Chem 16 General Chemistry 1

13 Changes in the Nucleus

Dr. Gil C. Claudio

First Semester 2014-2015
Table of Contents

Contents
1 Radioactivity and Nuclear Equations

2 Patterns of Nuclear Stability

3 Nuclear Transmutations

4 Rates of Radioactive Decay

5 Detection of Radioactivity

10

6 Energetics of Nuclear Reactions

10

7 Nuclear Power: Fission

12

8 Nuclear Power: Fusion

13

9 Effect of Nuclear Radiation on Matter

13

References
References of these notes
General Chemistry, 10th ed, by Ralph H. Petrucci, F. Geoffrey Herring,
Jeffy D. Madura, and Carey Bisonnette.
Chemistry: The Central Science, 13th ed., by Theodore L. Brown, H. Eugene
LeMay Jr., Bruce E. Bursten, Catherine J. Murphy, Patrick M. Woodward,
and Matthew W. Stoltzfus.
Nuclear Chemistry
Nuclear chemistry is the study of nuclear reactions, with an emphasis on
their uses and their effects on biological systems.
energy and medical applications
used to help determine the mechanisms of chemical reactions, to trace
the movement of atoms in biological systems and the environment, and
to date historical artifacts.

1 Radioactivity and Nuclear Equations

Isotopes and Nuclides
Atoms with the same atomic number but different mass numbers are
known as isotopes.
The mass number is the total number of nucleons in the nucleus.
Isotopes of the same element have different mass numbers, different
natural abundances, and different stabilities.
E.g., the three naturally occurring isotopes of uranium are uranium-234
235
238
( 234
92U, trace amounts), uranium-235 ( 92U, 0.7%), and uranium-238 ( 92U,
99.3%).
A nuclide is a nucleus containing a specified number of protons and neutrons.
Nuclides that are radioactive are called radionuclides, and atoms
containing these nuclei are called radioisotopes.
Radioactivity
Radioactivity is a phenomenon in which small particles of matter ( or
particles) and/or electromagnetic radiation ( rays) are emitted by unstable
atomic nuclei.
Proposed by Marie Curie to describe the emission of ionizing radiation
by some of the heavier elements. Ionizing radiation interacts with matter
to produce ions. Thus the radiation is sufficiently energetic to break
chemical bonds.
Some ionizing radiation is particulate (consisting of particles), and some is
nonparticulate.
particulate: , , and particles
Nuclear Equations
A nuclear equation represents the changes that occur during a nuclear
process. The target nucleus and bombarding particle are represented on the
left side of the equation, and the product nucleus and ejected particle on the
right side. A nuclear equation is written to conform to two rules:
1. The sum of mass numbers must be the same on both sides.
2. The sum of atomic numbers must be the same on both sides.
Alpha Particles
An alpha () particle is a combination of two protons and two neutrons
identical to the helium ion ( 4He2+ ). Alpha particles are emitted in some
radioactive decay processes.
They produce large numbers of ions via their collisions and near
collisions with atoms as they travel through matter, but their penetrating
power is low.
Because they have a positive charge, they are deflected by electric and
magnetic fields.
A reaction that produces an particle is also called an alpha decay.
238U
92

234Th
90

+ 42He

Beta Particles
A beta particle ( particle) is an electron emitted as a result of the
conversion of a neutron to a proton in certain atomic nuclei undergoing
radioactive decay.
particles are are electrons that originate from the nuclei of atoms in
nuclear decay processes
extremely energetic and do not end up in an orbital of the decaying atom
represented as either -10e or
their mass is exceedingly small relative to a nucleon
they have a negative (-) charge, and are thus deflected by electric and
magnetic fields
greater penetrating power through matter than particles
Beta Emission
Iodine-131 is an isotope that undergoes decay by beta emission
131I
53

131Xe
54

+ -10e

Beta emission is equivalent to the conversion of a neutron to a proton.

1n
0

11H + -10e

n p +

or

Gamma Radiation
Gamma () rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation of high penetrating
power emitted by certain radioactive nuclei.
It changes neither the atomic number nor the mass number of a nucleus
represented as either 00 or simply .
Gamma radiation usually accompanies other radioactive emission
because it represents the energy lost when the nucleons in a nuclear
reaction reorganize into more stable arrangements.
Often gamma rays are not explicitly shown when writing nuclear
equations.
Summary of Properties

charge

2+

-1

mass (g)

6.64 1024

9.11 10 28

relative penetrating
power
nature of radiation

100

10,000

Electrons

High-energy
photons

4He
2

nuclei

Positron Emission
A positron (+ , +10 , or +10e) is a positive electron emitted as a result of the
conversion of a proton to a neutron in a radioactive nucleus.
same mass as electron, opposite in charge
positron emission causes the atomic number of the reactant to decrease
by 1
Examples of decays by positron emission
11C
6

11B
5

0
+1e

30P
15

30Si
14

0
+1e

Generally
1p
1

10n + +10e

p n + +

or

Electron Capture
Electron capture is a mode of radioactive decay in which an inner-shell
orbital electron is captured by the nucleus.
When an electron from a higher quantum level drops to the energy level
vacated by the captured electron, X radiation is emitted.
Some examples are
81Rb
37

+ -10e

81Kr
36

202Tl
81

+ -10e

202Hg
80

Electron capture, like positron emission, has the effect of converting a proton
to a neutron:
1p
1

+ -10e 10n

Particles in Nuclear Reactions

Particles found in nuclear reactions
particle
neutron
proton
electron
alpha particle
beta particle
positron

symbol
1n or n
0
1H or p
1
0e
4He or
2
0

-1e or
0e or +
+1

Types of Radioactive Decay

type

nuclear equation

change
in Z

change
in A

alpha decay

AX
Z

A-4Y
Z-2

+ 42He

-2

-4

beta emission

AX
Z

A
Z+1Y

+ -10e

+1

unchanged

positron emission

AX
Z

A
Z-1Y

0
+1e

-1

unchanged

electron capture

AX
Z

+ -10e

A
Z-1Y

-1

unchanged

Radioactive Decay Modes

EC

+
Parent
atom

n
N
Z
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Radioactive decay modes.svg

2 Patterns of Nuclear Stability

Neutron-to-Proton Ratio
Neutrons are involved in the strong nuclear force that keep positively
charged protons within a small volume.
As the number of protons in a nucleus increases, there is an ever greater
need for neutrons to counteract the protonproton repulsions.
at Z 20, nneutrons nprotons
at Z > 20, nneutrons > nprotons
to create a stable nucleus increases more rapidly than the number of
protons
Thus, the neutron-to-proton ratios of stable nuclei increase with
increasing atomic number
E.g.,

12C
6

(n/p = 1),

55Mn
22

(n/p = 1.2),

197Au
79

(n/p 1.49)

Neutron-to-Proton Ratio

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Table isotopes en.svg

Belt of Stability
The dark blue dots in the figure represent stable (nonradioactive) isotopes.
The region of the graph covered by these dark blue dots is known as the belt
of stability.
The belt of stability ends at element 83 (bismuth).
All nuclei with 84 or more protons are radioactive.
Radioactive Decay Patters
The type of radioactive decay that a particular radionuclide undergoes
depends largely on how its neutron-to-proton ratio compares with those of
nearby nuclei that lie within the belt of stability. Three general situations:
1. Nuclei above the belt of stability (high neutron-to-proton ratios). Increase
stability via emitting a beta particle.
2. Nuclei below the belt of stability (low neutron-to-proton ratios). Increase
stability by increasing the number of neutrons via either positron
emission or electron capture.
3. Nuclei with atomic numbers 84. These heavy nuclei tend to undergo
alpha emission.
Predicting Modes of Nuclear Decay
BLBMWS 13e, Exercise 21.3, p 916
Predict the mode of decay of
1. carbon-14,
2. xenon-118.
ANSWERS
1. emit a beta particle to decrease the n/p ratio:
14C
6

14N
7

+ -10e

2. either positron emission or electron capture

118Xe
54

118I
53

118Xe
54

+ -10e

0
+1e
118I
53

Radioactive Decay Series

A radioactive decay series (or radioactive decay chain, or nuclear
disintegration series is a succession of individual steps whereby an initial
radioactive isotope is ultimately converted to a stable isotope.
cannot gain stability by a single emission, occurs in a series of successive
emissions
Three such series occur in nature: uranium-238 to lead-206, uranium-235
to lead-207, and thorium-232 to lead-208. All of the decay processes in
these series are either alpha emissions or beta emissions.

Magic Numbers for Nuclear Stability

Two further observations can help us to predict stable nuclei:
1. Nuclei with the magic numbers of 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, or 82 protons or 2, 8,
20, 28, 50, 82, or 126 neutrons are generally more stable than nuclei that
do not contain these numbers of nucleons.
2. Nuclei with even numbers of protons, neutrons, or both are more likely
to be stable than those with odd numbers of protons and/or neutrons.
60% of stable nuclei have an even number of both protons and
neutrons, whereas less than 2% have odd numbers of both.
These can be understood in terms of the shell model of the nucleus.
nucleons reside in shells analogous to the shell structure for electrons
in atoms, where certain numbers of electrons correspond to stable
filled-shell electron configurations.
Protons and Neutrons Pairs
Evidence also suggests that pairs of protons and pairs of neutrons have a
special stability, analogous to the pairs of electrons in molecules.
Thus stable nuclei with an even number of protons and/or neutrons are
far more numerous than those with odd numbers.

3 Nuclear Transmutations
Nuclear Transmutations
In some nuclear reactions, the nucleus decays spontaneously. A nucleus
can also change identity if it is struck by a neutron or by another nucleus.
Nuclear reactions induced in this way are known as nuclear transmutations.
In 1919, Ernest Rutherford performed the first conversion of one nucleus
into another, using alpha particles emitted by radium to convert nitrogen-14
into oxygen-17
14N
7

+ 42He

17O
8

+ 11H

or

14N
7

17O
8

+p

Shorthand Notation
The shorthand notation to represent nuclear transmutations
14
7N

(,p) 178O

target nucleus
bombarding particle
ejected particle
product nucleus

14N
7

17O
8

Writing a Balanced Nuclear Equation

BLBMWS 13e, Example 21.4, p 918
Write the balanced nuclear equation for the process summarized as
) 24
11Na.
ANSWER
27Al
13

+ 10n

24Na
11

+ 42He

or

27Al
13

+n

24Na
11

27Al(n,
13

Accelerating Charged Particles

A particle accelerator a device that uses strong magnetic and electrostatic
fields to accelerate charged particles.
Also called cyclotron, synchrotron, and atom smashers.
Alpha particles and other positively charged particles must move very
fast to overcome the electrostatic repulsion between them and the target
nucleus.
The charged particles can be manipulated by electric and magnetic fields.
They pass through tubes kept at high vacuum to avoid inadvertent
collisions with any gas-phase molecules.
Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fermilab.jpg

Reactions Involving Neutrons

Neutrons, because they are neutral, are not repelled by the nucleus and
do not need to be accelerated to cause nuclear reactions. The neutrons are
produced in nuclear reactors.
For example, synthesis of cobalt-60 from iron-58
58Fe
26

+ 10n
59Fe
26
59Co + 1n
0
27

59Fe
26
59Co
27
60Co
27

+ -10e

Transuranium Elements
Transuranium elements are elements that follow uranium in the periodic
table.
Elements 93 (neptunium, Np) and 94 (plutonium, Pu) were produced in
1940 by bombarding uranium-238 with neutrons.
238U
92

+ 10n

239U
92

0
239
93Np + -1e

239Np
93

+ 10n

239Pu
94

+ -10e

Elements with still larger atomic numbers are normally formed in small
quantities in particle accelerators. For example, by using alpha particles
239Pu
94

+ 42He

242Cm
96

+ 10n

70Zn
30

277Cn
112

+ 10n

Other elements can be used.

208Pb
82

4 Rates of Radioactive Decay

Radioactive Decay
Radioactive decay is a first-order kinetic process, which has a characteristic
half-life.
The half-life t1/2 of a reaction is the time required for one-half of a reactant to
be consumed. In a nuclear decay process, it is the time required for one-half of
the atoms present in a sample to undergo radioactive decay.
Half-lives as short as millionths of a second and as long as billions of
years are known.
unaffected by external conditions such as temperature, pressure, or state
of chemical combination, thus they cannot be rendered harmless by
chemical reaction or by any other practical treatment
Half-Lives and Decay Types
The half-lives and type of decay for several natural (N) or synthetic (S)
radioisotopes
N/S
N
N
N
N
N
S
S
S
S

Isotope
238U
92
235U
92
232Th
90
40K
19
14C
6
239Pu
94
137Cs
55
90Sr
38
131I
53

half-life (yr)
4.5 109
7.0 108
1.4 101 0
1.3 109
5700
24,000
30.2
28.8
0.022

type of decay
alpha
alpha
alpha
beta
beta
alpha
beta
beta
beta

Calculation of Half-Lives
BLBMWS 13e, Exercise 21.5, p 921
The half-life of cobalt-60 is 5.27 yr. How much of a 1.000-mg sample of
cobalt-60 is left after 15.81 yr?
ANSWER: 0.125 mg
Radioactive Decay Law
The radioactive decay law states that the rate of decay of a radioactive
materialthe activity, Ais directly proportional to the number of atoms
present.
The rate for a first-order kinetic process is
Rate = kN
where N is the number of radioactive nuclei and k is the decay constant.
Activity and Decay Rate
The rate at which a sample decays is called its activity.
The becquerel (Bq) is the SI unit for expressing activity. A becquerel is
defined as one nuclear disintegration per second.
An older, but still widely used, unit of activity is the curie (Ci), defined
as 3.7 1010 disintegrations per second, which is the rate of decay of 1 g
of radium.
9

First-Order Rate Law

A first-order rate law (Rate = kN) can be transformed into
ln

Nt
= kt
N0

where t is the time interval of decay, k is the decay constant, N0 is the initial
number of nuclei (at time zero), and Nt is the number remaining after the time
interval.
The relationship between the decay constant k and half-life t1/2 is
k=

0.693
t1/2

using the value ln( Nt /N0 ) = ln(0.5) = 0.693 for one half-life.
Calculating the Age of Objects
BLBMWS 13e, Exercise 21.6, p 924
A rock contains 0.257 mg of lead-206 for every milligram of uranium-238.
The half-life for the decay of uranium-238 to lead-206 is 4.5 109 yr. How old
is the rock?
ANSWER: 1.7 109 yr
Radioactive Decay and Time
BLBMWS 13e, Exercise 21.7, pp 924-925
If we start with 1.000 g of strontium-90, 0.953 g will remain after 2.00 yr.
1. What is the half-life of strontium-90?
2. How much strontium-90 will remain after 5.00 yr?
3. What is the initial activity of the sample in becquerels and curies?
ANSWERS:
1. t1/2 = 28.8 yr
2. Nt = 0.887 g
3. 5.1 102 disintegrations/s or 1.4 102 Ci

5 Detection of Radioactivity
Geiger Counter
Radioactivity can be detected and measured by a Geiger counter.
Radiation is able to ionize matter. The ions and electrons produced by
the ionizing radiation permit conduction of an electrical current.
A current pulse between the anode and the metal cylinder occurs
whenever entering radiation produces ions. Each pulse is counted in
order to estimate the amount of radiation.

10

Geiger Counter
Cathode
Input
Window

Gamma
Radiation
Counter

Resistor

Voltage
Source

commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Geiger Mueller Counter with Circuit-en.svg

6 Energetics of Nuclear Reactions

Energy of Nuclear Reactions
In order to understand the great amount of energy released in nuclear
reactions as compared to chemical reactions, we start with Einsteins equation
from the theory of relativity that relates mass and energy: E = mc2
The mass changes in chemical reactions are too small to detect, thus mass
is conserved. E.g., the mass change in the combustion of 1 mol of CH4 is
9.9 109 g.
The mass changes and the associated energy changes in nuclear reactions
are much greater than those for chemical reactions.
Mass and Energy Change in Uranium-238 Decay
Given the alpha decay of uranium-238
238U
92

234Th
90

+ 42He

The mass change is the total mass of the products minus the total mass of the
reactants.
233.9942 g + 4.0015 g 238.0003 g = 0.0046 g
The energy change per mole associated with this reaction is
E

= (mc2 ) = c2 m
= (2.9979 108 m/s)2 0.0046 g = 4.1 1011 J

Mass Defect
Scientists discovered in the 1930s that the masses of nuclei are always less
than the masses of the individual nucleons of which they are composed.
mass of 42He is 4.00150 amu, mass of 1 p is 1.00728 amu, mass of 1 n is
1.00866 amu
mass 2 p + 2 n > mass 42He, with a mass difference of 0.03038 amu
The mass difference between a nucleus and its constituent nucleons is called
the mass defect.

11

Nuclear Binding Energy

Energy must be added to a nucleus to break it into separated protons and
neutrons
Energy + 42He 2 11H + 2 10n
The mass change for the conversion of helium-4 into separated nucleons is
m = 0.03038 amu. Using E = mc2 , thus
E = c2 m = 4.534 1012 J
The energy required to separate a nucleus into its individual nucleons is called
the nuclear binding energy.
Some Binding Energies
Mass (m) defects and binding energies (BE) for three nuclei (masses in amu,
energy in J).
m of nucleus
mtot of nucleons
mass defect m
BE
BE per nucleon

4He
2

4.00150
4.03188
0.03038
4.53 1012
1.13 1012

56Fe
26

55.92068
56.44914
0.52846
7.90 1011
1.41 1012

238U
92

238.00031
239.93451
1.93420
2.89 1010
1.21 1012

Nuclear Stability and Binding Energy

Values of BE per nucleon can be used to compare the stabilities of different
combinations of nucleons.
BE per nucleon at first increases until 1.4 1012 J for nuclei with A
A(iron-56).
BE then decreases to about 1.2 1012 J for very heavy nuclei
Nuclei of intermediate mass numbers are more tightly bound, thus more
stable, than those with either smaller or larger mass numbers.
Fission and Fusion
This trend has two significant consequences
1. Heavy nuclei gain stability and therefore give off energy if they are
fragmented into two mid-sized nuclei. This process is known as fission.
Used to generate energy in nuclear power plants.
2. Due to the sharp increase in the graph for small mass numbers, even
greater amounts of energy are released if very light nuclei are combined,
or fused together, to give more massive nuclei. This fusion process is the
essential energy-producing process in the sun and other stars.

7 Nuclear Power: Fission

Fission of Uranium-235
Two ways that the uranium-235 nucleus splits are
1n
0

+ 235
92U

137Te + 97Zr + 2 1n
0
52
40
142Ba + 91Kr + 3 1n
0
56
36

The nuclei produced are called the fission products.

also radioactive and undergo further nuclear decay
fission products of
them radioactive

235U
92

more than 200 isotopes of 35 elements, most of

12

Chain Reactions
Initial absorption of the neutron by the nucleus. The resulting more
massive nucleus is often unstable and spontaneously undergoes fission.
Slow-moving neutrons are required, fast neutrons tend to bounce off the
nucleus.
Each reaction produces more neutrons, causing further fission, causing a chain
reaction.
The number of fissions and the energy released quickly escalate, and if
the process is unchecked, the result is a violent explosion.
Critical and Supercritical Mass
The minimum amount of fissionable material large enough to maintain a
chain reaction with a constant rate of fission is called the critical mass.
The critical mass of uranium-235 is about 50 kg for a bare sphere of the
metal.
If more than a critical mass of fissionable material is present, very few neutrons
escape. The chain reaction thus multiplies the number of fissions, which can
lead to a nuclear explosion. A mass in excess of a critical mass is referred to as
a supercritical mass.
Nuclear Reactors
Nuclear power plants use nuclear fission to generate energy. Four principal
components of the core
1. Fuel elements. A fissionable substance, e.g., uranium-235.
2. Control rods. Materials that absorb neutrons, such as boron-10 or an
alloy of silver, indium, and cadmium. These rods regulate the flux of
neutrons to keep the reaction chain self-sustaining and also prevent the
reactor core from overheating.
3. Moderator. These slow down the neutrons ( few km/s) so that they
can be captured more readily by the fissionable nuclei. E.g., water or
graphite.
4. Primary coolant. Transports the heat generated by the nuclear chain
reaction away from the reactor core. E.g. water.

8 Nuclear Power: Fusion

Fusion in the Sun
Spectroscopic studies indicate that the mass composition of the Sun is 73%
H, 26% He, and only 1% all other elements. The following reactions are among
the numerous fusion processes believed to occur in the Sun:
1H
1
1H
1

+ 11H
+ 21H
3He + 3He
2
2
3He + 1H
2
1

13

2H + 0e
1
+1
3He
2
4He + 2 1H
2
1
4He + 0e
2
+1

Fusion as an Energy Source

Fusion is appealing as an energy source because of the availability of light
isotopes on Earth and because fusion products are generally not radioactive.
Despite this fact, fusion is not presently used to generate energy.
Extremely high temperatures and pressures are needed to overcome the
electrostatic repulsion between nuclei in order to fuse them. Fusion
reactions are therefore also known as thermonuclear reactions. The
lowest temperature required for any fusion is about 40,000,000 K, the
temperature needed to fuse deuterium and tritium.
No known structural material is able to with stand the enormous
temperatures necessary for fusion.
Even with the current technology, scientists have not yet been able to generate
more power than is consumed over a sustained period of time.

9 Effect of Nuclear Radiation on Matter

Ionizing Radiation
Radiation energy can cause atoms in the matter to be either excited or
ionized.
Ionizing radiation is radiation that causes ionization. It is far more
harmful to biological systems than nonionizing radiation
Nonionizing radiation is low in energy and does not cause ionization.
Slow-moving. E.g., radiofrequency electromagnetic radiation.
Ionization of Water
Most living tissue contains at least 70% water by mass. Water absorbs most
of the energy of the radiation. Thus, it is common to define ionizing radiation
as radiation that can ionize water, > 1216 kJ/mol.
, , rays, X-rays and higher-energy ultraviolet radiation are forms of
ionizing radiation.
When ionizing radiation passes through living tissue, electrons are removed
from H2 O, forming highly reactive H2 O+ ions, which then produces the
unstable and highly reactive free radical OH (hydroxyl radical).
H2 O+ + H2 O H3 O+ + OH
In cells and tissues, OH can attack biomolecules to produce new free radicals,
which in turn attack yet other biomolecules. Thus a few OH radicals can
initiate a large number of chemical reactions that are ultimately able to disrupt
the normal operations of cells.

14