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Agricultural
Machinery &
Mechanization
Basic Concepts
Segun R. Bello
[MNSE, R. Engr. COREN]
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Dominion
Publishing Services
ISBN-13: 978-1456328764
Createspace
7290 Investment Drive
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SC 29418 USA
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Dedication
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Acknowledgement
Unlimited gratitude goes to God Almighty, the author of life and the giver of
knowledge, for His grace and inspirations in the pursuit of this divine agenda in the
course of my career. Glory be to His name.
I sincerely thank all students, past and present, of the departments of agricultural
technology, agricultural engineering and engineering technology, Federal College of
Agriculture Ishiagu, Federal College of Agriculture Moor plantation Ibadan, College
of Agriculture Jalingo and Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike and
all who had come in contact with my books in various fields of agricultural
engineering practice such as Farm power and machinery, Farm power and
mechanization, and Horticultural machinery among several other related courses,
whose teaching experiences and inputs were put together to form major part of this
work.
The contributions of various authors whose works; journals, manuals, monographs,
books, articles and slides were sited or quoted wholly or in part and listed in the
reference section of this book is acknowledged. I equally want to acknowledge
authors whose names were not listed and wish to say that their contribution forms
vital part of a major contribution to knowledge.
My special thanks go to my dear friend, companion and wife, who had always backup the realization of Gods plan for me. She is a virtuous woman and help meet
indeed. Her understanding and tolerance in taking full responsibility of running our
home during the entire review and upgrade exercise are quite commendable.
I am grateful to my children, Ayomikun, Pelumi, Damilola and Adeola, who were so
wonderful and cooperative during this period. I am greatly encouraged and
strengthened by their prayers, my God shall surely reward them. Amen
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Content
Preface xiii
CHAPTER 1
Concepts of Agricultural Mechanization............................... 1
1.0
Introduction ........................................................................................................ 1
1.1
Mechanization .................................................................................................... 1
1.2
Concepts of mechanization............................................................................. 2
1.3
Motorization and tractorization .................................................................... 18
1.4
Machine and human labour measurement ................................................. 19
CHAPTER 2
Agricultural Machinery and Development ............................ 21
2.0
Introduction ...................................................................................................... 21
2.1
2.1.1
2.1.2
2.2
2.3
System approach to manufacturing ............................................................ 24
CHAPTER 3
Economics of Machinery Use .............................................. 25
3.0
Introduction ...................................................................................................... 25
3.1
Definition of economic variables.................................................................. 25
3.2
Machinery costs and categories .................................................................. 29
3.2.1
Fixed or ownership costs .............................................................................. 31
3.2.2
Operating costs ............................................................................................... 40
3.2.3
Timeliness costs ............................................................................................. 45
3.3
Decision making in machinery procurement ............................................. 46
3.4
Machinery selection procedure .................................................................... 54
3.5
Determination of machinery capacity.......................................................... 55
3.6
Field machine performance factors ............................................................. 58
CHAPTER 4
Land Clearing and Development ............................................ 65
4.1
Introduction ...................................................................................................... 65
4.2
Land clearing ................................................................................................... 65
4.3
Land clearing methods and machinery....................................................... 66
4.4
Machinery power sources ............................................................................. 69
4.5
Land clearing attachments/detachable ....................................................... 70
5.4
Factors affecting the choice of land clearing ............................................ 77
5.5
Estimation of land clearing cost................................................................... 78
5.6
Disposal of vegetation ................................................................................... 81
5.7
Landform and development .......................................................................... 89
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5.8
Equipment for landform..................................................................................91
CHAPTER 5
Tillage Operation and Equipment............................................95
5.1
Introduction ......................................................................................................95
5.2
Soil dynamics and tillage relations ..............................................................97
5.3
Mechanical behaviour of agricultural soil ...................................................98
5.4
Design and performance of tillage equipment ......................................... 102
5.5
Implement and traction machine dynamics .............................................. 103
5.6
Types of tillage operations........................................................................... 109
5.7
Conventional tillage implement................................................................... 114
5.7.1
Primary tillage implement ............................................................................ 114
5.7.2
Secondary tillage implement ....................................................................... 128
5.8
Effects of machinery traffic on agricultural soil ....................................... 137
CHAPTER 6
Bed Planting Operations .............................................................. 141
6.1
Introduction .................................................................................................... 141
6.2
Bed planting and tillage practices .............................................................. 141
6.3
Method of crop planting ............................................................................... 143
6.4
Crop planting patterns .................................................................................. 143
6.5
6.6
6.7
Small scale no-till seeders ........................................................................... 168
6.8
Row-type planters.......................................................................................... 172
6.9
Mechanical precision drilling....................................................................... 176
6.10
Crop planters .................................................................................................. 177
CHAPTER 7
Post Planting Operations........................................................ 189
7.1
Introduction .................................................................................................... 189
7.2
Thinning operations and equipment .......................................................... 189
7.3
Crop protection and equipment .................................................................. 198
7.4
Weed management and equipment ............................................................ 199
7.5
Fertilizer application and devices ............................................................... 205
7.6
Chemical application and equipment......................................................... 212
7.6.1
Spraying system, equipment and calibration ........................................... 212
7.7
Chemigation.................................................................................................... 227
7.8
Fertigation ....................................................................................................... 229
CHAPTER 8
Soil and Water Conservation ................................................. 238
6.1
Introduction .................................................................................................... 238
6.2
Soil conservation practices and equipment ............................................. 238
6.3
Irrigation practice and equipment............................................................... 243
CHAPTER 9
Crop Harvest and Transport Equipment .............................. 254
9.1
Introduction .................................................................................................... 254
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9.2
Grain crop harvest machine........................................................................ 254
9.3
Combine harvester performance................................................................ 259
9.7
Fruit and vegetable harvest machine ........................................................ 260
9.7.1
Methods of fruit harvest............................................................................... 261
9.8
Agricultural transport vehicles ................................................................... 266
CHAPTER 10
Crop Processing and Machinery...................................... 273
10.1
Introduction .................................................................................................... 273
10.2
Drying systems.............................................................................................. 274
10.3
Grain cooling methods................................................................................. 281
10.4
Densification of agricultural materials ...................................................... 282
10.5
Agricultural technological process machines ......................................... 284
10.5.1 Pressing/wafering machines....................................................................... 284
10.5.2 Pelleting machine.......................................................................................... 284
10.5.3 Briquetting...................................................................................................... 287
10.5.4 Dewatering machines ................................................................................... 288
10.5.5 Cutting of agricultural materials................................................................. 289
10.5.6 Size reduction processes and machines .................................................. 291
10.5.7
10.5.8
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Preface
New ideas and developed technologies in agricultural occupation depend to a large
extent on scientific research results and diversity which are responsible for increased
agricultural production. The dynamic nature of agricultural operations and machine
complexity are indices of such scientific research diversity as evident in the wide
spread requirements in agricultural operation if increased production must be
sustained.
Documentation forms a major integral part of research and development, especially in
engineering education and communication. Hence, this book presents research
documentations in agricultural machinery and discussed in details the basic concepts
of agricultural mechanization. Chapter one discuss the problems, prospects and
utilization of agricultural machinery. Chapter two discussed the essentials of
agricultural mechanization, strategies and technological advancements as agriculture
goes global. Chapter three x-rays the principles of machine use and cost factors.
Chapter four presents the principles and practice of land clearing and landform as
well as information and necessary skills for effective land clearing programme.
Chapters five and six described various bed preparation and crop planting operations
including state of the art equipment that facilitate effective bed preparation for crop
establishment and machine operations.
Crop maintenance and protection practices such as crop thinning, weed control and
fertilizer/chemical application and equipment were discussed in Chapter seven. Crop
establishment equipment and sprayer calibration were also highlighted. Chapter eight
described soil and water conservation equipment such as irrigation equipments,
pumps etc. Crop harvesting and processing machine for various agricultural crops
were discussed in Chapters nine and ten, while Chapter eleven described various
crops storage structures.
This book will go a long way to acquaint students and researchers with the nitty-gritty
of agricultural machinery operations and also provide requisite knowledge and skills
for effective agricultural mechanization.
Segun R. Bello
480001, Ishiagu
Nigeria
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CHAPTER 1
Concepts of Agricultural Mechanization
1.0
Introduction
Among the three basic essential needs of life (food, clothing and shelter), food remains
the strongest of all human survival factors. Food can simply be regarded as the direct
product of primary agricultural production and it is rated highest among the three
basic essential needs of man; hence agriculture could simply be referred to as a lifesafer profession. To attain security and self-sufficiency in food production and
distribution, all players in agricultural production sector must support traditional
farmers through accelerated input supplies (such as improved crop varieties /animal
species, improved farming systems, improved hand tools etc and procurement of
appropriate agricultural tractors and machinery etc., at all levels.
Agricultural engineers are known to have been involved in solving the aspect of
support to solving major challenges in the traditional and industrial agriculture. They
made significant contributions to transforming basic agricultural operations, meet
basic food needs of the expanding human population, and also help evolve
productive and sustainable agricultural systems and practices which has become a
major area of priority intervention. From the analyses of various agricultural systems,
we can understand the usefulness of various agricultural machines involved in the
conservation and preservation of land, water, and biological resources for future
generations. This involvement is made possible through effective agricultural
mechanization. The concepts of agricultural mechanization are discussed in the
following sections.
1.1
Mechanization
2.
3.
4.
5.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Purpose of mechanization
Farm mechanization has been known to help in the effective utilization of farm inputs
in order to achieve the following purposes:
1.
2.
3.
Benefits of mechanization
Beside reduction in human drudgery and costs of farm operations, mechanization
offers potential benefit of increased returns from agricultural inputs. Increased returns
from agricultural input can be achieved in the following ways:
a.
b.
c.
d.
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The most obvious benefit of mechanization is the work potential of the agricultural
tractors utilized versus hand labour and animal traction involvement. This is most
advantageous in communities where labour is scarce or expensive. The labour
requirements for preparing one hectare of land for planting using draught animal
power are only 12% of that required when using hand labour.
When using a tractor with a plough, this falls to less than 1%, increasing labour
productivity tremendously. As labour is a constraint in many farming communities,
the use of animal traction and tractors brings the opportunity to expand the acreage.
Motorization is likely to have an even greater potential for area expansion as long as
land is available. Labour productivity will increase considerably. A farmer owning a
tractor would normally be able to increase his income through increased production
and by doing contract work for other farmers.
Problems of mechanization
The neglect of agricultural mechanization by policy makers who intend to see every
problem from the economists point of view caused one of the major problems facing
the use of machines in Nigeria agriculture. Inadequate attention had been paid to
mechanization in Nigeria over a long time which is obvious from the scanty and
uncoordinated nature of data available. This trend is being reversed by the recent
advances of the federal government in the agricultural revolution currently taking
place in Africa in general and Nigeria in particular. Despite these advances, the
following problems still hinders agricultural mechanization
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Olaoye (2007) enumerated three other key factors that influence a successful
mechanization programme and these include:
1. Socio-economic factors,
2. Availability of mechanization supporting infrastructure and
3. Land and agro-ecological conditions.
Involvements of mechanization in agricultural production
The involvements of mechanization in agricultural operations and production
include:
1. The process of selection of agricultural systems and inputs,
2. Handling/management of the selected systems and utilization of the inputs,
3. Operation of machines/equipment and optimization of operational time and
4. Maintenance of mechanical devices and systems involved in agricultural
operations and production
Nigeria agricultural mechanization programme
The fortunes from oil notwithstanding, successive governments experimented with
different programmes and agencies to rejuvenate the agricultural sector. Some of
these programmes and agencies (Table 1-1) have agricultural mechanization as a
cardinal mandate.
Table 1-1: Agencies with agricultural mechanization related mandates
S/N
1.
Farm Settlement
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Commodity Board
7.
8.
9.
Acronyms
Remarks
FS
Regional level
NAFPP
Federal level
ADP
State level
NACRDB
Federal level
OFN
Federal level
CB
Federal level
NACGS
Federal level
RBDA
Federal level
LUP
Federal level
10.
Green Revolution
GR
Federal level
11.
SGR
Federal level
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S/N
Acronyms
Remarks
12.
NCAM
Federal level
13.
DFRRI
Federal level
14.
NDE
Federal level
15.
RAIDS
Federal level
16.
CSU
Federal level
17.
RATSU
Federal level
18.
AMMOT
RAC
Federal level
19.
20.
21.
TEHU
State level
NALDA
Federal level
DRD
Federal and
State level
22.
FEAP
Federal level
23.
NAPEP
Federal level
24.
NEEDS
Federal level
25.
SEEDS
State level
26.
LEEMP
State level
27.
NPFS
Federal level
28.
NFRA
Federal level
29.
CADP
Federal and
State level
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1.
2.
3.
4.
For instance in Nigeria, (M1 and M3) were generally applicable. The tools and
implements used in each level of agricultural mechanization are as classified below.
Level 1: hand-tool technology (HTT)
This is the most basic level of agricultural mechanization, where human being is the
power source, using simple tools and implements. A farmer using hand-tool
technology can cultivate only about one hectare of land. He cannot do more than that
because of certain scientifically established facts (Odigboh, 1991). Human power
accounts for the lions share of work in overall agricultural production, most
especially in the tropical and sub tropical African countries. It has been suggested
that a power-use intensity of 0.4 kW/ha is required for effective human level of
agricultural mechanization. Some basic features of tools in use include:
Hoes: A wide variety of hoes used in farm operations includes; forked hoes and
pickaxes. The main use for the forked hoes and pickaxes is to dig compacted manure
out of animal compounds.
today, even though the gender perceptions about tools still persist, even the men
freely state that women now use all of them.
Level 2: draft-animal technology (DAT)
Because of the limitations of the human power availability on the field, horses, mules,
oxen and bullocks became the principal sources of power on the farm. They develop
more power than human power for agricultural operations. Because of their
availability for use in most stringent conditions, they are often referred to as the beast
of burden.
.1.1
Where:
MIE = Mechanization Index, %
= Average sum of all mechanical operational works of the machine, kWhr/ha
= Sum of all average work outlays in kWhr/ha by animates ( animal,
human), and
tractor powered machines.
A mechanization index, (MI) based on the use of human and mechanical energy
inputs, represents the percentage of work of tractors and the total of human work and
that of the machinery and is calculated using the following relations;
=
x 100% 1.2
.1.3
Where:
MIE is the mechanisation index (indicator);
PH is the human power
PA is the draught animal power and
PM is the total electrical and mechanical power.
A higher mechanisation index/indicator based on electrical power and stationary
engines as per equation (1.1) might only reveal mechanisation of stationary
operations. From a qualitative drudgery reduction point of view, a mechanisation
index MITP based on mechanical tractive power PMt could be a better measure,
Equation (1.4):
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1.4
.1.5
Where:
MImij is the mechanisation index of the ith crop in the jth state;
CEMij is the cost of use of machinery in the ith crop in the jth state;
CEHij is the cost of use of human labour in the ith crop in jth state; and
CEAij is the cost of use of animal labour in the ith crop in the jth state.
The level of mechanization index (LOM) is based on the premise that a mechanized
farmer is the one that finds a way to utilize amounts of mechanical energy that higher
than the typical values using locally available technology. This situation is expressed
by the expression in equation (1.6) below by Zangeneh et al., (2010);
. .1.6
Where
LOM = Level of mechanization
= Tractors power
= Correction factor for utilized power (0.75). The field capacity was multiplied by
rated power so that the quantification of energy expenditure will be in work unit
(kWh)
= Total farmland area cultivated.
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c. Degree of mechanization
Degree of Mechanization (M) is described as the average energy input of work
provided exclusively by different levels of mechanization technology (labour) per
hectare. The degree of mechanization can be evaluated for different levels of
mechanization as follows:
Human power sources
The degrees of mechanization of available power for human labour are defined by the
following relations (Nowacki, 1974):
LH = 0.1 x NH x
TH
1.7
A
Where
LH =Average energy input or work provided per hectare by human labour kW
hr/ha.
0.1= Theoretical average power of an average man working optimally.
NH = Average number of labour employed.
TH =Average rated working time devoted to manual operation. TH was
determined as a function of rate of energy consumption and resting period
for different manual operations (planting, weeding, fertilizer application and
harvesting).
A = Area of land cultivated (ha). A was determined for each farm settlement by
multiplying areas of cultivated land in hectare allocated to each
participating farmer by the total number of farmers.
According to Caruthers and Rodriguez (1992), resting period tR was defined as
follows:
t = 60 1
.1.8
Where:
tR = Required resting time for 8 hrs effective working hrs per day in minute per
hour of work
P = Rate of power consumption in watts for various farming activities.
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] 1.9
Where;
LM = Average energy input or work per hectare by motorized machines
0.2 = Corrector co- efficient of the tractor-powered machine.
NM = Rated working power of the tractor (kW)
A = Area worked in hectare by motorized machines.
TM = Rated working time of the motorized energy source, hr/ha. TM represents
the inverse of the effective field capacity of the machine given by TM = 1/Ca
(hr/ha)
Effective field capacity Ca, is expressed by the equation 1.10 as
Ca =
.1.10
Where
Ca = Effective field (area) capacity, ha/hr,
s = Field speed, km/hr;
w = Implement width of cut, m;
Ef = Field efficiency, decimal;
Optimum level of mechanization
Optimum level of mechanization is the degree of mechanization that produces the
most beneficial production systems in terms of efficiency and economic returns. The
following factors are important in ensuring optimum level of mechanization:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
1.3
Vegetation
Climate
Type of crop and crop varieties
Nature of soil - soil depth varies with location. Soil with deep depth supports
mechanical tillage
Insufficient research funding and facilities.
Motorization
This is the introduction of machines or engine-powered machinery into a particular
production system; Agricultural motorization concerns the use of engine powered
machinery for carrying out agricultural activities. In more detail, it comprises:
1.
Tractors and their implements and equipment and other self-propelled machinery
2.
3.
The percentage of the productive land tilled with motorized traction remains very low
in the Sub-Saharan Africa. Estimates range from 1% (FAO, 1987 and Gifford and Rijk,
1980 in FAO, 1995) to 4% (Mrema, 1992). Taking into account that more than half
(FAO yearbooks, as in Caumont, et al., 1995) of the tractors are used in Southern
Africa, the percentage of the total area cultivated with tractors in West Africa is
practically negligible. Animals provide the power to an estimated 9% (FAO, 1987 and
Gifford and Rijk, 1980 in FAO, 1995) to 16% (Mrema, 1992) of the area. This leaves 80
to 90% for cultivation by hand.
Tractorization
Tractorization simply means the introduction of tractors into a system. The
introduction of tractor vehicles (tractorization) into agriculture has grossly increased
engineering involvement in agriculture and hence the choice of equipment
acquisition, hazards prevention programme and increased maintenance activities.
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1.4
;A =
. .1.12
. .1.13
Where:
AM = Productivity of machines, defined as the work carried out as a function of
the machinery employed
AH = Productivity of labour, defined as the work carried out as a function of
labour employed
AT = Total productivity and all other terms as defined previously.
Resting period
According to Caruthers and Rodriguez (1992), resting period tR, for different manual
operations (planting, weeding, fertilizer application and harvesting) was defined as
follows:
t = 60 1
250
. .1.14
P
Where:
t = the required resting time for 8 hrs effective working hrs per day in minute per
hour of work
P = rate of power consumption in watts for various farming activities.
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Where
FLV= Values of all farm labour
f = mathematical function
Net energy or output by farm power
For any given task, the energy or net output delivered by a power system is expressed
by the relation
( )=
( )
( )
For instance this energy requirement has been estimated as a continuous effort at
26%29% for donkeys, and 24%27% for horses (Inns, 1992).
The energy accumulated by animals is partially released in a mechanical form when
pulling equipment or carrying a load. Use of the animal energy available to perform
sustained work varies in efficiency according to local working conditions (types of
cultivation works, implements and harnessing systems used).
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