The Geology of Indonesia/Sumatra

Contributors: A. Pulunggono, B. Situmorang, H. Darman

Sumatra Island is the northwest oriented physiographic
expression, lied on the western edge of Sundaland, a
southern extension of the Eruasian Continental Plate
(Fig. 2.1). The Sumatra Island has an area of about
435,000 km2, measuring 1650 km from Banda Aceh in
the north to Tanjungkarang in the south. Its width is
about 100-200 km in the northern part and about 350 km
in the southern part. The main geographical trendlines
of the island are rather simple. Its backbone is formed
by the Barisan Range which runs along the western side.
This region divides the west and the east coast. The slope
towards the Indian Ocean is generally steep, consequently
the west belt is mostly mountainous, with the exception
of two lowland embayments in north Sumatra which are
about 20 km wide. The eastern belt of the island is covered by broad, hilly tracts of Tertiary formations and alluvium lowlands. At Diamond Point, in Aceh, this low
eastern belt has a width of about 30 km; its width increases to 150-200 km in central and south Sumatra. The
Sumatra island is interpreted to be constructed by collision and suturing of discrete micrcontinents in late PreTectonic setting map of Sumatra
Tertiary times (Pulunggono and Cameron 1984, Barber
1985). At the present-day, the Indian Ocean Plate is being subducted beneath the Eurasian Continental Plate in
a N20o E direction at a rate of between 6 and 7 cm/yr
(Fig. 2.2). This zone of oblique convergence is marked
by the active Sunda Arc-Trench system which extends
for more than 5000 km, from Burma in the north to
where the Australian Plate is in collision with Eastern Indonesia in the south (Hamilton 1979). The basinal conguration of Sumatra is directly related to the presence
of the subduction-induced non-volcanic forearc and the
volcano-plutonic backarc, the morpho-structural backbone of the Island.
In general the region can be divided into 6 regions (Fig.
2.1): 1. Sunda outer-arc ridge, located along the active margin of the Sunda forearc basin and separate it
from the trench slope. 2. Sunda forearc basin, lying
between the accreting non-volcanic outer-arc ridge with
submerged segments, and the volcanic back arc of Sumatra. 3. Sumatra back arc basins including North, Central and South Sumatra basin. The system developed as
distinct depressions at the foot of the Barisan range. 4.
Barisan mountain range, occupies the axial part of the island and is composed mainly of Permo-Carboniferous to
Mesozoic rocks. 5. Sumatra intra-arc or intermontane
basin, separated by subsequent uplift and erosion from
this former depositional area, thus with similar litholo-

gies to the fore-and backarc basins.

1

1 2.1. SUNDA OUTER-ARC RIDGE

2.1.1. NIAS

Geology sketch map of Nias Island

Nias Island is located approximately 125 km o the west

coast of Sumatra (Fig. 2.1) and it has been frequently
cited as a classic model of an accretionary complex (Fig.
2.3). Nias lithologies were divided into two principal
units, the Oyo complex and the Nias Beds (Fig. 2.4).
The contact between the two units has not been observed
in the eld.

2.1.
SUNDA OUTER-ARC
RIDGE

The Sunda non-volcanic outer-arc ridge marks the western margin of the Sunda Forearc Basin of West Sumatra.
This chain of islands and sea-oor rises, between 100 and
150 km o the coast of West Sumatra, forms a structurally controlled topographic ridge nearly 200 km wide
(Karig et al., 1979), that extends from the Andaman Sea
to the southeast of Java. Nias, Simeulue, and Banyak Island lithologies represent the stratigraphy of the Sunda
ourter-arc ridge in genereal. The geology of the Sunda
outer-arc ridge is represented by Nias and Simeulue Island in this chapter.

Modied Nias-Sumatra cross section after Karig et al, 1979

Fig. 2.7. Hypothetical shallow structure across the Sunda

arc in the Nias area. Tectonic positions of subsequent
proles are indicated beneath the section (Karig et al.,
1979)
2.1.1.1. OYO COMPLEX MELANGE

3
The Oyo Complex is described by Moore and Karig
(1980) as a tectonic melange. On Nias, outcrops of Oyo
Complex are seen as isolated blocks and boulders in river
sections, along road sections and coastal exposures. The
Complex is composed of sedimentary blocks, including
conglomerates, sandstones and siltstones, with subordinate mac plutonic rocks, pillow basalts and cherts (Harbury et. al., 1990). Sandstone blocks form the dominant
clast type in the SW part of the island, while pillow basalts
and gabbros form some largest blocks (up to 200 m diameter) cropping out mostly along the west coast of the Nias
Island (Fig. 5). Texturally, the sediment boulders are
sub to mature clastic with mainly subangular to rounded
and well sorted sediments, and are either grain supported
or matrix supported. In the area where the melange is
present, landslips are common to occur and the fresh matrix of the Oyo Complex can be observed. Good outcrop
of melange is exposed in central Nias (Moi River) and
SW Nias. The matrix forms a typical scaly clay, with a
high density of curved, polished shear planes. The age of
the Oyo Complex remains unresolved by paIeontological
analysis.
2.1.1.2. NIAS BEDS
Overlying the Oyo Complex, with probable unconformable contact, are a series of clastic sediments of shallow to deep marine deposits of Nias Beds which are well
exposed along the eastern part of the island (Fig 2.4 &
2.5). It consists of coarse to ne sandstone, conglomerate, mudstone, shale and limestone. The age of the Nias
Beds has been interpreted by previous authors as Early
Miocene-Pliocene. On the contrary, Situmorang & Yulihanto (1992) eldwork indicates that the lower part of the
Nias Beds is Upper Oligocene in age.
2.1.2. SIMEULUE
Simeulue lies slightly o-strike and to the northwest of
Nias (Fig. 2.1). This island shares a broadly comparable geology with Nias, of melange overlain by interbedded sandstone and siltstone sequences, with parts of the
succession dominated by bioclastic limestones. Although
lithological variations do exist, the most notable dierences between the two islands is one of structural style.
2.1.2.1. SIBAU GABBRO GROUP
The oldest rocks exposed on the island are represented
by the Sibau Gabbro Group (Situmorang et al. 1987;
Fig. 2.4)). The Sibau Gabbro Group is composed mainly
of meta-igneous lithologies with predominantly transitional contacts. The ophiolite correlates closely with a
partially dened gravity high in this area indicating that
the basic igneous rocks form a major body, extending
to a depth of several kilometres (J. Milsom, pers. commun. 1990). Lithologies identied within the group include gabbros, meta-dolerite and meta-volcanics, all with
abundant chlorite and pumpellyite suggesting that these
rocks are all low-grade metamorphics. Rock dating suggest that the Sibau Gabbro Group and Baru Melange Formation were metamorphosed between Late Eocene and

Early Oligocene (Harbury & Kallagher, 1991).

2.1.2.2 BARU MELANGE FORMATION
Situmorang et al. (1987) describe the Baru Melange
formation as being in structural (thrust) contact with
basalts at the top of the Sibau Gabbro Group (Fig.
2.4). Blocks within the melange include ne-grained,
micaceous sandstone some of which are fractured; very
well-consolidated, weakly sheared, micaceous mudstone,
poorly-sorted meta-greywacke; iron-rich meta-dolerite;
brecciated meta-basalt; meta- volcanics and calcite-rich,
lithic and crystal tufts. Blocks within the melange may
be in excess of 10 m in diameter. Smaller blocks of
5 10 cm in diameter are commonly enclosed within
a sticky blue/grey clay matrix containing organic material, or within a cleaved mudstone matrix. No bedding or
other sedimentological characteristics, within the blocks
of the melange or the clay matrix, can be used to determine the stratigraphical base or top of the Baru Melange
Formation. The apparent random distribution of blocks
of dierent lithology within the outcrop area suggests that
the melange is unsorted. The thickness of the formation
is estimated to be approximately 200 m.
2.1.2.3 AI MANIS LIMESTONE FORMATION
The Ai Manis Limestone Formation forms a NW SE
orientated ridge in the east central part of Simeulue. The
formation is approximately 260 350 m thick and consists of both biostromal, biohermal (composed of in situ
corals) and bioclastic limestones. The major part of the
formation consists of bioclastic packstones composed of
skeletal bioclasts, large benthic foraminifera and quartz
grains. At the base of the formation a coarse-grained
sequence (the Pinang Conglomerate Member) is locally
observed resting on the Sibau Gabbro Group. A Late
Oligocene to Early Pliocene age is suggested for this formation on the basis of palaeontological evidence (Situmorang et al. 1987; Fig. 2.4). The Pinang Conglomerate
Member is between 0.5 and 5 m thick and is exposed in
the Ai Manis region, where it rests with an angular unconformity on the Sibau Gabbro Group. The conglomerate is poorly-sorted and consists of clasts (mm 50cm
in diameter) of metaigneous rock fragments, including
meta-basalt and meta-gabbro, and quartz, in a mediumgrained calcarenite matrix. A shallow water benthonic
foraminiferal assemblage indicating a Late Oligocene to
Early Miocene age was recovered from the conglomerate
(Situmorang et al. 1987).
2.1.2.4 DIHIT FORMATION
The Dihit Formation is widely exposed in most parts of
Simeulue). The maximum thickness of the formation
is estimated from the Dihit section, to be between 800
and 1000 m. The Dihit Formation contains no stratigraphical control on the age of the formation. Base on
lithological similarities between the Dihit Formation and
the Nias Beds, the formation is considered to be of Late
Miocene to Early Pliocene age (Situmorang et al., 1987;
Fig. 2.4). The Dihit Formation is composed of grey,

predominantly ne-grained sandstone usually interbedded with siltstone or shale. The sandstone is well-sorted,
moderately well-consolidated, and unlike the Nias Beds,
is micaceous. Bed thickness varies from 4 cm to 15 m
in the most massive beds, but more characteristically is
between 50 and 100 cm. Parallel laminations are rarely
developed in the sandstone, but where present are very
ne (<1 mm), and are laterally continuous through the
outcrop. Organic matter, where present, occurs as small
disseminated lignitic woody fragments and as very ne,
disseminated carbonaceous material; calcareous concretions are rarely observed. Sandstone, where interbedded
with shale or mudstone, is usually the dominant lithology, with sandstone:shale ratios.between 2:1 and 30:1.
The sandstone is ne-grained, well-sorted and predominantly matrix-supported. Muscovite mica is present
in all samples (trace 3%). Massive sandstone, sandstone/siltstone and laminated sandstone/mudstone lithofacies can be recognised from the Dihit Formation sediments.

2.2.
SUNDA FORE ARC
BASINS

2.2. SUNDA FORE ARC BASINS

to Lower Oligocene interval is dominated by mudstone

with minor interbeds of shale, siltstone and sandstone.
The mudstone is dark grey to black, moderately soft at
the top but becoming more indurated with depth. The
environment of deposition of this interval is assumed to
be shelf. The thickness of the Paleogene interval ranges
from less than 30 m up to 350 m. Pre-Neogene dacite
tu-lava was penetrated in the south of the basin with total thickness of 31 m.
2.2.1.1.2. Basal Miocene clastics Directly overlying the
Paleogene angular unconformity is a sequence of sandstone, shale, coal and minor limestone. In the Meulaboh area the clastic sequence consists of nearshore marine and non-marine mudstone, sandstone, siltstone and
coal. Fossil recovery was poor in this interval leading to
a tentative age of Mid Miocene up to Lower Miocene.
The mudstone and siltstone are dark in color, calcareous
to non-calcareous, rm and commonly interbedded. The
sandstone is gray, ne to medium-grained, quartzose with
common vari-colored rock grains and slightly calcareous.
Coal beds are about 1 m thick and are interbedded with
mudstone. In the Singkel area a correlative clastic sequence is dated Upper Miocene in the vicinity of the well
control but interpretation of seismic records basinward
suggests possible Mid Miocene rocks also.

2.2.2. BENGKULU BASIN (after Yulihanto et al, 1996)

In general, there are two Sunda fore arc basins in west The Bengkulu Basin is located in the southeast part of the
Sumatra, called Sibolga Basin in the nortwest of Sumatra Sumatra Island covering both onshore and oshore (Fig.
and Bengkulu Basin in the southwest (Fig. 2.1).
2.l). In general, it is trending NW - SE, parallel to Sumatra Island with about 600 kms length and 150 - 200 kms
2.2.1 SIBOLGA BASIN (after Rose 1983)
wide. To the north and northeast lies Barisan Mountain
The Sibolga Basin lies between the island of Sumatra and
range, while in the south and southwest is bounded by
the adjacent outer-arc ridge to the west and is considislands or slope break of the Sunda Arc Trench System
ered a fore-arc (outer-arc) basin (Fig. 2.1). The basin
(Fig. 2.7). The onshore part of the basin can be divided
trends northwest-southeast, averages 110 km wide and is
into two sub -basin i.e Pagarjati sub-basin in the nort and
approximately 800 km long (Fig. 2.6). The northern end
Kedurang sub-basin in the south which separated by north
terminates against the northwest extension of the Sumatra
- south trending Masmambang High.
Fault System at about latitude 6o30 N. The southern end
of the Sibolga basin was arbitrarily placed in the vicinity 2.2.2.1. STRATIGRAPHY
of Pini and Batu Islands where a broad, southwest trend- The stratigraphy of the onshore Bengkulu Basin coming low-lying arch separates it from the Bengkulu basin poses of a series of Oligo-Miocene up to Pliocene sedto the southeast. The Sibolga Basin is asymetrical to the iments overlaying unconformably the Pretertiary basesouthwest with upwards of 6100 m of Neogene sediments ments complex (Fig. 2.8). Based on few seismics sections
adjacent to the outer-arc ridge. A high-angle fault zone and wells drilled in the Bengkulu oshore area known that
forms the western margin of the basin and created asso- the sediment thickness is about 4000m ( 1,.000 feet). Reciated drag structures as did strike-slip faults that cut di- cent onshore gravity work done by Lemigas has indicated
agonally through the basin in the vicinity of Nias-Banyak two sub-basin with low bouguer anomaly. The detail deislands. In spite of these faults, the majority of the Neo- scriptions of the stratigraphy as follow:
gene sedimentary rocks in the basin are undeformed.
2.2.2.1.1. Pre-Tertiary Rocks
2.2.1.1. STRATIGRAPHY 2.2.1.1.1. Pre-Neogene
The Pre-Tertiary basement complex is represented by
The pre-Neogene sedimentary section is separated from metasediments of Lingsing, Sepitiang and Saling FormaNeogene rocks by an angular unconformity. Seis- tions. The Lingsing Formation consists of claystones, siltmic interpretation indicates several hundred meters of stones and calcilutite with sandstones and chert intercalafolded sedimentary rocks beneath the unconformity in tion of Late Jurassic - Early Cretaceous age. This Lingsthe Meulaboh-Teunom area. Recrystallized belemnites ing series has internger relationship with Sepitiang and
have been reported in cores indicating possible Mesozoic Saling formations. The Sepitiang Formation composes
rocks unless the fossils are reworked. The Upper Eocene

5
of reef limestones with some calcirudite and calcarenite lenses, and the Saling Formation mostly containing of
volcanic materials such as lavas, breccias, and tus.
2.2.2.1.2. Tertiary Succession
Surface geological studies exhibits that Tertiary sediments cropout in this onshore area is represented by Hulusimpang, Seblat, Lemau, Simpangaur, and Bintunan
Formations (Fig. 2.8). The Hulusimpang Formation is
composed of andesitic and basaltic lavas, volcanic breccias and tu with sandstones intercalation. This formation is well exposed in the northern and eastern margin
of the basin, toward the Barisan Mountain. In general,
the Hulusimpang Formation is known as Early Oligocene
sediments which deposited in uviatile up to shallow marine. The aproximate thickness is 700 m. The upper part
of the Hulusimpang Formation has interngered with the
lower part of the Seblat Formation.
The Seblat Formation composes of sandstones, siltstones,
claystones, conglomerates with limestones intercalation.
They are mostly shallow - deep marine turbidite sediments of Late 0ligocene - Early Miocene age. The approximate thickness maesured in Tanjung Sakti area is +
298m.
The Middle to Late Miocene stratigraphy is represented
by the Lemau Formation. It consists of claystones,
calcareous siltstones and sandstones, breccias, and thin
coal seams and limestones intercalation, containing abundance of small foram and mollusc which was deposited
in shallow marine up to transitional zone. This Formation is we11 exposed in the southern area such as Talang Beringin, Air Keruh, Rantau Panjang, Lubuk Tapi,
Batang Rikibesar and Tebing Kekalangan areas. The
thickness recorded is+785 m.
The Late Miocene - Pliocene sediment is represented
by the Simpangaur Formation. It consists of tuaceous
sandstones, tu, tuaceous siltstones, with intercalation
of lignites, and also typied by abundance of foram and
mollusc fragments.. The total thickness is about 785 m
thick.
The youngest stratigraphic unit cropout in this area is the
Plio-Pleistocene Bintunan Formation which laying unconformably upon the older units. It composes of sandstones and tuaceous claystones with pumice clast, conglomerates, breccias, limestones with lignite, and carbon
intercalation. Lithologically, compare to the Simpangaur
Formation, the Bintunan Formation in general is coarser
than Simpangaur and often containing silicied wood and
pumice clasts. This formation was deposited in shallow
marine and uvial environment, and it ranges of about
200 m thick.

3 2.3. SUMATRA BACK ARC

BASINS
2.3.1. NORTH SUMATRA BASIN
It is important to emphasize that the present southwest
geographical limit of the North Sumatra Basin at the
northeast foot of the Barisan Range does not correspond
to the depositional limit of the Tertiary sediments (Fig.
2.1). The original limit of this deposition extended much
further to the southwest than the more recently uplifted
Barisan Range. This observation is supported by evidence of Baong shale outcrops in the midst of the mountains and also their presence in the Southwest Sumatra
Interdeep. The eastern and southeastern limits of the
basin are formed by the Asahan Arch (or Tebingtinggi
Platform; Fig. 2.9), which separated it, in Tertiary time
from the more extensive basin developed in Central and
South Sumatra. At basement level this limit is marked by
a north-south exure, immediately east of Medan. Eastward from the Medan Flexure structural deformation is
minimal on the platform. The present southwest structural limit of the basin runs along the Barisan Range, from
which it is separated by one or more compressional faults.
In the narrow wedge between the Medan Flexure and the
front of the Barisan Range, the structural trends at basement level are oriented north-south. In this area, a exure
may be present between Telaga and Basilam, as indicated
by the greater depth (3.0 seconds TWT on seismic sections) of the Belumai Formation in the western than in the
eastern block (approximately 2.5 seconds TWT). There
is no evidence that this exure also exists at basement
level, because the basement conguration become vague
wherever the 2-way seismic time interval between top of
Belumai and top of basement is less than 0.2 seconds.
The possible presence of a exure could be reected in
the right-lateral movement deduced from the virgation of
folds and faults, changing from northwest in the southeastern block, to north where the exure would be located
if present.
2.3.1.1. STRATIGRAPHY
2.3.1.1.1. Basement
The basement (Fig. 2.10) consists of sandstone, limestones or dolomites; they are azoic, generally dense and
fracture, with steep dips up to 45o, but they are not metamorphically altered. In some plugs or cores, in the absence of dating, these sediments are not easily recognisable as basement. On the other hand, the high resistivities and velocities generally constitute a good contrast
with those of the overlying beds. Thus the top of this
section is readily identied with the deepest, continuous
seismic marker and conveniently been called economic
basement (Beicip, 1977).
2.3.1.1.2.Tampur Formation
Tampur Formation (Fig. 2.10) comprises massive, partly
biocalcarenites and biocalcilutites. Chert nodules are

6
found in this formation, whereas the dolorites are common. The formation also consists of basal conglomeratic and dolomitic limestones. This formation was deposited in the sublittoral - open marine condition during Late Eocene to Early Oligocene, formed as transgressive formation overlain by both Bruksah and Bampo
Formation. Source of basal limestone clasts is still unknown but it assumed widely extended in the subsurface.
The Eocene Tampur limestone generally only occurred in
Malacca shelf (Rjacudu & Sjahbuddin, 1994). The rest
of the Tertiary history of the North Sumatra Basin can
be divided into three phases: 1)Syn-rift; 2) Transitional
(Early Foreland); and 3) Compressional (Late Foreland;
Fig. 2.10). The stratigraphy of the basin is closely related
to these evolutionary phases.
2.3.1.1.3. Early syn-Rift Phase: Bruksah and Bampo
Formations
The initial syn-rift phase began in the middle Paleogene
(Eocene?) and continued until early Miocene, during
which time the N-S and NE-SW trending horsts, grabens
and half-grabens developed. This was also a time of major marine transgression (dened as a relative rise in sea
level within the basin, probably as a results of back-arc
subsidence). Initial graben-ll consisted of continental
sandstones and conglomerates. As the grabens deepened
and transgression progressed, areas of sand deposition decreased and shale deposition dominated. The later sands
accumulated mainly in coastal plain to marine environments. The shales are typically dark grey to black in color
and deposited in deep marine environment (bathyal). The
sands were mainly derived from the Malacca Platform
and the Asahan Arch, augmented by local contributions
from the horst blocks, most of which remained exposed
during this time. The conglomerates and sandstones deposited during this phase comprise the Bruksah Formation (Fig. 2.10), dened by Cameron and others (1983)
from eld mapping in the Barisan Mountains. Lithologies include limestone conglomerates and breccias, micaceous quartzose sandstones, and silty mudstones. The
Bruksah is overlain the Bampo Formation, a locally thick
sequence (500 to perhaps 2400 m) of marine black shale,
siltstone, and muddy ne grained. Stratigraphic relationships indicate that the upper part of the Bruksah is at least
partly equivalent in age to the Bampo Formation.

2.3. SUMATRA BACK ARC BASINS

the lows while the highs remained at least intermittently

exposed. These basin-ll deposits comprise the Belumai
Formation (Fig. 2.10).
The Belumai is lithologically diverse, both vertically and
laterally. Sandstones and siltstones are generally quartzrich and tend to be very calcareous (up to 40-50% carbonate). Quartz content decreases southwest to only 10-30%,
presumably as a result of increasing distance from sand
sources on the Malacca Platform. Source areas are the
same for the Belumai and for the older and less calcareous Bruksah clastics. A possible explanation for more
calcium carbonate in the Belumai is that this unit accumulated after widespread shallow seas rst covered preTertiary topography, much of which consists of carbonates. These oceans might have been nearly saturated (or
even super saturated) with calcium carbonate, and they
might have maintained equilibrium by dissolving carbonate bedrock while precipitating calcite cements. Rapid
sedimentation would protect the calcite in the sandstones
from re-dissolution. In some areas, the original calcite
has been replaced by dolomite.
In late early Miocene time, a major marine transgression
occurred, probably resulting from continued subsidence
coupled with a eustatic sea level rise. The Malacca Platform and the central horsts were ooded and became the
sites of shallow marine limestone deposition, including
reefs, that comprise the Peutu Formation (Kamili et al.,
1976) and a signicant thickness of shale that might t
better in the overlying Baong Formation. Sedimentation
of basinal Belumai deposits (calcareous sand, shale, and
argillaceous limestone) continued during accumulation of
Peutu skeletal limestones and reefs on adjacent platforms.
This results in age equivalence between the Peutu and at
least the upper part of the Belumai Formation.
In the deepest parts of the North Sumatra Basin, Belumaiequivalent deposits consist of dark gray to black marine
mudstones and calcareous shales that are dicult to distinguish from the overlying Baong. Middle and upper
Baong shales are greenish gray to brown in color, but the
color of lower Baong shales is dark gray to black. For
practical purposes, the contact between Peutu or Belumai
with the overlying Baong is determined by an abrupt decrease in calcium carbonate.

The contact between the Baong and underlying Peutu or

2.3.1.1.4. Late Syn-Rift to Transitional Phase: Belumai
Belumai varies from gradational to abrupt. Some highand Peutu Formations
standing Peutu buildups (Arun, South Lho Sukon, Alur
The transitional phase of basin evolution occurred during Siwah) are overlain by middle Baong, with the lower
the early Miocene to early Middle Miocene and repre- Baong section (N8-N12) missing. The entire Baong secsents a period of relative tectonic activities. Movement tion is preserved in other areas. At Kuala Langsa, for exon the N-S trending faults ceased, although back-arc sub- ample, a massive buildup of coralline limestone is oversidence probably continued. This stage was character- lain by lower Baong shale without a noticeable gap in paized mainly by forced regression (sea level constant or leoenvironments (inner neritic to middle neritic) or litholrising but sediment inux sucient to cause regression) ogy (limestone to calcareous shale to shale). Paleontoand basin lling. As the central grabens lled and became logic evidence does not unequivocally indicate a gap in
shallower, calcareous marine sands and siltstones along age, but seismic proles show onlap of basal Baong rewith argillaceous and sandy limestones accumulated in ectors.

7
2.3.1.1.5. Early Foreland Basin Fill: Baong Formation

level and sediment supply.

A major transgression accompanied sedimentation of the

Peutu/upper Belumai interval. The onset of this increase
in relative sea level may relate to an eustatic rise at about
15.5 m.y. (N8- N9), but the change from paralic to
bathyal environments reects a reordering of basinal architecture as well. Changes in the tectonic regime are
evident from reactivation and inversion of the old horstgraben fault systems, initial development of major transcurrent faulting, and local compressional folding. Regional subsidence accompanying these changes formed
a deep, extensive foreland basin. The Baong Formation
lled the basin with a thick (750-2500 m) section dominated by monotonous gray or brown mudrocks. The
Baong varies in age from Lower to Middle Miocene (N8N16; Fig. 2.10). Early workers subdivided this formation
vertically into upper, middle, and lower units. Distribution of Lower Baong shales indicates widespread bathyal
conditions. A ood of Globigerinid foraminifera within
the Lower Baong marks a maximum ooding surface at
about the N8/N9 faunal zone. Mudrocks dominate the
lower Baong section, but turbidite sands also occur in areas along the basin margins. In the Middle Baong (N13N14), the inux of detrital sand and silt increased from
both sides of the basin. This was accompanied by a general shoaling in paleoenvironments from bathyal to outer
or middle neritic water depths. Sands attributed to both
eastern and western sources are similar in composition.
They vary from lithic arenites to lithic arkoses, with sedimentary and metamorphic lithic clasts. This contrasts
sharply with the overlying Keutapang, which contains
more volcanic detritus. Middle Baong sands do not reach
the central basin area, but the interval can still be recognized from increased silt and ne sand content of the
mudrocks, brown color (in contrast to dark gray to black
in the lower Baong), and shallower water fauna.

The Keutapang Formation marks the rst major event of

deltaic sedimentation. The unit is dominated by beds of
resistant sandstone, which crop out as a band of ridges
with up to 200 m of relief. This precipitous terrain stands
out in sharp contrast to gently rolling topography of recessive Baong shales, and surface relief appears to have
guided early mapping. Actual lithologic contacts are gradational and much less obvious. The Keutapang varies in
thickness from about 700-1500 m in East Aceh. Planktonic foraminifera for this unit span zones N15/16 to
N19, or Late Miocene to Early Pliocene (Fig. 2.10).
The unit consists of gray to gray brown or bluish gray
sandstones interbedded with subordinate shales and rare,
thin limestones. Sandstone grains vary in size from very
ne grained sand to pebble conglomerates. Sandstones
are commonly glauconitic and/or fossiliferous, containing gastropod and pelecypod fragments and foraminifera.
Coally plant fragments are common, and interbedded
shales are gray, blocky, and highly bioturbated.

Middle Baong sedimentation ended with a period of

tectonic quiescence. Pre-existing structural highs were
eroded, resulting in a widely recognized seismic unconformity of N-14 age. Except for local reworked sands
above the unconformity, overlying Upper Baong sediments consist of clay-rich mudrocks. Paleoenvironments
deepened again to bathyal water depths, followed by gradual shoaling upward topped by paralic sands of the overlying Keutapang Formation. The uppermost Baong thus
consists largely of basin-lling prodelta and slope deposits
associated with progradation of Keutapang deltas (Fig.
2.11).
2.3.1.1.6. Late Foreland Basin: Keutapang and Younger
Formations

Keutapang sandstones are classied as lithic arenites, but,

unlike the Baong, lithic clasts include common to abundant volcanic rock fragments. Sandstone isopachs indicate derivation from Barisan source terrain to the south
and southwest. Keutapang sands are interpreted to be deposits of sand-rich delta systems that prograded northeastward. Uplift of the Barisan provided sucient detritus to extend the shelf platform in this manner and ll the
onshore part of the North Sumatra Basin.
The upper contact of the Keutapang is poorly dened in
both outcrop and subsurface, and this boundary appears
to be both gradational and diachronous. Overlying sediments of the Seurula Formation contain more shale and
weather recessively, forming low, rounded hills. It is early
Pliocene in age (N18- N19), and varies in thickness from
about 700-900 m.
The Seureula consists of bluish gray shale and subordinate ne to medium and locally coarse or conglomeratic
sandstones. Both sands and shales are fossiliferous and
contain coaly plant fragments. Volcanic clasts are abundant in the sandstones, and shales are described as rarely
tuaceous (Bennett and others, 1981). Although studied far less than the subjacent Keutapang, the Seureula
consists of volcanic-rich detritus apparently derived from
Barisan sources to the west. These accumulated in generally mud rich delta margin and deltaic environments.
The Late Pliocene Julu Rayeu Formation (Fig. 2.10) consists largely of coarse clastics. Thin lignites commonly
occur in shales interbedded with the sandstones, and paleoenvironments vary from alluvial to paralic. Unconformably overlying the Julu Rayeu are geomorphically
distinct but poorly exposed Pleistocene terrace deposits
of gravel, sand and mud. These comprise the Idi Formation, described by Bennett and others (1981) as 50 m of
semi-consolidated gravel, sands and mudstone.

The Late Foreland phase completed initial tilling of the

basin. Transpressional tectonics continued, but sediment
inux kept pace with basin subsicience. Paralic to alluvial
environments were thus maintained from Late Miocene
onward. Sedimentation occurred as a series of deltaic
pulses, which were likely driven by changes in relative sea Holocene sedimentation has extended the coastal plain

8
2 to 25 km. north and east of the high- standing Pleistocene terrace. These recent sediments include lobate to
arcuate deltas of the Jambo Aye, Arakunda, Peureulak,
and Tamiang rivers plus intervening chenier plain and
tidal estuarine deposits. The at, low-lying coastal plain
is heavily populated and supports extensive development
of shrimp ponds in coastal marshes and rice cultivation
farther inland.

2.3. SUMATRA BACK ARC BASINS

NNW to N trending right lateral strike-slip faults. These

are all second order structural features in relation to the
primary NW trending of the Sumatra Fault Zone. Minor
structures within the Basin are second order NE trending normal faults and NNE trending third order right lateral strike slip faults (Verral, 1982). An earlier, Paleogene east-west extensional deformation aected the PreNeogene section, producing large NS trending graben
lled with Pematang Formation. Dierential compaction
2.3.2. CENTRAL SUMATRA BASIN
and recurrent movement of this earlier system has a tecFor a complete discussion regarding regional setting of tonic overprint on the Neogene structural system.
the Central Sumatra Basin we refer the readers to papers by Mertosono and Nayoan ( 1974), Wongsosantiko 2.3.3. SOUTH SUMATRA BASIN
( 1976), and Eubank and Makki ( 1981), Williams, et. The South Sumatra Basin is located to the east of the
al.,1985. Figure 12 is a summary of the stratigraphy in Barisan mountains and extends into the oshore areas
this basin. The Central Sumatra Basin was formed dur- to the northeast and is regarded as a foreland (back-arc)
ing the Early Tertiary (Eocene-Oligocene) as a series of basin bounded by the Barisan mountains to the southwest,
half grabens arid horst blocks developed in response to and the pre-Tertiary of the Sunda Shelf to the northeast
an East-West direction of extensional regime (Eubank & (de Coster, 1974). The South Sumatra Basin was formed
Makki, 1981). A divergent transform boundary (non- during east-west extension at the end of the pre-Tertiary
coupling) between the Sunda Microplate and the Indian to the beginning of Tertiary times (Daly et d., 1987).
Oceanic Plate during Paleogene gave rise to extensional Orogenic activity during the Late Cretaceous-Eocene cut
regime and crustal stretching of the western part of the the basin into four sub-basins. The following details are
Sunda Land resulting in the formation of Pematang type after van Gorsel (1988).
grabens (Davies, 1984). Pematang Graben Development
The structural features present in the basin are the result
can be divided in 3 stages: 1. Pregraben Stage, minor of the three main tectonic events (de Coster, 1974). They
block rotation along pre-existing zone of weakness, beare Middle-Mesozoic orogeny, Late Cretaceous-Eocene
ginning of the Lower Redbeds deposition; 2. Graben tectonism and Plio-Pleistocene orogeny. The rst two
Stage, rapid block rotation/subsidence, development of
events provided the basement conguration including the
a deep anoxic lake with slow deposition of the Brown formation of half grabens, horsts and fault blocks (AdiShale Formation associated with lateral facies variation widjaja and de Coster, 1973; de Coster, 1974; Pulungsuch as alluvial fan along graben and lake margins; 3. gono et al., 1992). The last event, the Plio-Pleistocene
Post Graben Stage, slower rate of subsidence coupled orogeny, resulted in formation of the present northwestwith a major sea-level drop in Upper Oligocene caused southeast structural features and the depression to the
worn-down of the graben rim and the lake was dried up. northeast (de Coster, 1974).
Subsequently, the lake was ll with coarser clastic deposits of the Upper Red Beds Formation. A mild tec- In the South Sumatra Basin the best surface sections are
tonic event occurred during Late Oligocene marked by found around the Gumai Mountain anticline. From old
a major unconformity relationship with the overlying Si- to young the following lithostratigraphic units were dehapas Group. Lower Miocene marine sediments of Siha- scribed:
pas were mainly derived from the Malacca Land direc- 2.3.3.1. STRATIGRAPHY
tion, while older section is thought to be locally derived.
Biostratigraphy and seismic data indicate an important 2.3.3.1.1. Cretaceous
non-depositional break separating the Telisa and Petani The complexly folded Pre-Tertiary in the Gumai MounFormations. This break probably corresponds to an im- tains contains two dierent units, the relations of which
portant tectonic pulse at the initial time of the Barisan are unclear : - Saling Formation: Mainly poorly-bedded
uplift coincident with a major low-stand event during volcanic breccias, tus and basaltic-andesitic lava ows,
Middle Miocene. It reects the reversal of sedimenta- hydrothermally altered to greenstones,. Three intercation from the Malaysian Shield (Lower Miocene) to the lations of dark gray reefal limestone occur, with MesoBarisan source (since Middle Miocene) and is considered zoic fossils like the coral Lovcenipora and the gastroto be N7 to N12 in age. Structuring in the Central Suma- pod Nerinea. The Saling Formation rocks may be a Late
tra Basin is related to the rst order NW-SE trending Jurassic-Early Cretaceous volcanic island arc association
right lateral strike-slip fault (the Sumatra Fault System), with fringing reefs.
in response to an oblique northward low angle subduc-- Lingsing Formation: Mainly grey-black, thin-bedded
tion of the Indian Ocean Plate beneath the Asian Plate
shales or slates, with minor interbeds of green andesiticwhich gave rise to a transpressional stress system. Neobasaltic rock, radiolarian-bearing chert and one several
gene structures within the basin are dominantly WNW
tens of meters thick limestone bed rich in the Early Creto NW trending folds and high angle reverse faults and
taceous foraminifer Orbitolina, but without corals. The

9
Lingsing Formation rocks suggest an Early Cretaceous
deep water facies. Whether it is a deep water equivalent of the Saling Formation or whether it is younger or
older is not clear. Both formations were intruded by Late
Cretaceous or Early Tertiary granodiorites. Pulunggono
and Cameron (1983) regarded the Gumai Mountains PreTertiary as part of their Woyla basement terrane, and interpreted it as a possible Cretaceous subduction complex.
2.3.3.1.2. Paleogene
- Lahat Formation (Musper, 1937)
Unconformably overlying the Pre-Tertiary, but conformable under Talang Akar and Baturaja sediments is
a thick (up to 3350m) series of andesitic volcanic breccias, tus, lahar deposits and lava ows, with a remarkable quartz-sandstone horizon in the middle. Except for
some silicied wood, fossils are absent and exact age is
uncertain. The formation is possibly an equivalent of the
widespread Old Andesites of Sumatra and Java. On
Java these are dated as Oligocene, overlying marine Middle and Late Eocene beds. Three members are distinguished, from old to young:
1. Lower Kikim Tu Member: Andesitic tus, breccias
and some lava beds. Lava beds seem to decrease in northern direction. Thickness is variable (0-800m). 2. Quartzsandstone Member: This member is conformable, or
with a minor unconormity over the Lower Kikim tus,
or may directly overlie Pre-tertiary rocks. It could be
mapped all around the Gumai anticline. The base is a
.5 to 3m thick conglomerate, followed by ner conglomerates and sandstones. Cross-bedding is common. Almost all grains are quartz (polycrystalline; probably derived from granitic rock), but dark cryptocrystalline volcanic rock fragments were found, too. Thickness varies
between 75 and 200m.
3. Upper Kikim Tu Member Conformable over, the
quartz sandstone, and with a gradual transition, is another
series of greenish andesitic volcanics. Overall grain size is
ner than that of the lower member. Fine-grained, wellbedded tus and tuaceous claystones are interbedded
with coarse-grained, lahar-like deposits. Lava ows are
extremely rare; most material appears to be redeposited
volcanics. Thickness decreases to the NW from 2500 to
309o, suggesting an eruption center somewhere to the SE
(Musper, 1937). The Lahat Formation underlies the Talang Akar Formation and consists of uvial or alluvial
fan sands, lacustrine and uvial clays and coals and it is
questionable whether these are the same as the Lahat volcanics.
2.3.3.1.3. Pre-Baturaja Clastics
In the South Sumatra basin a highly variable complex of
clastic sediments is found between the Lahat volcanics
and the Early Miocene marine Baturaja or Telisa Formations. Thick series are found in predominantly N-S trending grabens (Benakat gully, Lematang trough), which
formed in the Oligocene, perhaps also somewhat earlier.

The basal part with volcanoclastic sediments and lacustrine clays is called Lemat Formation, and is either a distal
facies of the Lahat Formation or, more likely, a younger
unit rich in debris from the Lahat Formation. The upper
part of the graben-ll series is the uvial and deltaic Talang Akar Formation, which is mainly Late Oligocene in
age. Thickness in the oileld areas is up to 800-1000 m.
Neither the Lemat, nor the Talang Akar Formation have
been properly dened and no type sections were designated.
No good outcrops of these graben ll sediments are
known. In surface sections around the Gumai Mountains
clastic sediments between the Lahat Volcanics and Baturaja Formations are very thin or absent.
Musper (1937) called the thin clastic interval below the
Baturaja the Wood-horizon, because large silicied tree
trunks are common at the base of the unit. Thickness
is about 20-30m. In the Cawang Saling section it is a
transgressive series, with at the base a few meters of
poorly sorted conglomerates with pebbles of quartz, volcanic rock and silicied wood, and cross-bedded sandstone (uvial or alluvial fan deposits). These are overlain
by 2 m of lenticular-bedded sand and clay, overall ningupward (intertidal), followed by l m of calcareous sandstone with common shallow marine larger foraminifera
(Early Miocene; marine transgressive sand).
2.3.3.1.4. Baturaja Formation
Limestones found in various places near the base of the
Telisa Formation are usually attributed to the Baturaja
Formation. It is locally developed shallow water facies of
the lower Telisa shales and should probably be regarded
as a member of this formation. Surface outcrops of Baturaja limestone are found at several places around the
Gumai Mountains. Maximum thickness is about 200m,
but is usually less. Both massive reefal facies and deeper
water ne-grained well-bedded limestone with thin marl
intercalations are present. In the subsurface, Baturaja
limestones are found only on paleohighs and along the
basin margin. It is absent over low areas with thick
graben-ll, where a marine shale facies with a typical, rich
foraminifera assemblage is found (Vaginulina zone; basal
Telisa). Age of this formation is within the early part of
the Early Miocene (Upper Te larger foram assemblages,
equivalent of planktonic foram zones N5-N6).
2.3.3.1.5. Telisa Formation (Tobler 1910) / Gumai Formation (Tobler 1906)
The thick series of Early (and locally also early Middle)
Miocene deep marine shales and marls in South and Central Sumatra was described under two dierent names.
The Gumai Formation is based on sections along the Gumai Mountains, while the Telisa Formation is named after the Telisa river near Surolangun, Jambi. The formation is characterized by a thick series of dark grey clays,
usually with common planktonic foraminifera that may
form thin white laminae. Whitish tus and brown turbiditic layers composed of andesitic tuaceous material

10

2.3. SUMATRA BACK ARC BASINS

are locally common. Layers with brown, lenticular cal- (sand, clay, coal) at the top. Sands may be glauconitic and
careous nodules up to 2 m in diameter are most common contain volcanic debris. Especially the upper part of the
in the upper part of the formation.
member clear bipyramidal quartz and light-colored acid
Thickness of the Telisa Formation is highly variable tus are common. In most of the basin, the coals are low(from a few hundred to 3000m or more). This is mostly grade lignites. Only around young andesite intrusions,
controlled by dierential subsidence; but it probably also like Bukit Asam, the lignites were altered to high-grade
reects the fact that in the thick, basinal areas the Telisa coal. In this area coal occur in three groups: an upper
may include marine lateral equivalents of the upper Ta- (with 6-7 seams), a middle, and a lower group (Merapi
seam; 8-l0 m). The roofs of coalbeds may be silicied,
lang Akar, Baturaja and Lower Palembang formations.
especially where overlain by tu beds (volcanic ash falls).
Towards the top the open marine Globigerina marls grade At their base root horizons and in situ true trunks may
into brownish prodelta clays with fewer planktonics, but be found, suggesting most coals are autochtonous. Tree
until more carbonaceous material and common rotalid species identied from the coal point to upland forest conforaminifera. Where sands become frequent (whether ditions, no elements of mangrove swamp vegetation have
deltaic, shallow marine or turbiditic) the overlying Palem- been reported (Musper, 1933). Age of the member has
bang Formation is reached, but since the transition is usu- never been determined accurately, but must be within the
ally gradual there is a great element of subjectivity in Late Miocene - Early Pliocene.
picking the boundary.
- Upper Palembang Member (Kasai Fm.) Most surface
Age of the formation varies. Where no Baturaja lime- sediments in the South Sumatra basin are of this unit, but
stone is developed the basal Telisa beds have zone N4 due to its soft rocks exposures tend to be poor and far
planktonic foraminifera (earliest Miocene). Where Bat- apart. The lower 250-350m are characterized by comuraja is thick the oldest Telisa beds have zone N6 or mon ne-grained, rhyolitic tephra (acid air-transported
N7 faunas (within Early Miocene). The top also varies, volcanics), i.e. yellow-white pumice tus (often with
from within zone N8 (latest Early Miocene) to zone N10 clear bipyramidal quartz crystals and black hexagonal bi(within Middle Miocene), depending on position in the otite akes and tuaceous sandstones. Coals are absent.
basin and where the formation boundary is picked.
Conglomeratic sandstones and plant material are rare.
2.3.3.1.6. Palembang Formation (Air Benakat, Muara The upper part of the member (300-500m thick) still
Enim and Kasai Formation) This formation is the regres- has common quartz-rich pumice tus, but also contains
sive stage of the South Sumatra basin ll. Facies show common cross-bedded coarse sandstone and pumice-rich
an overall shallowing-upward trend from predominantly conglomerate beds. For the rst time erosional prodshallow marine at the base; through coastal deposits to ucts from older formations (Telisa, Lahat, Saling, etc.)
uvial beds in the top member. In detail the formation are found, suggesting uplift and signicant erosion of
is composed of numerous thin transgressive-regressive the Gurnai Mountains within this period. Much of the
upper Palembang may be regarded as synorogenic depara-sequences. Three members are distinguished:
posits, developed mainly in synclines. Depositional fa- Lower Palembang Member (Air Benakat Fm.) The cies are uvial and alluvial fan with frequent ashfalls (nonlower boundary is where signicant, continuous sand andesitic:). Fossils are rare, only some fresh-water molbeds are found and where the clays have few or no plank- luscs and plant fragments have been reported (Musper
tonic foraminifera. The upper boundary is at the base 1933, 1937). Most likely age is Late Pliocene to Pleisof the lowest coal beds. Sands are usually glauconitic. tocene.
Clays contain glauconite, carbonaceous material, shallow
marine molluscs and foraminifera. The basal sands may 2.3.3.1.7. Quaternary The youngest beds in the region,
either be coastal facies (beach, tidal at, deltaic) or, in that are not aected by the"Plio-Pleistocene folding,
some areas, deeper water turbidites. Thickness of the for- were grouped under the term Quaternary. They may unmation is ranging from 100 m to 1000 m. Outcrops are conformably overlie Palembang or older formations, and
poor due to softness of the beds. Age is Middle Miocene, can usually be distinguished from Palembang beds by the
presence of dark-coloured andesitic and basaltic volcanic
possibly ranging up into the Late Miocene.
rocks. Quaternary andesitic volcanism was particularly
- Middle Palembang Member (Muara Enim Fm.) Top abundant in the Barisan Mountains, but also between the
and bottom of this unit are dened by the upper and lower Lematang and Enim rivers, where numerous intrusions
occurrence of laterally continuous coal beds. Thickness and extrusive products now make up the Bukit Asam,
in the area around Muara Enim and Lahat is around 500- Serelo and Djelapang groups of hills. Other rocks in700m, about 15% of which is coal. Where the member cluded: in the Quaternary are the liparites (ignimbrites)
is thin, coal beds become very thin or are absent; sug- lling valleys in the Pasumah region south of the Gumai
gesting subsidence rates played an important role in coal Mountains, the andesitic tus and lahars in the Pasumah
deposition and preservation. Where studied in detail, the region derived from Barisan volcanoes like Dempo, and
formation consists of stacked shallowing-upward parase- terrace deposits along the major rivers.
quences, typically l0m-30m thick, with shallow marine or
bay clays at the base, and shoreline and delta plain facies

11

2.4.
BARISAN MOUNTAIN
RANGE (after Nishimura, 1980)

2.4.1. ACEH AREA The most prominent topographic

element of the island is the Barisan Range, 1650 km long
and about 100 km wide. This range skirts the southern
end of the Andaman Basin. In this area, the stratigraphy
and tectonic structure of the Barisan Range corresponds
more with to the northern part of the Sunda mountain
system more than to that of the Sumatran section. The
Sumatran trendIines, paralleling those of the Malayan
Peninsula, begin with the N-S trending van Daalen Range
which meets the main body of the Barisan Range at right
angles. Here occurs an intersection of Pre-Tertiary trendlines which belong to two dierent centres of orogenic
activity, that of Mergui and that of the Sunda Area. The
foothills, formed by truncated Tertiary anticlines skirt,
the central Pre-Tertiary mountains of northern Aceh. The
Puncak Lemby (2,983 m) is a central knot from which the
van Daalen Range extends northward, the Central Gajo
Range westward, and the Wilhelmina Range southeastward. In southern Aceh, south of Blangkedjeren, a NWSE trend of the Barisan System prevails.
2.4.2. TOBA AREA (NORTH SUMATRA) Between
the Wampu and the Barumun Rivers, the Barisan Range
display a typical oblong culmination (NW-SE acis of 275
km length and 150 km width). This culmination has
been called by van Bemmelen the Batak Tumor. In this
Batak Tumor, which is about 2,000 m high (Sibuatan,
2,457 m), lies the great Toba area with Lake Toba.
2.4.3. CENTRAL SUMATRA The Barisan system of
central Sumatra consists of a number of NW-SE trending block mountains. The system is narrowest at its
transition into the Batak Timor near Padangsidempuan from which point it gradually widens south- eastward to 175 km in the Padang section. These block
mountain ranges are highest on the southwestern side of
the Barisan System, which they attain altitudes of over
2,000 m. They descend towards the east Sumatran lowlands. The Pre-Tertiary core of the Suligi-Lipat Kain
Range can be traced, via some anticlinal ridges of Tertiary formations to the northwestern corner of the Tigapuluh Mts., which are situated in the middle of the Tertiary basin of east Sumatra. The Lisun-Kwantan-Lalo
Range plunges southeastward, disappearing under a 50
km wide basin, called the Sub-Barisan Depression, which
separates the Tigapuluh Mts. from the main Barisan System. The fore-Barisan begins in the Ombilin area, east of
Lake Singkarak, where it wedges out between the LisunKwantan-Lalo Range and the Schiefer Barisan; southeastward it disappears under the Tertiary deposits of the east
Sumatra basin. The schiefer Barisan can be traced along
the entire length of the island. The High-Barisan is particularly well developed in the southern half, south of
Padang. In the northern half of the island no distinction
can be made between the Schiefer-Barisan and the High-

Barisan, because Pre-Tertiary rocks are exposed over the

entire area, capped by more or less isolated young volcanoes.
2.4.4. SEMANGKO ZONE (SOUTH SUMATRA) One
feature which characterizes the Barisan geanticline along
its entire length is a median depression zone on its top,
called the Semangko zone named after a prototypical
section in the Semangko valley of south Sumatra. This
Semangko zone begins in the Semangko Bay of South
Sumatra and can be traced from there to the junction of
the Aceh Valley with Banda Aceh at the northern end of
the island. Some sections have been silled and capped by
young volcanoes.
Total view of the main structural Trendlines of Sumatra
Based upon the above descriptions, the main structural
trendlines of Sumatra may be outlined as follows: The
west ank of the Barisan Range, extending west from
the Semangko Zone, is rather regularly formed in the
southern half of the range, south of Padang. This southern part of the west ank was formed by a long crustal
block, which tilted toward the Indian Ocean, while the
elevated northeastern edge breaks down along the Semangko Zone. This tilted block, called the Bengkulu
Block, is similar to the southern mountains of Jawa. The
escarpment along the Semangko Zone general forms the
divide between the east and the west coast of Sumatra.
This is the High-Barisan. The west coast rivers are short,
having a steep grade towards Indian Ocean. The rivers
descending eastward are much longer, owing through
an erosional plain, which truncates the anticlines of the
Neogene Basin, and then owing through a wide alluvial
lowlands until they empty into the Sunda Shelf sea and
the Strait of Bangka. The southern end of the Barisan
in the Lampung district is nearly 150 km wide. Here
one may distinguish between the west ank, or Bengkulu
Block, the top part of the Lampung Block, and the east
ank, or Sekampung Block. North of Lake Ranau the
range narrows to less than 100 km because the Sekampung Block disappears under the Neogene South Sumatra
basin and the Lampong Block becomes covered by Neogene strata. The Pre-Tertiary besement complex of the
latter reappears in the culminations of the Garba, Gumaiand Tambesi-Rawas Mts., which belong to the Schiefer
Barisan, while the edge of the Bengkulu Block, capped by
a series of young volcanic cones, forms the High-Barisan.
Between Padang and Padangsidimpuan the structure of
the Barisan Range is less distinct. It is cut into a number
of longitudinal block-mountains both in the east ank and
in the west ank. The latter are exemplied by the Batang
Gadis after it has left the Batang Angkola trough of the
Semangko Zone. The Batak tumor part of the Barisan
Range is a great dome, traversed by an arcuate section of
the Semangko-rift zone. The northern part of the Barisan
range, of the Batak Tumor, is the most complicated portion of the range. It is into a number of block mountain
structures. The Leuser Block and the western mountains
occupy a position in the South of the Bengkulu Block.

12

The Barisan Range forms a section of the volcanic inner

arc of the Sunda Mountain System. It is separated from
the old Sunda landmass by the Sumatra back-arc basins
This downwrap of the Pre-Tertiary basement complex a
backdeep, is lled with Neogene sediments which were
folded in Plio-Pleistocene time. During or after the main
phase of folding, a dome was elevated in the center of
this backdeep which now forms the Tigapuluh Mts. In
other places the basement complex is exposed in the cores
of Tertiary anticlines. These anticlines have eroded to
their basement levels during their folding so that a primary peneplain of subaerial erosion truncates the Tertiary anticlines. The Pre-Tertiary basement complex of
the Sunda area crops out at some places in the alluvial
marshes along the east coast. These are, in fact, former
islands in the Sunda Shelf Sea which have been connected
with the main land of Sumatra by depositions in subrecent time. Physiographically, the backdeep of the Sunda
Mountain System now forms a lowland in the Sumatra
section, while in other sections, with less sedimentation
in Neogene time, the backdeep forms sea basins such as
the Andaman Basin of the Mergui section in north Sumatra. West of the Barisan Range stretches the interdeep of
the Sunda Mountain System which forms the sea basin
between Sumatra and the island festoon to the west. This
island chain is part of the non-volcanic outer arc of the
Sunda Mountain System.

2.5. SUMATRA INTRA-ARC

BASIN

2.5. SUMATRA INTRA-ARC BASIN

in Indonesia which exposes early to middle Tertiary lacustrine sediments, thick sequences of stacked braided
stream deposits, and marginal alluvial debris fans. The
presence of economically important coal bearing strata in
the Sawahlunto Formation has generated much geologic
interest in the area. The Ombilin Basin has a complex history of reverse, wrench and extensional tectonism. Initial
basin conguration and quantity of sediment in the Ombilin Basin is due to a north- south compression which
created a graben dog leg or pull apart style basin in the
Ombilin and Payakumbuh region. This compression was
introduced by the subduction of the Indian- Australian
plate beneath the Sunda Craton (Figure 4). Subduction
started in the early middle Eocene (Daly 1990) and created an extensional tectonic regime which formed numerous grabens in a back arc extensional tectonic setting. The
Bengkalis trough, Aman, Kiri, Jambi and Palembang depressions are examples of this type of basin development.
The Ombilin Basin is believed to be similar in evolution
to these grabens and portray an early example of one of
these features.
2.5.2. STRATIGRAPHY Many authors proposed dierent stratigraphic nomenclatures of this basin. The following stratigraphic description is after Kosoemadinata &
Matasak (1981), Kastowo & Silitonga (1975), and summarized by Fletcher & Yarmanto (1993).
2.5.2.1. PRE-TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY The preTertiary framework of Sumatra consists of a mosaic of
continental and oceanic microplates accreted in the late
Triassic when the Mergui, Malacca, and East Malaya microplates were joined together to form the Sunda Craton.
Further accretion followed during late Mesozoic times
involving the Woyla Terrains (Pulunggono & Cameron,
1984). The Ombilin Basin is largely oored by metavolcanics and meta-sediments of the Mergui accretionary
terrain. These consist of limestones and marbles from the
Carboniferous Kuantan Formation and meta-volcanics
from the Permian Silungkang Formation. West of the
Ombilin Basin fenesters of the Woyla oceanic accretionary terrain sporadically outcrop between Quaternary
volcanic deposits. The sequence consists predominantly
of limestones from the Permian Silungkang and Triassic
Tuhur Formations. Pre-Tertiary sedimentary rocks of the
Mergui and Woyla accretionary terrains were intruded by
granites, granodiorites, quartz diorites, and quartz porphyries of various ages. Radio- metric dating indicates
an Upper Jurassic to Cretaceous age for most outcrops
(Koning, 1985). However, samples have been dated from
Permian to Quaternary (Figure 8).

In terms of overall geomorphology of Sumatra, the Ombilin Basin is a median graben which is situated between
the East and West Barisan mountain range (Fig. 2.1).
This median graben extends from south of Solok and
trends northwest past Payakumbuh, a distance of approximately 120 km. Towards the northern end of the basin
the median graben is covered by Quaternary and recent
volcanic products of the Malintang, Merapi, Singgalang,
and Maninjau volcanoes. Despite the relatively small
size of the basin, 1500 sq km, (25 x 60 km, Figure 2),
the basin ll is very thick. Up to 4,600 meters of Tertiary sediments, ranging in age from Eocene to early middle Miocene is preserved in the Ombilin Basin (Koning,
1985). Major river drainage of the Ombilin Basin is provided by the Ombilin, Sinamar and Palangki Rivers along
with their many tributaries. Mean elevation of the central basin is approximately 400 meters. However, in the
northern portion of the Ombilin Basin, Merapi and Mal- 2.5.2.2. TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY PALEOGENE
intang volcanoes reach elevations of 2891 and 2262 me- The coarse grained Brani Formation consists of fanglomters respectively.
erates and debris ow sediments deposited along ac2.5.1. TECTONIC SETTING The Ombilin Basin is tive basin bounding faults from late Paleogene to middle
a northwest-southeast trending, elongate, sedimentary Eocene (Fletcher & Yarmanto. 1993). They are predombasin. The basin is located within the Barisan Moun- inantly reddish brown to purple with mottling indicating
tain range of West and Central Sumatra. The area is the presence of rootlets or burrows. Style of sedimenunique since it is one of the few intermontane basins tation indicates these deposits are fanglomerates and de-

13
bris ows are a result of rapid uplift along the anks of
newly formed grabens (Whateley & Jordan, 1987). During the early evolution of the Ombilin Basin in Eocene
times, organic rich lacustrine sediments of Sangakarewang Formation was deposited in the central portion of
the basin. These sediments rapidly thinned towards the
basin margins where they coalesced with alluvial fan and
debris ow sediments which contributed conglomeratic
and breccia material from up-thrown fault blocks where
basement was exposed. Concurrently, the surrounding
margins of the basin were the site of coarse grained, alluvial fan sedimentation. These fan sediments were sourced
from up thrown fault blocks around the margin of the
basin (Figure 11). Sawahlunto Formation is late Eocene
to early Oligocene in age and unconformably overlies
Sangkarewang, Brani and basement. This formation is
the most economically important unit in the area due to its
large coal reserves, outcrops extensively along the western margins of the Ombilin. It is a ning upward sequence deposited in a ood plain/mire type depositional
environment (Whateley and Jordan, 1987). The base of
the sequence consists of grey, ne to medium grained,
well sorted sandstones. Sands commonly have an erosional base and are interbedded with ner grained, clays,
and coals. This sandstone rich basal sequence is overlain
by ripple laminated, carbonaceous, si1tstones and shales.
The entire sequence is capped by a series of interbedded grey mudstones, coal, and organic rich shales. The
Rasau Member of the Sawahtambang Formation is reported to be locally developed along the western portion
of the Ombilin Basin and represents a transition between
the meandering stream sediments of the Sawahlunto Formation and braided stream sediments of the Sawahtambang Formation. It is included in Koesoemadinata and
Matasaks classication as a basal member of the Sawahtambang Formation and is dated as lower to late early
Oligocene. The Rasau Member is characterized by interbedded coarse grained sandstones and argillaceous siltstones During Oligocene times, the basin became dominated by parasequence sets of continental sediments deposited in a ood plain or meandering river depositional
environment of Sawahtambang Formation. These deposits consist of interbedded siltstones, claystones and
ne to coarse-grained sandstones commonly representing alluvial channel lls (DeSmet, 1991). Locally, coals
up to 18 meters thick were deposited in interlobe, miretype depositional environments along the western margin of the basin (Whateley & Jordan, 1989). In the late
Oligocene the Ombilin Basin became increasingly uvial, dominated by braided stream deposits of Sawahtambang Formation. The areal extent of these formations increased during this phase of deposition and reached its
maximum during late Oligocene to early Miocene (Situmorang, 1991). Thick sequences of ne to coarse grained
channel sandstones are commonly stacked several tens up
to 100s of meters thick (Plate 3).

calcareous shales and marls representing a major marine

incursion which inundated the Ombilin Basin area aswell-as much of Sumatra. Increased tectonic coupling
between the Sunda Craton and Indian-Australian plate
in the late Miocene-Pliocene marked the culmination of
the Barisan orogeny creating the complex wrench tectonic framework we presently observe in West Sumatra.
The Ombilin Formation consists of grey, silty to slightly
sandy, moderately calcareous mudstones with common
carbonaceous material. Interbedded with mudstones are
o-white to white, very ne to ne grained, calcareous,
glauconitic sandstones and soft, o-white, calcareous siltstones. Thickness of Ombilin Formation varies dramatically in dierent portions of the basin. In the northern
arm of the basin seismic interpretation show up to 4000
meter of marine shales have accumulated (Per. comm.
Vard Nelson, 1993 in Fletcher & Yarmanto, 1993). However, in Sinamar-1 well only 692 meters were encountered. Volcanic activity in the area reached its peak
during Late Pleistocene-Holocene time and the volcanic
products are grouped as Ranau Formation. Composition
of the deposits varies but generally consists of andesite to
basalt lava ows, lahar deposits and tus. Provenance for
the Ranau Formation is from a combination of the Maninjau, Merapi, Malintang, and Singallang volcanoes. The
volcanoes are situated both along and at right angles to the
Sumatra Fault zone. The northwest-southeast volcanic
trend is easily explained by formation along a weaker
crustal zones created by strike slip rnovement along the
Sumatra Fault Zone. However, the east-west trend is
more dicult to explain and is postulated to be a response
to crustal weakening around releasing bends between the
Ombilin Basin and Payakumbuh Subbasin.

6 2.6.
REGIONAL STRUCTURES

Along the Java-Sumatran trench system the IndoAustralian plate is subducting under the Eruasian plate
with a convergence rate of 75 mm/yr (Minster and Jorda,
1978; DeMets et al., 1990). Analysis of slip vectors deducted from earthquake focal mechanisms suggests an approximately N-tending convergence between these two
plates (Jarrard, 1986; McCarey, 1991). O Java, where
the average trench azimuth is approximately N100oE,
the convegence is nearly normal to the Java Trench and
is essentially accomodated by the subduction process.
Conversely, because the azimuth of the Sumatra Trench,
West of the Sunda Strati, is N140oE, the convegenceis
oblique. Mechanically, this convergence obliquity has to
be accomodated both by subduction (aconvegence component normal to the trench) and strike-slip deformation (a convergence component parallel to the trench).
The strike-slip deformation is interpreted as being located
NEOGENE Conformably overlying the braided stream along the Great Sumatran Fault System (Fitch, 1972;
sediments of late Oligocene age are Ombilin Formation Beck, 1983; Jarrard, 1986b). This NW-trending fault

14

2.7. SOURCES

zone is a major, 1650-km-long structure of, right-lateral

strike-slip fault segments that follows the Sumatra magmatic arc and parallesl the trench, from north to south,
from the Andaman Sea back-arc basin to the Sunda Strait
extensional fault aone. The slip rate of the Great Sumatran Fault has been indirectly estimated, from global plate
motions and the opening rate of nearby basins, and directly calculated from measurements of osets along its
trace. Assuming that the Great Sumatran Fault zone is
accomodating all the trench-parallel component of the
convergence between the Indo-Australian and Eurasian
plates. The slip rate of the Sumatra Fault System should
range between 30 and 50 mm/yr (Jarrard, 1986). This
high slip rate on the Sumatra Fault System appears high
when compared to the relatively moderate activity of the
crustal seismicity and the slip rate estimated in southern Sumatra (Pramudmijoyo, 1991; Pramumijoyo et al.,
1991). High resolution SPOT image analyses of the
Great Sumatran Fault trace have conrmed its right lateral strike-slip style. These images show right lateral osets of geomorphologic surface features such as streams,
calderas and lineaments. Precise oset measurements
performed along the Sumatra Fault System have shown
that its dextral slip rate increases to the northwest (Bellier et al., 1993), from 6+4 mm/yr in southern Sumatra (at about 5oS) (Bellier et al., 1991) to 28 mm/yr
(Shieh et al., 1991) in norther Sumatra near Lake Toba
(at about 2o10N). However, the northern Sumatra Fault
slip rate is still too low to accommodate the whole trenchparallel compnenet of the convergence. This suggests that
a combination of two models should accommodate the 30
mm/yr slip rate dierence between northern and southern Sumatra; that is, slip transfer to the Mentawai Fault
Zone (Diament et al., 1991, 1992; Malod et al., 1993)
along the Batee Fault link and northwestward stretching
of the fore-arc platelet (McCarey, 1991), to explain the
along-strike variation in slip rate south of the Batee Fault.

2.7. SOURCES

Bona Situmorang: research on North Sumatra Danny

Hilman: PhD on Sumatra Fault

Structural framework map of Sibolga Basin and North Sumatra

15

north sumatra basin and tectonic map

16

8 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

8.1

Text

The Geology of Indonesia/Sumatra Source: https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/The_Geology_of_Indonesia/Sumatra?oldid=2961362 Contributors: Mike.lifeguard, Herman Darman, Adrignola, Aldnonymous, Herman darman and Anonymous: 3

8.2

Images

File:Nias-geology-map.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Nias-geology-map.jpg License: CC BY-SA

4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Herman darman
File:Nias_Sumatra_section.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Nias_Sumatra_section.jpg License: CC
BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Herman darman
File:North-sumatra-basin-map.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/North-sumatra-basin-map.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Herman darman
File:Sibolga-basin.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/Sibolga-basin.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Herman darman
File:Sumatra-subduction.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Sumatra-subduction.jpg License: CC
BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Herman darman
File:Tectonic_setting_map_of_Sumatra.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/Tectonic_setting_map_
of_Sumatra.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Herman darman

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