PETRONAS TECHNICAL STANDARDS

DESIGN AND ENGINEERING PRACTICE

(CORE)

MANUAL

RISER DESIGN

PTS 31.40.10.10
DECEMBER 1999

PREFACE

PETRONAS Technical Standards (PTS) publications reflect the views, at the time of publication,
of PETRONAS OPUs/Divisions.
They are based on the experience acquired during the involvement with the design, construction,
operation and maintenance of processing units and facilities. Where appropriate they are based
on, or reference is made to, national and international standards and codes of practice.
The objective is to set the recommended standard for good technical practice to be applied by
PETRONAS' OPUs in oil and gas production facilities, refineries, gas processing plants, chemical
plants, marketing facilities or any other such facility, and thereby to achieve maximum technical
and economic benefit from standardisation.
The information set forth in these publications is provided to users for their consideration and
decision to implement. This is of particular importance where PTS may not cover every
requirement or diversity of condition at each locality. The system of PTS is expected to be
sufficiently flexible to allow individual operating units to adapt the information set forth in PTS to
their own environment and requirements.
When Contractors or Manufacturers/Suppliers use PTS they shall be solely responsible for the
quality of work and the attainment of the required design and engineering standards. In
particular, for those requirements not specifically covered, the Principal will expect them to follow
those design and engineering practices which will achieve the same level of integrity as reflected
in the PTS. If in doubt, the Contractor or Manufacturer/Supplier shall, without detracting from his
own responsibility, consult the Principal or its technical advisor.
The right to use PTS rests with three categories of users :
1)
2)
3)

PETRONAS and its affiliates.

Other parties who are authorised to use PTS subject to appropriate contractual
arrangements.
Contractors/subcontractors and Manufacturers/Suppliers under a contract with
users referred to under 1) and 2) which requires that tenders for projects,
materials supplied or - generally - work performed on behalf of the said users
comply with the relevant standards.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.
1.1
1.2
1.3

INTRODUCTION
SCOPE
DISTRIBUTION, INTENDED USE AND REGULATORY CONSIDERATIONS
DEFINITION

2.
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4

DESIGN INTERFACES
GENERAL
TOPSIDE INTERFACE
JACKET INTERFACE
PIPELINE/EXPANSION SPOOL INTERFACE

3.
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6

RISER/TIE-IN CONCEPTS
SUMMARY OF MAIN RISER TYPES
RISER INSTALLATION METHODS
SUBSEA TIE-IN METHODS
FLEXIBLE SPOOLS
SELECTION OF RISER/PIPELINE TIE-IN METHOD
AVAILABLE CONSTRUCTION METHODS

4.
4.1
4.2
4.3

RISER ROUTING AND LOCATION

BASIC ROUTING REQUIREMENTS
APPROACH TO PLATFORMS
SAFETY

5.
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7

DESIGN DATA
RISER SYSTEM/PLATFORM DATA
SOIL DATA
METOCEAN DATA
ATMOSPHERIC CONDITIONS
EARTHQUAKE
RETURN PERIODS
DIRECTIONALITY

6.
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
6.10
6.11
6.12
6.13

RISER AND TIE-IN SPOOL ANALYSIS

FAILURE MODES
DESIGN LOADS
LOAD CASES
WALL THICKNESS DETERMINATION
PIPELINE EXPANSION
EXPANSION LOOP
RISER STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
ALLOWABLE STRESSES
ALLOWABLE STRAINS
OVALISATION
COLLAPSE
VORTEX SHEDDING
FATIGUE

7.
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4

RISER SUPPORT DESIGN

RISER SUPPORT TYPES
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
LOADING CONDITIONS
CORROSION PROTECTION

8.
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5

J-TUBE DESIGN
DESIGN DATA
J-TUBE ROUTING
J-TUBE SIZING AND RADIUS OF CURVATURE
PULL-IN LOADS
STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF J-TUBE AND SUPPORTS

8.6
8.7

APPURTENANCES
CORROSION PROTECTION

9.
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5

FITTINGS
FLANGES
GASKETS
BOLTING
VALVES
BENDS

10.
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4

RISER MATERIALS AND CORROSION PROTECTION

GENERAL
LINEPIPE
EXTERNAL COATING
CATHODIC PROTECTION

11.
11.1
11.2
11.3

MECHANICAL PROTECTION
PROTECTION FROM BOAT IMPACT
PROTECTION FROM DROPPED OBJECTS
PROTECTION FROM SNAGGING LOADS

12.
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5

INSTALLATION REQUIREMENTS
RISER INSTALLATION TOLERANCES
INSTALLATION FEASIBILITY
CLEARANCE FOR HYPERBARIC WELDING
CONSTRUCTION AIDS
TEMPORARY CONSIDERATIONS

13.

REQUIREMENTS FOR OPERATIONS AND MAINTENANCE

14.
14.1
14.2
14.3

DESIGN OUTPUT
GENERAL
DESIGN DOCUMENTATION
AS-BUILT DOCUMENTATION

15.

REFERENCES

APPENDICES
APPENDIX 1

FIGURES

1.

INTRODUCTION

1.1

SCOPE
This new PTS specifies requirements and gives recommendations for the design of
offshore pipeline riser systems, which include the piping, riser clamp supports and any
expansion spool or anchoring system at the base of the platform. This PTS identifies a
broad approach to the design including:

definition of riser system and interfaces;

potential riser concepts;
riser routing;
analysis requirements;
support design;
J-tube design;
fittings and materials.

This PTS does not present a methodology, but is intended to act as a checklist of design
activities for consideration by an experienced engineer.
For the purpose of this PTS, it is assumed that the riser design is based on
PTS 31.40.00.10
The scope of this PTS includes only rigid metallic risers; flexible risers and non-metallic
risers are excluded from the scope.
1.2

DISTRIBUTION, INTENDED USE AND REGULATORY CONSIDERATIONS

Unless otherwise authorised by PETRONAS, the distribution of this PTS is confined to
companies forming part of the PETRONAS or managed by a Group company, and to
Contractors and Manufacturers/Suppliers nominated by them.
This PTS is intended for use in offshore exploration and production facilities.
If national and/or local regulations exist in which some of the requirements may be more
stringent than in this PTS, the Contractor shall determine by careful scrutiny which of the
requirements are the more stringent and which combination of requirements will be
acceptable as regards safety, environmental, economic and legal aspects. In all cases, the
Contractor shall inform the Principal of any deviation from the requirements of this PTS
which is considered to be necessary in order to comply with national and/or local
regulations. The Principal may then negotiate with the Authorities concerned with the object
of obtaining agreement to follow this PTS as closely as possible.

1.3

DEFINITION

1.3.1

General definitions
The Contractor is the party which carries out all or part of the design, engineering,
procurement, construction, commissioning or management of a project, or operation or
maintenance of a facility. The Principal may undertake all or part of the duties of the
Contractor.
The Manufacturer/Supplier is the party which manufactures or supplies equipment and
services to perform the duties specified by the Contractor.
The Principal is the party which initiates the project and ultimately pays for its design and
construction. The Principal will generally specify the technical requirements. The Principal
may also include an agent or consultant authorised to act for, and on behalf of, the
Principal.
The word shall indicates a requirement.
The word should indicates a recommendation.

1.3.2

1.4

1.5

Specific definitions
J-Tube

J-shaped tube installed on a platform, through which a

pipeline can be pulled to form a riser.

Piping components

items integrated in the pipeline/riser such as flanges, tees,

bends, reducers and valves.

Riser support

structure intended for fixing the riser to the platform or for

local or continuous guidance of the riser assembly.

Riser system

riser pipe, supports, integrated piping components and

corrosion prevention system.

ABBREVIATIONS
ASCE

American Society of Civil Engineers

EPDM

Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer

ESD

Emergency Shut Down

HAT

Highest Astronomical Tide

QRA

Quantitative Risk Assessment

LAT

Lowest Astronomical Tide

RTJ

Ring Type Joint

SMYS

Specified Minimum Yield Stress

CROSS-REFERENCES
Where cross-references to other parts of this PTS are made, the referenced section
number is shown in brackets. Other documents referenced in this PTS are listed in (15).

2.

DESIGN INTERFACES

2.1

GENERAL
The riser system shall be designed as a part of the total offshore pipeline system. For
design purposes, it is necessary to define the extent of the riser assembly and to establish
the interfaces between the riser system and adjacent systems. The interfaces provide a
point where loading and/or displacement, and the requirements of the various systems can
be defined and reconciled.
The riser interface points can be summarised as follows:
topside and supports;
jacket and supports;
pipeline/tie-in spool.
The riser analysis model shall take into account the effects of the interface points as further
detailed below.

2.2

TOPSIDE INTERFACE
The design of the riser system requires detailed interfacing with the platform topsides. The
code break for the riser system shall extend up to and include the pig trap (including
associated pipework and valves) or, if no pig trap is fitted, to the first isolation valve off the
riser. The riser supports fall outside the code break. The following design issues shall be
addressed:

2.3

design responsibility;
exact location of code breaks marked on process engineering flow schemes (PEFS);
piping layouts;
structural layouts;
instrument connections;
electrical isolation;
overlap of riser and piping analyses;
support locations;
access for pigging operations;
access for valve overhaul.

JACKET INTERFACE
The design of the riser system requires detailed interfacing with the jacket structure. The
riser supports fall outside the code break. The following design issues shall be addressed:

design responsibility;
code breaks;
details of the structural layout and dimensions of the jacket members;
platform deflections;
riser routing;
riser support locations and type;
electrical isolation;
riser loadings on riser supports;
ESD valve location;
structural protection;
hook-up to top section of riser.

2.4

PIPELINE/EXPANSION SPOOL INTERFACE

The design of the riser system requires detailed interfacing with the pipeline/expansion
spool. The interface between the riser and the submarine pipeline depends on the method
of connection, geometry and type of riser and should be agreed in each case. The following
design issues shall be addressed:

design responsibility;
location of code breaks;
riser routing;
pipeline approach;
expansion spool layout;
overlap of riser and expansion spool structural analysis (often performed in one analysis
from pipeline to pig trap);
the tie-in method.

3.

RISER/TIE-IN CONCEPTS

3.1

SUMMARY OF MAIN RISER TYPES

Risers for platforms may be broadly grouped into the following categories:

riser for steel jacket platform;

riser for gravity base structure (concrete);
J-tube riser - this category is further discussed in (8);
caisson riser system; consists of a caisson which forms a structural encasement and a
number of riser pipes which are installed in the caisson. Caissons are protective devices
to eliminate environmental loading on the riser pipes. Caisson riser systems may reduce
the number of riser supports which otherwise would be required for conventional risers;
flexible riser for a floating facility (outside the scope of this PTS).
3.2

RISER INSTALLATION METHODS

3.2.1

General
Risers are usually pre-installed with the jacket structure. Otherwise they can be retrofitted
onto existing platforms. This may be by the conventional method of lift, set and subsea tiein. Alternatively, one of the following methods may be used without the need for subsea tieins:

3.2.2

stalk-on method;
bending shoe riser method;
barefoot riser;
J-tube installation (8).

Conventional method
Retrofitted risers are fabricated in sections, lifted from a barge and lowered into suitable
riser supports which may also be retrofitted onto the jacket. The number of riser sections
depends on the water depth and the length of the barge. The riser normally consists of an
upper section behind the jacket bracing (to provide safety against boat impact) which is
connected to lower sections positioned on the outside of the jacket. After installation, a
subsea tie-in is made to the pipeline.
A form of retrofit riser clamp may be installed after a jacket has been in service for some
time. In this case, provision shall be made for aligning the clamps/guides. This is achieved
by connecting the riser clamp/guide which is also clamped to a structural jacket member or
stub, depending on the size of riser. Retrofitting of these clamps/guides involves
considerable diver time. Alternatively, a riser ladder, or more simply riser support stubs,
may have been installed on the jacket in the fabrication yard for future retrofitting of risers.
Retrofitting methods without the need for subsea tie-ins are described below.

3.2.3

Stalk-on riser method

For shallow water, this is the most commonly used riser installation method. After the
pipeline has been laid with its end on the sea bottom and close to the platform, the lay
barge is moored in position. The riser bend which will eventually connect the horizontal
pipeline to the platform deck is measured and the location at which the pipeline will be cut
for connection to the bend is marked. The pipeline is then lifted from the seabed by
applying tension to the pipe. In very shallow water with small diameter pipelines, this is not
a problem; however, larger lines in deeper water require a substantial length of pipe to be
supported off the bottom to avoid overstressing the pipe. The pipe is then cut at the mark,
the bend is welded onto the free end of the pipe and the pipe and bend are lowered down.
This process of adding pipe is continued until the pipe reaches the bottom. The riser is then
secured to the platform using diver-operated clamps.
Expansion spools can be set simultaneously with this method.

In deeper waters, the handling of the pipe and riser becomes increasingly difficult and even
hazardous to both pipe, equipment and personnel.
The main advantages of this technique are:
weld connections are made above surface and can be fully inspected, ensuring weld
quality;
diver activities are relatively simple, requiring only a normally-skilled team using
standard tools. The expense and time delay involved in mobilising specialised contractor
personnel are avoided;
there is no requirement for underwater welding.
The disadvantages of this technique are:
the lifting, welding and lowering operation is vulnerable to environmental conditions;
careful planning and strict compliance with the predetermined lifting and lowering
procedures are vital to avoid overstressing the pipeline and riser;
greater adjustability in the riser clamps is required because the riser cannot be moved
fore and aft once it is welded to the pipeline.
3.2.4

Bending shoe riser method

This method, which was developed by Shell Oil Company, consists of installing a curvature
limiting shoe on the platform during onshore fabrication. The pipeline is then laid to the
structure and positioned under the bending shoe either by manoeuvring the barge or
attaching cables to the line as it is laid and pulling it under the shoe. Once the line is in the
correct orientation with respect to the centreline of the bending shoe, specially designed
hydraulic clamps on the platform capture and secure the riser. These clamps may be
installed either during onshore fabrication or immediately before the riser is installed
offshore. In very deep water or for pipe with low stiffness, it may be necessary to install
auxiliary cables on the riser to assist with the installation. Other than inspection, this
method of riser installation requires a minimal amount of underwater work.

3.2.5

Barefoot riser method

This method has been used successfully in the Gulf of Mexico. The method is simple and
should find many applications, especially for deepwater platforms. The pipe weight and wall
thickness are selected such that the pipe can be lifted vertically at the water surface without
exceeding a specified, non-buckling, bend in the sag portion of the line. The method
consists of approaching the platform with the pipe suspended vertically at the water
surface. The pipe is then positioned at a tangent to and in contact with the upper end of a
series of pipeline clamps on the platform. The lifting load is decreased according to a
prescribed schedule which forces the riser pipe into each successive clamp and puts the
bottom span into compression. The riser is then clamped to the platform once the desired
curvature in the sag-bend is achieved. The necessary hydraulic or electrically operated
riser clamps can be installed offshore using a rail guidance system to land each clamp at a
predetermined elevation. Diver time, other than for inspection, would be minimal for this
method of riser installation.
One other version of this approach to riser installation is called the Guide Rail method. This
type varies from the previously described method primarily in the clamp used to attach the
riser to the guide rail. The guide rail is a continuous T section or H beam welded to the
platform side or jacket leg during shore fabrication. The installation sequence requires the
lay barge to lay away from the platform while a riser barge attaches the riser clamp to the
rail and continues to add pipe as the riser is lowered. The lay barge continues to move
away from the platform during this operation. After the riser is in position, it is secured to the
platform by welding the clamps located above the water line to the rail and by having divers
attach the submersed clamps with set screws.

3.3

SUBSEA TIE-IN METHODS

3.3.1

General
In most cases, tie-in of the pipeline to the offshore facility is achieved by inserting an
expansion spoolpiece. The purpose of the spoolpiece is to absorb expansion loadings, and
accommodate the installation tolerance on the pipeline.
The spoolpiece connections may be made up using one or a combination of the following
methods:
mechanical connectors;
flanged tie-in using RTJ swivel ring flanges; or
hyperbaric welding.
These tie-in methods are further described below.

3.3.2

Mechanical connectors
A variety of mechanical connectors are available and they generally consist of two
components:
a gripping system, to anchor the connector onto the pipe;
a sealing system, using either metallic or elastomeric seals.
Mechanical connectors are alternatives or supplements to flanges and can offer certain
advantages depending on their design, e.g.:

some are easier to install (boltless flanges);

some can accommodate a degree of misalignment (ball joints);
some can be installed directly onto the bare pipe end;
some are suitable for diverless application.

Mechanical connector systems are not yet as reliable as welded or flanged connections,
hence they are mainly used for emergency repairs to pipelines where speed of repair is
essential and the equipment for other repair methods is not available.
Mechanical connectors have been developed that can be activated from the surface by
hydraulics and without direct diver intervention. To achieve this type of connection,
accurate positioning of the end of the pipeline is essential. Once positioned, the pipeline is
pulled into the connector which is then activated and clamps around a special hub fitted to
the end of the pipeline.
3.3.3

Flanged tie-ins
Flanged tie-ins performed by divers on the seabed are effected by installing a flanged
make-up spool between the flanged ends of the lines to be connected. The spool is
fabricated at the surface to the exact dimensions required, using a template which has
been made up on the seabed and retrieved at the surface.
Due consideration should be given to the location of the flanges and, where possible, they
should be located to minimise bending loads in the flanged joint. The integrity of flanges
when subjected to high bending loads shall be confirmed by analysis.
The following recommendations apply to flanged tie-ins:

the flange shall be of the ring joint type;

one of the flanges shall be of the swivel ring type, to facilitate alignment of bolt holes;
the specified internal bore of the flange shall be the same as that of the pipeline;
the gaskets shall be made of an alloy which is softer than the flange material;
wall thickness differences between the flange body and the pipeline shall be
accommodated by specifying a tapered slope of not less than 1:5;
all bolts shall be tightened using hydraulic tensioning equipment.

Subsea flanges and fittings should be bolted together using hydraulic tensioning
equipment. Hydraulic bolt tensioning equipment is used on either side of a flange to stretch
the bolts to a predetermined tension. With the tension maintained on the bolt, the nuts are
turned down onto the flange, to bar tight, prior to relaxation of the equipment. In this way
the flange can be tensioned to meet the service load. Washers are not used on subsea
pipe-to-pipe joints as these are prone to contact corrosion, which causes the bolts to
slacken with time.
3.3.4

Hyperbaric welding
Sub-surface or hyperbaric welding is performed with the pipeline on the seabed. Special
frames are required to align the pipeline ends to be welded, and the welding itself is
performed in a special habitat. The systems presently available are operated from a barge
or a diving support vessel. This method requires extensive diving capability and special
welding procedures.
As an alternative to hyperbaric welding, the weld can be performed inside an atmospheric
chamber into which the pipeline is pulled. However, this method requires further
development to be fully operational and is not presently recommended.

3.4

FLEXIBLE SPOOLS
Flexible spools can be installed directly without the necessity of preparing a template, and
can considerably speed up the tie-in work. Flexible spools also have the ability to
accommodate thermal expansion/contraction. The extra cost of the flexible spools should
be weighed against the diving time savings on a project-by-project basis.

3.5

SELECTION OF RISER/PIPELINE TIE-IN METHOD

In general, welding is the preferred method for permanent tie-ins as far as this is practical
and economic. The welding may be performed at the surface or on the seabed. The
disadvantage of the hyperbaric welding technique is that it is a specialised activity, requiring
dedicated spreads and a high level of training of the operational personnel. Alternatives
shall be subjected to a cost/risk justification.

3.6

AVAILABLE CONSTRUCTION METHODS

Depending on the conditions at the intended location, such as weather, current velocity,
wave heights, tidal effects, seabed conditions, water depth etc., there may be a preference
for one of the possible construction methods. This in turn could put certain limitations on the
selection of line sizes. The preferred construction method will also be dependent on the
available construction equipment and on the cost of mobilising the required spreads with
dedicated equipment and handling capability.
The type of riser to suit a particular application depends largely on the pipe size, the
platform type, the direction of approach of the pipeline and whether the riser is to be
installed during platform fabrication or at some time after the platform is placed.

4.

RISER ROUTING AND LOCATION

4.1

BASIC ROUTING REQUIREMENTS

Selection of riser routing and location on a platform shall meet the following requirements
as far as practical:
the riser shall have the minimum exposure to damage;
the riser shall not be located below the accommodation or the helideck, or close to
escape routes from the accommodation or the temporary safe refuge;
the riser shall be accessible for inspection and maintenance;
in meeting these requirements, gas risers shall have precedence over oil risers.
The selection of riser routing and location shall also consider the following general factors:

safe and economical installation;

supply boat mooring area locations;
location of future risers;
minimisation of risk of damage by vessel collisions, by positioning risers within the
structure above a depth of 20 m below LAT;
minimisation of risk of damage by dropped objects;
location of ESD valves, and their maintenance and inspection;
minimisation of risk of interference with future construction, drilling, workover or platform
maintenance or repair operations;
access for subsea and topsides hook-up.

Consideration should be given to environmental loading conditions, particularly in the

splash zone (5.3.3), where riser lengths and horizontal routing should be minimised.
Jacket bracing layout should be considered as this will determine the possible support
locations and thus influence riser span lengths.
4.2

APPROACH TO PLATFORMS
Detailed consideration shall be given to the approach routes to the platform.
This will include consideration of:

potential crossings;
seabed obstruction;
existing platforms/seabed facilities in close proximity;
angle of pipeline approach;
pipeline expansion requirements;
routing to minimise risk of damage by dropped objects;
accessibility for future positioning of jack-up rig.

When pipelines have to approach the jacket with angles greater than 30 from the
perpendicular to the jacket face, the spacing between the risers should be increased to
allow more space between the lines on the sea bottom.
If the direct approach of a pipeline would be hampered by the future position of a jack-up
rig, doglegs can be installed. Doglegs should also be used in preference to tight curved
approaches to jackets and provide a means of allowing for pipeline expansion.
Consideration should be given to the routing from the bottom riser clamp to the seabed as
this section is particularly susceptible to riser expansion, platform movement and scourinduced spans.
Where several platforms together form a complex, they should have a staggered layout
along a straight line (spine) in order to:
free as much of the jacket faces as possible for risers;
allow easy barge access;

 position different production functions along the spine, so that future extension of any
function is perpendicular to the spine;
allow for new functions to be installed along the spine.
A dedicated riser platform may be installed to supply additional riser capacity (with scraper
barrels and manifolds) and/or to improve safety and reduce the overall risk levels on
production facilities.
For new developments and extensions of existing complexes a careful study of the new
layout should be made in conjunction with anchor patterns (especially the drilling rigs),
pipeline approaches, approach path for jack-up rigs and supply boat mooring.
4.3

SAFETY
The design shall include a safety assessment which shall quantify the effect of the risers on
platform safety and may include the use of risk analysis to determine the need for additional
protective measures. Consideration should be given to the use of cost-benefit analysis to
assess the relative merits of different protective measures.
The requirement for and location of ESD valves should be addressed as part of the
development of the platform specific safety case.
Any risk analysis performed shall take into account analysis of the risk from both natural
and man-made hazards. Natural hazards shall include but not be limited to corrosion
attack, marine life attack, extremes of temperature and environmental conditions. Manmade hazards shall include but not be limited to platform loading and off-loading
operations, vessel activities, dragged anchors, trawl gear, abrasion by cables and chains,
impact by vessels and dropped objects.

5.

DESIGN DATA

5.1

RISER SYSTEM/PLATFORM DATA

5.1.1

Process data
The following data are common to all elements of the riser:

5.1.2

minimum bore requirement to meet throughput requirements;

fluid type and density - maximum and minimum;
design life;
design pressure;
maximum allowable operating pressure;
hydrostatic test pressure for testing in fabrication yard and for system test;
design temperature - maximum and minimum;
normal operating temperature - maximum and minimum;
internal corrosion allowance (if appropriate).

Riser data
The following data are required, as a minimum, for the riser design:
riser type - whether a conventional riser for steel platform, for gravity base structure,
J-tube riser or caisson riser;
installation philosophy - whether pre-installed or retrofit;
method of tie-in;
steel grade;
outside diameter;
wall thickness;
internal/external coating - type, thickness and density;
insulation - type, thickness and density;
field joint material - type, thickness and density;
valve, fitting and pig trap weight, rating and location;
bend radii, and thinning;
mechanical protection requirements.

5.1.3

Pipeline data

5.1.4

steel grade;
outside diameter;
wall thickness;
internal/external coating - type, thickness and density;
insulation - type, thickness and density;
field joint material - type, thickness and density;
expansion movements at free end;
degree of trenching, self-burial and/or rock dump.

Expansion tie-in spool data

steel grade;
outside diameter;
wall thickness;
internal/external coating - type, thickness and density;
riser/spool connection type;
geometry of expansion spool;
mechanical protection requirements;
bend radii and thinning.

5.1.5

Platform data

5.2

substructure type and dimensions;

details of other risers, caissons and/or J-tubes;
possible support locations and load restrictions;
immediate substructure settlement into seabed;
long-term substructure settlement into seabed;
anode locations and details;
platform displacements under 100-year design condition.

SOIL DATA
Soil data provide information regarding resistance of the soil to pipeline movement (lateral
and longitudinal friction coefficients), soil strength deterioration due to cyclic wave loading,
load bearing capacity of the soil and susceptibility of soil to scour.

ASCE classification of soils and grain-size;

specific gravity of the soils;
soil friction angle for sands;
undisturbed shear strength of clay soils;
remoulded (disturbed) shear strength or sensitivity.

5.3

METOCEAN DATA

5.3.1

Seawater
water density;
water kinematic viscosity;
marine growth elevations, thickness and density.

5.3.2

Water depth and tides

5.3.3

water depth, referred to a consistent datum (e.g. LAT)

lowest astronomical tide (LAT);
highest astronomical tide (HAT);
storm surge, i.e. maximum tide level for a specified average return period.

Splash zone
The splash zone range is defined as the astronomical tidal range plus the wave height
having a probability of exceedance of 0.01. The upper limit of the splash zone is
determined by assuming 65% of this wave height above HAT and lower limit by assuming
35% below LAT.

5.3.4

Currents
maximum current velocity for a range of current directions (usually 8), heights above
seabed (usually every 10 m) and return period (usually 1 and 100 years);
relationship between the occurrence of wave-induced currents and the steady currents;
the number of hours of occurrence per year for the ranges of steady current from zero to
the maximum steady current. These data are used for riser span fatigue calculations.

5.3.5

Waves
maximum wave height for a range of directions (usually 8) and a range of return periods
(usually 1 and 100 years);
the most probable wave period associated with each maximum wave height;
the number of waves per year for ranges of wave height from zero to the maximum
wave height.

5.4

ATMOSPHERIC CONDITIONS

5.4.1

Wind
maximum wind velocity for return periods of 1 and 100 years;
maximum and minimum ambient air temperatures.

5.4.2

Ice
the maximum thickness of icing on risers;
the maximum thickness and occurrence of permanent ice;
the maximum velocity and occurrence of pack ice.

5.5

EARTHQUAKE
In regions of the world prone to earthquakes, the response of the platform under the
100-year seismic event is required.

5.6

RETURN PERIODS
The riser system should be designed to withstand loadings resulting from the 100-year
return period storm conditions during the operating design condition. The one-year return
period storm condition should be used for analysis during the installation and hydrostatic
testing design conditions.
Where the design life of the pipeline is very short (typically less than 10 years),
consideration may be given to reducing the design storm return period to less than 100
years, based on a suitable risk evaluation.
If suitable seasonal data are available, seasonal one-year return period storm conditions
may be used for the installation and hydrostatic testing design conditions. Such data should
not be used if there is a possibility of the relevant construction activity being performed
outside the season to which the data relate.

5.7

DIRECTIONALITY
Given sufficient hydrographic data, it is acceptable to account for the incident angle of wave
and current attack on the pipeline/riser system. Tidal currents are strongly directional. If the
wave and current data can be represented as a rosette, giving variation of wave height (or
current value) with direction for a given return period, then the resulting flow velocities may
be resolved perpendicular to the pipeline axis to give the (most critical) design loading
condition.

6.

RISER AND TIE-IN SPOOL ANALYSIS

6.1

FAILURE MODES
The riser analysis shall consider the following failure modes:
excessive yielding;
buckling;
fatigue.

6.2

DESIGN LOADS
The riser analysis shall consider the following design loads:

6.2.1

Weight loads
Static loads due to weight shall include the following:

pipeline/riser material;
coatings;
attachments such as anodes, flanges, buckle arrestors, couplings etc.;
transported fluids;
marine growth;
buoyancy.

The weight loads shall be determined based on the nominal dimensions of the pipeline
system components, except for fluid where maximum values shall be used.
Concrete weight coatings may absorb water, and this shall be considered.
6.2.2

Pressure loads
The riser pressure design shall be based on the internal design pressure.
Cyclic variations in pressure may induce fatigue, and this shall be considered.

6.2.3

Thermal loads
Thermal expansion or contraction loads induced in the pipeline/riser system by virtue of full
or partial restraint of pipeline/riser movement shall be considered during the analysis.

6.2.4

Residual loads
Residual loads are loads left in the pipeline system after installation, and include:
residual axial loads (such as lay tension);
loads due to curvature at direction changes in the pipeline route; and
loads induced by vertical curvature due to the seabed undulations along the pipeline
route.
Any permanent curvature or elongation produced during installation that results in residual
loads should be taken into account.

6.2.5

Dynamic loads
Dynamic loads induced as a direct result of the operation of the pipeline system may have
an effect on the structural strength of the pipe and its supports.
The riser analysis shall include dynamic loads resulting from slugging and pigging
operations.
Surge pressures occur when liquid flow is suddenly stopped or slowed, for example by the
sudden closure of a valve.

6.2.6

Support reaction loads

Shear forces, axial forces and bending moments will be introduced into the pipeline system
by supports which displace or constrain the riser, and shall be included in the riser analysis.
Substructure displacements as the result of storm loading and settlement fall into this
category of loading.
Possible scouring underneath the bottom riser bend and tie-in spool should also be
considered as well as any ESD valves and associated pipework when determining the
deadweight support loading.

6.2.7

Hydrodynamic loads
Hydrodynamic loads are caused by the movement of water particles past and around a
submerged object. The water particle movement is caused by currents and wave action.
Consideration should be taken of the following factors when determining the hydrodynamic
loads:
selection and applicability of wave theories with regard to water depth;
selection of the appropriate steady current profile for combination with the wave current
profile;
breaking waves in shallow water;
storm surges in steady currents;
selection of appropriate drag, lift and inertia coefficients;
determination of combined drag, lift and inertia forces with regard to phase angle;
velocity amplification around jacket members;
the use of maximum wave data, not significant wave data;
the use of irregular sea-state data.

6.2.8

Wind loads
Wind loading on sections of a riser above sea level shall be considered.
The effects on wind load due to the proximity of other risers or structural members shall be
considered.
Vortex shedding excitation of the riser from wind loading and disturbances to the flow field
from change in wind speed or dynamic excitation of members adjacent to the riser shall
also be considered.

6.2.9

Seismic load
If seismic loads are taken into account in the platform design, they should be taken into
account in the riser design.

6.2.10

Ice loads
The loads associated with the formation of ice on the riser or the passage of pack ice past
the riser shall be considered, if appropriate.

6.3

LOAD CASES
The riser analysis shall consider at least three load cases, as follows:

6.3.1

Load case 1 - Installation loads

This load case shall consider the entire installation sequence, namely:
onshore riser handling;
load-out;
jacket upending, stalking-on or retrofitting.
Loads considered shall be combined as appropriate and include:
weight and buoyancy loads;
hydrodynamic loads appropriate to the phase of work;
dynamic loads due to vessel motions.

6.3.2

Load case 2 - Hydrotest

This load case covers the onshore and offshore hydrotests and includes loads due to:

6.3.3

weight;
pressure;
thermal effects (if any);
residual loads (if any);
support reactions, and hydrodynamic loads appropriate to the period of the test.

Load case 3 - Operational

This load case covers the operation of the riser and includes the following types of load:

weight and buoyancy;

pressure;
thermal;
residual;
dynamic;
support reaction;
hydrodynamic;
wind;
seismic;
ice.

NOTE:

The combination of loads that produces the highest stresses at one point may not be the same
combination that produces the highest stresses at another point (e.g. different wave directions and
phase).

6.4

WALL THICKNESS DETERMINATION

The riser wall thickness required for pressure containment shall be determined in
accordance with PTS 31.40.00.10
An internal and external corrosion allowance shall be determined and added to the wall
thickness required for pressure containment.
An allowance for thinning during the bending process shall be added to the riser bend wall
thickness.
The wall thickness may not be governed by pressure containment and consideration shall
be given to the following:
adoption of a single wall thickness for riser bends and straights;
the use of a non-standard outside diameter, in order to achieve a constant internal
diameter along the pipeline system;
the addition of an allowance for mechanical damage to the riser such as gouging by
cables;
the increase of the wall thickness for ease of installation and to increase the spacing
between supports.

6.5

PIPELINE EXPANSION

6.5.1

General
The design of the pipeline and riser system shall consider the pipeline expansion due to the
effects of temperature and pressure. If pipeline expansion results in loads and stresses that
exceed acceptable limits, an expansion loop or other method of reducing the expansion
effects shall be provided.

6.5.2

Expansion analysis considerations

The pipeline expansion due to temperature and pressure shall be determined for the
following phases:
operation;
hydrotest.
The pipeline expansion analysis shall consider both the functional loading and the resulting
loads due to restraint. The functional loading should consider the loads due to the following:
temperature;
pressure;
self weight (including weight of steel, coating, attachments, components, contents and
marine growth);
configuration.
The restraining loads should consider the reactions due to the following:

pipe seabed friction;

trenching and backfilling;
riser or platform tie-in spoolpiece;
subsea facilities such as subsea safety valves;
anchors (such as rock dumping).

The expansion analysis should consider the maximum expansion mechanism resulting
from the minimum friction coefficient.
Pipeline expansions derived for both maximum operational conditions and hydrotest
conditions shall be based upon an appropriate pipe soil friction coefficient to determine the
critical design loading. Where a thin layer of soil with a high friction coefficient overlays one

with a much lower coefficient, consideration should be given to possible pipeline settlement
into the seabed from repeated expansion and contraction movements.
For a buried pipeline, the frictional restraint of the soil overburden may be included as part
of the restraining seabed resistance. The design should give consideration of the
uncertainties inherent in this method of placement.
The pipe soil friction coefficients normally include a range of coefficients for various pipe
roughness and soil properties.
The design shall include the effects of potential seabed scour on pipeline expansion.
Changes in pipe wall thickness and/or weight coating thickness, and any discontinuities in
pressure or temperature such as may be found at a valve station, shall be taken into
consideration together with the pipeline length when determining the pipeline expansion.
6.5.3

Expansion control methods

Pipelines at platforms have the potential to expand towards the platform. When the amount
of pipeline expansion and the corresponding load on the riser exceeds the allowable riser
loading, then some form of pipeline expansion control shall be incorporated in the design.
In general, the control of pipeline expansion on the riser is achieved by either restraining
the pipeline and forcing expansion away from the platform or by incorporating an
expansion-absorbing mechanism.
The restraining of pipelines near the riser may be achieved by the following methods:

rock dumping;
trenching and backfilling;
increasing the pipeline submerged weight;
axial anchoring;
apply high-friction coating to low-friction-coated flowlines.

Pipeline expansion-absorbing mechanisms may include the following:

provision for riser flexibility;
expansion loop;
flexible pipe.
6.6

EXPANSION LOOP
Pipeline expansion should be accommodated by flexibility in the bottom of the riser. If the
pipeline expansion is such that the pipe and riser termination cannot accommodate the
expansion load, an expansion loop shall be provided.
The spool shall be made as compact as possible for ease of installation.
The expansion loop shall be designed to accommodate the maximum pipeline expansion
from either operation or hydrotest conditions, without applying unacceptable loads or
stresses to the pipeline, riser or subsea structure. Flanges shall avoid locations subject to
high bending loads.
The maximum stress in the expansion loop and the maximum loads on the riser or subsea
structure shall be determined using conservative values of lateral friction coefficients at the
expansion loop.
The environmental loads shall be applied to the expansion loop design in combination with
maximum operational and hydrotest functional loading conditions. The wave crest shall be
positioned to give maximum loading on the expansion loop and four wave directions shall
be considered.
Considerations shall be given to potential scour around a platform or subsea structure and
the effect on the expansion loop design.

Consideration shall also be given to vortex shedding criteria for any pipe span between the
bottom riser support and the pipe touchdown point on the seabed.
As it is necessary for the spool to move relatively freely, local lateral stability under
environmental loading may not be achieved. If the spool is unstable, the maximum lift force
acting on the spool should be less than the submerged weight of the spool.
A spool which is either trenched or partially buried will experience a lower hydrodynamic
force than when exposed on the seabed. The design shall consider the effect of this
shielding.
The stability of a subsea pipeline is dependent on the stability of the soil on which it is
placed. If the seabed is unstable then the pipeline will become unstable with it. The stability
of the seabed shall therefore be considered in addition to the stability of the pipeline.
If there is evidence that the seabed becomes mobile in storm conditions, the depth of the
unstable soil below the seabed should be determined. The stability design should assume
that the pipeline is only buried to the depth by which the pipeline embeds in stable soil, and
not the embedment depth of the original undisturbed seabed.
A more extreme possibility in sandy soils of low density is that the soil near the seabed may
liquefy under extreme storm conditions. The excess pore pressures within the soil may
become equal to the confining pressures on the soil, resulting in zero effective stress and
zero soil strength. If this occurs, there is the possibility of severe instability coupled with
settlement of the pipeline. The possibility of soil liquefaction shall be assessed where
appropriate, or where there is evidence of the phenomenon occurring.
6.7

RISER STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

Detailed strength analysis of risers shall be carried out using a validated finite-element
computer program. The computer model shall include the expansion offset, the riser up the
jacket and riser-associated piping on the deck, up to and including the pig traps.
The pipe system shall be modelled using pipe and elbow elements. Node spacing shall be
carefully selected to provide adequate stress output summaries of critical locations (i.e.
pipeline elbow).
The riser guides and supports shall be modelled by applying restraints to the model with the
required degrees of freedom.
The thermal offset/soil friction interaction is complex and will be modelled by springs for
small movements of the spool, or forces for larger movements of the spool.
If overstressing due to hydrodynamic loads is predicted, then one or more of the following
should be adopted:

6.8

relocation of clamps;
use of additional clamps;
increase in riser pipe material grade and/or wall thickness;
use of anti-fouling coating and/or cleaning systems to reduce marine growth.

ALLOWABLE STRESSES
Stresses shall be evaluated in accordance with PTS 31.40.00.10

6.9

ALLOWABLE STRAINS
A riser shall be so designed that it remains elastic under any combination of functional and
environmental loads. Allowable strain design is not allowed for risers, except for allowable
bending strain during the installation of a J-tube riser.

6.10

OVALISATION
The riser design shall ensure that pipe ovalisation, F, does not exceed 2.5%.
where:
F=

(D max D min )
x
(D max + D min )

100

and:
F

Ovalisation

Dmax

maximum OD

Dmin

minimum OD

The design shall consider ovalisation that results from pipe manufacture, external pressure
and pipe bending.
6.11

COLLAPSE
The riser design shall ensure the pipe is not subject to collapse/local buckling under any of
the load cases. Collapse results from excessive external pressure and/or pipe bending.
Appropriate safety factors against collapse are given in DnV Rules for Submarine Pipelines.
Note:

6.12

Specialist advice should be sought when using cold-expanded linepipe as the DnV Rules underestimate
the effect of residual stresses.

VORTEX SHEDDING
The riser and clamping/support arrangement shall be designed so that significant crossflow vortex-induced vibrations do not occur. Analysis of vortex-induced vibration shall be
based on natural frequencies calculated in the course of the structural analysis of the riser
as a whole. The analysis shall take account of interaction with nearby structural elements
and other risers.
If it is not possible to eliminate in-line vortex-induced vibration by design, then a fatigue
analysis shall be performed to demonstrate an acceptable fatigue life.

6.13

FATIGUE
The fatigue analysis shall consider fatigue damage from cyclic loadings due to pressure,
temperature, waves and vortex-induced vibration.
The riser pipe shall have a fatigue life of at least 10 (ten) times the intended service life.
Conservatively, six shutdown and start-up cycles per year shall be assumed when
assessing the fatigue life of risers.

7.

RISER SUPPORT DESIGN

7.1

RISER SUPPORT TYPES

Riser supports are normally one of the following types:
Guide clamp
This type of riser clamp restrains the riser from movements perpendicular to its axis whilst
allowing rotation and axial movement (see Figure 1).
Deadweight support clamp
This type of clamp supports the deadweight of the riser whilst allowing rotational and axial
movement depending on its detailed design. Axial movement of the riser is restricted
downwards only (see Figure 2).
Anchor clamp
An anchor clamp fixes the riser at the location of the support in all directions and prevents
rotation, including torque (see Figure 3).
Anchor clamps can either be fabricated from steel plate and welded to the riser by means
of a doubler plate and circumferential fillet welds, or they can be manufactured as a fitting
similar to a flange and welded into the riser string by means of full penetration welds. The
former type of anchor clamp is most common due to its ease of fabrication. The latter
integral type of anchor clamp is used where riser loads are particularly high.
Topsides support
The topsides supports are designed by others and fall outside the scope of this PTS.
Special support
Other types of support are used in cases where the required riser restraints differ from
those indicated above. A riser guide permitting the movement of the riser in the direction of
the pipeline expansion is an example of a special clamp.

7.2

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Riser support types shall be selected and the supports designed to provide the riser
restraint and movement requirements determined from the riser strength analysis. Where
possible, riser supports shall not be located in the splash zone.
Except for the integral riser anchor flange, riser supports shall be designed and fabricated
in accordance with the structural design rules for the structure. The integral anchor flange
shall be in accordance with ASME VIII. The fabricated anchor flange shall make use of
doubler plates welded to the riser with circumferential fillet welds.
Riser supports shall be designed without large stress concentrations particularly when
subjected to fluctuating loading. The possibility of fatigue damage of supports shall be
examined and, if necessary, a fatigue analysis carried out to confirm adequate fatigue life
and possible requirements for inspection for fatigue damage. Combined stresses should
not exceed 0.6 SMYS.
Bolts shall be designed for pre-tensioning to give a maximum allowable stress of 50% of
SMYS.
Access shall be provided for the use of hydraulic bolt-tensioning equipment. Bolts shall be
of sufficient length for the use of hydraulic bolt-tensioning equipment and nuts shall be
provided with pre-drilled holes for the use of a Tommy bar for bolt rotation. All bolts of a
support should have the same diameter. Correctly tensioned bolts minimise fluctuating
stresses under cyclic loading and therefore improve fatigue performance and reduce the
de-stressing tendency of the bolt.
Supports shall be designed to facilitate their installation and that of the risers.

For retrofit risers, specific attention shall be given to the requirement for position adjustment
of supports to enable a stress-free riser installation. The required adjustment shall be
determined taking into account the following tolerances and accuracies:

dimensional accuracy of as-built drawings;

dimensional accuracy of measurements by divers;
alignment accuracy of installed clamps;
clamp closure tolerance;
misalignment adjustment tolerance;
riser fabrication dimensional control accuracy;
riser transport and handling effect on dimensional variation.

At least 250 mm of adjustment should be provided in the riser clamp design in order to
accommodate the stack-up of tolerances. See (Figure 4) for configuration of clamp with
complete freedom of adjustment.
The design of riser guides shall also comply with the following requirements:
-

7.3

the inside of the guide shall be provided with a ribbed polychloroprene liner vulcanised
to the guide body;
the inside diameter of the lined riser guide shall be determined such that the riser can
move in its axial direction without significant restraint;
risers coated with a polychloroprene coating at the location of riser guides shall be
provided with external Monel sheeting vulcanised to the riser coating over the length of
the riser guide and 250 mm at both sides in the installed condition. The length of the
Monel sheeting shall be sufficient to accommodate the requirement for adjustment of
vertical riser position during installation.

LOADING CONDITIONS
Supports shall be designed to resist the maximum loads from the risers, the support weight
and environmental loads on the support. Riser loads on the supports during hydrotesting of
the riser shall be taken into account when determining the support design loads.
The supports and supporting structures shall be designed to resist the combined loads from
the riser, environmental loads acting directly on the clamping structure and its weight for all
riser design conditions.

7.4

CORROSION PROTECTION
The corrosion protection of riser supports shall be in accordance with the substructure
requirements, and is a function of the support location, namely, either above the splash
zone, or in the splash zone or in the submerged zone.
Riser supports above, or in, the splash zone shall be protected by a coating system in
accordance with substructure specifications.
The design of riser supports in the splash zone shall include a corrosion allowance based
on the design life of the structure.
Riser supports beneath the splash zone shall be protected by the substructure cathodic
protection system and shall be coated in accordance with substructure requirements.
Ribbed linings on the riser clamps shall be used to prevent shielding of the cathodic
protection system.
Electrical continuity straps between the substructure and retrofitted riser supports shall be
used.

8.

J-TUBE DESIGN

8.1

DESIGN DATA
The following data shall be provided in addition to the requirements of (5):
-

8.2

pullhead weight, diameter and length;

pull-in cable weight, diameter and maximum tension capacity;
back-tension during pull-in of the riser.

J-TUBE ROUTING
Routing of J-tubes shall take into account the following requirements and considerations:
-

alignment tolerances of J-tube and the pull-in cable or riser;

space and support need to be available above the J-tube for the riser hanger clamp;
space and supports are required for the riser pull-in winch and routing of pull-in cable;
the number of bends should be minimised;
bend angles should be kept as small as is possible;
for steel risers the bend radius shall be as large as possible. Radii should be typically
100 times the diameter and radii of less than 50 times the diameter shall not be used.

NOTE:

8.3

Reducing the number of bends and bend angle and increasing the bend radii will reduce the friction
forces between riser and J-tube during pull-in and will lead to minimum pull-in and J-tube design loads.

J-TUBE SIZING AND RADIUS OF CURVATURE

The internal diameter of the J-tube for steel risers should not be less than twice the
diameter of the riser.
The riser shall be capable of negotiating J-tube bends without exceeding maximum
permissible strains or without collapsing, buckling or wrinkling.
The combination of internal J-tube diameter, bend radius and bend angle shall be sufficient
to accommodate the pull-head.
NOTE:

8.4

Minimum values for J-tube wall thickness and radius may be governed by the allowable span
requirement to prevent vortex-induced vibrations.

PULL-IN LOADS
The pull-in of the riser up the J-tube shall be analysed step-by-step from entry of the pullhead into the bellmouth all the way up the J-tube using a validated riser pull-in program.
This analysis shall provide the required pull-in loads, point loads on the J-tube and bending
moments/strains induced in the riser.
The following forces shall be taken into account when calculating required pull-in loads:
-

back-tension during pull-in of the riser;

forces necessary for the elastoplastic bending of a rigid riser;
friction forces between the riser and the J-tube and friction forces between the pull-in
cable and the J-tube;
radial forces in the bend due to loss in tension force around the bend;
bellmouth jamming forces;
J-tube jamming forces, i.e. the load on the J-tube that would result if a pull-head got
stuck, prior to the pull winch stopping.

Back-tension shall include the tension or residual tension in the riser from the laying
operation and friction with the seabed.
Predictions of the contribution of friction forces to the required pull-in loads shall be
conservative.
NOTE:

Frequently used coefficients of friction are as follows:

Coefficient of friction

8.5

riser and seabed

0.4 to 0.6

riser and inside of the J-tube wall

0.3 to 0.65

pull cable and the inside of the J-tube wall

0.2 to 0.4

STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF J-TUBE AND SUPPORTS

J-tubes and their supports shall be designed and fabricated in accordance with the
requirements for the platform structure. Particular attention shall be paid to the modelling of
the loads at the contact points between the J-tube and the riser/pull-in cable. Supports shall
be designed without large stress concentrations particularly when subjected to fluctuating
loading.
The possibility of fatigue damage of J-tube and riser shall be examined and, if necessary, a
fatigue analysis carried out to confirm adequate fatigue life and possible requirements for
inspection for fatigue damage.
Buckling analysis shall be performed to investigate any possibility of buckling/collapse of
the J-tube. Bar buckling of the J-tube compression shall also be prevented. Checks shall be
performed on the buckling stability of the J-tube bends, both in-plane and out-of-plane, for
the pull-in load case and for local buckling at the worst loaded area of the J-tube.
J-tubes shall be designed and supported so that vortex-induced vibrations cannot occur.

8.6

APPURTENANCES

8.6.1

Bellmouth design
The purpose of attaching a bellmouth to the J-tube bottom end is to ease the pull-in
operation. The bellmouth acts as a guide for the pull-head into the J-tube, and should have
an entry angle and height above the seabed (if any at all) which accommodate pull-in and
lead to acceptable span lengths with respect to vortex shedding and column buckling
criteria (if applicable). The bellmouth may also serve to reduce the stresses resulting from a
minor change in orientation of pull-head and riser as they enter a J-tube. In case a seal
bung (8.6.2) is to be used, the bellmouth design needs to be suitable for seal bung
installation and operation. The bellmouth might also need J-tube flushing facilities for J-tube
installation and/or for flushing the J-tube of seawater/inhibitor for corrosion protection
purposes.
The loading that the bellmouth may experience can be divided into two load cases, namely
installation (pull-in) load case and the operational load case.
a)

During installation, the bellmouth shall be able to sustain the reaction forces induced
on the bellmouth from the pull force required to free a jammed pull-head.
Bellmouths which are close to the J-tube bottom bend may form a contact point on the
riser as it progresses around the bend. In these cases the bellmouth shall be designed
to sustain these loads.

b)

During operation the loading on the bellmouth is very dependent on what type of
restraints the seal bung (if any) puts on the pipeline riser. However, the following
loading might have to be considered:
-

Pipeline expansion: When the bellmouth structure acts as a clamp fixing the riser to
the end of the J-tube, expansion movement of a pipeline on the seabed imposes a
bending moment, axial loading and shear force at the bellmouth.
Gravity: When the bellmouth acts as a fixed support for the pipeline as it spans the
seabed or to a support structure, the submerged weight of the line causes bending
and shear at the bellmouth.
Environmental: Wave and current loading acting on the suspended section may
induce shear and bending at the bellmouth.

Settlement: Differential settlement between platform and seabed may induce

bending and shear at the bellmouth.

There are many bellmouth designs in existence and it is difficult to categorise them. The
bellmouth layout is very much dependent on whether a seal bung for prevention of inhibited
water diffusing into the seawater is going to be used or not, and if so, what type of seal
bung.
In some cases a seal bung is not required, and the messenger wire, preinstalled in the Jtube for installation purposes, needs only to be attached to the pull-head padeye outside
the bellmouth to commence the pull-in operation.
When installing a jacket structure it might be impractical to have heavy and long bellmouths
attached to the J-tubes. In this case, the J-tube may end in a blind flange with the
messenger wire attached to its inside. The bellmouth must then be flanged to the J-tube
before the pull-in operation can start.
(Figures 5A and 5B) illustrate these bellmouth concepts.
8.6.2

Seal design
The primary objective of the seal bung is to isolate the void between the inside of the J-tube
and the outside of the riser/pipeline from seawater. The riser/pipeline within the J-tube
would experience accelerated corrosion if the line was open to the sea. To prevent this
accelerated corrosion, this void is filled with inhibited seawater, or other suitable noncorrosive medium.
Secondary considerations are the degree of restraint the bung applies to the riser/pipeline
and the ability to flush the J-tube of seawater/inhibitor. The flushing consideration may not
form part of the seal design.
The seal is designed to prevent diffusion of the contents of the J-tube into the sea. In
satisfying this task the seal must accommodate the following load conditions:
a)

Pipeline axial movement

The pipeline usually experiences high axial loads during operation which, if the line is
unrestrained, will translate into axial movement. Should pipeline axial movement be
experienced, then the seal can either permit the line to expand or prevent it from
expanding. Should the seal permit line expansion, then it will prove difficult to provide a
watertight seal suitable for a long design life. However, should the seal prevent line
expansion, the seal will experience high axial loads.

b)

Hydrostatic pressure
The seal may experience a pressure differential between the inside of the J-tube and
outside of the tube. This differential pressure can be either positive or negative
depending on the design. If the J-tube is filled with inhibited seawater up to the
topsides, the pressure differential at the seal will be the hydrostatic head due to the
height of water from sea level to the topsides. However, if the J-tube is gas filled, the
pressure differential will be dependent on the pressure of the gas in the J-tube.
If the gas pressure is topsides ambient pressure, the maximum differential pressure at
the seal will be the hydrostatic pressure at the seal due to water depth. These
scenarios are clearly illustrated in (Figure 6).

c)

Design life
The seal should maintain its integrity over the design life of the J-tube, which can
typically be 20 years. The seal material should not degrade due to seawater, J-tube
fluid content or extended durations of high temperature (from the riser/pipeline).

There are many J-tube seal designs in existence, most of which can be placed into 5
different categories. These categories are:
-

conical seals;
inflatable seals;

rubber boot seals;

bellow seals;
integral plug/anchor seal.

Each type of seal is discussed with respect to their advantages and disadvantages during
installation and operation.
a)

Conical rubber seals

Conical rubber seals are suitable for small-diameter lines where the expansion
movement is low. The seal consists of a rubber sheath of varying cross-section which
is bonded to the riser. This is usually fabricated on a short pup piece which is then
added in place offshore.
The riser shall be installed carefully so that the conical seal section is accurately
positioned in the J-tube bellmouth. In some cases, an anchor flange is fitted to restrict
the movement of the riser within the J-tube and to prevent damage to the seal. The
limits of axial movement and misalignment during installation with which the seal can
cope will depend upon the contact length of the seal. Typically, the maximum
permissible misalignment or movement is 50 mm. The principal advantages of this
type of seal are its low cost and ease of installation.

b)

Inflatable seals
This type of seal consists of two toroidal inflatable seals. The seals are installed on the
inner surface of the J-tube bellmouth. After the riser is pulled in, the seals can be
inflated from the surface to close the annulus between the outside diameter of the riser
and the inside diameter of the J-tube. The seals can provide a sufficient seal to
withstand a differential pressure of typically 5 bar. Axial movement of the riser within
the J-tube is accommodated by shearing of the toroidal seals. With larger expansions
the riser may slip through the seals and cause damage to the elastomeric seal
components. Therefore this system is typically limited to axial movement of 30 mm.

c)

Rubber boot seals

One of the simplest methods of sealing a J-tube is using a rubber boot, which is
installed in the J-tube bellmouth. Since the sheath is designed to fit the riser a tight fit
should be achievable. However, the seal is susceptible to mechanical damage during
installation and pull-in.
The wear caused by the riser during pull-in can be uneven and render the seal
useless. Once the riser is installed, it is not possible to replace these seals. If this type
of seal can be installed correctly without suffering damage during installation the seals
can withstand differential pressures up to 2 bar and an axial movement of up to
30 mm. This method lends itself to the use of a rubber sealing diaphragm, which
permits the J-tube to be filled with corrosion inhibitor before the riser is pulled through.
To pull the riser through, the diaphragm is punctured to allow the riser to pass into the
J-tube. The ruptured diaphragm can form a seal, however an effective seal cannot be
guaranteed.

d)

Bellow seals
This is another simple method of sealing a J-tube by means of a rubber diaphragm.
These seals come in two forms, integral diaphragms and zipped types. The integral
diaphragms must be installed on the riser before the pull-in operation, hence a
protective cover is usually required to ensure no damage occurs to it during pull-in.
Should the diaphragm be damaged then it cannot be replaced with a similar seal.
However, the zipper diaphragm is installed by use of a waterproof zip. This will allow
installation subsequent to the riser pull-in and replacement of the whole seal if
necessary. The seal between the riser/diaphragm and J-tube/diaphragm can be made
in a number of ways. The simplest method is to use banding straps, however split
flanges can also be used.

These seals allow greater axial movement compared to simple diaphragm seals and,
by increasing the length of the sleeves, can cope with axial movement over half a
metre.
These types of seal are suitable for differential pressures of up to 2 bar.
e)

Anchor type seal

This type of seal is based on the same principle as the conical rubber seal, with the
difference that the seal is kept in constant compression irrespective of the
movements/loads in the riser. This is achieved by an anchor flange which is attached
to the riser behind the conical seal. Two split flanges are attached behind the anchor
and tightened to the bellmouth. This prevents the riser from moving at the bellmouth,
so ensuring the integrity of the seal. As discussed, this system does not permit any
axial movement of the riser, but can accommodate relatively high differential
pressures.

8.6.3

Pull-head design
The pull-head is an item which is attached to the end of the riser on one side and to the
pull-wire on the other. The pull-head shall be designed to facilitate the pull-in operation and
not cause damage to the J-tube or the riser. It must withstand the tension caused by the
pull-wire and distribute the load to the riser so that these will not get damaged. It must be
small enough to pass through the J-tube bends without any danger of its getting jammed,
and incorporate any feature which results in a reduction in riser stresses and pull-in loads.
These features are often incorporated by designing a curved pull-head body of hardened
steel, see (Figure 7). The danger of the pull-head getting stuck in the J-tube bend may be
easily checked by sketching to scale the J-tube bend with the pull-head inside it.
The pull-head needs to be designed for the highest pull-load the system will experience
during pull-in plus the additional safety factor required. This load may either come from the
pull-in analysis or from a pull-head snagging analysis.
Two pull-head designs are illustrated in (Figures 7A and 7B) and they are used for small
(50 mm to 150 mm) and medium (150 mm to 500 mm) diameter rigid pipelines,
respectively.

8.7

CORROSION PROTECTION
The internal surface of the J-tube shall be protected against exposure to untreated
seawater prior to riser pull-in by means of a blind flange that prevents the ingress of
seawater.
At the time of the riser pull-in the blind flange is removed and replaced with a bellmouth. A
seal is fitted to the riser that blocks to the bottom of the J-tube. The J-tube is then filled with
inhibited seawater to prevent corrosion of the internal surface of the J-tube or the riser.
Provision for sampling the annular water shall be provided.
The external surface of the J-tube shall be protected against corrosion in the same manner
as a riser, see (10).

9.

FITTINGS

9.1

FLANGES
Flanges shall comply with PTS 31.40.21.34
If bending moments, additional axial forces or shear forces occur at the location of the
flange connection, a behaviour (including the gasket with regard to leaking), stress and
bolting force analysis according to ASME VIII shall be carried out, taking into account all
relevant loading situations for the flanged connection.
For maintenance purposes, the operating manual for the pipeline system shall detail the
flange installation procedures used including the equipment required, the bolt pre-tension
forces to be applied and measurements to be made.
Consideration shall be made for the provision of profiled flange protectors to prevent
snagging by cables.

9.2

GASKETS
The gasket shall be a ring type gasket in accordance with ASME B16.20 and shall be made
of a material softer than the flange ring groove. The gasket material shall be chosen for
compatibility with the flange material and for the service conditions. Consideration should
be given to the use of ring joint inlays and corrosion-resistant materials for the gaskets.
Consideration should also be given to the use of coatings on the gaskets to improve
corrosion resistance.

9.3

BOLTING
Bolting shall comply with PTS 30.10.02.11
Note:

The preferred materials for standard applications are ASTM A 193-B7 and ASTM A 194-2H for non-sour
service conditions, and ASTM A 193-B7M and ASTM A194-2HM for sour service conditions. For special
applications, e.g. low temperature, other materials may be required.

The bolt tension shall be calculated on the following basis:

the bolt tension shall not cause a stress in the bolt greater than 50% SMYS;
the relaxation of the bolt is a function of the method of tensioning and the coating on the
bolt;
the bolt tension shall not lead to excessive yielding of the gasket;
the bolt tension shall be sufficient to ensure the gasket remains seated under the worst
combination of tension, bending and bolt relaxation.
The use of a low-friction coating for ease of tightening shall be considered.
9.4

VALVES
Valves for offshore pipelines shall comply with API 6D.
Submarine valves should not be included in offshore pipeline systems because of the
difficulty of inspection and maintenance. To facilitate maintenance, valves shall be either
flanged both ends or be of the top-entry type and be suitably mounted for ease of access.
Piggability requirements shall be taken into account in the selection of valves.

9.5

BENDS
All long-radius riser bends shall comply with PTS 31.40.20.33
Consideration should be given to the use of long tangents to provide cut material for fit-up
offshore.

10.

RISER MATERIALS AND CORROSION PROTECTION

10.1

GENERAL
The service conditions throughout the design life of the pipeline shall be established to
permit the selection of suitable materials based on a technical and economical evaluation.
The requirements for pipeline materials shall comply with PTS 31.40.00.10

10.2

LINEPIPE

Amended per
Circular 16/02

Carbon steel linepipe shall comply with PTS 31.40.20.37

10.3

EXTERNAL COATING
All risers including Duplex or austenitic steel pipelines shall be coated externally by a
suitable anti-corrosion coating, supplemented by cathodic protection for the part of the
system below the water level. The sections located within the spash zone shall be
externally coated with a vulcanised polychloroprene (neoprene). Consideration should also
be given to PE coating and Monel cladding.
The section above the splash zone and the riser bends shall be coated with a glassflake
epoxy coating system.
Recent QRA studies have demonstrated the benefits of providing passive fire protection
around the above-sea section of the riser, to prevent escalation due to flame impingement.
This aspect should be considered during the design of new risers.
External coating selection shall take account of the following proven temperature limitations
of the available coating systems, unless otherwise agreed with the Principal:
Table 10.1

Coating temperature limits

Coating System

Maximum
continuous
operating
temperature
(C)

Maximum
excursion
temperature
(C)

Specification

Asphalt enamel

60

70

To be agreed with Principal

Fusion bonded epoxy

70

85

PTS 31.40.30.32

Polychloroprene

100

100

To be agreed with Principal

EPDM

105

105

To be agreed with Principal

Polyethylene and
polypropylene

100

120

PTS 31.40.30.31

Coal tar enamel or coal tar epoxy coating systems shall not be used.
Corrosion coating systems shall be in accordance with the PTSs listed in the above table or
project-specific specifications.
Field joint coating systems shall be compatible with and have good adhesion to the millapplied coating, and shall be stored and applied in accordance with the Manufacturers
recommendations.

Thermal insulation materials and their properties shall only be selected in full consultation
with the Principal, taking into account the long-term degradation of mechanical and thermal
properties at operating conditions, such as service temperatures and (external hydrostatic)
pressures.
10.4

CATHODIC PROTECTION
Cathodic protection design and sacrificial anodes shall comply with PTS 30.10.73.32 Zinc
anodes shall be specified and the system shall be designed such that operational
temperatures of the anodes do not exceed 50 C. Impressed current systems should not be
used.
To allow effective monitoring of the cathodic protection of risers and to minimise the risk of
current drain from pipeline cathodic protection systems, submarine pipelines and risers
shall be electrically isolated from platforms and onshore installations. For offshore pipelines
isolating flanges are not acceptable and use shall be made of an appropriate type of
prefabricated isolating joint, see PTS 31.40.21.31
Electrical isolation shall be ensured at all points of potential electrical contact, between the
riser and the structure, below the isolating joint.

11.

MECHANICAL PROTECTION

11.1

PROTECTION FROM BOAT IMPACT

To prevent boat impact, the locating of the riser on the inside of the jacket structure
adjacent to a leg should be considered. Alternatively, a boat fender should be provided.

11.2

PROTECTION FROM DROPPED OBJECTS

The frequency of damage caused by dropped objects shall be assessed, by means of
specific drop zones and the probabilities of an object being dropped, of the object hitting the
pipeline and of the pipeline sustaining damage. A consequence analysis shall be carried
out and the results of this analysis shall be assessed against accepted risks. For any risks
exceeding allowable levels, protection measures shall be designed.
If the expansion loop configuration cannot avoid the platform loading areas or other
potential dropped-object areas, consideration shall be given to the provision of protection
covers to the expansion loop. The protection cover shall be designed to withstand the
impact from the heaviest item transferred between the platform and supply vessels.
Protection covers shall allow free movement of the expansion loop for maximum pipeline
expansion.
Consideration should be given to the method of installation of the protection covers to
ensure that they are not a potential hazard to the expansion loop or to adjacent pipelines
and structures. The covers should be designed to allow easy access and removal if
required. Consideration shall be given to ensuring that the cathodic protection system
provided for the expansion loop remains unaffected by the protection covers.
Alternatively, where this is impractical or excessively costly, the hazard and risk should be
evaluated on a quantitative basis as part of the overall risk to the installation. Appropriate
action should be taken where necessary to reduce the risk to an acceptable level.

11.3

PROTECTION FROM SNAGGING LOADS

Consideration should be given to preventing accidental snagging of the pipeline/tie-in spool
and avoiding transfer of such loads to the riser system.
The possibility of snagging may be mitigated by avoiding spanning in the pipeline and tiein/expansion spool and protecting the tie-in spool and pipeline end close to the platform by
means of burial, rock dumping or covering with mattresses. This is particularly important if,
for example, anchor cables are frequently deployed in the vicinity of the platform.

12.

INSTALLATION REQUIREMENTS

12.1

RISER INSTALLATION TOLERANCES

The alignment of all the riser clamps shall be verified before riser installation. In cases
where the riser is stalked into position, the position of the clamp shall be adjustable by
approximately 250 mm in all directions.

12.2

INSTALLATION FEASIBILITY
A procedure demonstrating the feasibility of the riser installation shall be prepared. The
procedure shall demonstrate the following:
the riser installation vessels capacity is adequate (e.g. deck space, lift capacity, etc);
sufficient clearances are provided for the installation vessel;
flexibility is provided in the design to make allowance for possible seabed level
variations;
clearance is provided to adjacent structures for the tie-in operations;
installation sequence is established including riser handling, up-ending, positioning and
placing of the riser in the clamps;
the riser will not be overstressed during any stage of load-out and installation, including
static and dynamic loadings;
minimised interference to platform operations.

12.3

CLEARANCE FOR HYPERBARIC WELDING

If the expansion loop is to be connected to the riser by hyperbaric welding, sufficient
clearance shall be maintained from any adjacent pipeline or structure (including the
platform jacket and appurtenances e.g. mudmats and pile guides) to allow positioning of the
hyperbaric welding chamber and associated handling frames.

12.4

CONSTRUCTION AIDS
Consideration should be given to the installation of construction aids at the time of the
jacket design.
Construction aids for the installation of future risers, subsea tie-in to expansion loops, and
hook-up to the topsides section of the riser should all be considered.

12.5

TEMPORARY CONSIDERATIONS
Temporary protection and seafastening requirements should be considered for pre-installed
risers in order to prevent damage during load-out, transportation, installation and setting of
the platform. Temporary supports/fixings should also be considered for the installation
operation.
In order to minimise installation stresses within the riser, it may be necessary to provide
knee bracing on the riser, usually at the bottom bend in order to support the protruding
riser. After installation the knee bracing shall be completely removed in order to minimise
operational stress levels.
Consideration should be given to the temporary requirements for hydrotesting and precommissioning equipment.

13.

REQUIREMENTS FOR OPERATIONS AND MAINTENANCE

The riser system should be designed with regard to future inspection, maintenance and
repair.
If intelligent pigs are to be used for internal inspection, bend radii shall meet the following
requirements:
Nominal pipe diameter, D,
(mm)

Minimum bend radius

100

10 D

150 to 250

5D

300

3D

Additionally, if intelligent pigs are to be used, the pipeline internal diameter should ideally
be constant throughout, including valves, flanges, tees and other fittings.
Variations in internal diameter (Di) cannot always be avoided in local areas of limited
length, e.g. pipeline equipment such as valves. If changes in Di occur at the location of
equipment, pup pieces shall be used with a Di of the equipment. These pup pieces shall
have tapers to the pipeline Di with at least a 14 degree transition angle, measured from the
axis of the pipe (i.e. a taper of 1:4).
Consideration should be given to the requirement for possible riser replacement, in the
event this becomes necessary at some time during the life of the structure. If replacement
is not possible, as for example with a gravity based structure, consideration should be given
to the provision of a spare riser.
As far as practicable, the risers should be located to enable easy access for inspection,
maintenance and repair purposes. Consideration should be given to diver and remote
operated vehicle access throughout the length of the riser. Riser supports should be
avoided in the splash zone since they hinder inspection and may result in additional
corrosion.

14.

DESIGN OUTPUT

14.1

GENERAL
Documentation is produced at all stages during the life of a pipeline, from design to
abandonment. All essential documentation should be retained, be accessible and be
regularly updated, as required, throughout the life of the riser system.

14.2

DESIGN DOCUMENTATION
On completion of the design activity, a detailed design report shall be issued. All tables,
graphs, drawings and any references used during the design should be included within the
report. Back-up calculations, though not necessarily included in the report, should be
retained for reference and clarifications.
The drawings prepared during the detailed design should be retained to form the basis for
as-built documentation. The drawings should include, but not necessarily be limited to, the
following:
Key plan of field arrangement;
Platform layout including:

platform crane locations and radii;

loading areas;
areas at risk from dropped objects;
pipe supports.

Tie-ins and expansion spools - general arrangement and isometric drawings;

Designated anchor areas;
Platform approach details;
Riser details including:
- size (diameter, wall thickness);
- coatings;
- clamp details;
- location and routing;
- general arrangement and isometric drawings.

14.3

AS-BUILT DOCUMENTATION
Upon completion of pipeline construction activities an as-built record of the riser system
shall be made.
The as-built record provides an official record of the installed riser system and includes
such information as:

precise routing of the riser;

riser details, i.e. material grade, wall thickness, coating, etc.;
fittings installed on the riser, i.e. ESD valves, anodes, bends, etc.;
clamp details.

The as-built records are essential information required by the riser system operator for
future inspection and maintenance of the riser system.

15.

REFERENCES
In this PTS reference is made to the following publications:
NOTE:

Unless specifically designated by date, the latest edition of each publication shall be used together
with any amendments/supplements/revisions thereto.

PETROANS STANDARDS
Index to PTS publications and standard
specifications

PTS 00.00.05.05

Metallic materials selected standards

PTS 30.10.02.11

Design of CP systems for offshore pipelines

PTS 30.10.73.32

Pipeline engineering

PTS 31.40.00.10

Amended per
Circular 16/02

Linepipe induction bends

PTS 31.40.20.33

Welded and seamless duplex and super duplex

stainless steel linepipe

PTS 31.40.20.34

Linepipe for critical service

(amendments/supplements to ISO 3183-3)

PTS 31.40.20.37

Pipeline isolating joints

PTS 31.40.21.31

Carbon and low alloy steel pipeline flanges for use in

oil and gas operations

PTS 31.40.21.34

External polyethylene and polypropylene coating for

linepipe

PTS 31.40.30.31

External fusion-bonded epoxy powder coating for

linepipe

PTS 31.40.30.32

AMERICAN STANDARDS
Pipeline valves

API 6D

Issued by:
American Petroleum Institute
Publications and Distribution Section
1220 L Street Northwest
Washington DC. 20005
USA

ASME Boiler And Pressure Vessel Code:

Section VIII: Rules for construction of pressure
vessels

ASME VIII

Metallic gaskets for pipe flanges

ASME B16.20

Issued by:
American Society of Mechanical Engineers
345 East 47th Street
New York NY 10017
USA

Alloy-steel and stainless steel bolting materials for

high-temperature service

ASTM A 193

Carbon and alloy-steel nuts for bolts for

high-pressure and high-temperature service
Issued by:
American Society for Testing and Materials
1916 Race street
Philadelphia
PA 19103
USA

NORWEGIAN STANDARDS
DnV rules for submarine pipeline systems
Issued by:
Det Norske Veritas
P.O. Box 300
N-1322 Hvik
Norway

ASTM A 194

APPENDIX 1

FIGURES

FIGURE 1

TYPICAL GUIDE CLAMP

Riser clamp

Jacket leg

Riser
Hinge pin

Jacket sleeve

Bolts

FIGURE 2

TYPICAL DEADWEIGHT SUPPORT CLAMP

Sleeve welded
to riser
Anchor flange

Riser clamp

Jacket leg

Riser
Hinge pin

Neoprene
lining

Jacket sleeve

Bolts

Lifting lug

FIGURE 3

TYPICAL ANCHOR CLAMP

Circumferential
fillet weld
top and bottom

Doubler plate

Jacket leg

Jacket sleeve

Riser

FIGURE 4

TYPICAL CLAMP WITH COMPLETE FREEDOM FOR ADJUSTMENTS

Adjustable stub piece

Riser

Jacket bracing

FIGURE 5

A:

B:

J-TUBE BELLMOUTHS

FIGURE 6

J-TUBE SEAL PRESSURE

Hanger support

Pj

Hj
Hs

Seal

Flowline

Bellmouth

PRESSURE OF SEAL

Ps = Pj + j gH j ( s gHs )

WHERE:
Ps = Differential pressure at seal
Pj = Gauge pressure at top of J-tube fluid
j = Density of fluid in J-tube
s = Density of sea water
Hj = Height of top of J-tube fluid above seal
Hs = Water depth of seal below mean sea level

FIGURE 7

TYPICAL PULL-HEADS

Lifting lug, to be connected

to a shackle

Circular plate bevelled

to give smooth profile

Reducer

Riser/pipeline

A:

Side elevation of typical pull-head for small diameter pipelines

(50 mm to 150 mm)

To spelter socket

Pull-head

To pull-head

Spelter socket
B:

Pull-head for medium size pipelines (150 mm to 500 mm)