The Regulator and Its Functions

INSTRUMENTATION MAINTENANCE
THE REGULATOR AND ITS FUNCTIONS
TRAINING MANUAL
Course EXP-MN-SI070
Revision 0
Field Operations Training

Instrumentation Maintenance
The Regulator and its Functions
MAINTENANCE INSTRUMENTATION
THE REGULATOR AND ITS FUNCTIONS
CONTENTS
1. OBJECTIVES ..................................................................................................................5
2. REGULATION .................................................................................................................6
2.1. DEFINITIONS ...........................................................................................................6
2.2. INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................6
2.2.1. Behaviour in terms of regulation........................................................................8
2.2.2. Behaviour in terms of slaving ............................................................................8
2.3. CLOSED-LOOP REGULATION ................................................................................9
2.3.1. Operating principle ............................................................................................9
2.4. OPEN-LOOP REGULATION...................................................................................11
2.4.1. Operating principle ..........................................................................................11
3. THE PROCESS AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS ...........................................................13
3.1. STABILITY ..............................................................................................................13
3.1.1. Naturally stable process ..................................................................................13
3.1.1.1. Principle .....................................................................................................13
3.1.1.2. Example of a stable process ......................................................................14
3.1.2. Naturally unstable process ..............................................................................15
3.1.2.1. Principle .....................................................................................................15
3.1.2.2. Example of an unstable process ................................................................15
3.2. PROCESS RESPONSE PARAMETERS ................................................................16
3.2.1. Transient state and steady state .....................................................................16
3.2.1.1. Principle .....................................................................................................16
3.2.1.2. Example .....................................................................................................16
3.2.1.3. Conclusion .................................................................................................20
3.3. STATIC CHARACTERISTIC OF A PROCESS .......................................................20
3.3.1. Static gain........................................................................................................20
3.3.2. Static error.......................................................................................................21
3.3.3. Linearity and non-linearity of a system (process) ............................................21
3.4. DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTIC OF A PROCESS....................................................21
3.4.1. Response time ................................................................................................21
3.4.2. Overshoot........................................................................................................21
4. REGULATORS ..............................................................................................................22
4.1. ROLE OF THE REGULATOR .................................................................................22
4.2. REGULATOR STRUCTURE ...................................................................................23
4.3. PID DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION OF A REGULATOR ......................................27
4.4. REGULATOR CLASSIFICATION............................................................................28
4.4.1. Pneumatic regulator ........................................................................................28
4.4.2. Electronic regulator .........................................................................................30
4.5. REGULATOR ACTION DIRECTION.......................................................................33
4.5.1. Definition .........................................................................................................33
4.5.2. Choice of regulator action direction .................................................................34
5. REGULATOR ALGORITHMS........................................................................................35
5.1. PROPORTIONAL ACTION .....................................................................................35
Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI070-EN
Last revised: 17/10/2008
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5.1.1. Definition .........................................................................................................35

5.1.2. Presentation ....................................................................................................36
5.1.3. Operation.........................................................................................................38
5.1.4. Influence of the proportional band ...................................................................39
5.1.5. Band shift ........................................................................................................41
5.1.6. Influence of band shift .....................................................................................42
5.1.7. Functional representation of a proportional regulation ....................................42
5.2. INTEGRAL ACTION................................................................................................43
5.2.1. What is an integral action? ..............................................................................43
5.2.2. Operation.........................................................................................................43
5.2.3. Eliminating the integral action..........................................................................44
5.2.4. Combined PI action .........................................................................................44
5.2.5. Influence of the integral time parameter ..........................................................45
5.3. DERIVED ACTION..................................................................................................46
5.3.1. What is a derived action? ................................................................................46
5.3.2. Operation.........................................................................................................46
5.3.3. Influence of the derived time parameter ..........................................................48
5.3.4. Combined PID action.......................................................................................49
5.3.5. Summary of the PID actions............................................................................49
5.3.6. Advantages and drawbacks ............................................................................50
5.4. THE VARIOUS STRUCTURES OF A PID REGULATOR .......................................51
5.4.1. How to determine the internal structure of a PID regulator..............................51
5.4.2. Series structure ...............................................................................................52
5.4.3. Combined structure .........................................................................................52
5.4.4. Parallel structure .............................................................................................52
6. DETERMINING A REGULATOR'S ACTIONS ...............................................................55
6.1. ZIEGLER AND NICHOLS METHOD .......................................................................56
6.1.1. Response of the open-loop process ................................................................57
6.2. STABLE PROCESS IDENTIFICATION METHOD ..................................................58
6.2.1. Strejc method ..................................................................................................59
6.2.2. Broda method.................................................................................................59
6.2.2.1. Identifying the open-loop process ..............................................................60
6.2.2.2. Identification in a closed loop .....................................................................60
6.3. UNSTABLE PROCESS IDENTIFICATION METHOD .............................................63
6.3.1. Identification in an open loop...........................................................................63
6.3.2. Identification in a closed loop ..........................................................................64
6.4. THE ADJUSTOR METHOD (BY SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATIONS) ...................65
7. THE REGULATION LOOP ............................................................................................67
7.1. SINGLE-LOOP REGULATION................................................................................67
7.1.1. Simple regulation loop .....................................................................................67
7.2. MULTI-LOOP REGULATION ..................................................................................67
7.2.1. The different types of multi-loop regulation......................................................67
7.2.1.1. Cascade Regulation ...................................................................................67
7.2.1.2. Ratio regulation ..........................................................................................68
7.2.1.3. Feedforward regulation (combined) ...........................................................69
7.2.1.4. Split-Range regulation................................................................................70
7.2.1.5. On/Off regulation........................................................................................72
8. LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................73
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9. LIST OF TABLES ..........................................................................................................75

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1. OBJECTIVES
The purpose of this course is to enable the future instrumentation specialist to understand
the instrumentation on a predominantly oil-oriented industrial site.
The objectives of this course are to allow you to know:
what a regulator consists of,
what purpose it serves,
all its functions,
how to adjust the actions of a regulator.

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2. REGULATION
2.1. DEFINITIONS
Adjusted variable
Physical variable that you want to control. The name taken by the regulation is based on
this variable.
For example: temperature regulation.
Setpoint value
Value that the adjusted variable must take.
Correction variable
Physical variable that has been chosen to control the setpoint value. Generally, it is not of
the same nature as the adjusted variable.
Disturbance variables
Physical variables that influence the adjusted variable. Generally, they are not of the same
nature as the adjusted variable (e.g. variation in the ambient temperature).
Setting or control device

Element that acts on the correction variable (e.g. regulation valve).
2.2. INTRODUCTION
A certain number of parameters have to be controlled for most industrial processes, such
as: temperature, pressure, flow rate, level, pH, concentration of O2, etc.
It is the task of the regulation chain (and more generally of the slaving chain) to maintain
the parameters governing process operation at predetermined levels.
All regulation (or slaving) chains include four essential links: the sensor and its
transmitter, the actuator (regulation valve, speed variator, etc.), the regulator and the
industrial process (heat exchanger, distillation column, etc.).
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You must therefore start by measuring the main variables that are used to control the
process. The regulator recovers these measurements and compares them with the values
required by the operator, which are usually called the "setpoint values".
In the case where the measured values are not in agreement with the setpoint values, the
regulator sends a command signal to the actuator so that it can act on the process. The
parameters governing the process are therefore stabilized at all times at the desired levels.
If we take the example of a heat exchanger, the adjusted variable is the output
temperature (which must be held constant, at a predetermined setpoint value) and the
correction variable is the flow-rate of the heat-transfer fluid.
The load's flow rate variations and changes in the ambient temperature are considered to
be disturbance variables.
Figure 1: Regulation chain schematic diagram

The choice of elements in the regulation chain is dictated by the characteristics of the
industrial process to be controlled, which means that you must know the process and the
way it behaves.
In the regulation chain, the three devices that have been mentioned above make up the
regulating system, whereas the process constitutes the regulated system.
After the regulator's action, two different types of behaviour can be obtained in automatic
mode:
The behaviour in terms of regulation
The behaviour in terms of slaving
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The instrumentation specialist is subjected to the manufacturing process, but he 'chooses'

the regulating system (made up of sensors, regulators and actuators).
2.2.1. Behaviour in terms of regulation

The setting is maintained constant and a change (or variation) in one of the disturbance
inputs occurs.
Regulation is considered to be the most important aspect in the industrial world, because
the setpoint values are very often fixed.
However, to test the performance and quality of a regulation loop, the instrumentation
specialist must also look at the slaving aspect.
Figure 2: Unit-step response in process regulation
2.2.2. Behaviour in terms of slaving

The operator makes a change in the setpoint value, which corresponds to a modification in
the process's operating point. If slaving behaves correctly, it is demonstrated that the
"regulation loop" reacts correctly, even when a disturbance occurs.
Figure 3: Unit-step response in process slaving

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2.3. CLOSED-LOOP REGULATION

There are two ways of "qualifying" a closed-loop regulation system:
The first one (behaviour in terms of regulation) consists of seeing how it reacts
to an external disturbance,
The second (behaviour in terms of slaving) consists of seeing how it reacts to a
variation in the setpoint value.
Figure 4: Closed-loop regulation schematic diagram

This represents normal regulation operation: the regulator is in Automatic mode.
The regulator compares the measurement of the adjusted variable with the setpoint value
and acts appropriately to make them coincide.
2.3.1. Operating principle

The output variable or "correction variable" exerts an influence on the input variable or
"adjusted variable" to maintain it within the predetermined limits: this is a closed-loop
regulation or slaving system.
The action of the correction value on the adjusted variable is obtained via the "process or
system" which closes the loop.
In a closed-loop regulation system, a large proportion of the disturbances, including the
drift specific to certain components in the loop, are automatically compensated for by the
counter-reaction through the process.

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Example:
Figure 5: Example of closed-loop regulation

In this example:
The adjusted variable is the oven's output Temperature Ts,
The correction variable is the gas's flow rate,
The disturbance variable is the input flow rate Z.
The setpoint value is T = 100 C
You do not have to know precisely the laws and behaviour of the various components in
the loop, and in particular in the process, even though it will be useful to know the static
and dynamic rates of the various phenomena encountered in order to choose the
components in the loop.
Amongst the drawbacks of closed-loop regulation, we must mention the fact that regulation
accuracy and fidelity depend on the measured values and on the setpoint value.
Another drawback, no doubt more serious, is that the loop's dynamic behaviour depends
on the characteristics of the various components in the loop, and in particular in the
process, that we do not have under control: a poor choice of certain components may
cause the loop to start oscillating (surging phenomenon).

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Lastly, closed-loop regulation cannot anticipate. In order for the regulation to send a
command to the control system, the disturbances or any variations with respect to the
setpoint value must have been observed at the output from the process, and this
sometimes takes far too long.
2.4. OPEN-LOOP REGULATION

We have an "open loop" when we switch the regulator to Manual mode, that is to say it is
the operator who makes the process react the way he wants it to by "playing" directly on
the setting device.
2.4.1. Operating principle

In an open-loop slaving system, the setting device does not react through the process on
the measured variable (this is not verified). Open-loop regulation can only be used if you
know the operating process perfectly (in other words, you must know the correlation
between the measured value and the correction variable).
Example:
Figure 6: Example of open-loop regulation

This example illustrates perfectly what happens:
It is the operator who acts directly on the setting system to obtain the oven output
temperature TS that he wants, we do not have any feedback (the value measured by the
sensor-transmitter).

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Unlike closed-loop slaving, open-loop control makes it possible to anticipate the

phenomena and obtain very short response times.
Open-loop control can only be considered when there is no possibility of having a final
check; this is equivalent to placing the regulator in manual mode when a transmitter has
failed and we have lost the measurement.
The major drawback is that there is no way of checking, let alone correcting any errors,
drift or accidents that may occur inside the loop.
In other words, there is no precision or, above all, fidelity, which depends on the intrinsic
quality of the components. Lastly, open-loop regulation does not compensate the
disturbance factors.

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3. THE PROCESS AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS

For the instrumentation specialist the term process designates a part or an element in an
industrial production unit; for example a heat exchanger that includes a temperature
regulation or a tank whose level is regulated.
Process and regulation form an inseparable whole.
The choice of the type of regulation loop and its fine-tuning require a good knowledge of
the process's behaviour.
The process can also be called a system.
For instance, how does the output temperature from a heat exchanger or the level of a
tank evolve naturally?
There are two classes that cover all the elements in the process: process elements whose
behaviour is said to be stable and others whose behaviour is said to be unstable. We
usually use the terms: stable process and unstable process.
In order to see the industrial process's behaviour, we always place ourselves in an open
loop, that is to say the regulator is in MANUAL mode and we act directly on regulator
output Y.
When we change the regulator's output value in MANUAL mode, this is equivalent to
saying we applied a "valve step of X%".
3.1. STABILITY
3.1.1. Naturally stable process
3.1.1.1. Principle
A process is said to be naturally stable if a finite variation in the correction variable E
corresponds to a finite variation in the adjusted variable S.
Figure 7: Schematic diagram of a stable process

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3.1.1.2. Example of a stable process
Figure 8: Example of a stable process

Let us take the level N in a tank.
The output flow rate Qs depnds on the level N ( Qs = K N ).
If N is constant, that means Qs is equal to Qe.
At time to, let us apply one valve step, the level rises in the tank, which causes the output
flow rate Qs to increase.
This phenomenon continues until the level is such that it causes a flow rate Qs that is once
again equal to Qe.
We can therefore see that further to a change in the correction variable Qe, the adjusted
variable N reaches a new equilibrium N1.
The process is said to be stable.
We must insist on the fact that it is effectively the process on its own, because the
regulator is in manual mode.
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3.1.2. Naturally unstable process

3.1.2.1. Principle
A process is said to be naturally unstable if a finite variation in the correction variable E
corresponds to a continuous variation in the adjusted variable S.
Figure 9: Functional diagram of an unstable process
3.1.2.2. Example of an unstable process

Let us modify the process above by replacing the natural flow by a forced flow, obtained by
means of a pump with a constant flow rate Q.
By repeating the previous test, we can see that, this time, the level N does not stabilize.
The process is said to be unstable.
Figure 10: Example of an unstable process

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Remark:
A process is said to be of the integrator type if for a constant input E, output S is a rising
straight line.
Figure 11: Functional diagram of an integrator type process
3.2. PROCESS RESPONSE PARAMETERS

3.2.1. Transient state and steady state
3.2.1.1. Principle
A system is said to function in a steady state if its operation can be described in a simple
way.
Otherwise, we talk of a transient state.
To pass from one steady state to another, the system passes through a transient state.
Figure 12: Transient and steady states
3.2.1.2. Example
We have observed previously the response of a process to determine whether it is stable
or unstable.
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In this section, we are going to determine the process's characteristic parameters from that
response.
It will be easier to adjust the regulation loop if we know these parameters.
On a stable process
Let us consider the regulation scheme for the heat exchanger in the figure below.
With the regulator in manual mode, let us generate a step V on the valve signal and
observe the change of temperature Ts.
Figure 13: Example of a heat exchanger

The response obtained is as shown in the next figure:

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Figure 14: Response of a stable process to a step

This S-shape is the typical response of a stable process. The transient state is the time
interval between instant to at the beginning of the step and instant t3 where the
measurement reaches its final value Mm.
Designation
Definition
Tr
Dead time or pure delay
Time interval between application of the step and the start of the change
in the measurement: Tr = T1 T0
teBO
Open-loop establishment
time
Time interval between application of the step and the time when the
measurement reaches 95 % of its final value Mm. We consider that this
time is practically equal to the length of the transient state: teBO = t2 t0
Gs
Static gain
Ratio between the measurement variation M and the corresponding

valve signal variation V
Table 1: A stable process's response parameters

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On an unstable process
Figure 15: Response to an unstable process step

We can clearly see in the figure above that the unstable process is of the integrator type.
Designation
Definition
Tr
Dead time or pure delay
Time interval between application of the step and the start of the change in
the measurement: tr = t1 t0
Integration coefficient
The process's characteristic coefficient.
K=
M
K unit in mn-1 or s-1
t V
Table 2: An unstable process's response parameters

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3.2.1.3. Conclusion
The regulation loop setting operations are often carried out by experienced technicians,
who do not necessarily know the value of the parameters (Gs, teBO, Tr, K) of the processes
on which they act.
Knowledge, even approximate, of these parameters can:
constitute an indicator for choosing the type of regulation best suited to a
process (single loop, cascade, etc.).
provide an indication on the best-suited regulation mode (P, PI, PID, PID selfadapting, etc.).
make it possible to find, using calculation methods, the optimum setting actions
to be displayed on a regulator to ensure the stability of a regulation loop.
3.3. STATIC CHARACTERISTIC OF A PROCESS

The static characteristic is the curve representing the output variable S according to the
input variable E: S = f(E).
Remark:
It is only possible to plot the static characteristic of a stable system.
Figure 16: Static characteristic of a process
3.3.1. Static gain

If the system is naturally stable, the static gain G is the ratio between the variation of the
input variable E and the output variable S.

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3.3.2. Static error

If the system is stable, the static error E is the difference between the setpoint value W
and the measurement of the adjusted value X.
3.3.3. Linearity and non-linearity of a system (process)

A system is linear if its functioning can be described by means of linear mathematical
equations.
3.4. DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTIC OF A PROCESS

3.4.1. Response time
This is the system's aptitude to follow the variations in the correction variable. In the case
of one step in the correction variable, the increase in the adjusted variable defines the
different response times. In the example below, we measure the response time at 10,
which is equal to T1 - T0.
Figure 17: Dynamic response of a closed-loop process
3.4.2. Overshoot
The first overshoot makes it possible to qualify a system's stability. The greater the
overshoot, the closer the system will be to instability. In certain regulation systems, no
overshoots are tolerated. In the unit-step response, the first overshoot is 20 (=120%
instead of 100%).

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4. REGULATORS
We have therefore said earlier that a regulation loop is made up of four main elements:
The sensor-transmitter,
The regulator,
The regulation valve,
The process (for example: heat exchanger, distillation column, etc.).
And here in this course, we are going to define what a regulator is, what it is made up of
and we are going to see all its functions in a regulation loop.
4.1. ROLE OF THE REGULATOR

The purpose of automatic system regulation is to hold an operating parameter (adjusted
variable) at a constant and predetermined value, despite the influence of uncontrolled
parameters (disturbance variables).
The regulator is an integral part of the regulation loop, whether it is analogue, pneumatic or
digital (software regulator), local, by control desk or display panel, in a control centre.
In all cases, the regulator receives two inputs:
The measurement signal from the transmitter,
The setpoint value (manual or automatic).
Remark:
These two variables have been identified for many years, and still are for many people, by
the letters "M" and "C".
But there is a problem here, the letter "C" also symbolizes the comparator, the sensor or
even the command; the letter "M" also stands for Measurement, Measurand (physical
value that has been captured).

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That is why the letters have been normalized by an American international system and the
letters used for the measured and setpoint value are:
X: Measured value
W: Setpoint value
It "regulates":
Compares the measured and setpoint values: measured-setpoint value
difference (e = X - W),
Decides what action is to be taken according to the parameters
It delivers:
An output signal usually called the "command Y " to the regulation valve.
4.2. REGULATOR STRUCTURE
Comparateur
Figure 18: Regulator structure

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In the diagram above, we can see that the regulator is a set of several elements, it
consists of:
a comparator making it possible to compare the measured value with the
setpoint value,
a corrector that is going to correct this difference by performing several setting
actions,
a selector making it possible to choose between the Manual or Automatic
positions.
The measured signal X is the image of the adjusted variable, delivered by a sensor and
transmitter and transmitted in the form of an electrical or pneumatic signal;
The setpoint value W may be internal (provided locally by the operator) or external;
Command Y is displayed and generally in physical units for the set and measured values.
If a regulator is in automatic mode, its output will depend on the measured and the setpoint
value. This will not be the case if it is in manual mode.
Figure 19: Detailed structure of the regulator

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Whatever the technology used, a distinction is made between:

The signals:
1: Measurement input: this signal, delivered by the transmitter, represents the variable
to be adjusted
2: External setpoint value: delivered by an external instrument.
3: Output: command signal from the device being adjusted (valve).
The most commonly used standard scale is: 4 to 20 mA.
The blocks:
4: Setpoint value generator.
5: PID module: in automatic mode, the output from the block is the same as the output
from the regulator.
The automatic position corresponds to normal regulator operation.
The adjustments:
9: Adjustment of the internal setpoint value.
10: Adjustment of P, I and D actions.
11: Adjustment of the upper and lower limits.
12: Adjustment of the regulator's output in manual position.
The selectors:
13: Internal setpoint value or external setpoint value selector.
14: Regulator's action direction (direct or inverse) selector.
15: Automatic or manual operation selector.
The indicators:
16: Setpoint value indicator.
17: Measurement indicator.
18: Measured value Setpoint value difference indicator.
19: Output indicator.

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The table below gives the main symbols and designations used on regulators according to
the manufacturers.
Measurement
M
PV (Process Value)
X
Output
S
OUT or OUTPUT
Y
Setpoint value
C
SP (Set Point)
W
(W-X) difference
X
DV
E
Internal, external setpoint value
INT and EX
C.I and C.E
L (local) and D (Distance)
Tracking setpoint value
Tracking
P.V.T (Process Value Tracking)
Direct, inverse
D and I
INC (Increase) and DEC (decrease)
Manual, auto
M and A
MAN. and AUT.
MANUAL and AUTO
Upper and lower limits
O.L and O.H

L.B and L.H
Table 3: Symbols used on regulators

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4.3. PID DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION OF A REGULATOR

The instruments used are represented by circles around letters defining the physical
variable being adjusted and its/their function(s).
The first letter defines the physical variable being adjusted, the following letters define the
function of the instruments (see "Drawings used in instrumentation" course and the
"Standards used in instrumentation" course).
Figure 20: Example of measuring instrument identification on a PID diagram
Figure 21: Example of regulator identification on a PID diagram

Having read the "Drawings and Standards used in Instrumentation", it can clearly be seen
that the regulator is a pneumatic regulator whose input measurement is the water flow rate
+ tank top-up with the steam flow rate.

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4.4. REGULATOR CLASSIFICATION

Depending on the signal transmitted by the sensor-transmitter, we will therefore have two
types of regulator:
pneumatic regulator
electronic regulator
The pneumatic regulator is a regulator for local regulation, but it is being used less and
less.
The electronic regulator is the most commonly used type of regulator, it may be on a local
control desk or in a centralized control system or a PLC (Programmable Logic Controller).
4.4.1. Pneumatic regulator

The pneumatic regulator receives a pneumatic signal (200-1000 mbar) from the sensortransmitter.
It is fed via a pressure relief valve set to 1.4 bar.
It displays the measurement by means of a Bourdon tube, which will make a pointer move
according to the pneumatic signal.
The measured/setpoint value comparison is made by means of a nozzle-vane system and
the regulator's command signal is amplified by means of a pneumatic relay.
Figure 22: Example of a pneumatic regulator

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Most often, you have two pressure gauges integrated in the regulator, they indicate the
feed pressure and the regulator's output signal.
The pneumatic regulator is installed close to the measurement point and functions in a
single loop.
The setpoint value is adjusted by means of a pointer, and you must turn the pointer's knob
to change the value.
You can always adjust the measurement zero by means of a set screw.
Its main advantage is its response speed.
And its main drawback is the difficulty in integrating the functions of several regulators
spread around the units.
Figure 23: Pneumatic regulator measurement pointer

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4.4.2. Electronic regulator
Figure 24: Front face of an electronic regulator

Recent types of regulators use digital technology.
The fact that the links with the measuring instruments and regulation valves are made
using analogue signals (4-20 mA) means that analogue-to-digital and digital-to-analogue
(D-A and A-D) inputs-outputs (I/O are required).
The figure above shows the different commands and indicators that can be accessed on
the front face of a regulator.

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Two types of digital regulator are available:

Single or double loop with control and adjustment on the front face
Multi-loop with control and adjustment carried out in a remote station
Digital technology provides numerous possibilities:
Input signal processing (square-root extraction, measurement filtering,
linearization, etc.).
Possibility of having several inputs.
Choice of input signal (current, voltage, frequency, thermo-electric couple,
platinum probe, etc.).
Scaling (value and format) of the indicators.
Choice of the type of alarm, either on the measurement or on the deviation.
Precise display of data such as actions, limits, etc.
Automatic balancing (manual to auto transitions, etc.).
Choice of derived mode, either on the measurement, or on the deviation.
Setpoint value tracking: in manual position, the setpoint value follows the
measurement.
Self-adaptation of the PID actions.
A distinction is made between:
Self-regulating regulators which calculate the PID actions at a given operating
point, on the basis of human intervention.
Self-adapting regulators, which permanently calculate and adjust the parameters
of their algorithm (PID or other) according to how the process evolves.
A digital link makes it possible to link the regulator and make it communicate with
other instruments such as: supervisor, calculator or other regulators.
The digital regulator is an analogue regulator but with additional functions at the level of
measurement signal processing.

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In fact, it has an analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) and a digital-to-analogue converter

(DAC) which makes it possible to receive the standard electrical signal (4-20 mA)
delivered by the sensor-transmitter, it processes it digitally and then transmits an analogue
type signal to an adjustment device (e.g. regulation valve).
This feature allows it to process the measurement information faster than an analogue
regulator can.
We have said earlier on that it could be on a local control desk (front face of the desk) and
also that it could in a control system or a PLC with supervisor. Nowadays, to achieve this,
all centralized control and PLC systems include processors with a regulator's basic and
complex algorithms.
Which is equivalent to saying that in these systems, we declare each PID algorithm that
we want directly in the software.
This is the most commonly used way these days, because it is very simple: you just have
to take the input and output you want, declare them in the algorithm block of a regulator
designed for that purpose, it's as simple as that!
The operator has direct access to the regulator on his mimic views with all the possible
commands (manual, automatic, etc.).
Figure 25: Example of an ABB local digital regulator

Page 32 / 75

Figure 26: Example of a digital regulator on a control system
4.5. REGULATOR ACTION DIRECTION

4.5.1. Definition
A process is direct when its output varies in the same direction as its input. In a regulator,
the measurement is considered to be an input E. If it varies in the opposite direction, the
process is said to be inverse.
Figure 27: Definition of the action direction

Page 33 / 75

4.5.2. Choice of regulator action direction

If the process is direct: the regulator's action direction must be set to inverse
If the process is inverse: the regulator's action direction must be set to direct
Figure 28: Action of the regulator with a direct process
Figure 29: Action of the regulator with an inverse process

Remark:
In order to have a stable system in a regulation loop, the regulator must act in such a way
that it opposes an unwanted variation of the variable X.
If X increases, the regulator + process pair must tend to make it decrease.
Figure 30: Action direction of the regulator and of the process in a closed loop

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5. REGULATOR ALGORITHMS
We have seen in the structure of the regulator that there is a corrector, and this corrector is
going to allow us to make adjustments that will in turn allow us to act on the
measured/setpoint value difference (also called "static error").
These adjustments are made by means of the following three regulator actions:
Proportional action P: the error is multiplied by a gain K
Integral action I: the error is integrated over a time interval Ti
Derived action D: the error is derived over a time Td
Each of the regulator's actions therefore corresponds to an algorithm.
By associating these three algorithms in different ways, they will enable the regulator to
adjust a process to a setpoint value that we want, by managing to compensate all the
possible disturbances.
5.1. PROPORTIONAL ACTION

5.1.1. Definition
Regulator output Y is proportional to the difference between the measured value and the
setpoint value (W-X). The proportional action makes it possible to speed up the process's
response because it instantaneously corrects any deviation in the variable to be adjusted.
In order to reduce the adjustment difference (W-X) and make the process faster, we
increase the gain (we reduce the proportional band).
Take care, if this action is too great, you will risk having instability in the regulation loop
(oscillations).
Proportional action regulators are used when you want to adjust a parameter whose
precision is not important.
For example: to adjust the level in a storage tank
Terms used:
BP or Xp: Proportional band as a %
K or Kp: Gain
Y: Regulator command signal sent to the device being adjusted (e.g.: regulation valve).
Page 35 / 75

5.1.2. Presentation
The regulator's command Y is proportional to the static error (W - X), insofar as possible
(Y cannot be negative, or have a value higher than 100).
In the proportional part, called the proportional band, we have: B p =
100
K
The proportional band Bp therefore represents the variation in the measured/setpoint value
difference as a % which produces a 100% variation in the regulator's output signal.
The gain K represents the ratio between the output variation and the input variation.
The setpoint value W, the measured value X and the proportional band Bp, are expressed
as a % of the full scale.
Figure 31: Diagram of the proportional band according to the regulator's output
Depending on the sites, people use different terms: you will hear the words 'gain' or
'proportional band' used.
Example of calculations:
I take my regulator's parameters and I see that:
The level measurement is X=10%
Page 36 / 75

The setpoint value is W= 15%

My valve command is Y=50%
We are now going to return to my regulator's proportional band and do some small
calculations.
To begin with, let's calculate the set/measured value difference (W - X)
W - X = 15 10 = 5%
And then we can deduce the proportional band Bp
If we want to have the gain K:
We therefore have a gain K = 0.1

Page 37 / 75

5.1.3. Operation
At the time of a variation in the setpoint value's step, the process has a response that
looks like this:
Figure 32: Unit-step response of a proportional action process

We are now going to see how to determine the operating point. The regulation of a
process can be represented by the figure below. The regulator and the process each
define a static characteristic.
In the case of stable operation, the operating point in steady state belongs to two curves.
The operating point therefore corresponds to the intersection of these two curves.
From this construction, we can deduce the value of the static error (W-Xs), and the value
of the regulator's command in steady state Ys.

Page 38 / 75

Figure 33: Proportional regulation in closed-loop operation
Figure 34: Determining the operating point
5.1.4. Influence of the proportional band
Figure 35: Influence of the proportional band in static behaviour

Page 39 / 75

Static behaviour (operation in steady state): we can see in graph-form that the smaller
the proportional band is, the smaller the error (W-X) will be in steady state.
In the figure, Xp1 < Xp2
Here the process's response in static is the green curve.
The red and blue curves show the change of value in the proportional band and therefore
its influence on the process.
Dynamic behaviour (operation in transient state): the smaller the proportional band is, the
shorter the system's response time will be.
In fact, for a given error, the command delivered is greater than with a larger proportional
band.
If the proportional band comes close to 0, the system becomes unstable.
In fact, On/Off operation corresponds to a nil proportional band (see On/Off regulation
chapter).
Figure 36: Influence of the proportional band in dynamic behaviour

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Figure 37: Example of adjustment of the proportional action
5.1.5. Band shift

More generally speaking, the formula linking output Y from the regulator to the difference
between the measured value and the setpoint value is: Y = K (W - X) + Yo
Where Yo is the band shift or bias to be adjusted on the regulator.
Where K has become a positive constant, the +/- sign will give us the regulator's action
direction.
This shift will allow us to choose the operating point and, depending on the manufacturers,
the P type regulators can be designed for the following operating conditions:
let Yo = 0 ; we when talk of an off-centre proportional band, because the
adjustment zone is completely to the left or right of the setpoint value.
let Yo = 50% ; we when talk of a centred proportional band, because the
adjustment zone is evenly spread on each side of the setpoint value.
let Yo be adjustable.
So, for an inverse action regulator we
have the characteristic shown in this
figure:
Figure 38: Band shift characteristic

Page 41 / 75

5.1.6. Influence of band shift
Figure 39: Influence of band shift on the static error

We can see that with a good choice of band shift value, you can very significantly reduce
the static error. The influence on the behaviour in transient state mainly depends on the
static characteristic.
We can deduce from this that, in electronics, a proportional action corrector is a simple
amplifier-phase shifter.
5.1.7. Functional representation of a proportional regulation

In the case of an inverse action regulation, the figure below represents a regulator in
proportional operation.
Kp = corrector gain
Yo = band shift
Figure 40: Functional representation of a proportional action regulation on its own

Page 42 / 75

5.2. INTEGRAL ACTION

The role of integral action is to eliminate the static error. However, increasing the integral
action produces instability. In industry, action I will be used whenever, for technical
reasons, we need perfect precision.
Example: pressure or temperature regulation in a nuclear reactor.
If the process itself includes an integrator (e.g. level), action I is all the same necessary to
cancel out the disturbance deviation because, further to variations in the setpoint value,
the usefulness of I is slighter as the deviation cancels itself out naturally.
Furthermore, it must be underlined that action I is a filter, it is therefore worthwhile using it
for adjusting dynamic parameters such as pressure.
Action I completes the proportional action, which gives us a PI regulator.
5.2.1. What is an integral action?

We want:
an action that changes over time;
an action that tends to cancel out the static error.
This function is fulfilled by the mathematical operator: 'integral with respect to time'. So, in
a regulator, we define the integral action from one of the two parameters Ti or Ki with:
1
Ki =
Ti
where:
Ti is the integral time, defined in time units [sec, minutes] or as a number of repetitions per
minute (rep/min).
Ki the integral gain, defined as strokes per time unit.
5.2.2. Operation
In order to study the influence of integral action, we shall look at the response of the onestep integral modulus. The greater Ki is (the smaller Ti is), the more the value of output Y
increases quickly. Time Ti is the time required for command Y to increase by the input
value E = W - X.

Page 43 / 75

Figure 41: Influence of Ki on the command Y signal
5.2.3. Eliminating the integral action

There are several solutions for cancelling out the integral action, depending on the
regulator. If you set the integral action by means of the gain Ki, you just have to set Ki to
zero. In cases where the integral gain is set by means of the time Ti, there are two
solutions:
set Ti to zero, if that is possible;
set Ti to its maximum value and the "supp." message will be displayed on the
regulator's screen.
For regulators on a control desk, everything depends on the manufacturer. For softwarecontrolled regulators (DCS or PLC), you just have to deactivate the integral action.
5.2.4. Combined PI action
Figure 42: Combined PI action

Page 44 / 75

Integral action repeats the effect of the proportional action, until the difference between the
measured and setpoint values is nil. It integrates the W-X difference as a function of time.
Here we can see the behaviour of the output signal Y from the open loop regulator with a
PI regulator.
This little example makes it possible to observe the behaviour of the regulator's output
signal.
At time T = 0: we see that the measurement = the setpoint value (W = X).
T = Ti = 1 min
K=1
5.2.5. Influence of the integral time parameter

Static behaviour: whatever the value of the integral action, the static error is nil (if the
process is stable).
Dynamic behaviour: in the case of a unit-step response such as shown below, the
smaller Ti is the closer the process will get to instability.
Figure 43: Influence of the integration time in a closed loop

Page 45 / 75

Figure 44: Example of PI regulator setting
5.3. DERIVED ACTION

5.3.1. What is a derived action?
A derived action compensates for the effects of the process's dead time. It has a stabilizing
effect.
The presence of a derived action makes it possible to speed up the process. In industry, a
derived action is never used on its own, but in general with an integral action. We
recommend that it should be used for setting slow parameters such as temperature.
In practice, a derived action is applied to the variations in the measured value and not to
the difference between the measured and setpoint values in order to avoid any juddering
due to sudden variations in the setpoint value.
It is not recommended for setting a variable subject to noise or that is too dynamic (e.g.
pressure). By deriving a noise, its amplitude could become greater than that of the useful
signal.
Its action opposes the integral action. This function is fulfilled by the mathematical
operator: 'derive with respect to time'.
5.3.2. Operation
In order to study the influence of the derived action, we will look at the response of the
derived modulus to a ramp. The greater Td is, the larger the value of output Y will be. Time
Td is the time for which input E increases by the value of output Y.
Page 46 / 75

Figure 45: Influence of derived time Td on regulator output Y

It therefore makes it possible to increase the regulation speed by giving opening and
closing pulses to the regulator's output signal.
The derived time Td is expressed in minutes.
Figure 46: Output signal from the regulator submitted to a derived action
The figure above allows us to see the shape of the regulator's output signal submitted to a
derived action.
These pulses on output signal Y are called "Dirac peaks". We can see that they act quickly
on the measured value X.

Page 47 / 75

5.3.3. Influence of the derived time parameter

Static behaviour: no influence.
Dynamic behaviour: the greater the derived time Td, the faster the process will be.
Figure 47: Influence of derived time Td in a closed loop
Figure 48: Example of PD regulator adjustment

Page 48 / 75

5.3.4. Combined PID action

In general, the regulator does not function with a pure derived action (too unstable). It
functions as a Proportional Integral Derived (PID) corrector.
This is the most commonly used type of algorithm. In general it is available on most of the
regulators currently used (PID regulators). It makes it possible to stabilize the measured
value on the set point in the shortest possible time.
Figure 49: Output signal from the regulator with three combined actions
The figure above allows us to see how the regulator output signal Y evolves with three
combined regulator actions: P + I + D.
5.3.5. Summary of the PID actions
Figure 50: Unit-step response of each action of a regulator and of each of its
PI, PD and PID combinations
Page 49 / 75

5.3.6. Advantages and drawbacks
Regulator action
Advantages
Dynamic
Proportional
Precise
Stable
Drawbacks
It does not cancel out the static error

Permanent residual deviation
Surging if the proportional band is
too narrow
Slow action
Integral
Cancels out the static error

Slows down the process
Sensitivity to noise
Derived
Very dynamic and faster action
Serious loading of the command

device
Faster than proportional on its own.

Proportional
+
Integral
No difference between the

measured and setpoint values
whatever the variation in the
disturbances
Surging if the integral action is too

predominating
Anticipates
Fast
Proportional
+
Integral
+
Derived
Precise
No deviation of the variable to be
adjusted
Surging if the derived action is too

strong
Limits the amplitude and length of

the adjusted variable's variation
Table 4: Advantages and drawbacks of PID actions

Page 50 / 75

5.4. THE VARIOUS STRUCTURES OF A PID REGULATOR

5.4.1. How to determine the internal structure of a PID regulator
To determine the structure of a regulator, you must isolate the process (do whatever is
necessary to ensure it does not act on the measurement) and run it in automatic mode.
You then just have to follow the flow chart below (observe the regulator's command Y in
response to a measured value step X or a setpoint value step W). You should use the
following values to make the measurement easier:
Figure 51: Determining the internal structure of a PID regulator

Page 51 / 75

5.4.2. Series structure

This is the internal structure found in the oldest types of regulator, because it was already
used in pneumatic regulators. It can be considered as a variant in the combined structure
that we are going to see in the paragraph below.
Figure 52: Series structure
5.4.3. Combined structure

This is the most widespread internal structure for local regulators that use electronic or
digital technology.
Figure 53: Combined structure
5.4.4. Parallel structure

This is the simplest structure, because the three basic corrections are independent. Digital
command/control systems nearly always use it.
Figure 54: Parallel structure

Page 52 / 75

Figure 55: Electronic schematization of a // PID regulator
Equation: S = Gr (M - C) + So
PI
(series)
Equation: S = Gr (M C ) +

Gr
Ti
(M C )dt S
Page 53 / 75

PD
(series)
Equation: S = G (M C ) + Gr Td
PID
(series)
Equation:
T + Td Gr
+
S = Gr (M C ) i
T
i
Ti
d (M C )
+ Gr Td
+ S0
dt
d (( M C )
+ S0'
dt
(M C )dt
Table 5: Summary of the different types of regulator structure

In a PID regulator, there are several ways of associating the P, I and D parameters. The
response of a regulator to a measurement step has the same shape whatever the
regulator's structure.
However, you must know the regulator's structure in order to determine the actions of a
regulator by calculation, in order to fine-tune a regulation loop.

Page 54 / 75

6. DETERMINING A REGULATOR'S ACTIONS

Most books dedicated to automatic regulation include a wealth of mathematical
developments. These are essential if you want to study the behaviour of servo and
regulation systems, the influence of the various disturbances, the effectiveness of the
adjustments, etc.
In order to implement all these tools, you must have a mathematical model of the process
you want to control. To obtain this model, you can start from the laws governing the
physical-chemistry phenomena, in particular the laws of chemistry, heat transfer,
mechanics, hydraulics, aerodynamics, fluid mechanics, etc.
From there, it is possible to describe any operating process in the form of a set of
mathematical equations.
By solving those equations, it will then be possible to know how the process will rea ct to a
modification in one of its inputs or to the arrival of an external disturbance.
By knowing this behaviour, it is possible to define the regulator's characteristics that will
make it possible to control the process as finely as possible.
Unfortunately, there is a gulf between theory and practice. The mathematical descriptions
of the processes are often very complex and require considerable skills in highly different
disciplines. Furthermore, even if these equations were established, you would have to
know the values of the various parameters that they include (calorific capacities,
viscosities, Reynolds number, etc.). A colossal task!!
So much so that, except in some mechanical processes, these mathematical studies
cannot reach any satisfactory conclusion.
Several other techniques can be used to calculate the parameters for regulators, all of
them based on experimental tests:
The Ziegler and Nichols method: this requires the observation of the process's
response and knowledge of the regulator's structure. This method makes it
possible to calculate the PID actions, without having to determine the process.
By identification of the process: if you know the process's parameters and the
regulator's structure, you can calculate the actions. This method requires a highspeed recorder. It is used, preferably, for high-inertia processes (e.g. oven
temperature regulation).
By successive approximations: this technique consists of modifying the actions
and observing the effects for the recorded measurement, until the optimum
response is obtained.

Page 55 / 75

6.1. ZIEGLER AND NICHOLS METHOD

The Ziegler and Nichols method consists of placing the regulation loop in continuous
oscillation. By using the Gain Grc, which you have used to obtain this oscillation, and the
period T of that oscillation, it is possible to choose the regulator's adjustment parameters.
This method can be used for stable and unstable process.
Regul.
mode
Actions
PI
Series
PI
Parallel
PID
Series
PID
Parallel
PID
Combined
G rc
G rc
2,2
2,2
G rc
3,3
G rc
1,7
G rc
1,7
0,85T
G rc
T G rc
13,3
T
8
Gr
G rc
2
Ti
Max
T
1,2
2T
G rc
Td
Table 6: Ziegler and Nichols parameters according to the regulator's structure

Two variants are proposed for this method, one for open-loop regulation and the other for
closed-loop regulation.
In the closed-loop method, we only use the proportional command to excite the loop until it
starts to oscillate. This is done by applying a disturbance of the step type to the load.
Starting from the critical gain value obtained (Grc) or the proportional band, which made it
possible to obtain the undamped oscillation, and the value of the oscillation period T, you
can deduce the regulator's optimum adjustment values. The coefficients to be applied
depend on the regulator's structure.
For a series PI regulator, the proportional band must be 2.2 times the band producing the
undamped oscillation and the integration time equal to 0.83 times the undamped
oscillation's period; for a combined PID regulator, the proportional band must be 1.66
times the band producing the undamped oscillation, and the integration and derived times
must respectively be 1/2 and 1/8 of the undamped oscillation's period.
In general, these adjustments give acceptable results, but they are not efficient for all the
processes under all conditions.
Page 56 / 75

Firstly, they are deduced from the Ziegler and Nichols optimum behaviour criterion,
defined from the maximum amplitude of the controlled variable and its establishment time
(the choice of parameters varies greatly from one process to another).
Furthermore, the method consists of applying a step-type disturbance to the load when
excitations of the pulse, ramp or sine type are better suited in certain cases.
Generally speaking, this method is not suitable for fast loops (flow rates for example) and
processes with long delays. However, it can be used for stable and unstable processes.
6.1.1. Response of the open-loop process

Most adjustment parameter calculation methods consist of doing calculation on the openloop process's response curves, further to application of a step. The response curve in the
figure below is more or less S-shaped, depending on the process.
Figure 56: Unit-step response of an open-loop process to a step

In any case, we consider the linear zone where the response curve is at its steepest, we
draw a straight line "fitting" this linear zone and we look at this straight's intersection point
on the x-axis (time axis): we thus define time Tu.
We then define time Tg as being the time it takes the variable being controlled to vary by
the same amplitude as the regulator's output, this being done at the maximum variation
(you must therefore use the straight line drawn above).
These two parameters then make it possible to define the regulators adjustment by using
the table below:

Page 57 / 75

Values recommended by Ziegler & Nichols

Regulator
P
Adjustment parameters
Gr =
TG
TU
G r = 0,9
PI
TG
TU
Ti = 3,3TU
G r = 1,27
PID
TG
TU
Ti = 2TU
Td = 0,5TU
Table 7: Ziegler & Nichols parameters depending on the regulator's actions
6.2. STABLE PROCESS IDENTIFICATION METHOD

This approach consists of using the one-step response curve to "identify" the process. The
purpose of identification is to look for the transfer function, that is to say a mathematical
model representing the most faithfully possible the process's behaviour, whether in static
or dynamic mode. The search for the parameters of the model's transfer function is carried
out using the recording of the process's input (command) and output (measurement)
signals.
When it is very precisely known, this transfer function makes it possible to determine in the
optimum way the adjustment actions for the regulator controlling the process, so as to
ensure the stability of the system and control of the variable to be adjusted.
The real transfer function of an industrial process is practically impossible to determine,
because in general industrial processes are not linear over their whole operating range.
This is why we limit ourselves to slight variations around one operating point (and we
consider that the process is linear).

Page 58 / 75

6.2.1. Strejc method

Strejc considers a stable process and assimilates the process's unit-step response (further
to the application of a step excitation) with the response of a process of the nth order (in
the mathematical senses of the term) with a pure delay.
By analyzing the shape of the "S" of the process's unit-step response and evaluating the
Tu and Tg, parameters in the charts we can determine the values to be assigned to the PID
actions.
The Strejc method makes it possible to "stick" with a certain degree of precision to the
process's unit-step response.
6.2.2. Broda method

Like Strejc, Broda deals with stable processes, and proceeds to identify an open loop, but
he simplifies by considering that the "S" shape can be assimilated with a first order
mathematical function with a time constant, associated with a pure delay:
The mathematical function that we have just described above is therefore the transfer
function of the process to be identified.
GS: static gain

: delay time
: time constant
Figure 57: The process's unit-step response according to the mathematical model
To identify the process, we must therefore manage to determine the time constant and the
delay time.

Page 59 / 75

6.2.2.1. Identifying the open-loop process
Figure 58: Unit-step response of the open-loop process submitted to one step
Broda therefore makes the S-shaped unit-step response correspond with the first order
function at two points on the y-axis, respectively 28% and 40%, for which he notes the
times T1 and T2.
He obtains: G S =
C
M
= 5,5(T2 T1 )
= 2,8T1 1,8T2
6.2.2.2. Identification in a closed loop

The regulator is in the automatic position, and the integral and derived actions are
inhibited.
Figure 59: Unit-step response of the closed-loop process subjected to one step

Page 60 / 75

Two tests are required for this method.

We start by looking for the static gain Gs. To do that, we set a gain (Gr) on the
regulator and we apply a setpoint value step C: the measurement varies by M
and, after stabilization, there remains a difference e between the measured and
the setpoint values.
The static gain is given by: G S =
M
Gr
The purpose of the second test is to look for the and parameters. For this
test, the regulation loop must be placed in continuous oscillation. Let T be the
period of the oscillations and Grc the critical gain to be applied to obtain those
oscillations.
Figure 60: Gain Grc to make the loop oscillate

The and parameters are then given by:

Page 61 / 75

Once we have completed these two tests to obtain the parameters being sought for the
process, we can deduce the regulator actions from them using the table below:
Regul
modes
PI
Series
PI
Parallel
PID
Series
Gr
0.8
GS
0.8
GS
0.8
GS
0.85
G S
Ti
Max.
GS
0,8
Td
Actions
PID
Parallel
PID
Combined
+ 0,4
+ 0,4
1.2 G S
1.2 G S
GS
0.75
+ 0.4
0. 4
0.35
GS

+ 2.5
Table 8: Broda parameters according to the regulator's structure

The choice of regulation mode is linked to the adjustability of the process, determined by
the ratio / .
If / is comprised between 10 and 20: P regulation
If / is comprised between 5 and 10: PI regulation
If / is comprised between 2 and 5: PID regulation
If / is greater than 20: On/Off regulation
If / is lower than 2: limit of the PID algorithm in a single loop (you will have to
use multiple loops or correctors).

Page 62 / 75

6.3. UNSTABLE PROCESS IDENTIFICATION METHOD

The identification methods also apply to unstable processes. There too, assumptions have
to be made on the process's transfer function.
The simplest, is when we consider that the process follows the model of a pure integrator
(with an integration constant K) associated with a delay :
6.3.1. Identification in an open loop

Given the unstable nature of the process, care must be taken when using this method.
Figure 61: Unstable process identification in an open loop

We apply a step excitation C and we observe the evolution of the measurement. The
delay is given by the time that elapses between the moment the step is applied and the
moment when the measurement begins to change.
To obtain the integration constant K, you must measure the slope of the measurement
variation as a function of time (M/t); from there, we can deduce K:

Page 63 / 75

6.3.2. Identification in a closed loop

The regulation loop must be put into continuous oscillation for
this method.
Figure 62: Gain Grc for putting the process into oscillation
Let Grc be the critical gain making it possible to obtain these oscillations, and let T be the
period of the oscillations obtained. The values K and are given by the following formulas:
Regul.
modes
PI
Series
PI
Parallel
PID
Series
PID
Parallel
PID
Combined
Gr
0,8
K
0,8
K
0,8
K
0,85
K
0,9
K
0,9
K
Ti
Maxi
K
0,15
4,8
K
0,15
5,2
Td
0,4
0,35
K
0,4
Actions
Table 9: Unstable process parameters according to the regulator's structure

The choice of regulation mode is linked to the adjustability of the process determined by
the product K.
If K. is comprised between 0.05 and 0.1: P regulation
If K. is comprised between 0.1 and 0.2: PI regulation
If K. is comprised between 0.2 and 0.5: PID regulation
If K. is lower than 0.05: On/Off regulation
If K. is higher than 0.5: limit of the PID as a single loop. You must use multiple
loops.
Page 64 / 75

6.4. THE ADJUSTOR METHOD (BY SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATIONS)

This is a method that does not obey the general rules. The regulator is adjusted in small
steps.
With the system functioning in a closed loop around the set point:
in proportional regulation, we look for the correct proportional band by observing
the system's response to a setpoint value step
Figure 63: Adjusting the proportional band
in proportional integral regulation, we look for the correct integral time by

observing the system's response to a setpoint value step
Figure 64: Adjusting the integral time

Page 65 / 75

in proportional integral derived regulation, we look for the correct derived time
by observing the system's response to a setpoint value step
Figure 65: Adjusting the derived time

Page 66 / 75

7. THE REGULATION LOOP

7.1. SINGLE-LOOP REGULATION
Obviously, we will use at least one closed loop, all the more so if there is no other variable
disturbing the process besides the correction variable.
7.1.1. Simple regulation loop

This is the regulation that we have been studying until now. The measured value is
compared with the setpoint value so that we can calculate the command signal. The
greater the dead time the less suitable this type of regulation will be.
7.2. MULTI-LOOP REGULATION

In the case where several disturbance variables have been identified, we will use a closed
loop as the main loop in which one or more open loops are nested. Each of these open
loops intervenes in the closed loop by means of a calculated corrector (generally a
summer).
7.2.1. The different types of multi-loop regulation

7.2.1.1. Cascade Regulation
Cascade regulation consists of two nested loops. The system can be broken down into two
subsystems linked by a measurable intermediate variable.
The first loop the slave loop uses this intermediate variable as its adjusted variable.
The adjusted value of the second loop the master loop is the adjusted value of the
cascade regulation and it commands the setpoint value of the slave regulation.
Figure 66: Principle of a cascade regulation loop

Page 67 / 75

Example of use:
Cascade regulation can be used to regulate a level.
The slave loop is the regulation of the tank's supply flow rate.
This type of regulation is justified when you have a great deal of system inertia with
respect to a disturbance on the correction variable, or on an intermediate variable.
You must first of all adjust the inner loop, and then the outer loop with the slave regulator
closed.
Figure 67: Example of a cascade regulation loop
7.2.1.2. Ratio regulation

We use ratio regulation when we want a constant ratio between two adjusted variables X1
and X2 (X2/X1 = constant).
In the example below, the control variable X1 is used to calculate the setpoint value of the
loop regulating variable X2.
Figure 68: Principle of a ratio regulation loop

Page 68 / 75

Example of use:
You can use a ratio regulation to establish the air/gas ratio of a boiler combustion
regulation.
Figure 69: Example of a ratio regulation loop
7.2.1.3. Feedforward regulation (combined)

We use the measurement of a disturbance to compensate for its effects on the adjusted
variable.
The operator may be a simple gain, an advance/delay modulus or a more complex type of
operator.
This type of loop is useful when a disturbance weighs heavily on the system and the
measurement does not vary quickly following that disturbance.
Figure 70: Principle of a feedforward regulation loop

Page 69 / 75

Example of use:
Figure 71: Example of a feedforward regulation loop

In this temperature regulation, the measurement of the heated liquid's flow rate makes it
possible to anticipate the fall of temperature caused by an increase in the water's flow rate.
7.2.1.4. Split-Range regulation

We use split-range regulation when we want to control the process by means of two
different adjustment devices.
These adjustment devices may have antagonistic effects of the hot-cold type.
Figure 72: Principle of a split-range regulation loop

Example of use:
To avoid cavitation problems, we use two regulation valves with different flow rate
capacities (Cv).
One valve will be used to control the high flow rates, and the other for the low flow rates.

Page 70 / 75

Figure 73: Example of a split-range regulation loop

With this regulation, the two adjustment devices are controlled by a single command
delivered by the regulator.
There are two possible solutions:
We perform a shift of the zeros
and 100% of the valves so that
the first one opens at 0% and
closes at 50% of the signal, the
second will be closed until 50%
and will then open at 100% of
the signal.
Figure 74: Example with two valves
adjusted with a shift for the Split
range
Or we use a calculation block
splitting the command into two
signals, with each signal
commanding an analogue
output. The valves are adjusted
in a standard way, and no longer
shifted, which simplifies
maintenance.
Figure 75: Example with a calculation
block without valve shifting for the
Split range

Page 71 / 75

7.2.1.5. On/Off regulation

This mode of action is essentially discontinuous. A lower limit and upper limit must be set
in order to use this type of regulation.
When the measurement reaches the lower limit, the actuator goes to a particular position
(On or Off for a pump, Open or Closed for a valve). Likewise, the fact of reaching the
upper limit places the actuator in the opposing position.
The measurement therefore oscillates between two extreme values and its variation takes
a sawtooth shape. This simple adjustment is cheap, but has the drawback of not being
very precise.
Furthermore, this system can only be used on installations that have a sufficiently high
degree of inertia to cause a low frequency oscillation so as not to load the command
devices too often, which would shorten their operating life.
I would say that this type of regulation is, in a way, like that used for temperature
regulation in a house with electric heating.
The thermostat is in fact the On/Off regulator and the actuator is the radiator.
Figure 76: Shape of the measurement signal with On/Off regulation

The regulator output Y is either 0 or 1.

Page 72 / 75

8. LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Regulation chain schematic diagram ....................................................................7
Figure 2: Unit-step response in process regulation..............................................................8
Figure 3: Unit-step response in process slaving ..................................................................8
Figure 4: Closed-loop regulation schematic diagram ...........................................................9
Figure 5: Example of closed-loop regulation......................................................................10
Figure 6: Example of open-loop regulation ........................................................................11
Figure 7: Schematic diagram of a stable process ..............................................................13
Figure 8: Example of a stable process...............................................................................14
Figure 9: Functional diagram of an unstable process ........................................................15
Figure 10: Example of an unstable process.......................................................................15
Figure 11: Functional diagram of an integrator type process .............................................16
Figure 12: Transient and steady states..............................................................................16
Figure 13: Example of a heat exchanger ...........................................................................17
Figure 14: Response of a stable process to a step............................................................18
Figure 15: Response to an unstable process step.............................................................19
Figure 16: Static characteristic of a process ......................................................................20
Figure 17: Dynamic response of a closed-loop process ....................................................21
Figure 18: Regulator structure ...........................................................................................23
Figure 19: Detailed structure of the regulator.....................................................................24
Figure 20: Example of measuring instrument identification on a PID diagram...................27
Figure 21: Example of regulator identification on a PID diagram .......................................27
Figure 22: Example of a pneumatic regulator ....................................................................28
Figure 23: Pneumatic regulator measurement pointer .......................................................29
Figure 24: Front face of an electronic regulator .................................................................30
Figure 25: Example of an ABB local digital regulator .........................................................32
Figure 26: Example of a digital regulator on a control system ...........................................33
Figure 27: Definition of the action direction........................................................................33
Figure 28: Action of the regulator with a direct process .....................................................34
Figure 29: Action of the regulator with an inverse process ................................................34
Figure 30: Action direction of the regulator and of the process in a closed loop ................34
Figure 31: Diagram of the proportional band according to the regulator's output ..............36
Figure 32: Unit-step response of a proportional action process.........................................38
Figure 33: Proportional regulation in closed-loop operation...............................................39
Figure 34: Determining the operating point........................................................................39
Figure 35: Influence of the proportional band in static behaviour.......................................39
Figure 36: Influence of the proportional band in dynamic behaviour..................................40
Figure 37: Example of adjustment of the proportional action .............................................41
Figure 38: Band shift characteristic....................................................................................41
Figure 39: Influence of band shift on the static error..........................................................42
Figure 40: Functional representation of a proportional action regulation on its own ..........42
Figure 41: Influence of Ki on the command Y signal ..........................................................44
Figure 42: Combined PI action ..........................................................................................44
Figure 43: Influence of the integration time in a closed loop ..............................................45
Figure 44: Example of PI regulator setting.........................................................................46
Figure 45: Influence of derived time Td on regulator output Y ...........................................47
Page 73 / 75

Figure 46: Output signal from the regulator submitted to a derived action.........................47
Figure 47: Influence of derived time Td in a closed loop....................................................48
Figure 48: Example of PD regulator adjustment ................................................................48
Figure 49: Output signal from the regulator with three combined actions ..........................49
Figure 50: Unit-step response of each action of a regulator and of each of its PI, PD and
PID combinations........................................................................................................49
Figure 51: Determining the internal structure of a PID regulator........................................51
Figure 52: Series structure.................................................................................................52
Figure 53: Combined structure ..........................................................................................52
Figure 54: Parallel structure...............................................................................................52
Figure 55: Electronic schematization of a // PID regulator .................................................53
Figure 56: Unit-step response of an open-loop process to a step......................................57
Figure 57: The process's unit-step response according to the mathematical model..........59
Figure 58: Unit-step response of the open-loop process submitted to one step ................60
Figure 59: Unit-step response of the closed-loop process subjected to one step ..............60
Figure 60: Gain Grc to make the loop oscillate ...................................................................61
Figure 61: Unstable process identification in an open loop................................................63
Figure 62: Gain Grc for putting the process into oscillation.................................................64
Figure 63: Adjusting the proportional band ........................................................................65
Figure 64: Adjusting the integral time ................................................................................65
Figure 65: Adjusting the derived time ................................................................................66
Figure 66: Principle of a cascade regulation loop ..............................................................67
Figure 67: Example of a cascade regulation loop ..............................................................68
Figure 68: Principle of a ratio regulation loop.....................................................................68
Figure 69: Example of a ratio regulation loop ....................................................................69
Figure 70: Principle of a feedforward regulation loop.........................................................69
Figure 71: Example of a feedforward regulation loop ........................................................70
Figure 72: Principle of a split-range regulation loop...........................................................70
Figure 73: Example of a split-range regulation loop...........................................................71
Figure 74: Example with two valves adjusted with a shift for the Split range .....................71
Figure 75: Example with a calculation block without valve shifting for the Split range .......71
Figure 76: Shape of the measurement signal with On/Off regulation.................................72

Page 74 / 75

9. LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: A stable process's response parameters .............................................................18
Table 2: An unstable process's response parameters .......................................................19
Table 3: Symbols used on regulators ................................................................................26
Table 4: Advantages and drawbacks of PID actions..........................................................50
Table 5: Summary of the different types of regulator structure ..........................................54
Table 6: Ziegler and Nichols parameters according to the regulator's structure ................56
Table 7: Ziegler & Nichols parameters depending on the regulator's actions ....................58
Table 8: Broda parameters according to the regulator's structure ....................................62
Table 9: Unstable process parameters according to the regulator's structure ...................64

Page 75 / 75

The Regulator and Its Functions

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The Regulator and Its Functions

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INSTRUMENTATION MAINTENANCE

THE REGULATOR AND ITS FUNCTIONS

Field Operations Training

Field Operations Training

5.1.1. Definition .........................................................................................................35

Field Operations Training

9. LIST OF TABLES ..........................................................................................................75

Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI070-EN

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Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI070-EN

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Setting or control device

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Figure 1: Regulation chain schematic diagram

Field Operations Training

The instrumentation specialist is subjected to the manufacturing process, but he 'chooses'

2.2.1. Behaviour in terms of regulation

Figure 2: Unit-step response in process regulation

2.2.2. Behaviour in terms of slaving

Figure 3: Unit-step response in process slaving

Field Operations Training

2.3. CLOSED-LOOP REGULATION

Figure 4: Closed-loop regulation schematic diagram

2.3.1. Operating principle

Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI070-EN

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Figure 5: Example of closed-loop regulation

Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI070-EN

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2.4. OPEN-LOOP REGULATION

2.4.1. Operating principle

Figure 6: Example of open-loop regulation

Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI070-EN

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Unlike closed-loop slaving, open-loop control makes it possible to anticipate the

Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI070-EN

Field Operations Training

3. THE PROCESS AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS

Figure 7: Schematic diagram of a stable process

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3.1.1.2. Example of a stable process

Figure 8: Example of a stable process

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3.1.2. Naturally unstable process

Figure 9: Functional diagram of an unstable process

3.1.2.2. Example of an unstable process

Figure 10: Example of an unstable process

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Figure 11: Functional diagram of an integrator type process

3.2. PROCESS RESPONSE PARAMETERS

Figure 12: Transient and steady states

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Figure 13: Example of a heat exchanger

Training Manual: EXP-MN-SI070-EN

Field Operations Training

Figure 14: Response of a stable process to a step

Dead time or pure delay

Ratio between the measurement variation M and the corresponding

Table 1: A stable process's response parameters

Field Operations Training

Figure 15: Response to an unstable process step

Dead time or pure delay

The process's characteristic coefficient.

Table 2: An unstable process's response parameters