation shielding for PET-CT clinic of Shaukat Khanum Memorial Cancer
Hospital and Research Centre is calculated. The whole calculations were based on the
formulations, and the required results are mentioned in the tables given above in chapter-6.
The shielding requirements for a PET-CT facility are very much different from the other
diagnostic imaging techniques. This is due to the highly penetrating photons having high
energy produced by the process of annihilation (electron positron combination). The patient is
considered a constant source of radiation throughout the whole procedure. This is because of
the administration of radiopharmaceutical to the patient. To stay under the regulatory limits for
uncontrolled areas given by the nuclear regulatory authorities, is an expensive task. Careful
planning is needed to produce a cost effective design and at the same time maintaining radiation
safety standards.
The method which is used in this study is based on the AAPM (American Association of
Physicists in Medicine) Safety report 108. All the calculations for weekly dose, transmission
factors which propose the thickness of the shielding material are carried out by the method
provided by this report.
In this study, shielding calculations are carried out for the PET-CT clinic both for the SKMCH
Lahore and SKMCH Karachi (Karachi Diagnostic Centre). The comparisons of the calculated
results for each wall are discussed in the charts mentioned above.
According to the Pakistan Nuclear Regulatory Requirements, the following parameters should
be fulfilled in order to get license from the authority:
1. Site and Layout plan approval
2. Work Practice.
3. Radioactive Waste should be disposed in a shielded container.
4. All aspects of Radiation Protection of PET-CT facility should be considered.
5. Areas having high radiation exposure should be perfectly shielded.
These all aspects are carefully fulfilled while designing the PET-CT facility in SKMCH & RC.
The radiation dose rate should be less than the dose constraints which are fulfilled
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49
internationally. Therefore, the calculated result requires much more shielding for the Hot Lab,
Scanning room and uptake room on the existing walls of SKMCH Lahore. The 8-inches brick
wall which is currently present around the PET-CT clinic is ignored in the calculations, because
the brick wall is a porous medium and it does not contribute in attenuating the highly
penetrating photons. Whereas, the existing shielding in SKMCH Karachi is good enough to
attenuate the highly energetic radiations except for the uptake room which requires few more
centimeters of concrete shielding on each wall.
Positron emission tomography (PET) and computerized tomography (CT) are one of the most
important diagnostic tools that allow the physicians to locate the cancer within the body and
recommend specific procedures for the treatment. PET scan images are highly sensitive and it
provides the information of biological disorders at the molecular level. Whereas the CT scan
provides a detailed picture of the body's internal anatomy but it does not give functional images
like PET scan. The PET/CT scan combines the strengths of these two well-known imaging
techniques into a single scanning machine.
A CT scan can diagnose and focus the changes in the body like the size, shape and exact
location of the abnormal activity happening in the body.
A PET scan is very different from other diagnostic technique such as ultrasound, X-ray, MRI,
or CT scan. As already mentioned above that PET technique is a functional imaging technique
by which physicians can distinguish between living and dead tissue.
Alone, each imaging scan has their specific benefits and limitations but by combining these
two extraordinary amazing and outstanding technologies, physicians can more accurately
diagnose, localize and monitor cancer, as well as heart disease, certain brain disorders and
different other scans can also be performed by this combined technique known as Positron
Emission Tomography and Computerized Tomography (PET-CT).
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Chapter-8
50
Conclusion
This project involved the radiation shielding and the design requirement of PET-CT facility in
Shaukat Khanum Memorial Cancer Hospital and Research Centre Lahore and Karachi. All the
estimated shielding is based on the traditional formulas provided by the AAPM Task group
report 108. All the requirements for the PET-CT facility are satisfied in SKMCH & RC.
The modern design of PET-CT clinics consist of a scanning room with a control area, more
than two uptake rooms where patients are required to rest earlier to scanning in order to reduce
the skeletal and muscular uptakes, and a area known as hot lab where radiopharmaceuticals are
prepared. To protect the personnel and the general public from the damaging effects of the
radiations, these rooms are required to be effectively shielded. The only source present in the
hot lab and uptake room is the radionuclide or the radiopharmaceutical. Whereas in the
scanning room, the radiopharmaceutical present in the body of the patient for the PET scan and
the x-rays emitting from the CT gantry both behaves as a radioactive source. This room should
be large enough and the double gantry PET-CT machine should be placed in the centre of the
room in order to increase the distance between the source and the wall. This distance will
decrease the radiation exposure. Therefore, the shielding design can be made cost effective.
The estimated result obtained from the calculations does meet the protection criteria. Therefore
the resulted thickness of concrete is used. At SKMCH Karachi, the calculated shielding results
verify the existing shielding except for the uptake room. As the work load is 30 patients per
week and there are no reduction factors of radiations in this room, this causes the build-up
factor to increase. Therefore this room is needed to be shielded extremely. According to the
calculated result, this room should be shielded with approximately 27 cm of concrete on each
wall.
Although PET-CT facility is a part of Nuclear Medicine department but it requires much more
shielding and other design requirements than other nuclear medicine facilities. In order to
reduce the radiation dose to the workers, proper training and good handling facilities should be
provided. By taking care of all the precautions, radiation dose to the occupationally exposed
workers, people of the general public and the environment can be kept below the permissible
limit.
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Chapter-9
51
References
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17. Site Planning and Radiation Safety in the PET Facility by Jon A. Anderson and Dana
Mathews, Department of Radiology, The University of Texas South-western Medical
Centre at Dallas, Dallas, TX 75390-9071.
http://www.aapm.org/meetings/02AM/pdf/8418-39272.pdf
18. PET: Physics, Instrumentation and Scanners by Michael E. Phelps, published by
Springer publishers, ISBN: 0387323023.
19. Atoms, Radiation, and Radiation Protection by James E. Turner, Published by Wiley,
John & Sons Incorporated, June 2007, ISBN: 3527406069.
20. Use of Radiations in Nuclear Medicine, GUIDE ST 6.3 / 18 MARCH 2003, Nuclear
Regulatory authority Helsinki, Finland.
http://www.finlex.fi/pdf/normit/21736-ST6-3e.pdf
21. US National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements NCRP Report No.
93 pp 5355, 1987. Bethesda, Maryland, USA, NCRP.
22. AAPM Task Group on PET Shielding Mark Madsen, Ph.D., Chair, University of Iowa
Medical Centre, Melissa C. Martin, M.S., FACR, FACMP, FAAPM, AAPM-SCC MidWinter Meeting, Universal City, CA February 25, 2005.
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