Chapter 4

Dynamics
Dynamics is the branch of mechanics that is concerned with the study of motion
and the relation between the forces and motion. The central focus of our study is
the dynamics of systems of rigid bodies and its application to technical problems.
Furthermore, we are basically concerned with the computer aided dynamics of rigid
bodies to give an insight into the contemporary classical dynamics from the computational point of view. This should familiarise the reader (and user of this book) with
the basic concepts of todays computational dynamics realized in various program
packages [4], [5].
The motivation for this approach stems from the fact that in the contemporary
engineering praxis a lot of dynamical problems arise but only very few of them
can be solved in the analytical form by following classical calculation by hand
approaches. For the majority of problems (large-scale problems, analytically nonsolvable differential equations, non-linear tasks, coupled problems etc.) computational methods have to be applied. This fact gives rise to many open questions
concerning the optimal use of the computational tools available within the various
program packages [17].
The experience shows that for an accurate and effective computation, the mechanical and mathematical models of the given engineering problem have to be
properly established. The computational model should contain all the necessary
pieces of information considering the mechanical phenomena under investigation.
It also should be formulated properly to suit the computational method that is intended to be utilized to obtain the final solution. On the other hand, many computational methods for the various kinds of problems are at the users disposal today.
Among them the appropriate ones for the problem at hand should be chosen and
applied.
In this chapter our main goal is to provide the basic principles of the contemporary computational dynamics of rigid body systems as well as the necessary theoretical background. The starting point is the question: What should be considered
190

CHAPTER 4. DYNAMICS

191

in establishing a proper computational model that should be successfully solved ?

4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 Issues of applied dynamics
Dynamics can be classified into the several sub-domains. Each of them has its own
modelling assumptions and procedures. In most of the cases, the computational
methods are also different. According to the characteristics of the problem and the
focus of the intended dynamical analysis, the sub-domain whose approach is best
suited to the problem at hand should be chosen . In the sequel of the chapter, an
overview of the characteristics of the sub-domains and problems of the contemporary dynamics is given.
Multibody dynamics
Multibody dynamics deals with the mechanical systems of interconnected rigid bodies that undergo large displacements and rotations [4], [5], [19]. The bodies are
interconnected by kinematical constraint elements and coupling elements. Both
visco-elastic and inertia properties of the real technical system are discretised during the process of shaping of the systems mechanical model [18].
The mathematical modelling of the established discretised mechanical model
leads to the ordinary differential equations (ODE) (minimal form mathematical
models) or to the differential-algebraic equations (DAE) (mathematical models in
descriptor form) [5].
The concepts of the multibody dynamics can be successfully utilized within
the framework of the following technical applications: vehicle systems, aircraft
subsystems, robotic systems, various kind of mechanisms, biomechanical systems,
mechatronics.
Structural dynamics
Structural dynamics deals with the deformable mechanical structures whose segments generally do not undergo large displacements and rotations (not kinematical
chains). The mass and visco-elastic properties of the system are distributed along
the structure [18].
The basic mathematical modelling generally leads to partial differential equations (PDE). The discretisation of the system that is usually performed in the sequel
of the mathematical modelling procedure yields a mathematical model in the form
of ODE. By using finite element approach [1], very powerful computational proce-

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192

dures are available for tackling the problems of structural dynamics, see also chapter
5.
Typical structural dynamics applications are: plates, shells, aircraft structures,
trusses, civil engineering structures.
Flexible multibody dynamics
In the framework of flexible multibody dynamics, segments of a system are considered to be flexible [19].
Flexible multibody dynamics typically deals with non-linear structures whose
segments undergo large rigid body motion superposed by flexible deformations
[10]. Modelling and computational procedures of the multibody dynamics and
structural dynamics are being combined in order to formulate efficient procedures
for problems of this kind. The methods of the flexible multibody dynamics are
subjects of extensive ongoing research activities [5].
The applications of flexible multibody dynamics systems can be found in various multibody systems with connected rigid and flexible segments like aircraft rotary wings, flexible robots, biomechanical systems, high-speed mechanisms.
Problems of dynamics
In dynamics various classes of problems can be distinguished.

Inverse dynamics
The inverse dynamics deals with the determination of the applied and constraint forces and torques for a mechanical system whose motion is prescribed
[16].
Beside the full dynamic approach, in which all the forces of the system
are considered in the computation, the quasi-static approach of the inverse
dynamics can be applied. Within the framework of the quasi-static approach,
the inertia forces of the system are neglected.
In most of the cases, an inverse dynamics problem leads to a set of algebraic
equations.

Forward dynamics
The forward dynamics deals with the determination of the motion of the system that is subjected to prescribed applied forces and torques [4].
In most of the technical applications (systems bodies undergo large displacements and rotations, coupling elements of the system possess non-linear characteristics), a forward dynamics problem leads to solving non-linear ordinary

CHAPTER 4. DYNAMICS

193
Dynamics

Structural dynamics

Dynamics of MBS

Dynamial behaviour
(stability tests)

Inverse dynamics

Optimisation

Forward dynamics

Dynamical modelling

Deriving dynamical equations

Lagrange approach,
Jourdains principle
etc.

NewtonEuler
approach

Inverse
dynamics
(Solving
of linear
algebraic
equations)

Descriptor form Reduction before

formulation
integration

Minimal form
formulation
Stability criteria
Stability
analysis

Forward
dynamics

Forward
dynamics

Linear
analysis

Linearization of
the equations
Linear
forward
dynamics

DAE system

Reduction during

ODE system

integration
Integration of
DAE

Linear ODE
(vibration analysis)

Integration of
ODE

Figure 4.1: Issues of applied dynamics

differential equations. Depending on the formulation of the mathematical

model, additional algebraic equations may be imposed on the system.

Vibrations
In most of the cases in linear domain [13] [15], solving the vibrational problem leads to the determination of the system eigenvalues and modes (Chapter
5). The system stability problem can also be mentioned in this context.

CHAPTER 4. DYNAMICS

194

In the framework of the some very important industrial applications (nonlinear vibration within the vehicle sub-systems, acoustical problems etc.) nonlinear vibrational problems have to be tackled.

Optimisation
The problem of the optimisation of the mechanical systems (weight, costs,
deformation and stresses, dynamical trajectories etc.) is very important in
engineering and lies far out of the scope of this book [2], [6].
However, it can be stated that specialised methods that allow for the optimisation of the mechanical systems according to the specified criteria may be
applied. Another possibility is to look for an improved design via repeated
simulations and variations of the systems parameters.

In Figure 4.1 issues of applied mechanics, problems and solving methods of

solution are depicted schematically.

4.1.2 Modelling of Mechanical Systems

The modelling of mechanical systems has two major steps that are illustrated in
Figure 4.2.

    


 

Figure 4.2: Steps of modelling

The first step is the mapping of the reality (technical system) into a set of simplified entities in order to establish a mechanical model [18]. The mechanical model
should include at least the effects under consideration, but not more, i.e. the models
should be as complex as necessary but as simple as possible (A. Einstein: Everything should be made as simple as possible, but not simpler). The mechanical
modelling is not an unique but an iterative process. It needs a lot of engineering

CHAPTER 4. DYNAMICS

195

experience since proper analogies between the reality and the model, dependent on
the goals of the analysis, have to be established [5].
Once the mechanical model is built, in the second step a mathematical model, i.
e. a set of the governing equations which describe the models dynamical behavior,
has to be formulated [7]. The mathematical modelling is also not an unique process.
It depends on the goals of the analysis and the computational procedures and tools
as well as the computer hardware that are intended to be used.
Mechanical modelling
Mechanical modelling is a process that is affected by the character of the problem
and focus of the intended analysis in the first place. Second, the characteristics
of the real objects are important, but only within the scope of the given task and
intended analysis.
A real object can be modelled using different mechanical elements: an aircraft
can be considered as a rigid body within the scope of flight mechanics, but it has
to be modelled as a system of elastic bodies to analyse the landing dynamics phenomena. If its space trajectory is under investigation, a large space station can be
modelled as a particle, but on the other hand, a tennis ball has to be considered to
be an elastic body in the case of its impact analysis.
The crucial modelling criterion is that the mechanical model should be able to
describe (take into account) those mechanical properties of the real system that are
under the consideration with the desired accuracy [16], [18].
Mathematical modelling
Mathematical modelling is a process of formulating a mathematical text (a set of
the equations of motion, for example), referred to the established mechanical model
by following physical laws and principles (Newtonian classical mechanics, smooth
or non-smooth theory).
A good and effective mathematical model has to reflect the type and character
of the analysis that is to be performed (linear or non-linear analysis, for example),
but also has to be properly formulated to suit the computational procedures and
algorithms that are intended to be used for the manipulation and evaluation of the
generated equations [7].
In some special cases, the solution of the established mathematical model may
be found analytically, where the obtained solution is exact under the assumptions
made during mechanical and mathematical modelling. Nevertheless, in most of the
cases computational procedures have to be utilized to find the numerical solutions
(Chapter 4.3.1).
In the past three decades numerous computational techniques and algorithms

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196

have been established to generate the governing equations for the various classes of
problems and specific kinds of the analysis (multibody systems, structural systems,
systems with the unilateral or variable constraints etc.). These algorithms are the
core of the various program packages that are offered in the market today [18], [19].
Although very often the intended mechanical analysis can be carried out by
starting initially from different mathematical models, an appropriate mathematical
modelling can influence the computational procedure itself to a great extent (reducing the computation time or gaining more accurate results).

4.2 Mechanical Modelling

As it was mentioned in Chapter 4.1.2, the mechanical modelling is a process of the
mapping of the reality to a set of simplified elements. The established set of the
elements (mechanical model) has to be able to describe those mechanical properties
of the real system which influence the dynamical phenomena under consideration.
Given the goals of the analysis and characteristics of the real system whose dynamical behaviour has to be investigated, a first step toward establishing a proper
mechanical model is a decision whether the system is to be modelled as the multibody system or the modelling principles of structural dynamics are to be applied
[18], [10].
Many technical systems consist of the large number of bodies interconnected by
the constraint elements such as the joints, bearings, springs, dampers or actuators.
These systems can be successfully modelled as multibody systems. It can be stated
generally that if the bodies in the system undergo large motion and small vibrations,
a very powerful tool is the modelling using the multibody system approach [19].
If the multibody system concept is adopted for modelling purposes, a real system will be discretised by means of the elements that will be reviewed in the sequel
of the chapter. The discussion will be confined to the modelling principles of the
classical multibody dynamics (the models are established as the systems of interconnected rigid bodies) and flexibility of the segments is not considered. Some
phenomena of the dynamic behaviour of the elastic bodies are addressed in Chapter
5.
Since the kinematical structure of the system determines its characteristics to a
great extent, the types and the character of the kinematical constraints and the way
they determine the behaviour of the system will be discussed in detail. The classification of the forces that appear in the multibody systems will be also overviewed.
Another part of the mechanical modelling is the idealised description of the real
load. It may be introduced in the model as concentrated forces and moments as
well as forces and moments distributed over line, surface or volume [18], [1]. An
appropriate modelling of the load is also dependent on the particular task and the

CHAPTER 4. DYNAMICS

197

established model itself.

Once the mechanical model is established, the corresponding mathematical model
has to be formulated.

4.2.1 Elements of Multibody Systems

As it is depicted in the Fig. 4.3, multibody systems consist of elements with inertia and constraint elements and coupling elements without inertia [18]. Inertia is
represented by a rigid body or, as a special case, a particle. Therefore, systems of
particles and lumped mass systems may be regarded as special cases of multibody
systems.
Within the coupling elements two types of actuators can be distinguished:

Actuators that prescribe the particular applied forces as the functions of time
(force actuators).
The motion of the system caused by this type of the actuators is generally not
known. It is a subject of the forward dynamic analysis of the system.

Actuators that prescribe the motion of the system, i.e. prescribe the particular
displacements or rotations of the systems bodies as the functions of time
(displacement actuators).
The forces imposed by the actuators of this type are generally not known.
These forces are the subject of the inverse dynamic analysis of the system
[16].
Since these actuators prescribe the systems motion (the system is constrained
to evolve in time in the specific way), the actuators of this type can be considered as the kinematical constraints. Consequently, the forces imposed by
them are classified as the constraint forces (see classification of forces and
kinematical constraints in the sequel of the chapter). The actuators of this
type are also called kinematical drivers.

4.2.2 System forces

The forces that appear in the multibody systems can be classified into the categories
as discussed in the sequel [12], [18]. The classification of the sytem forces is important due to the fact that the different types of forces play a different role in
the process of establishing of the mathematical model of the system (see Chapter
4.3.2).

CHAPTER 4. DYNAMICS

198

Passive elements



rigid body with

nodal points Pi and
center of gravity C
mass point




P

Coupling elements

Constraint elements

spring

rod

damper

support, bearings, joints

Active elements

Coupling elements

Constraint elements

actuator (force / moment)

actuator (displacement / rotation)

(kinematical driver)

Figure 4.3: Elements of multibody system

External and internal forces

This classification is based on the individual choice of the systems boundary.
The external forces act from the outside of the boundary.
The internal forces act inside the boundary of the system. The internal forces
always appear in pairs.

Applied and constraint forces

The applied forces are forces imposed on the system by the coupling elements
as well as forces which can be described by physical laws. They influence the
way how the system evolves in time (as well as the system constraint forces).
Some examples of applied forces are: gravity force, force actuators, springs,
dampers, forces due to the magnetic field, etc.

CHAPTER 4. DYNAMICS

199

The constraint forces are imposed to the system by the kinematical constraint
elements (the joints, bearings, actuators that prescribe motion of the system).
In the case of the ideal constraints, these forces are collinear to the direction
of the restricted motion (see discussion on the kinematical constraints below).
They influence the possible motion of the system.
In Figure 4.5 system forces that appear in double pendulum are analysed and classified by deriving the free body diagram of the system.

4.2.3 Kinematical constraints

The kinematical constraints are the mechanical entities that are imposed by the
joints, bearings and the system prescribed motions (kinematical drivers) [21]. They
restrict the system motion and reduce its degrees of freedom and are represented by
the equations that describe the kinematical restrictions imposed on the system.
The kinematical constraints are independent if these equations are linearly independent [16], [21] (the number of the independent kinematical constraints is equal
to the number of the linear independent equations between the constraint forces,
rank of the matrix in the equation (4.82)).
The kinematical constraints can be independent of time (scleronomic constraints)
or can prescribe the motion of the system as a function of time (rheonomic constraints).
If the kinematical constraints are represented by equations comprising only displacements and rotations i.e. the constraints are at the position level since there are
no velocities or accelerations in the equations, the constraints are called holonomic
constraints. If the constraint equations are at the velocity level (containing time
derivatives of position coordinates) which can be directly transformed by integration into the position level, they are also holonomic.
If the constraint equations are at the velocity level and they can not be directly
transformed into the position level, they are called non-holonomic constraints [18].
In the case of ideal kinematical constraints (the joints and bearings as well as
the kinematical drivers are assumed to be rigid and frictionless), the direction of the
constraint force that is imposed by the particular kinematical constraint is directed
along the direction of the constraint itself.
The considerations in this chapter are restricted to ideal and holonomic constraints.
System degree of freedom
In the case of a totally unconstrained free system of p rigid bodies, the degrees
of freedom (DOF) of the system are 6p. It stems from the fact that 6p independent
coordinates are necessary to describe the kinematical configuration (the position

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200

and orientation of the systems bodies) uniquely [4]. In Table 4.1 typical constraint
elements and their characteristics are depicted.
Table 4.1 Types and valency of bearings
If q holonomic constraints are added to the system, its degree of freedom is reduced.

If all q constraints are independent, the degrees of freedom of the system are
f = 6p q .

If only r of the q constraints are independent, the degree of freedom of the

system is f = 6p r . The number r of independent constraints is equal to
the rank of matrix Q in equation (4.82).

If the system possesses f DOF, there are f independent coordinates necessary to

describe the configuration of the system uniquely. These coordinates are called
generalised coordinates and can be choosen in different ways appropriate to the
particular problem. The choice of a set of generalised coordinates may strongly influence the process of mathematical modelling as well as the process of solving the
equations (see Chapter 4.3). Degree of freedom of double pendulum is determined
in Figure 4.4.

  

  






    
  



F

Figure 4.4: Degree of freedom of mechanical system: double pendulum

Types of mechanical systems

The mechanical systems can be classified in terms of the number of its DOF and
how the imposed kinematical constraints are arranged (Figure 4.6 and Figure 4.7).

CHAPTER 4. DYNAMICS

201




systems
boundary









  









  



Force
external

internal

applied constraint














  
  





Figure 4.5: Forces in mechanical system: a double pendulum

Statical determination
If all q constraints are independent, the system is a statically determined. On
the other hand, if only r of the q constraints are independent, than n = q r
constraints are superflous. The system is statically n times overdetermined.
In this case the constraint forces can not be calculated without introducing
further modelling assumptions (elastic properties). In Figure 4.6 and Figure
4.7, the systems 4.6 d) and 4.7 d) are statically overdetermined.

CHAPTER 4. DYNAMICS

202


a)

+@+

+   

b)

c)

+*+


+  

e)

+@*+

d)

+
*
+



+  

+@*+
+*+

(Slider)

+@*+

+*+

+  


+@*+


+*+

(Pendulum)

+

Figure 4.6: Systems with various constraints and DOF: beams with various supports

Kinematical determination
A system is kinematically determined, f = 0, if the displacements and rotations of all its members are completely determined by the constraints.
If all kinematical constraints do not depend on time, the system is a statical
one. The kinematical constraints that do not depend on time are called scleronomic constraints [3]. In Figure 4.7, the systems c) and d) are kinematically
determined (statical systems).
Otherwise, if at least one constraint is dependent on time, the system does
not have a fixed configuration but evolves in time and can be considered as a
kinematical or dynamical system. The kinematical constraints that depend on

CHAPTER 4. DYNAMICS

a)

b)

c)

203

C1

+3@2*4+2

C2

+
1
2

+4*4+0

C1

C2

+
1

C1

+3@2*5+1

+3@2*6+0

C2

+5*5+0

+6*6+0
statically and kinematically
determined support

C3

d)

C1

C2

C3

C1

+3@3*9+0
 + 10 * 9 + 1
statically overdetermined
support

C2

Figure 4.7: Systems with various constraints and DOF: structures and mechanisms

time are called rheonomic constraints [3].

If the kinematical configuration of the system is not fully constrained by the
kinematical constraints, i.e. f = 6p r > 0, the system has f degrees of
freedom. All examples presented in Fig. 4.6 as well as the examples a) and
b) in Fig. 4.7, are kinematically undetermined.
Note: mechanisms are kinematically undetermined f => 0 as long as their
motion is not prescribed. For example, the well known four-bar linkage
posses 1 DOF if there is no rheonomic constraint which determines its motion

CHAPTER 4. DYNAMICS

204

(if so,f = 0).

Types of statical and dynamical analysis
Depending on the kinematical structure of the mechanical system (Figure 4.6 and
Figure 4.7), different kinds of analysis can be undertaken.

Kinematically determined system

In the case of the kinematically determined system, a static analysis (Chapter
3) or an inverse dynamic analysis can be performed (it depends on whether
the system is a statical one or its structure evolves in time).
In both cases the geometrical configuration of the system is not dependent on
the applied forces that are imposed on the system. The motion of the system
is completely defined by the kinematical constraints [16].

Kinematically undetermined system

If the system is not fully kinematically constrained but posseses f degree of
freedom, the time evolution of the systems kinematical configuration is not
fully determined by the kinematical constraints and it is dependent on the
systems applied forces [4]. To determine the systems motion, the forward
dynamical analysis must be performed.
If the systems constraint forces are of the interest, they can be calculated
during forward dynamic analysis or subsequently after the motion of the system is determined (depending on the formulation of the systems governing
equations).

4.3 Mathematical modelling

4.3.1 Introduction to mathematical modelling
Before formulating of the governing equations of multibody systems, we survey
dynamics of particles and rigid bodies based on the laws of classical mechanics.
The vectorial entities like displacements, velocities, forces and torques, possesing
a magnitude and direction, come into account represented by vectorial components
or by the scalar magnitudes (coordinates) related to the vector bases.
In computational mechanics vector entities are represented by arranging the coordinates in one-dimensional arrays called matrices or in a sloppy manner vectors. Similarly, tensors are arranged in multi-dimensional arrays. The aim of
adopting matrix representations is to allow for performing required vector/tensor

CHAPTER 4. DYNAMICS

205

operations by using operations with matrices that can be easily utilised in computer
applications.
Starting from the classical vector representation, the matrix equations will be
derived.
Dynamics of particles

f

z
r

x
Figure 4.8: Motion of particle

By applying Newtons second law the equation of motion of a particle depicted

in Figure 4.8 can be written [20]

f = mr = mv_ = ma = dtd (mv) ;

(4.1)

where mv is the linear momentum of a particle. The angular momentum of a particle with respect to O is
hO = r  mv :
(4.2)
E QUATIONS OF MOTION OF SYSTEM OF PARTICLES
If the system of p particles shown in Figure 4.9 is considered, the Newtons law
for the i-th particle yields

f i = f ei + f ii = mi ai :

(4.3)

where f i e denotes the resultant of the external forces acting on the i-th particle and
the resultant of the internal forces f i i is given by the equation

p
X
j =1

f ij = f ii :

(4.4)

CHAPTER 4. DYNAMICS

206

f2
f1

f 2pi
f 21i

r2

f 12i

f 1pi
r1
y

f p2i

f p1i

rp

fp

Figure 4.9: System of p particles

In the equation (4.4), f ij are the system internal forces which acts between the
bodies i and j and according to the Newtons third law [12] it is

f ij = f ji :

(4.5)

When summing up over the entire system of p particles, it can be written

p
X
i=1

fi +
e

p
X
i=1

fi =
i

p
X
i=1

p
X
i=1

mi ai ;
p
X

f ei =

i=1

mi ai :

p
X
i=1

f ii = 0 ;

(4.6)

(4.7)

The equation (4.7) can be elaborated by utilizing the relations (4.8 - 4.11). The
position rC of the system mass centre C is defined by

mr C =

Pp

p
X
i=1

mi ri :

(4.8)

where m = i=1 mi is the total mass of the system. Differentiation of (4.8) with
respect to time leads to the linear momentum of the system of particles

mv C =

p
X
i=1

mi v i :

(4.9)

mi ai ;

(4.10)

The second differentiation of (4.8) yields

maC =

p
X
i=1

CHAPTER 4. DYNAMICS

207

which can be introduced into (4.7)

p
X
i=1

f ei = maC :

(4.11)

According to (4.11), the mass centre of the system of particles moves as if the
entire mass of the system were concentrated at that point and all the external forces
were applied there [20].
A NGULAR

MOMENTUM OF SYSTEM OF PARTICLES

ith particle, 

r Ai

fi
vi

vA

Figure 4.10: Angular momentum of i-th particle

The angular momentum of the i-th particle about an arbitrary moving point A
(Figure 4.10) is
hAi = rAi  mivi
(4.12)
and differentiation leads to

h_ Ai = r_ Ai  mivi + rA  miv_ i :
(4.13)
If A coincides with the fixed point O (r_ A  v i = v i  v i = 0), then it can be
i

written

h_ Ai = rAi  miv_i = rAi  f i ;

(4.14)

h_ Ai = lAi ;

(4.15)

or

where lAi is the resultant torque with respect to A (Figure 4.10).

The angular momentum of the system of particles about the moving point A is

hA =

p
X
i=1

rAi  mivi :

(4.16)

CHAPTER 4. DYNAMICS

208

After differentiation of (4.16) with respect to time and some algebraic operations
and substitutions, it can be shown that equation (4.13) for the system of particles
has the form
p

h_ A = r_ AC  mv C +

X
i=1

rAi  f ei ;

(4.17)

where rAC is the position vector of the mass centre of the system of particles with
respect to point A.
When point A coincides with the fixed origin O (r_ AC = r_ C = v C , v C  mv C =
0 ) or point A coincides with the centre of mass C, equation (4.17) reduces to

h_ A =

p
X
i=1

rAi  f ei :

(4.18)

So, if A coincides with C, equation (4.17) can also be written as

p
X

h_ C =
or

i=1

rCi  f ie ;

(4.19)

h_ C = lC ;

where

lC =

p
X
i=1

(4.20)

rCi  f i e

(4.21)

is the resultant moment of all external forces acting on the system of particles about
the mass centre C. It should be mentioned that dynamics of particle is uniquely described by the Newtons equation (4.3). The introduction of an angular momentum
(Eq. 4.13) does not bring any new information into account. It has been introduced
here as a pre-stage to dynamics of rigid body, where the consideration of angular
momentum leads to the essential Eulers equation.
Dynamics of rigid body
Prior to deriving governing equation of rigid body dynamics, in the next section
some basic kinematical relations will be repeated.
BASIC KINEMATICAL RELATIONS
In Figure 4.11 the following notation is used:

!
rA

(x; y; z )
(x ; y ; z )
0

angular velocity of a body,

position vector of the point A (body-fixed reference point),
inertial coordinate system k ,
coordinate system fixed to the body k .
0

CHAPTER 4. DYNAMICS

209

z

y

rC

rC

rA v A

z
O


r

x



Figure 4.11: Rigid body

Since the body (Figure 4.11) is rigid, r is a body-fixed position vector and does
not change its magnitude but only its orientation due to the rotation of body. Its time
derivative with respect to the inertial system k can be expressed as
0

r_

=!r :
0

(4.22)

With the previously introduced notation, r can be written as

r = rA + r

and the velocity is obtained as

v = vA + r_

= vA + !  r :
0

(4.24)

The orientation of a body in the inertial coordinate system can be determined via
the Euler angles '; #; that specify the orientation of the fixed body system k with
respect to the inertial system k . Other possibilities to describe the orientation of
the body-fixed system include Bryant (cardan) angles, Euler parameters, Rodriguez
parameters etc. [3], [16].
The relation between ! and the derivatives of the Euler angles x_ R = ['_ #_ _ ]T
can be expressed in matrix form
0

! = HRx_ R :
L INEAR MOMENTUM
The mass of a body is given by

m=

Z
m

dm ;

(4.25)

(4.26)

CHAPTER 4. DYNAMICS

210

and the position vector of the body centre of mass C in the system k is
1

rC = m r dm :

(4.27)

The position of C with respect to the body-fixed point A is given by

rAC = rC

dm :

(4.28)

From (4.23), the linear momentum of the body can be written in the form

(v A + !  r ) dm = v A

m
or

dm + ! 

(v A + !  r ) dm = v A m + !  mr C
0

dm ;

(4.29)

= m(v A + !  r C )
= mv C
= mr_ C :
0

(4.30)

A NGULAR MOMENTUM
The absolute angular momentum of a body with respect to O (origin of the
inertial coordinate system) is determined by [3]

hO = r  r_ dm

(4.31)

or after introducing

hO =

r = rA + r

= r A  (v A + !  r C )m + r C

The term

(4.32)

(rA + r )  (v A + !  r ) dm
0

 vAm + r  (!  r ) dm :
0

(4.33)

r  (!  r ) dm can be written in the form

m
Z
Z
r  (!  r ) dm = (r 2 E r r ) dm
!
0

= IA
! ;

(4.34)

CHAPTER 4. DYNAMICS

211

where I A is the inertia tensor of the body with respect to A

IA =
E is the unit vector and r r
0

(r 0 2 E

r r ) dm ;
0

(4.35)

denotes dyadic product.

Finally, if the bodys centre of mass C is chosen as the reference point A (rC =
0 ; v A ! v C ; rA ! rC ) and equation (4.34) is taken into account, (4.33) becomes
0

hO = r C  v C m + I C
! :

(4.36)

E QUATIONS OF MOTION OF RIGID BODY

The Newtons equation determines dynamics of the bodys translational motion
[12]

d
(mv C ) = f ;
dt

(4.37)

where:

mv C is the linear momentum of the rigid body,

is the resultant of all forces acting on the body.

If the mass of the body is constant (dm=dt = 0), the equation (4.37) becomes

ma C = f :

(4.38)

The Eulers equation determines the dynamics of the bodys rotational motion

h_ O = lO ;

(4.39)

where:

hO

is the absolute angular momentum with respect to the

fixed reference point O in the inertial space,
lO is the resultant torque with respect to O.
The result of the derivative of equation (4.36) with respect to time is

h_ O = vC  v Cm + rC  maC + I C
!_ + !  I C
! ;
and since v C  v C m = 0 ,
h_ O = rC  maC + I C
!_ + !  I C
!:

(4.40)

(4.41)

By substituting equation (4.41) into equation (4.39) and by considering equation

(4.38), the Eulers equation can be written in form

I C
!_ + !  I C
! = lO rC  f = lC ;

(4.42)

CHAPTER 4. DYNAMICS
or in short

212

I C
!_ + !  I C
! = lC:

(4.43)

N EWTON -E ULER EQUATIONS IN MATRIX FORM

By following the rules of matrix algebra, the vector-valued equations (4.37) and
(4.42) can be written in the matrix form [16]

maC = f ;

(4.44)

~ IC ! = lC :
IC  + !

(4.45)

 = !_

(4.46)

The matrix  stands for the bodys angular acceleration

~.
and the vector product is performed using the skew-symetric matrix !
The matrix equation (4.44) is derived from the non-coordinate expression (invariant form) (4.37) by using the inertial coordinate system k . On the other hand, the
matrix equation (4.45) is derived from invariant form (4.43) by using the body-fixed
coordinate system k . By using a body-fixed coordinate system the components of
the inertia tensor of the body with respect to C remain constant. This is very convenient from the computational point of view.
0

4.3.2 Mathematical models and procedures

Mathematical models
As a result of the mathematical modelling via different methods for the formulation
of the governing equations, the two basic forms of the mathematical models can be
distinguished: descriptor form and minimal form.
Each of these forms possesses specific characteristics, being more or less appropriate for a particular dynamic analysis. Once the model is established, these
characteristics determine to a great extent the computational procedures that are to
be used in the subsequent computational process [5].

Descriptor form characteristics

number of coordinates and differential equations are larger than the
number of DOF
type of differential equations: DAE
lower degree of non-linearity of the differential equations

Minimal form characteristics

CHAPTER 4. DYNAMICS

213

number of coordinates and differential equations is equal to the number

of DOF
type of differential equations: ODE
highly non-linear differential equations

Governing equation
(holonomic system)
p...bodies, q...constraints, f...DOF

Full descriptor form

6p dynamical equations of
the freebody diagram, 6p
cartesian coordinates x
q kinematical constraints
equations





Minimal form
f equations of motion,
f generalised coordinates y

q kinematical constraint
equations

Figure 4.12: Forms of mathematical model

Approaches to computational procedures

Independent on the form of the established mathematical model, two forms of obtaining a solution of the governing equation can be distinguished: closed form solution and numerical (approximate) solution. If the methods for obtaining numerical
solution have to be applied (this is the case for the most technical applications), this
can be done using either symbolic or numerical approach to computational procedures [4].

Closed form solution

Searching for the closed form solution pays off if there are indications that
a solution of the established mathematical model can be found by using pure
analytical methods (the result is expressed in the form of functions). This
solution is exact under the assumptions that have been made during the mechanical and mathematical modelling of the system (the obtained solution
would be free of numerical errors of any kind).

CHAPTER 4. DYNAMICS

214

Unfortunately, in most of the cases (except for some linear models and the
simpler tasks of small dimensionality), it is not possible to find the closed
form solution and a numerical procedure has to be applied to obtain the solution of the model (the numerical procedure may be launched immediately
after the mathematical model is established, or some symbolic manipulations
and simplifications can be performed prior to the numerical calculations).

Symbolic approach
The symbolic mathematical operations consist of the manipulations with the
mathematical entities without assigning their numerical values.
If a computational tool gives possibilities for the symbolic calculations, sometimes a more efficient computational procedure can be achieved by simplifying the established mathematical model before an iterative numerical procedure is launched. Once the mathematical model using symbolic formalisms
is established, it can be used for repeated numerical calculations e.g. in numerical integration schemes [11].
However, the extent to which the efficiency may be improved using the symbolic tools is dependent on the task (mathematical model) at hand. The symbolic manipulations are often computationally more costly than the numerical
procedures and for some types of problems very efficient numerical procedures can be utilized e.g. the sparse matrices techniques).
Although symbolic procedures are much in use in todays computation, the
design and implementation of symbolic algorithms are the topics of the ongoing research activities.

Numerical approach
By using this approach, the numerical values are assigned to the symbolic
items as soon as the mathematical model is established and the whole computational process deals with the numerical values.
The majority of the computational packages on todays market are numerically oriented, especially packages and tools that are designed for a general
use [4].

4.3.3 Formulation of governing equations of mechanical systems

When performing dynamic analysis of a given mechanical system, the formulation
of governing equations is the main part of mathematical modelling. It is the first
stage of mathematical modelling independent of the dynamical task at hand (inverse
dynamical problem, forward dynamics, optimization problems, etc.).

CHAPTER 4. DYNAMICS

215

The derived mathematical model serves as a basic set of equations by means

of which the systems motion and constraint forces can be determined [18]. In the
most of the cases, the basic set of equations will have to be manipulated further to
suit the intended analysis and computational procedure.
As it was already explained, an output of the different formalisms consists of
mathematical models shaped in different forms which require different numerical
procedures and algorithms in order to obtain the final solution [4].
In the sequel of the chapter the methods for formulating the governing equations of mechanical systems, that are most commonly used in the computational
dynamics today, are given briefly. The main characteristics of each method as well
as the application properties are provided concisely. The computational procedures,
appropriate for handling specific tasks and based on the formulation methods given
below, are discussed in Chapter 4.4. In Chapter 4.5 some illustrative examples are
given.
Multibody systems of free bodies
Prior to the investigation of constrained mechanical system, a system of free bodies
is considered to prescribe the nature of underlying dynamics. The multibody system
of free bodies, shown in Figure 4.12, is a mechanical system of rigid bodies whose
motion is not constrained by kinematical constraints of any kind. Therefore, if the
system consists of p bodies, it posseses 6p degrees of freedom (DOF) [19]. The
f1

1

l1

f 1pi



f p1i

 

fp

v1

  

f 12i

vp

O
f 21i

x
l2

f2

2


lp

p

v2
f p2i


e

  

f 2pi

Figure 4.13: Free-body diagram of multibody system of free bodies

determination of the absolute position and orientation of the i-th body of the system

CHAPTER 4. DYNAMICS

216

is given by the vector of the body mass centre e.g. expressed in the inertial Cartesian
coordinate system (other coordinate systems can also be chosen)

xTi = [xi yi zi ]T ;

(4.47)

and e.g. the Euler angles of the bodys absolute orientation

xRi = ['i #i i ]T :

(4.48)

(Note: In Eq. (4.46), (4.47) and subsequent text the index C is omitted since
centre of mass will always be reffered to describe a position of the body) By grouping equations (4.46) and (4.47) together, the body absolute position vector can be
introduced in the form
xi = [xTTi xTRi ]T :
(4.49)
Newton-Euler equations of i-th body
The Newton-Euler equations are basic equations of rigid body dynamics, see
Chapter 4.1. The Newton equation determines dynamics of the bodys translational
motion, while the bodys rotational motion is determined by the Euler equation [16].
The Newton equation is given by

mi ai = f i ;

(4.50)

mi x Ti = fi :

(4.51)

I i!_ i + !i  I i!i = li ;

(4.52)

or in the matrix form

The Euler equation is expressed by

or, following the rules of the matrix algebra,

~ i Ii ! i = li ;
Ii i + !

(4.53)

where the bodys angular acceleration is given by the equation

i = !_ i :

(4.54)

The relation between the bodys angular velocity !i and the time derivatives of Euler
angles xRi = ['i #i i ]T , by means of which the absolute orientation of the body
in the inertial coordinate system is specified, can be given in the form [3]

!i = HRix_ Ri ;

(4.55)

and the differentiation with respect to time using the chain rule yields

i = HRix Ri + i :

(4.56)

CHAPTER 4. DYNAMICS

217

In equation (4.55), all terms in which the second derivative appear linearly are ex Ri and all others are grouped in 
 i [18]. By taking into
pressed in the product HRi x
account equations (4.55), equation (4.52) can be written in the form

Ii HRix Ri + Ii i + !~i Ii !i = li :

(4.57)

Futhermore, the equations (4.50) and (4.56) can be grouped together to form the
Newton-Euler equations of the i-th body in the matrix form:

mi E 0
0 Ii



E 0
0 HRi



or in short

x Ti
x Ri

 
+

Iii + !~i Ii !i

  
=

fi
li

Mi Hi x i + qvi = qai :

(4.58)

(4.59)

The dimensions of the matrices in equation (4.58) are

dim[Mi ] = 6  6; dim[Hi ] = 6  6; dim[
xi ] = 6  1 ;
dim[qvi ] = 6  1; dim[qai ] = 6  1 :

Newton-Euler equations of p bodies

By formulating equation (4.58) for each body in the system (i = 1:::p), the
Newton-Euler equations of the multibody system of free bodies [16] can be obtained in the form:
MHx + qv = qa ;
(4.62)
where the matrices are specified as follows

x = [xT1 xT2 ::: xTp ]T ; dim[x] = 6p  1 ;

2
m1 E 0
66 0 I1
66 0 0
M=6
66 0 0
64


0 0
0

2
E
66 0
66 0
H=6
66 0
64

0
0

0
0

0
0
0
I2

0
0

0
HR1
0
0

0

0

0
0
m2 E
0

0 0
0 0
E 0
0 HR2

0
0

0
0

3
77
77
77 ;

77
0 5

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

dim[M] = 6p  6p ;

(4.63)

(4.64)

mp E
0 Ip

0

0

0

0




E

0

3
77
77
77 ;

77
0 5

0
0
0
0

HRp

dim[H] = 6p  6p ;

(4.65)

CHAPTER 4. DYNAMICS

218

2
3
0
66 I11 + !~1 I1!1 77
66
77
0
v
qv = 6
66 I22 + !~2 I2!2 777 ; dim[q ] = 6p  1 ;



64
75
0
Ipp + !~p Ip! p
2 3
f1
66 l1 77
66 f2 77
a
a
q =6
66 l2 777 ; dim[q ] = 6p  1 :
64

75
fp

(4.66)

(4.67)

lp

In the case of the multibody system of free bodies, the Newton-Euler equations
(4.59) are the equations of motion of the system.
Equation (4.59) represents 6p dimensional ODE system. It can be integrated in
time for specified initial conditions x0 ; x_ 0 to determine the systems motion (vari ).
ables x ; x_ ; x
Some computational issues
The inertia matrix MH in Eq.(4.59) has non-symetrical properties which may decrese significantly the efficiency of computation.
In the framework of integration of governing equations, a non-symetric inertia
matrix prevents use of very efficient numeric procedures which require its symetrical properties (e.g. Cholesky method).
Therefore, to improve the efficiency of the procedure, it may be helpful to symmetrise the matrix MH. This can be done by premultiplying Eq.(4.59) by HT ,
which reads
HT MHx + HT qv = HT qa :
(4.68)
In many applications the integration of (4.65) requires a less computer-power than
integration of (4.59).
Constrained multibody systems
M ATHEMATICAL MODEL IN FULL DESCRIPTOR FORM
The constrained multibody system (Figure 4.13) is a mechanical system of rigid
bodies whose motion is constrained by kinematical constraints. If the system consists of p bodies whose motion is constrained by q kinematical constraints, the sys-

CHAPTER 4. DYNAMICS
tem possess f = 6p

219

q DOF [21].

ek

f1

e1

e1

f1

l2








eh

l2




Figure 4.14: Constrained multibody system (mechanical model)

The following notation is used:

feij : : : j -th (j = 1:::k) applied external force that acts on the i-th body (i = 1:::p)
li : : : j -th (j = 1:::h) applied external torque that acts on the i-th body (i = 1:::p).
In Figure 4.13 this is ilustrated at the body i = 1.
ej

Forces in constrained multibody system

Applied forces
In Figure 4.14, the free-body diagram of constrained multibody system is derived. The resultant applied force that acts on the i-th body is

f i = f ie + f ii ;

(4.69)

where the resultant force of the external applied forces, reduced to the centre of
mass Ci , is

fi =
e

k
X
j =1

f ie

(4.70)

and the resultant force of the internal applied forces (internal springs, dampers,
etc.), reduced to the centre of mass, is given by the sum of the internal applied
forces between the bodies i and j

f ii =

p
X
j =1

f iji :

(4.71)

CHAPTER 4. DYNAMICS

220

e

l1

f1

i

f 1p



c

l1

i

f p1

e

fp

f 12

f 21

l2

lp

c

c

c





f p0

f 2p

f2

lp

c

i

e

i

f p2

c

l2

Figure 4.15: Free-body diagram of constrained multibody system

The reduction of forces with different application points to one specific point implies the formulation of an equivalent couple of force and torque acting at this specific point.
The resultant torque about the centre of mass Ci of the applied forces and
torques that act on the i-th body (Figure 4.14) is

li =

h
X
j =1

li

ej

p
X
j =1

liji + lred

(4.72)

where liji is an internal applied torque (internal torsional spring, for example)
that acts between bodies i and j and lredi is the torque due to the reduction of the
forces f ie and f ii to the centre of mass Ci .
Constraint forces
The resultant constraint force that acts on the i-th body, reduced to the centre of
mass Ci (Figure 4.14), is given by the equation

fi =
c

p
X
j =0

f ijc ;

(4.73)

where f ijc is a constraint force that acts between bodies i and j (i; j = 0:::p, the
index 0 stands for the body of external world).

CHAPTER 4. DYNAMICS

221

If an index i or j is equal to zero, the constraint force is of the external type

(a force due to a kinematical constraint with the external world, a bearing for
example). If none of indices i; j is zero, the constraint force is of the internal type
(due to a kinematical constraint that restricts relative motion of the bodies, revolute
joint for example).
The resultant torque about the centre of mass Ci of the constraint forces and
torques that act on the i-th body can be given in the form

li =
c

p
X
j =0

c
lijc + lred

(4.74)

where lijc is a constraint torque that acts between bodies i and j or a body and the
c
external world (i; j = 0:::p) and lred
is a reduction torque of the forces f ijc .
i
Newton-Euler equations of i-th body
As previously mentioned, the Newton equation determines the dynamics of a
rigid bodys translational motion, while the bodys rotational motion is determined
by the Euler equation. When a body is kinematically constrained, the constraint
forces and torques also influence the motion of a body and have to be considered in
the framework of the Newton-Euler equations together with the applied forces and
torques [19].
The Newton equation is given by

or in the matrix form

mi ai = f i + f ci ;

(4.75)

mi x Ti = fi + fic :

(4.76)

The Euler equation is expressed by

I i!_ i + !i  I i!i = li + lic ;

(4.77)

or following the rules of the matrix algebra

~ i Ii ! i = li + lci :
Ii i + !

(4.78)

By considering (4.55), equation (4.74) can be expressed in the form

Ii HRi x Ri + Ii i + !~i Ii !i = li + lci :

(4.79)

After introduction of the body absolute position vector (4.60), equations (4.73) and
(4.76) can be grouped together to form the Newton-Euler equations of the i-th body

mi E 0
0 Ii



E 0
0 HRi



x Ti
x Ri

 
+

Ii i + !~i Ii !i

   
=

fi
li

fic
lci

(4.80)

CHAPTER 4. DYNAMICS
or in short

222

Mi Hi x i + qvi = qai + qci :

(4.81)

The dimensions of the matrices in equation (4.78) are

dim[Mi ] = 6  6; dim[Hi ] = 6  6; dim[
xi ] = 6  1 ;
dim[qvi ] = 6  1; dim[qai ] = 6  1; dim[qci ] = 6  1 :

Newton-Euler equations of constrained system of p bodies

By formulating equation (4.78) for each body in the system (i = 1:::p), the
Newton-Euler equations of the constrained multibody system can be arranged in
the form
MHx + qv = qa + qc :
(4.84)
As it will be described in the sequel, the system constraint forces qc in the equation
(4.79) can be expressed via kinematical constraint equations and additional parameters.
Governing equations of constrained multibody systems
Kinematical constraints equations
The Newton-Euler equations (4.79) are part of the governing equations of the
constrained multibody system. Since motion of the system bodies is kinematically
constrained, the components of the system position vector x are not independent
but satisfy a set of q kinematical constraint equations, which can be put in the form
[16]
g(x; t) = 0 ; dim[g] = q :
(4.85)
By differentiation of (4.80) with respect to time, the equation that expresses the
relation between the system velocities is obtained as

@g
@g
x_ +
=0;
@x
@t
or in the short form

Q x_ =
where the matrix Q is defined as

Q(x; t) =

@g
;
@t

@g
; dim[Q] = q  6p :
@x

(4.86)

(4.87)

(4.88)

If (4.80) is differentiated twice, the equation that expresses dependency between

system accelerations can be formulated. After application of the chain rule of differentiation, the kinematical constraint equations at the level of acceleration can be
written in the short form
Q x = c :
(4.89)

CHAPTER 4. DYNAMICS

223

Constraint forces via kinematical constraints

It can be shown [18] that the system constraint forces qc which are caused by
the ideal kinematical constraints (the friction is not considered, the constraint forces
qc are orthogonal to the directions of the imposed kinematical constraints) can be
expressed via matrix Q and q unknowns i , (i = 1:::q ) that are usually called
Lagrange multipliers.
If the vector  of the Lagrange multipliers is introduced in the form

 = [1 2 :::q ]T ; dim[] = q  1 ;

(4.90)

the system constraint forces can be expressed by the equation

qc = QT  :

(4.91)

In the context of the equation (4.86) it can be stated here, without going to the
details, that the directions of the system constraint forces qc are expressed by the
columns of the transposed matrix QT while the magnitudes of the constraint forces
are given by the Lagrange multipliers vector .
The matrix Q, defined in (4.83), by means of which the system constrained
forces qc are expressed in (4.86), is usually called system constraint matrix [4].
The system constraint matrix is the one of the most important matrices in the domain of dynamics of constrained multibody systems. By checking its rank it can be
examined if the system is properly constrained i.e. if all constraints imposed on the
system are independent or some of them are superflous. The number of independent
constraints is equal to the rank of Q (see Chapter 4.2.3).
System governing equations
After insertion of (4.86) into (4.79), the Newton-Euler equations of the constrained multibody system can be written in the form

MHx + qv = qa + QT  :

(4.92)

Unlike the Newton-Euler equations of the free multibody system (4.14), the set of
the equation (4.87) can not be solved and integrated in time directly since it contains
q additional algebraic unknowns  [16].
To make a set of the equations (4.87) complete and solvable, the kinematical
constraint equations have to be added to the mathematical model and considered
simultaneously with the Newton-Euler equations.
With this aim in view, the Newton-Euler equations (4.87) and q kinematical
constraint equation (4.80) are grouped together, forming the governing equations of
the constrained multibody systems

MHx + qv = qa + QT 

CHAPTER 4. DYNAMICS

224

g(x; t) = 0 :

(4.94)

The equation (4.88) is 6p + q dimensional DAE system (DAE of index 3) that

can be solved and integrated in time to obtain the motion of the system (variables
x ; x_ ; x ) and the systems constraint forces qc = QT . For the numerical time
integration, the specific solving procedures for DAE systems have to be used [5].
To utilize more convenient numerical procedure for the integration, the governing equations of the constrained multibody systems are very often formulated by using the kinematical constraint equations at the acceleration level (equation (4.84)),
instead of the constraints at the position level (equation (4.80)).
In this way, the governing equations can be formulated in the form (6p + q
dimensional DAE of index 1)

MHx + qv = qa + QT 
Q x = c :

(4.96)

The set of equations (4.88) as well as the set (4.89) represent the governing
equations of the constrained multibody system expressed in the full descriptor form
[5].
As it was already explained, by integrating (4.88) or (4.89) for the specified
initial conditions x0 ; x_0 the systems motion as well as the systems constraint
forces can be determined.
Because of inherent numerical instability of DAE system presented by (4.87)
and (4.88), numerical time integration of these equations is a challenging task which
has to be treated very carefully [8].
Similarlly as it was the case with Eq. (4.59), the inertia matrix MH in Eq. (4.88)
is a non-symetric one which makes time integration of (4.89) less efficient. As it
was explained, premultiplication of (4.89) by HT symmetrise the inertia matrix
MH and brings (4.87) in the form

HT MHx + HT qv = HT qa + HT QT  ;

(4.97)

which can be integrated more efficiently.

Characteristics of mathematical model in full descriptor form





Basic equations: Newtons and Eulers equations, the constraint forces are
included
Absolute coordinates, 6 coordinates per body: e.g. cartesian coordinates of
the bodys mass centers and bodys Euler angles (or other parameters)
Easy-to-obtain mathematical model, straightforward universal approach [16]

CHAPTER 4. DYNAMICS

225

Once the mathematical model of the multibody system at hand is established,

the model can be easily re-formulated if the kinematical structure of the system is changed
Since the kinematical structure of the system is reflected within the governing equations only through the kinematical constraints equations g(x; t) = 0
and the system constraint matrix Q (equation (4.83)), just these terms have
to be changed/redefined if a new kinematical configuration of the system is
introduced (see also Fig. 4.12)

Appropriate for forward and inverse dynamical problem

Inverse dynamics
All constraint and applied forces are included in the mathematical model
and can be obtained by using standard procedures
Forward dynamics
Model allows for determination of the system motion and constraint
forces simultaneously
Since model is based on the six coordinates per body, position and orientation of each body are automatically calculated in the course of simulation.

Appropriate for computer algorithms

The model is easy to establish by using standard matrix algebra operations
It is suitable for implementation in general purpose multibody algorithms [4]

Characteristics of the equations

The mathematical model in the full descriptor is expressed by DAE equations
DAE equations are generally more difficult to solve than ODE systems, constraint violation stabilisation procedures are generally needed [22].

If it is required, the governing equations expressed in the full descriptor form can be
reduced to the mathematical model in the minimal form (that represents the equations of motion of the constrained multibody system) which will be described in the
sequel.
M ATHEMATICAL

MODEL IN MINIMAL FORM

Reduction of model from full descriptor to minimal form

CHAPTER 4. DYNAMICS

226

In order to shape the mathematical model in the minimal form i.e. to establish
equations of motion of the constrained multibody system, a minimal set of coordinates y, dim[y] = f (f = number of DOF), have to be chosen. By means of y, the
kinematical configuration of the system is uniquely described [18].
The relation between the system full descriptor absolute coordinates

x = [xT1 xT2 ::: xTp ]T ; dim[x] = 6p  1

and the minimal form coordinates y, dim[y] = f depends on the system kinematical
constraints equations and can be expressed explicitly by the equation

x = f (y; t) ;

(4.99)

(an implicit formulation '(x; x_ ; t) = 0 is also possible). The corresponding equation for velocities takes the form

x_ =

@f
@f
@f
y_ +
= Jy_ +
;
@y
@t
@t

(4.100)

and the equation for the acceleration level reads as

x = Jy + a ;

(4.101)

where the matrix J is given in the form

J=

@f
; dim[J] = 6p  f :
@y

(4.102)

The matrix J is usually called Jacobian matrix. It is not unique but depends on the
chosen set of coordinates by means of which the system kinematical configuration
is described.
It can be shown [18] that the Jacobian matrix J has a property of being orthogonalcomplementary matrix to the system constraint matrix Q. The relation between
these two matrices can be expressed by

QJ = JT QT = 0 :

(4.103)

The orthogonality between the matrices J and Q stems from the fact that these
matrices span different subspaces which are mutually orthogonal. Namely, the
columns of the transposed constraint matrix QT as well as the Jacobian matrix J
are vectors which form the basis of the two vectorial subspaces: the q -dimensional
subspace of the system constraint forces is spanned by Q and the f -dimensional
subspace of the system velocities is spanned by J.
The orthogonality given by (4.93) holds only for the ideal mechanical systems
and can be briefly explained by the fact that the system velocities are always orthogonal to the system constraints. In analytical mechanics this is related to Jourdains

CHAPTER 4. DYNAMICS

227

principle which is based on virtual power. Other principles are dAlemberts principle formulated by Lagrange on the base of virtual work and Gausss principle based
on minimal constraints. The details of the introduced vectorial subspaces as well as
the strict mathematical proof are not given here and interested reader is refered to
the literature [18], [4].
By introducing equations (4.91), (4.92) and (4.93) into equation (4.86), the
Newton-Euler equations of constrained systems can be expressed via the minimal
set of coordinates y [18]

MH (Jy + a) + qv = qa + Q T 
0

(4.104)

where matrices that are expressed by the new set of coordinates are denoted by.
Furthermore, if the equation (4.96) is multiplied from the left side by the transposed Jacobian matrix JT , two important effects will be achieved:




elimination of the constraint forces by means of the orthogonality relation

(4.95) (principle of virtual work),
reduction of the dimension of the equation from 6p to f .

In this way, it can be written

JT MH Jy + JT (MH a + qv ) = JT qa ;

(4.105)

Mgen y + qvgen = qagen :

(4.106)

or in the short form

In equation (4.96), the generalised mass matrix is defined as

Mgen = JT MH J ; dim[Mgen ] = f  f ;
0

(4.107)

the vector of centrifugal, Coriolis and gyroscopic terms reads as

qvgen = JT (MH a + qv ) ; dim[qvgen ] = f  1

0

(4.108)

and the vector of generalized applied forces is

qagen = JT qa ; dim[qagen ] = f  1 :
0

(4.109)

The set of equations (4.98) represents the equations of motion of the constrained
multibody system (mathematical model in minimal form, f -dimensional ODE system). It can be integrated in time for given initial conditions y0 , y_ 0 to obtain the
systems motion.
Since the term of constraint forces QT  vanishes from the governing equations
due to the left multiplication by JT , it is obvious that this term must not be formulated, if equations of motion are to be derived. Therfore, the equations of motion

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228

(4.98) of the constrained system can be derived straightforwardly by formulating

the matrices directly by means of (4.99), (4.100) and (4.101).
Symmetrising inertia matrix
The inertia matrix MH J in Eq.(4.96) has non-symetrical properties which may
decrese significantly the efficiency of computation, as it was explained. Therefore,
prior to elimination of constraint forces and reduction of dimenison of (4.98), it may
be advisable to symmetrise the inertia matrix to improve the efficiency of integration
procedure.
This can be done by premultiplying Eq.(4.96) by HT . After elimination of constraint forces (additional premultiplication of (4.96) by JT ), Eq. (4.97) reads as
0

JT HT MH Jy + JT HT (MH a + qv ) = JT HT qa :
0

(4.110)

Because of symmetric properties of inertia matrix JT HT MH , equations of motion

of constrained multibody system (4.102) can be integrated more efficiently.
0

Lagrange equations of second kind

Mathematical model in the minimal form can also be derived using the Lagrange
equations of second kind. With this aim in view, the kinetic energy of the system

T=

p 
X
1
i=1

1
mi viT vi + !Ti Ii !i
2
2

(4.111)

has to be determined. The expression in the bracket expresses the kinetic energy of
the i-th body in the system [3].
By introduction of absolute position vector of the i-th body

xi = [xTTi xTRi ]T

(4.112)

and vector ti of the applied forces and torques reduced to the i-th body mass centre

ti = [fiT lTi ]T ;

(4.113)

the Lagrange equations of second kind are given by

d @T
dt @ y_

@T
= qagen :
@y

(4.114)

In equation (4.104), a vector of the generalized applied forces qagen has the form

qagen = [q1 q2 ::: qf ]T ;

(4.115)

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229

with its coordinates

qi =

p
X
i=1

tTi

@ xi
@ yi

(4.116)

and y is a vector of the system minimal coordinates.

By utilizing (4.106) the mathematical model in the minimal form (f -dimensional
ODE system), which is equivalent to the simmetrised minimal form model (4.102)
derived from the full descriptor form, can be obtained straightforwardly.

Governing equation
(holonomic system)
p...bodies, q...constraints, f...DOF
+ q* constraints
x + f
y 
x + f + y
y
.

Full descriptor form

6p dynamical equations of
the freebody diagram, 6p
cartesian coordinates x
q kinematical constraints
equations

+  * 
q + q* constraints
f * = 6p (q + q*)

f 
 f
y
 y

f 
 f
y 
 y 

Minimal form
f equations of motion,
f generalised coordinates y

Minimal form
f * equations of motion,
f *generalised coordinates y*

t

Figure 4.16: Modelling of the system with additional kinematical constraints

Characteristics of mathematical model in minimal form

Minimal number of the generalised coordinates (the same number as DOF)

The coordinates may be of the absolute or relative type.

Problem-dependent mathematical modelling

A set of the minimal coordinates appropriate to the problem at hand has to be
chosen [13], [3].

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230

A proper choice of the coordinates gives opportunity for a more elegant

modelling process as well as the models of a simpler mathematical structure.
If the solution has to be found numerically, a simpler structure of the model
may lead to more accurate results.

In order to formulate the equations of motion, the kinematical constraints

are to be introduced and considered at the early stage of the mathematical
modelling .
As a consequence, if the equations of motion of the system with the changed
kinematical structure (described by a different vector of the minimal coordinates y) have to be formulated, the new relation has to be established and the
new equations of motion completely re-derived, even if only a small change
has been introduced [3].

Appropriate for the forward dynamical problem. Appropriate for the inverse
dynamical problem, if only applied forces have to be determined.
Forward dynamics
The model allows for determination of the motion of the system.
Since model is based on the generalised coordinates given in minimal
form, the additional calculations are needed in order to determine position and orientation variables of the each body in the system (the additional calculation is based on the values of the generalised coordinates
and the kinematical constraints equations).
Inverse dynamics
If only the applied forces have to be determined, an utilization of the
minimal form model is plausible since computational procedure will not
be unnecessarily burdened by the superflous coordinates and constraint
forces.
Since constraint forces are not contained in the equations of motion, the
equations of the kinematical constraints have to be used, if these forces
have to be determined.

Computer algorithms
Lagrangian equations of second kind: not so appropriate
During generation of the equation of motion, differentiation of the system energy terms is needed.
This procedure is not so appropriate as to be efficiently incorporated
to the computational procedure (this holds specially for the large-scale
systems).

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231

Newton-Euler equations and application of dAlemberts or Jourdains

principle (reduction from the full descriptor form: appropriate and leads
to very effective algorithm
The application of Gausss principle: appropriate, but not widely used

Characteristics of the equations

Mathematical model in the minimal form is expressed by ODE.
Theory of ODE systems is very well established and there are numerous integration methods at ones disposal for the particular simulation task [8]. Integration of ODE is generally a simpler computational task than integration of
DAE systems. This is the main advantage of the minimal form compared to
the full descriptor form formulation.
However, although integration of ODE systems can be considered as a straightforward procedure, ODE integration algorithm should be chosen with care to
get a proper solution [8], [17].