Final Report

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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Project Background
Nowadays, the mobile telecommunications industry faces the

problem of providing the technology that be able to support a wide
variety of services ranging from voice communication with a bit rate
of a few kbps to wireless multimedia in which bit rate up to 2 Mbps.
In order to support that kind of technology, third generation (3rd) for
mobile communication is now being developed, and still not be
mature yet.
Several systems have been proposed as candidate for the 3 rd
generation mobile telecommunication system, OFDM is one of

proposed system that has a lot of attentions for some reasons.
The first reason is that the successful implementation of OFDM in

several applications. OFDM has successfully been implemented in
the wireless broadcasting applications such as DVB (Digital Video
Broadcasting) and DAB (Digital Audio Broadcasting). Recently,
OFDM has been successfully used in wireless LAN application.
Standard such as IEEE 802.11a and HIPERLAN/2 are the results of
the growing interest in OFDM. The second reason is that OFDM has a
lot of advantages compared to the conventional systems. OFDM
uses spectrum efficiently by spacing its carriers as close as possible,
this is enabled by making the carriers orthogonal to each other.
Since OFDM can overcome the effect of multipath fading by using a

guard period,
OFDM need only a simple equalization method in combating
selective fading
Channels .The weakness of an OFDM system is its sensitivity to
frequency offset
and its high Peak to Average signal Power Ratio (PAPR)
Since OFDM has a lot of advantages compared to conventional

systems and the successfulness of its implementation, therefore it is
interesting and challenging to investigate the characteristic and
performance of this systems in mobile radio channel.
1.2 Objective
This project is to study OFDM and its simulation in MATLAB(2008-a) and to

investigate the effect of some radio channel impairment factors to the performance of
OFDM as well as to study and investigate the performance of OFDM in mobile radio
channel including rural channel and urban channel.
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1.3 Organization of Thesis
The first chapter briefly introduces this project by explaining the

project background and objectives.
The second chapter explains the basic theory of OFDM and some
basic channel parameters.
The third chapter explains the OFDM generation, transmission and

reception.
The fourth chapter explains the OFDM simulation in MATLAB and the
description of various blocks used. Effect of Power clipping, AWGN,
Delay spread and Impulse noise on OFDM performance is noted.Also
OFDM performance in Urban and Rural environment has been
studied.
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CHAPTER 2
BASIC THEORY OF OFDM
2.1 The Principles of OFDM
 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is a technology

that runs on the principle of transmitting data by dividing the data stream
into multiple parallel bit streams that have a much lower bit rate and using
these sub-streams to modulate several carriers, and these carriers are made
orthogonal by appropriately choosing the frequency spacing between
them, hence called Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing.
 OFDM is a modulation scheme that allows digital data to be efficiently

and reliably transmitted over a radio channel, even in multipath
environments.
 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is an alternative

wireless modulation technology to CDMA. OFDM has the potential to
surpass the capacity of CDMA systems and provide the wireless access
method for 4G systems.
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is a multicarrier transmission

technique, which divides the bandwidth into many carriers, each one is modulated by
a low rate data stream. In term of multiple access technique, OFDM is similar to
FDMA in that the multiple user access is achieved by subdividing the available
bandwidth into multiple channels that are then allocated to users. However, OFDM
uses the spectrum much more efficiently by spacing the channels much closer
together. This is achieved by making all the carriers orthogonal to one another,
preventing interference between the closely spaced carriers.
Coded Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (COFDM) is the same as OFDM

except that forward error correction is applied to the signal before transmission. This
is to overcome errors in the transmission due to lost carriers from frequency selective
fading, channel noise and other propagation effects.
In FDMA each user is typically allocated a single channel, which is

used to transmit all the user information. The bandwidth of each
channel is typically 10 kHz- 30 kHz for voice communications.
However, the minimum required bandwidth for speech is only 3 kHz.
The allocated bandwidth is made wider then the minimum amount
required to prevent channels from interfering with one another. This
extra bandwidth is to allow for signals from neighboring channels to
be filtered out, and to allow for any drift in the center frequency of
the transmitter or receiver. In a typical system up to 50% of the
total spectrum is wasted due to the extra spacing between
channels. This problem becomes worse as the channel bandwidth
becomes narrower, and the frequency band increases.
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TDMA partly overcomes this problem by using wider bandwidth

channels, which are used by several users. Multiple users access the
same channel by transmitting in their data in time slots. Thus, many
low data rate users can be combined together to transmit in a single
channel which has a bandwidth sufficient so that the spectrum can
be used efficiently.
There are however, two main problems with TDMA. There is an

overhead associated with the change over between users due to
time slotting on the channel. A change over time must be allocated
to allow for any tolerance in the start time of each user, due to
propagation delay variations and synchronization errors. This limits
the number of users that can be sent efficiently in each channel. In
addition, the symbol rate of each channel is high (as the channel
handles the information from multiple users) resulting in problems
with multipath delay spread. OFDM overcomes most of the problems
with both FDMA and TDMA. OFDM splits the available bandwidth into
many na rrow band channels (typically 100-8000). The carriers for
each channel are made orthogonal to one another, allowing them to
be spaced very close together, with no overhead as in the FDMA
example. Because of this there is no great need for users to be time
multiplex as in TDMA, thus there is no overhead associated with
switching between users.
The orthogonality of the carriers means that each carrier has an
integer number of cycles over a symbol period. Due to this, the
spectrum of each carrier has a null at the center frequency of each
of the other carriers in the system. This results in no interference
between the carriers, allowing then to be spaced as close as
theoretically possible. This overcomes the problem of overhead
carrier spacing required in FDMA.
Each carrier in an OFDM signal has a very narrow bandwidth (i.e.1

kHz), thus the resulting symbol rate is low. This results in the signal
having a high tolerance to multipath delay spread, as the delay
spread must be very long to cause significant inter-symbol
interference.
2.2 OFDM History
The concept of OFDM in term of parallel transmission was first developed in the 50s
and introduced in some papers in the mid 60s. A US patent was issued in January,
1970. The first aim was to use available bandwidth more efficiently by spacing
carriers as close as possible. This aim can be achieved by making all carriers
orthogonal to each other, preventing Inter Carrier Interference (ICI) between them.
OFDM first was implemented in military communications. In the telecommunication
field the terms of discrete multi tone (DMT), multichannels modulation, and
multicarrier modulation (MCM), are widely used and sometime they are
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interchangeable with OFDM. The difference between them is in OFDM, each carrier
is orthogonal to the other carriers while in MCM each carrier does not have to be so.
Before digital signal processing technology involved and

implemented in OFDM technology, the OFDM system was too
expensive and complex to be realized since using a bank of parallel
modulators to produce multiple carriers would not be very efficient
in analog hardware. Beside that, the receiver needs precise phasing
of the demodulation carriers and sampling times in order to keep
crosstalk between subchannels acceptable where this need can not
be fulfilled by the analog modulator. However, in digital technology,
this limitation can be solved with currently available DSP hardware
and software. Weinstein and Ebert proposed the used of the discrete
Fourier Transform (DFT) to parallel data transmission system to
produce multiple stable Carriers. In addition, the DFT does not only
work well but also can be made very flexible and programmable.
In the 1980s, OFDM had been studied for high speed modems, digital mobile
communications, and high density recording. Hirosaki explore the OFDM techniques
for multiplexed QAM using DFT.He also designed an 19.2 kbps voice band data
modem using multiplexed QAM. In this system a pilot tone was used for stabilizing
carrier and clock frequency control and trellis coding was implemented to reduce the
required carrier to noise ratio (CNR). Various speed modems were developed for
telephone networks.
In the 1990s, OFDM has been exploited for wideband data communications over
mobile radio FM channels, high bit rate digital subscribers lines (HDSL), asymmetric
digital subscriber lines (ADSL), very high speed digital subscriber lines (VHDSL),
digital audio broadcasting (DAB), digital television and HDTV terrestrial
broadcasting.
Since OFDM is robust to multipath propagation, it is likely to be considered for

mobile communication systems. Cimini proposed a celluler mobile radio system
based on OFDM. During the 1990s some papers proposed OFDM for mobile
communication based on multicarrier FDMA, where each user has a set of randomly
selected subchannels.
Recently, OFDM has been successfully implemented in audio

broadcasting such as DVB and DAB. Also, OFDM has been
implemented in wireless LAN application as well.
2.3 OFDM Operation
2.3.1 Definition of the Orthogonality
 Signals are orthogonal if they are mutually independent of each other.

 Orthogonality is a property that allows multiple information signals to
be transmitted perfectly over a common channel and detected, without
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interference. Loss of orthogonality results in blurring between these

information signals and degradation in communications.
Two periodic signals are orthogonal when the integral of their product, over one
period, is equal to zero. This is true of certain sinusoids as illustrated in equation 1
and 2.
The carriers of an OFDM system are sinusoids that meet this

requirement because each one is a multiple of a fundamental
frequency. Each one has an integer number of cycles in the
fundamental period.
2.3.2 Benefit of Orthogonality
 Better utilization of available spectrum

 Orthogonal signals can be transmitted via overlapped spectrum. So
significant amount of bandwidth can be saved.
 The signals can still be safely recovered in the receiver, provided that
the orthogonality is maintained.
Ch.1 Ch.2 Ch.3 Ch.4 Ch.5 Ch.6 Ch.7 Ch.8 Ch.9 Ch.10
FDM frequency
Ch.2 Ch.4 Ch.6 Ch.8 Ch.10

Ch.1 Ch.3 Ch.5 Ch.7 Ch.9
Saving of bandwidth
50% bandwidth
saving
OFDM frequency
Figure 2.3.2 differences between OFDM and FDM bandwidth utilization
2.3.3 Preliminary Concepts

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When the DFT (Discrete Fourier Transform) of a time signal is taken, the frequency
domain results are a function of the time sampling period and the number of samples
as shown in Figure 2.3.3. The fundamental frequency of the DFT is equal to 1/NT
(1/total sample time). Each frequency represented in the DFT is an integer multiple of
the fundamental frequency. The maximum frequency that can be represented by a
time signal sampled at rate 1/T is
fmax = 1/2T
as given by the Nyquist sampling theorem. This frequency is located in the center of
the DFT points. All frequencies beyond that point are images of the representative
frequencies. The maximum frequency bin of the DFT is equal to the sampling
frequency (1/T) minus one fundamental (1/NT).
The IDFT (Inverse Discrete Fourier Transform) performs the opposite operation to
the DFT. It takes a signal defined by frequency components and converts them to a
time signal. The parameter mapping is the same as for the DFT. The time duration of
the IDFT time signal is equal to the number of DFT bins (N) times the sampling
period (T).
It is perfectly valid to generate a signal in the frequency domain, and convert it to a

time domain equivalent for practical use. This is how modulation is applied in
OFDM.
Figure 2.3.3 Parameter maping from time to frequency for DFT

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In practice the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) and IFFT are used in
place of the DFT and IDFT so all further references will be to FFT and
IFFT.
2.3.4 OFDM and Modulation
All wireless communication systems use a modulation scheme to map the information
signal to a form that can be effectively transmitted over the communications channel.
A wide range of modulation schemes has been developed, with the most suitable one,
depending on whether the information signal is an analogue waveform or a digital
signal. Some of the common analogue modulation schemes include Frequency
Modulation (FM), Amplitude Modulation (AM), Phase Modulation (PM), Single Side
Band (SSB), Vestigial Side Band (VSB), Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier
(DSBSC). Common single carrier modulation schemes for digital communications
include Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK), Frequency Shift Keying (FSK), Phase Shift
Keying (PSK) and Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM).
Each of the carriers in a FDM transmission can use an analogue or digital modulation
scheme. There is no synchronization between the transmission and so one station
could transmit using FM and another in digital using FSK. In a single OFDM
transmission all the subcarriers are synchronized to each other, restricting the
transmission to digital modulation schemes. OFDM is symbol based, and can be
thought of as a large number of low bit rate carriers transmitting in parallel. All these
carriers transmit in unison using synchronized time and frequency, forming a single
block of spectrum. This is to ensure that the orthogonal nature of the structure is
maintained. Since these multiple carriers form a single OFDM transmission, they are
commonly referred to as ‘subcarriers’, with the term of ‘carrier’ reserved for
describing the RF carrier mixing the signal from base band. There are several ways of
looking at what make the subcarriers in an OFDM signal orthogonal and why this
prevents interference between them.
Figure 2.3.4 Time and frequency representation of OFDM modulated carrier
2.4 Characteristics of Mobile Radio Channel

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In an ideal radio channel, the received signal would consist of only a single direct path
signal, which would be a perfect reconstruction of the transmitted signal. However in
a real channel, the signal is modified during transmission in the channel. The received
signal consists of a combination of attenuated, reflected, refracted, and diffracted
replicas of the transmitted signal. On top of all this, the channel adds noise to the
signal and can cause a shift in the carrier frequency if the transmitter or receiver is
moving (Doppler Effect). Understanding of these effects on the signal is important
because the performance of a radio system is dependent on the radio channel
characteristics.
2.4.1 Attenuation
Attenuation is the drop in the signal power when transmitting from one point to
another. It can be caused by the transmission path length, obstructions in the signal
path, and multipath effects. Figure 2.4.1 shows some of the radio propagation effects
that cause attenuation. Any objects which obstruct the line of sight signal from the
transmitter to the receiver can cause attenuation.
Shadowing of the signal can occur whenever there is an obstruction between the
transmitter and receiver. It is generally caused by buildings and hills, and is the most
important environmental attenuation factor. Shadowing is most severe in heavily built
up areas, due to the shadowing from buildings. However, hills can cause a large
problem due to the large shadow they produce. Radio signals diffract off the
boundaries of obstructions, thus preventing total shadowing of the signals behind hills
and buildings. However, the amount of diffraction is dependent on the radio
frequency used, with low frequencies diffracting more then high frequency signals.
To over come the problem of shadowing, transmitters are usually elevated as high as
possible to minimize the number of obstructions.
Figure 2.4.1 Radio Propagation Effects
2.4.2 Multipath Effects
2.4.2.1 Rayleigh Fading
In a radio link, the RF signal from the transmitter may be reflected from objects such
as hills, buildings, or vehicles. This gives rise to multiple transmission paths at the
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receiver. The relative phase of multiple reflected signals can cause constructive or
destructive interference at the receiver. This is experienced over very short distances
(typically at half wavelength distances), thus is given the term fast fading. These
variations can vary from 10-30dB over a short distance. Figure 2.4.2.1 shows the level
of attenuation that can occur due to the fading.
Figure 2.4.2.1Typical Rayleigh fading while the Mobile Unit is moving

(For at 900 MHz)
2.4.2.2 Frequency Selective Fading
In any radio transmission, the channel spectral response is not flat. It has dips or fades
in the response due to reflections causing cancellation of certain frequencies at the
receiver. Reflections off near-by objects (e.g. ground, buildings, trees, etc) can lead to
multipath signals of similar signal power as the direct signal. This can result in deep
nulls in the received signal power due to destructive interference. For narrow
bandwidth transmissions if the null in the frequency response occurs at the
transmission frequency then the entire signal can be lost. This can be partly overcome
in two ways.
By transmitting a wide bandwidth signal or spread spectrum as CDMA, any dips in

the spectrum only result in a small loss of signal power, rather than a complete loss.
Another method is to split the transmission up into many small bandwidth carriers, as
is done in a COFDM/OFDM transmission. The original signal is spread over a wide
bandwidth thus, any nulls in the spectrum are unlikely to occur at all of the carrier
frequencies. This will result in only some of the carriers being lost, rather then the
entire signal. The information in the lost carriers can be recovered provided enough
forward error corrections are sent.
2.4.2.3 Delay Spread
The received radio signal from a transmitter consists of typically a direct signal, plus
reflections of object such as buildings, mountings, and other structures. The reflected
signals arrive at a later time than the direct signal because of the extra path length,
giving rise to a slightly different arrival time of the transmitted pulse, thus spreading
the received energy. Delay spread is the time spread between the arrival of the first
and last multipath signal seen by the receiver.
In a digital system, the delay spread can lead to inter-symbol interference. This is due
to the delayed multipath signal overlapping with the following symbols. This can
cause significant errors in high bit rate systems, especially when using time division
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multiplexing (TDM). Figure 2.4.2.3 shows the effect of inter-symbol interference due
to delay spread on the received signal. As the transmitted bit rate is increased the
amount of inter-symbol interference also increases. The effect starts to become very
significant when the delay spread is greater then ~50% of the bit time.
Figure 2.4.2.3 Multipath Delay Spread
2.4.2.4 Doppler Shift
When a wave source and a receiver are moving relative to one another the frequency
of the received signal will not be the same as the source. When they are moving
toward each other the frequency of the received signal is higher then the source, and
when they are approaching each other the frequency decreases. This is called the
Doppler Effect. An example of this is the change of pitch in a car’s horn as it
approaches then passes by. This effect becomes important when developing mobile
radio systems.
The amount the frequency changes due to the Doppler Effect depends on the relative
motion between the source and receiver and on the speed of propagation of the wave.
The Doppler shift in frequency can be written:
v
∆f ≈ ± f 0
c
Where Δf is the change in frequency of the source seen at the receiver, fo is the
frequency of the source, v is the speed difference between the source and transmitter,
and c is the speed of light.
For example: Let fo = 1GHz, and v = 60km/hr (16.7m/s) then the Doppler shift will
be:
16 .67
∆f = 10 9 = 55 .5 Hz
3 ×10 8
This shift of 55Hz in the carrier will generally not effect the transmission.
However, Doppler shift can cause significant problems if the transmission technique
is sensitive to carrier frequency offsets (for example COFDM) or the relative speed is
higher (for example in low earth orbiting satellites).
2.4.2.5 Intersymbol Interference (ISI)
Definition
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The spreading and smearing of symbols such that the energy from one symbol effects
the next ones in such a way that the received signal has a higher probability of being
interpreted incorrectly is called Inter Symbol Interference or ISI.
• How It Occurs
 ISI can be caused by many different reasons. It can be caused by

filtering effects from hardware or frequency selective fading, from non-
linearities and from charging effects. Very few systems are immune from it
and it is nearly always present in wireless communications.
Here we only discuss ISI in regard of frequency selective fading. In a multipath

environment, a transmitted symbol takes different times to reach the receiver through
different propagation paths. From the receiver’s point of view, the channel introduces
time dispersion in which the duration of the received symbol is stretched called delay
spread. It is maximum time delay that occurs in multipath environment. Extending the
symbol duration causes the current received symbol to overlap previous received
symbols and results in intersymbol interference (ISI). In OFDM, ISI usually refers to
interference of an OFDM symbol by previous OFDM symbols.
Figure 2.4.2.5a showing Multipath environment
Figure2.4.2.5b showing multipath signal

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Figure2.4.2.5c showing different delay spread due to different paths
• Back Ground:
Inter-symbol interference (ISI) is an unavoidable consequence of both wired and

wireless communication systems. Morse first noticed it on the transatlantic telegraph
cables transmitting messages using dots and dashes and it has not gone way since. He
handled it by just slowing down transmission.
Figure
2.4.2.5d: (a) what was send and (b) what was received
During these early attempts at transmission, it was noticed that the received signals
tended to get elongated and smeared into each other. A short pulse to represent a dot
was received as a much-smeared version of the same thing. The problem appeared to
be related to the properties of the medium used and the distance of signal travel. To
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counter this undesired effect, intermediate repeating stations were established and
ways had to be devised to reduce this smearing.
• How it effects now?
Fig shows a data sequence, 1,0,1,1,0,1 which we wish to send.
Figure 2.4.2.5e sequence 101101 to be sent, the dash line is the shape that is
actually sent due to filter response
Figure 2.4.2.5f shows each symbol as it is received. We can see what the transmission
medium creates a tail of energy that lasts much longer than intended. The energy from
symbols 1 and 2 goes all the way into symbol 3. Each symbol interferes with one or
more of the subsequent symbols. The circled areas show areas of large interference.
.
Figure 2.4.2.5f each symbol is spread by the medium
Figure 2.4.2.5g shows the actual signal seen by the receiver. It is the sum of all these
distorted symbols. Compared to the dashed line that was the transmitted signal, the
received signal looks quite indistinct. The receiver does not actually see this signal, it
sees only the little dots, the value of the amplitude at the timing instant. Notice that
for symbol 3, this value is approximately half of the transmitted value, which makes
this particular symbol is more susceptible to noise and incorrect interpretation and this
phenomena is the result of this symbol delay and smearing.
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Figure 2.4.2.5g received signal vs transmitted signal
• Mathematically
Bandwidth W being divided into K sub-carriers, leading to carrier spacing Δf,

satisfying
Symbol duration T satisfying
To avoid ISI:
= delay spread
Is the coherence bandwidth
Coherence bandwidth is a statistical measurement of the range of frequencies over

which the channel can be considered "flat", or in other words the approximate
maximum bandwidth or frequency interval over which two frequencies of a signal are
likely to experience comparable or correlated amplitude fading.
2.4.2.6 Intercarrier Interference (ICI)
Definition
Interference between carriers of different frequency causes ICI .

In OFDM when it occurs orthogonality between different subcarriers is lost. i.e. in
OFDM ,subcarrier has integral number of cycles to maintain orthagonality when ICI
occurs frequency of one of subcarrier changes so that it does not have integral number
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of cycles, which result in interference between subcarriers and lost of orthogonality.

In other words we can say that ,intercarrier interference (ICI) is crosstalk between
different subcarriers, which means they are no longer orthogonal.
• How it occurs?
ICI occurs because of following reasons

 Doppler shifts.
 ICI also occurs when an OFDM symbol experiences ISI. This situation
can be viewed from the time domain perspective, in which the integer number
of cycles for each subcarrier within the FFT interval of the current symbol is
no longer maintained due to the phase transition introduced by the previous
symbol.
 Any offset between the subcarrier frequencies of the transmitter and
receiver also introduces ICI to an OFDM symbol.
2.5 How OFDM Mitigate ISI and ICI
Example
You are driving in rain, and the car in front splashes a bunch of water on you. What
do you do? You move further back, you put a little distance between you and the front
car, far enough so that the splash won’t reach you. If we equate the reach of splash to
delay spread of a splashed signal then we have a better picture of the phenomena and
how to avoid it.
Figure 2.5a: Delay spread is like a undesired splash you might get from a car
ahead. In fading, front symbol similarly throws a splash backward which we
wish to avoid
Increase distance from car in front to avoid splash. The reach of splash is same as the
delay spread of a signal. Figure 2.5bshows the symbol and its splash. In composite,
these splashes become noise and affect the beginning of the next symbol.
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Figure 2.5b the PSK modulation and its delayed version
2.5.1 Guard Period
OFDM demodulation must be synchronized with the start and end of the transmitted
symbol period. If it is not, then ISI will occur (since information will be decoded and
combined for 2 adjacent symbol periods). ICI will also occur because orthogonality
will be lost (integrals of the carrier products will no longer be zero over the
integration period).
To help solve this problem, a guard interval is added to each OFDM

symbol period. The first thought of how to do this might be to simply
make the symbol period longer, so that the demodulator does not
have to be so precise in picking the period beginning and end, and
decoding is always done inside a single period. This would fix the ISI
problem, but not the ICI problem. If a complete period is not
integrated (via FFT), orthogonality will be lost.
To mitigate this noise at the front of the symbol or to prevent ISI, we will move our
symbol further away from the region of delay spread as shown below. A little bit of
blank space has been added between symbols to catch the delay spread. This blank
space is called guard period. The guard time is chosen larger than the expected delay
spread, such that multipath components from one symbol cannot interfere with the
next symbol.
Figure
2.5.1 move signal backward so arriving delayed signal fall in gray region. No
interference to next symbol
2.5.2 Cyclic Prefix
We can not have blank spaces in signals because of two reason.
1) This is won’t work for the hardware which likes to crank out signals continuously.
2) Blank spaces does not prevent ICI.
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In order to avoid ISI and ICI, the guard period must be formed by a
cyclic extension of the symbol period. This is done by taking symbol
period samples from the end of the period and appending them to
the front of the period. The concept of being able to do this, and
what it means, comes from the nature of the IFFT/FFT process.
When the IFFT is taken for a symbol period (during OFDM
modulation), the resulting time sample sequence is technically
periodic. This is because the IFFT/FFT is an extension of the Fourier
Transform which is an extension of the Fourier Series for periodic
waveforms. All of these transforms operate on signals with either
real or manufactured periodicity. For the IFFT/FFT, the period is the
number of samples used.
With the cyclic extension, the symbol period is longer, but it

represents the exact same frequency spectrum. As long as the
correct number of samples are taken for the decode , they may be
taken anywhere within the extended symbol. Since a complete
period is integrated, orthogonality is maintained. Therefore, both ISI
and ICI are eliminated. The guard period via cyclic extension of
symbol is shown in Figure 2.5.2a.
Note that some bandwidth efficiency is lost with the addition of the
guard period (symbol period is increased and symbol rate is
decreased).
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Figure 2.5.2a guard period via cyclic extension
Figure 2.5.2b showing ICI
Region with dark color show ICI, here subcarrier#2 has half cycle and subcarrier#1
also has half cycle so ICI occurs, the remaining portion of subcarrier#2 is integral
multiple of subcarrier#1
When an OFDM receiver tries to demodulate the first subcarrier, it will encounter
some interference from the second subcarrier, because within the FFT interval, there
is no integer number of cycle’s difference between subcarrier 1 and 2. At the same
time, there will be crosstalk from the first to the second subcarrier for the same
reason. So it’s clear that we need to have something there to fill the blank spaces.
Why don’t we just let the symbol run longer as a first choice?
Figure 2.5.2c if we just extended the symbol which is important to us since it

allows figuring out what the phase of this symbol is, is now corrupted by
splash.
We extend the symbol into the empty space, so the actual symbol is more than one
cycle. But now the start of the symbol is still in the danger zone, and this start is the
most important thing about our symbol since the slicer needs it in order to make a
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decision about the bit. We do not want the start of the symbol to fall in this region, so
lets just slide the symbol backwards, so that the start of the original symbol lands at
the outside of this zone. And then fill this area with something.
Figure 2.5.2d if we move the signal back and just put in convenient filter in
this area, then not only we have continuous signal but one that can get
corrupted and we don’t care since we will just cut it out any way before
demodulating
Slide the symbol to start at the edge of the delay spread time and then fill the guard
space with a copy of what turns out to be tail end of the symbol.
• We want the start of the symbol to be out of the delay spread zone so it
is not corrupted and
• We start the signal at the new boundary such that the actual symbol
edge falls out side this zone.
We will be extending the symbol so it is 1.25 times as long, to do this, copy the back
of the symbol and glue it in the front. In reality, the symbol source is continuous, so
all we are doing is adjusting the starting phase and making the symbol period longer.
But nearly all books talk about it as a copy of the tail end. And the reason is that in
digital signal processing, we do it this way.
Figure 2.5.2e cyclic prefix is this superfluous bit of signal we add to the front
of previous cargo, the symbol
This procedure is called adding a cyclic prefix. In OFDM we have a lot of subcarriers
so we will add to every carrier.
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Figure 2.5.2f showing addition of cyclic prefix
Note that cyclic prefix has prevented ICI as shown in fig because if anyone carrier
shifts still there will be integral number of cycles when at receiver guardband
removes.
Since OFDM, has a lot of carriers, we would do this to reach and every carrier. But
that’s only in theory. In reality since the OFDM signal is a linear combination, we can
add cyclic prefix just one to the composite OFDM signal. The prefix is any where
from 10% to 25% of the symbol time.
Here is an OFDM signal with period equal to 32 samples. We want to add a 25%
cyclic shift to this signal.
1. First we cut pieces that are 32 samples long

2. Then we take the last .25 (32) = 8 samples, copy and append them to the front as
shown.
Figure 2.5.2g the whole process can be done only once to OFDM signal instead of
doing it to each and every subcarrier.
We add the prefix after doing the IFFT just once to the composite signal. After the
signal has arrived at the receiver, first remove this prefix, to get back the perfectly
periodic signal so it can be FFT’d to get back the symbols on each carrier.
22
However, the addition of cyclic prefix which mitigates the effects of link fading and
inter symbol interference, increases the bandwidth.
• OFDM Can Prevent ISI By Itself
One of the most important properties of OFDM transmissions is its high level of
robustness against multipath delay spread. This is a result of the long symbol period
used, which minimizes the inter-symbol interference. The level of multipath
robustness can be further increased by the addition of a guard period between
transmitted symbols. The guard period allows time for multipath signals from the
pervious symbol to die away before the information from the current symbol is
gathered. The most effective guard period to use is a cyclic extension of the symbol.
If a mirror in time, of the end of the symbol waveform is put at the start of the symbol
as the guard period, this effectively extends the length of the symbol, while
maintaining the orthogonality of the waveform. Using this cyclic extended symbol the
samples required for performing the FFT (to decode the symbol), can be taken
anywhere over the length of the symbol. This provides multipath immunity as well as
symbol time synchronization tolerance.
As long as the multipath delay echoes stay within the guard period duration, there is
strictly no limitation regarding the signal level of the echoes: they may even exceed
the signal level of the shorter path! The signal energy from all paths just add at the
input to the receiver, and since the FFT is energy conservative, the whole available
power feeds the decoder. If the delay spread is longer then the guard interval then they
begin to cause inter-symbol interference. However, provided the echoes are
sufficiently small they do not cause significant problems. This is true most of the time
as multipath echoes delayed longer than the guard period will have been reflected of
very distant objects.
2.6 Down Sides of OFDM
Like anything else, OFDM is not perfect.
• It is very complex, making it more expensive to implement. However,

modern semiconductor technology makes it pretty easy.
• OFDM is also sensitive to carrier frequency variations. To overcome

this problem, OFDM systems transmit pilot carriers along with the subcarriers
for synchronization at the receiver.
• Another disadvantage is that an OFDM signal has a high peak to

average power ratio. As a result, the complex OFDM signal requires linear
amplification. That means greater inefficiency in the RF power amplifiers and
more power consumption.
2.7 Some Important Definations
2.7.1 Symbol
23
A symbol is quite apart from a bit in concept although both can be represented by
sinusoidal or wave functions. Where bit is the unit of information, the symbol is a unit
of transmission energy. It is the representation of the bit that the medium transmits to
convey the information.
Example
Imagine bits as widgets, and symbol as boxes in which the widgets travel on a truck.
We can have one widget per box or we can have more. Packing of widgets (bits) per
box (symbols) is what modulation is all about.
In communications, the analog signal shape, by pre-agreed convention, stands for a

certain number of bits and is called a symbol.
Figure 2.7.1 Digital information travel on analog carrier.
A symbol is just a symbol. It can stand for any number of bits, not just one bit. The
bits that it stands for are not being transmitted, what is transmitted is the symbol or
actually the little signal packet shown above. The frequency of this packet is usually
quite high. The 1 Hz signal shown above is just an abstraction.
2.7.2 Symbol Rate
Number of symbols transmitted per second. And it is given as
Symbol rate = bit rate

The number of bits transmitted with each symbol
2.7.3 Bit Rate
Number of bits transmitted per second

(Baud and baud rate is same as symbol and symbol rate respectively)
2.8 I and Q Channels

24
We can write real signals as a vector sum of two signals in quadrature called I and Q.
You can think of I and Q as the x,y axis projection of a signal.
S = (I, Q)
Below you see two views of a signal space. One shows a signal in I-Q space and the
other in its polar form.
(a) (b)
Figure 2.8 showing I & Q projections and its polar form
In Figure 2.8(a) the x and y-axis are I and Q projections of the signal. Quantity S11 is I
channel projection and S12 is the Q projection of the signal. Figure 2.8(b) shows the
same signal in polar form, with its length equal to its amplitude and the angle is equal
to its phase.
The coefficient S11 represent the amplitude of I signal and S12 the amplitude of the Q
signal. These amplitudes when plotted on the x and y axis respectively, give the signal
vector. The angle the signal vector makes with the x-axis is the phase of this signal.
Magnitude of signal S= I 2 +Q 2
−1 I
Phase of the signal = tan Q
Shows magnitude
of I and Q
fig:constellation
diagram
25
Figure 2.8c showing expression for I and Q
2.8.1 Constellation Diagrams
In a spectrum analyzer, we obtain the constellation diagram by sampling both I and Q

channels at the same instant and then plotting I value against Q value on a x-y
diagram. The time axis can be imagined as coming out of the analyzer so new points
lie on top of the old ones at the transmitter. But when the constellation diagram is
created for a signal after it has gone through the medium, it shows some offset from
the transmitted points because of noise and other effects.
The tip of the signal vector is called the constellation point. The length of
this vector or the distance from the origin is the energy of that signal.
Esi = (Si) 2 = si12 + si22
From above equation we can compute the energy of each signal shown below by
adding the squared I and Q coefficients. The points that lie further from the origin
have higher energy than those that lies close in. In a hybrid modulation with the
following constellation pattern, the outlying signal sig2, has higher energy (i.e. higher
amplitude, higher Es) than inner signal, sig1. Another way to think is to realize that
we are really plotting the amplitude. So a longer vector has a larger amplitude and
hence higher energy.
Figure 2.8.1 The energy of a signal is proportional to its length
The distance between two signals (distance between the tip of the vectors) can be
written as the dot product between the two signals.
E s1−s 2 =s1 .s2 =S1 ΧS2 Χcos θ
The distance between the tips is the difference in the energy of two signals. The angle
between the two vectors is the correlation of the two signals. So if two signals are 900
to each other than, then cos θ is 0 and the two signals are un-correlated or are said to
be orthogonal. In this example, the angle is not 900, so a correlation exists between
these two signals and this makes it harder to resolve the differences between the
signals when received.
26
All carrier signals other than BPSK and QPSK have some level of correlation
between their signals. This is the reason why BPSK and QPSK from the limit of the
lowest bit error rate possible.
2.9 Symbol in OFDM
In OFDM is to break high data rate stream to several low data rate streams then you
assign a carrier to each sub streams in a way that each carrier is integer multiple of
first carrier or harmonic of basic carrier frequency. e.g if you have 1 Hz carrier freq of
first stream then second will have 2 Hz and third will have 3 Hz and so on since these
are all harmonics so they are all orthogonal to each other that the way we achieve
orthogonality in orthogonal FDM (OFDM).... now you transmit each sub stream let
say 4 substreams parallel so in one symbol of OFDM we have 4 bits.
parallel to
series
Converter
Figure 2.9 showing bits modulated on carrier (before parallel to series converter) and a
symbol containing 4 bits (after parallel to series converter)
2.10 Modulation Schemes that can be used in OFDM
The OFDM subcarriers can be modulated by using BPSK, QPSK, 16-QAM, or 64-
QAM modulation techniques, depending on the rate requested. The encoded and
interleaved binary serial input data is divided into groups of (1,2,4, or 6) bits and
converted into complex numbers representing BPSK, QPSK, 16-QAM, or 64-QAM
constellation points. The conversion can be performed according to the gray code
constellation mappings, with the input bit bo being the earliest in the stream. The
output values d are formed by multiplying the resulting value (I+jQ) by a
normalization factor KMOD as described below:
d = ( I + jQ ) × K MOD
So,
I=amplitude x cos(phase) x 1/KMOD
Q=amplitude x sin(phase) x 1/KMOD
The normalization factor KMOD depends on the base modulation mode, as prescribed in
the table below.
Modulation KMOD
27
BPSK 1
QPSK 1/√2
16-QAM 1/√10
64-QAM 1/√42
Table 2.10.1 Modulation-dependent normalization factor KMOD
Note that the modulation type can be different on the start to the end of the
transmission, as the signal changes from Signal to Data. The purpose of the
normalization factor is to achieve the same average power for all mappings. In
practical implementations an approximate value of the normalization factor can be
used, as long as the device conforms to the modulation accuracy requirements
described.
For BPSK bo determines the I value, as illustrated in the table 2.10.2. For QPSK bo
determines the I value and b1 determines the Q value, as illustrated in table 2.10.3.
For 16-QAM bob1 determines the I value and b2b3 determines the Q value, as
illustrated in table 2.10.4. For 64-QAM bob1b2 determines the I value and b3b4b5
determines the Q value, as illustrated in table 2.10.5
Input bit (bo) I-out Q-out

0 -1 0
1 1 0
Table 2.10.2 BPSK encoding table.

28
Figure 2.10 showing constellations of BPSK QPSK & QAM

29
Table 2.10.3 QPSK encoding table

Input bit (bo) I-out Input bit( b1) Q-out
0 -1 0 -1
1 1 1 1
Input bits (bob1) I-out Input bits(b2b3) Q-out

00 -3 00 -3
01 -1 01 -1
11 1 11 1
10 3 10 3
Table 2.10.4 16-QAM encoding table
Input bits (bob1b2) I-out Input bits(b3b4b5) Q-out

000 -7 000 -7
001 -5 001 -5
011 -3 011 -3
010 -1 010 -1
110 1 110 1
111 3 111 3
101 5 111 5
100 7 100 7
Table2.10.5 64-QAM encoding table
2.11 Bandlimiting of OFDM and Windowing
OFDM in the time domain is equivalent to a sum of modulated sinusoidal carriers that
are each windowed in time with a rectangular window function, also known as a
boxcar window function. This window defines the boundary of each OFDM symbol,
and determines the frequency response of the generated OFDM signal. Figure 2.11a
shows an example time waveform for a single carrier OFDM transmission using
Phase Shift Keying (PSK). The amplitude of the subcarrier is fixed and the phase is
varied from symbol to symbol to transmit the data information. The subcarrier phase
is constant for the entire symbol, resulting in a step in phase between symbols. These
sharp transitions between symbols result in spreading in the frequency domain and
also cause noise. Figure 2.11b shows the spectrum of a 52 subcarrier OFDM signal
(same as HiperLAN2, or IEEE802.11a) with no band-pass limiting. The out of band
components only fall off slowly due to the sinc roll off of each subcarrier. Figure
2.11c shows the spectrum of a 1536 subcarrier OFDM signal. The side-lobes roll off
faster than the 52-subcarrier case, as a fraction of the system bandwidth. However the
side-lobes are still significant (>-40 dB) even far away from the edge of the OFDM
main signal block. These side-lobes increase the effective bandwidth of the OFDM
30
signal, degrading the spectral efficiency. There common technique for reducing the
level of the side-lobes to acceptable limits is band pass filtering the signal.
Figure 2.11a Time waveform of a single carrier OFDM signal, showing three
symbols.
Figure 2.11b Spectrum of a 52 subcarrier OFDM signal with no band-limiting.
Figure 2.11c Spectrum of a 1536 subcarrier OFDM signal with no

bandlimiting.
31
2.11.1 Band Pass Filtering
Whenever signals are converted from the digital domain to an analog waveform for
transmission, filtering is used to prevent aliasing occurring. This effectively band pass
filters the signal, removing some of the OFDM side-lobes. The amount of side-lobe
removal depends on the sharpness of the filters used. In general digital filtering
provides a much greater flexibility, accuracy and cut off rate than analog filters,
making them especially useful for band limiting of an OFDM signal.
Figure 2.11a shows the frequency response of the OFDM signal with no filtering.
Figure 2.11b shows examples of a band pass filtered OFDM signal. These signals
have been filtered with a Finite Impulse Response (FIR) filter developed using the
windowing method. A low number of subcarriers were used in these plots so that the
roll off of the FIR filtering could be seen. The filtering removes virtually all of the
side lobes, but does so at the cost of the computational expense of implementing the
FIR filtering, and it reduces the effective SNR of the OFDM channel. The act of
filtering the OFDM signal, chops off significant energy from the outer subcarriers,
distorting their shape and causing ICI.
No publications to date could be found studying the effects of band pass filtering of
OFDM signals, looking at the reduction in the effective SNR caused by the filtering.
Very sharp cut off filters allow separate blocks of OFDM signals to be packed very
closely in the frequency domain, improving the spectral efficiency. But this tight
filtering can result in a degraded effective SNR, and so its effects must be taken into
consideration when designing a system
Figure 2.11.1a no filtering

32
Figure 2.11.1b with filtering
2.11.2 Effect of Band Pass Filtering On OFDM Performance
In the time domain, an OFDM symbol is rectangular in shape, which corresponds to a

sinc decay in the frequency domain. If we were to band pass filter an OFDM signal
with a brick wall filter then the signal would become rectangular in the frequency
domain, causing the time domain waveform to have a sinc decay between symbols.
This in turn results in ISI degrading the performance. The ISI caused by the filtering
can be removed by using a guard period of sufficient length, and by choosing the time
offset to synchronise in the middle of the guard period, so that most of the ISI energy
is removed.
33
CHAPTER 3
OFDM GENERATION, TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION
3.1 Basic OFDM System
Every communication system is categorized by the following parts;
 Transmitter
 Channel
 Receiver
In similar fashion the basic block diagram of the OFDM system is shown in figure
3.1a;
OFDM Channe
OFDM
Transmitter l Receiver
Figure 3.1a Basic OFDM System
Whereas the basic stand alone transmitter and receiver are having the following
major parts:
• Transmitter
 Modulator
 Inverse Fast Fourier Transform (IFFT)
 Digital-to-Analog converter (DAC)
Figure 3.1b Basic OFDM Transmitter

34
• Receiver
 Analog-to-Digital converter (ADC)

 Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)
 Demodulator
Figure 3.1c Basic OFDM Receiver
3.2 OFDM Generation, Transmission and Reception
OFDM signals are typically generated digitally due to the difficulty in creating large
banks of phase lock oscillators and receivers in the analog domain. Figure below
shows the block diagram of a typical OFDM transceiver. The transmitter section
converts digital data to be transmitted, into a mapping of subcarrier amplitude and
phase. It then transforms this spectral representation of the data into the time
domain using an Inverse Discrete Fourier Transform (IDFT). The Inverse Fast
Fourier Transform (IFFT) performs the same operations as an IDFT, except that it is
much more computationally efficiency, and so is used in all practical systems. In
order to transmit the OFDM signal the calculated time domain signal is then mixed
up to the required frequency.
The receiver performs the reverse operation of the transmitter, mixing the RF signal
to base band for processing, then using a Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) to analyze
the signal in the frequency domain. The amplitude and phase of the subcarriers is
then picked out and converted back to digital data.
35
Figure 3.2a Block diagram showing a basic OFDM transceiver

3.2.1 Serial to Parallel and Parallel to Serial Conversion
• At Transmitter (S-P)
Data to be transmitted is typically in the form of a serial data stream. In OFDM, each
symbol typically transmits 40 - 4000 bits, and so a serial to parallel conversion stage
is needed to convert the input serial bit stream to the data to be transmitted in each
OFDM symbol. The data allocated to each symbol depends on the modulation scheme
used and the number of subcarriers. For example, for a subcarrier modulation of 16-
QAM each subcarrier carries 4 bits of data, and so for a transmission using 100
subcarriers the number of bits per symbol would be 400.
The modulation schemes used on each subcarrier can vary and so the number of bits
per subcarrier also varies. As a result the serial to parallel conversion stage involves
filling the data payload for each subcarrier.
• At Receiver (P-S)
At the receiver the reverse process takes place, with the data from the subcarriers
being converted back to the original serial data stream.
3.2.2 Subcarrier Modulation and Demodulation
• At Transmitter (Modulation)
Once each subcarrier has been allocated bits for transmission, they are mapped using
a modulation scheme to a subcarrier amplitude and phase, which is represented by a
complex In-phase and Quadrature-phase (IQ) vector. Figure below shows an example
of subcarrier modulation mapping. This example shows 16-QAM, which maps 4 bits
for each symbol. Each combination of the 4 bits of data corresponds to a unique IQ
vector, shown as a dot on the figure. A large number of modulation schemes are
available allowing the number of bits transmitted per carrier per symbol to be varied.
36
Figure 3.2.2a Example IQ modulation constellation. 16-QAM
• At Receiver (Demodulation)
In the receiver, mapping the received IQ vector back to the data word performs
subcarrier demodulation. During transmission, noise and distortion becomes added to
the signal due to thermal noise, signal power reduction and imperfect channel
equalization.
Figure below shows an example of a received 16-QAM signal with a SNR of 18 dB.
Each of the IQ points is blurred in location due to the channel noise. For each
received IQ vector the receiver has to estimate the most likely original transmission
vector. This is achieved by finding the transmission vector that is closest to the
received vector. Errors occur when the noise exceeds half the spacing between the
transmission IQ points, making it cross over a decision boundary.
Figure 3.2.2b IQ plot for 16-QAM data with added noise
3.2.3 Frequency to Time Domain Conversion and Use of Guard Bands
• At Transmitter
After the subcarrier modulation stage each of the data subcarriers is set to an
amplitude and phase based on the data being sent and the modulation scheme; all
unused subcarriers are set to zero. This sets up the OFDM signal in the frequency
domain. An IFFT is then used to convert this signal to the time domain, allowing it to
be transmitted. Figure below shows the IFFT section of the OFDM transmitter. In the
frequency domain, before applying the IFFT, each of the discrete samples of the IFFT
corresponds to an individual subcarrier. Most of the subcarriers are modulated with
data. The outer subcarriers are unmodulated and set to zero amplitude. These zero
subcarriers provide a frequency guard band.
37
Figure 3.2.3 OFDM generation, IFFT stage
• At Receiver
FFT is applied to convert the signal back to frequency domain.
3.2.4 Cyclic Prefix
• At Transmitter
After this cyclic prefix is added to avoid or minimize ICI and ISI.
• At Receiver
Cyclic prefix is removed.
3.2.5 RF Modulation and Demodulation
• At Transmitter (Modulation)
The output of the OFDM modulator generates a base band signal, which must be
mixed up to the required transmission frequency. This can be implemented using
analog techniques as shown in Figure 3.2.5a or using a Digital Up Converter as shown
in Figure 3.2.5b Both techniques perform the same operation, however the
performance of the digital modulation will tend to be more accurate due to improved
matching between the processing of the I and Q channels, and the phase accuracy of
the digital IQ modulator.
38
Figure 3.2.5a
RF modulation of complex base band OFDM signal, using analog techniques.
Figure 3.2.5b RF modulation of complex base band OFDM signal, using

digital techniques.
DAC is used because Before the RF stage the complex IQ signals are not strictly
analog. The IQ signal are generated mathematically inside a Digital Signal Processor
(DSP), so although the stream is not digital data bits but its also not a pure analog
signal that can be transmitted out to the atmosphere. In order to do that we have to a
DAC and then do the analog RF modulation. In other word we can say that output of
IFFT is discrete so we use DAC.
• At Receiver (Demodulation)
At the receiver the RF signal is removed from the base band signal.
3.3 Effect of Synchronization Error
3.3.1 Effect of Frequency Synchronization Error
One significant problem with OFDM is its sensitivity to frequency offsets affecting
the performance. The demodulation of an OFDM signal with an offset in the
frequency can lead to a high bit error rate. This is caused by the loss of orthogonality
39
between the subcarriers resulting in inter-carrier interference (ICI), and a lack of

correction for phase rotation of the received data vectors. Frequency errors will tend
to occur from two main sources. These are local oscillator errors and Doppler spread.
Any difference between transmitter and receiver local oscillators will result in a
frequency offset. This offset is usually compensated for by using frequency tracking,
however any residual errors result in a degraded system performance.
3.3.2 Effect of Time Synchronization Error
When the time offset is 0 this corresponds to the receiver taking the FFT of the IFFT
section of the transmitted signal. When the time offset is negative this corresponds to
the receiver taking the FFT over the IFFT section and part of the symbol guard
period.OFDM is relatively tolerant against timing errors, due to the inclusion of the
guard period between symbols. For a channel with no multipath delay spread, the time
offset error can be as much as the length of the guard period with no loss of
orthogonality results, only a phase rotation in the subcarriers. The phase rotation is
corrected as part of the channel characterization, hence resulting in no degradation in
Performance. Time offset errors greater than the guard period result in a rapid loss in
performance, as the section of the symbol that the FFT is applied to, will contain
some of the neighbouring symbol, leading to Inter-Symbol Interference.
Figure 3.3 showing different things

40
CHAPTER 4
SIMULATION
4.1 Block Diagram
Figure 4.1 block diagram of OFDM with 16QAM
4.2 Data Source
It is a random data generator is used to generate a serial random

binary data. This binary data stream models the raw information
that going to be transmitted. The serial binary data is then fed into
OFDM transmitter.
Provides data that is to be modulated. This block is itself composed of the following
blocks ;
• Random Integer Generator

• Integer to Bit Converter(Data Payload)
• Out
41
Figure 4.2 data source construction
4.2.1 Random Integer Generator
Generate integers randomly distributed in the range [0, M-1].
• Description
The Random Integer Generator block generates uniformly distributed random integers
in the range [0, M-1], where M is the M-ary number defined in the dialog box.
The M-ary number can be either a scalar or a vector. If it is a scalar, then all output
random variables are independent and identically distributed (i.i.d.). If the M-ary
number is a vector, then its length must equal the length of the Initial seed; in this case
each output has its own output range.
If the Initial seed parameter is a constant, then the resulting noise is repeatable.
Figure 4.2.1 random integer generator block
• Attributes of Output Signal
The output signal can be a frame-based matrix, a sample-based row or column vector,
or a sample-based one-dimensional array. These attributes are controlled by the
Frame-based outputs, Samples per frame, and Interpret vector parameters as 1-D
parameters.
The number of elements in the Initial seed parameter becomes the number of columns
in a frame-based output or the number of elements in a sample-based vector output.
Also, the shape (row or column) of the Initial seed parameter becomes the shape of a
sample-based two-dimensional output signal.
42
• Parameters and Dialog Box
Figure 4.2.1a random integer generator block parameters
M-ary number:
The positive integer or vector of positive integers, that indicates the range of output
values.
We use 16-ray number.
Initial seed:
The initial seed value for the random number generator. The vector length of the seed
determines the length of the output vector.
Sample time:
The period of each sample-based vector or each row of a frame-based matrix.
We use 1/192 sampling time.
Frame-based outputs:
Determines whether the output is frame-based or sample-based. This box is active
only if Interpret vector parameters as 1-D is unchecked.
Samples per frame:

43
The number of samples in each column of a frame-based output signal. This field is
active only if Frame-based outputs is checked.
We use 192 samples per frame.
4.2.2 Integer to Bit Converter (Data Payload)
Map vector of integers to vector of bits.

We have used the "word payload" because it is the "actual data" in a packet and
doesn't has headers attached for transport or descriptive meta-data.
Figure 4.2.2a integer to bit converter block
• Description
The Integer to Bit Converter block maps each integer or fixed-point value in the input
vector to a group of bits in the output vector.
• .Parameters and Dialog Box
Figure 4.2.2b integer to bit converter block parameters
Number of bits per integer:

The number of bits the block uses to represent each integer of the input. This
parameter must be an integer between 1 and 32.
Treat input values as:

Indicate if the integer value input ranges should be treated as signed or unsigned. The
default setting is Unsigned.
44
Output bit order:

Define whether the first bit of the output signal is the most significant bit (MSB) or
the least significant bit (LSB). The default selection is MSB first.
Output data type
Output data type:

It is chosen as double.
4.2.3 Outport
Create output port for subsystem or external output.
Figure 4.2.3a outport block
• Description
Outport blocks are the links from a system to a destination outside the system.
The Main pane of the Outport block dialog appears as follows:
Figure 4.2.3b outport block parameters (main)
Port number:
Specify the port number of the Outport block.
Icon Display:
Specify the information to be displayed on the icon of this Outport block.
45
Output when disabled:

This option is enabled only if the Outport resides in an Enabled Subsystem. It
specifies what happens to the block output when the system is disabled.
Initial output:
For conditionally executed subsystems, specify the block output before the subsystem
executes and while it is disabled. You can specify [] if your model does not depend on
the initial output of the conditionally executed subsystem.
The Signal Attributes pane of the Output block dialog appears as follows:
Figure 4.2.3c sink block parameters (signal attributes)
Bus object for validating input bus:

Specifies the name of the bus object that defines the structure that a bus must have to
be connected to this Outport block. At the beginning of a simulation or when you
update the model's diagram, Simulink software checks whether the bus connected to
this block has the specified structure. If not, Simulink software displays an error
message.
46
Port dimensions (-1 for inherited:)

Specifies the dimensions that a signal must have in order to be connected to this
Outport block. Valid values are:
Sample time (-1 for inherited):

Specify the sample time of this Outport block. See Specifying Sample Time in the
online documentation for information on specifying sample times. The output of this
block changes at the specified rate to reflect the value of its input.
Minimum:
Specify the minimum value that the block should output. The default value, [], is
equivalent to -Inf. Simulink software uses this value to perform:
 Simulation range checking (see Checking Signal Ranges)
 Automatic scaling of fixed-point data types
Maximum:
Specify the maximum value that the block should output. The default value, [], is
equivalent to Inf. Simulink software uses this value to perform:
Data type:
Specify the output data type. You can set it to:
 A rule that inherits a data type, for example, Inherit: auto
 The name of a built-in data type, for example, single
 The name of a data type object, for example, a Simulink.NumericType
object
 An expression that evaluates to a data type, for example, float('single')
Click the Show data type assistant button to display the Data Type
Assistant, which helps you set the Data type parameter.
Signal type:
Specifies the numeric type of the signal output by this block. The options are:
Sampling mode:
Specify the sampling mode (Sample based or Frame based) that the input signal must
match. To accept any sampling mode, set this parameter to auto.
47
4.3 IQ MAPPER
This block is used to perform QAM.

In a QAM signal, there are two carriers, each having the same frequency but differing
in phase by 90 degrees (one quarter of a cycle, from which the term quadrature
arises). One signal is called the I signal, and the other is called the Q signal.
Mathematically, one of the signals can be represented by a sine wave, and the other
by a cosine wave. The two modulated carriers are combined at the source for
transmission.
This block is itself composed of the following blocks;
• Inport
• Bit to Integer Converter
• General QAM(Base band Modulator)
• Math Function
• Outport
Figure 4.3 IQ MAPPER block composition
4.3.1 Inport
Create input port for subsystem or external input
Figure 4.3.1a inport block
• Description
Inport blocks are the links from outside a system into the system.
48

The Main pane of the Inport block dialog appears as follows:
Figure 4.3.1b inport block parameters
Port number:
Specify the port number of the Inport block.
Icon display:
Specifies the information to be displayed on the icon of this input port. The options
are:
 Port number
Displays port number of this port.
 NOTE: Inport signal attributes are the same as outport signal attribute as
described in the preceding block.
4.3.2 Bit to integer converter
Map vector of bits to corresponding vector of integers.
Figure 4.3.2a bit to integer converter block

49
• Description
The Bit to Integer Converter block maps groups of bits in the input vector to
integers in the output vector.
Figure 4.3.2b bit to integer converter block parameters
Number of bits per integer:

The number of input bits that the block maps to each integer of the output. This
parameter must be an integer between 1 and 32.
We use 4 bits per integer.
Input bit order:

Defines whether the first bit of the input signal is the most significant bit (MSB) or
the least significant bit (LSB). The default selection is MSB.
After bit packing, treat resulting integer value as:

Indicates if the integer value input ranges should be treated as signed or unsigned. The
default setting is Unsigned.
Note: This parameter setting determines which Output data type selections are
available.
Output data type:

Same as input.
50
4.3.3 QAM
Modulate using quadrature amplitude modulation.
Figure 4.3.3 QAM block
• Description
The General QAM Modulator Baseband block modulates using quadrature amplitude
modulation. The output is a baseband representation of the modulated signal.
The Signal constellation parameter defines the constellation by listing its points in a
length-M vector of complex numbers. The input signal values must be integers
between 0 and M-1. The block maps an input integer m to the (m+1)st value in the
Signal constellation vector.
Figure 4.3.3a general QAM Modulator block parameters

51
Signal constellation:
A real or complex vector that lists the constellation points.
[0.3162 + 0.3162i 0.3162 + 0.9487i 0.3162 - 0.3162i 0.3162 - 0.9487i 0.9487

+ 0.3162i 0.9487 + 0.9487i 0.9487 - 0.3162i 0.9487 - 0.9487i -0.3162 +
0.3162i -0.3162 + 0.9487i -0.3162 - 0.3162i -0.3162 - 0.9487i -0.9487 + 0.3162i
-0.9487 + 0.9487i -0.9487 - 0.3162i -0.9487 - 0.9487i]'
Samples per symbol:

Number of data elements per symbol elements.
4.3.4 Math (Conjugate)
Perform mathematical function.
Figure 4.3.4 math block
• Description
The Math Function block performs numerous common mathematical functions.

We will be using conjugate. The block output is the result of the operation of the
function on the input or inputs.
The Main pane of the Math Function block dialog appears as follows:
52
Figure 4.3.4a math function block parameters (main)
The Signal Attributes pane of the Math Function block dialog appears as follows:
Figure 4.3.4b math function block parameters (signal attributes)
Output minimum:
Output maximum:
4.3.5 Outport
 NOTE: Outport signal attribute are same as described earlier.
4.4 OFDM Modulation

This block is itself composed of the following blocks.
• Inport
53
• Multiport Selector
• Constant(To add Zero Padding and Pilot Carriers)
• Gain
• IFFT
• Selector(Add Cyclic Prefix)
• Outport
Figure 4.4 OFDM modulation block diagram
4.4.1 Inport
 NOTE: Inport signal attribute are same as described earlier.
4.4.2 Multiport selector
Distribute arbitrary subsets of input rows or columns to multiple output ports.

54
Figure 4.4.2 multiport selector block diagram
• Description
The Multiport Selector block extracts multiple subsets of rows or columns from
M-by-N input matrix u, and propagates each new submatrix to a distinct output port.
A length-M 1-D vector input is treated as an M-by-1 matrix.
• • Parameters and Dialog Box

55
Figure 4.4.2a multi selector block parameters
Select:
The dimension of the input to select, Rows or Columns.
Indices to output:
A cell array specifying the row- or column-subsets to propagate to each of the output
ports. The number of cells in the array determines the number of output ports on the
block.
{1:12, 13:36, 37:60, 61:84, 85:96, 97:108, 109:132, 133:156, 157:180, 181:192}
Invalid index:
Response to an invalid index value.
4.4.3 Constant: (To add Zero Padding and Pilot Carrier)
Generate constant value.
Figure 4.4.3 constant block diagram
• Description
The Constant block generates a real or complex constant value. The block generates
scalar (one-element array), vector (1-D array), or matrix (2-D array) output,
depending on the dimensionality of the Constant value parameter and the setting of
the Interpret vector parameters as 1-D parameter. Also, the block can generate either a
sample-based or frame-based signal, depending on the setting of the Sampling mode
parameter.
The output of the block has the same dimensions and elements as the Constant value
parameter. If you specify a vector for this parameter, and you want the block to
interpret it as a vector (i.e., a 1-D array), select the Interpret vector parameters as 1-D
parameter; otherwise, the block treats the Constant value parameter as a matrix (i.e., a
2-D array).
We have used this block for two purposes
1) Zero Padding:
2) Pilot Carriers Insertion:

56

The Main pane of the Constant block dialog appears as follows:
Figure 4.4.3a constant block parameters (main)
Constant value:
Specify the constant value output by the block. You can enter any MATLAB®
expression in this field, including the Boolean keywords, true or false, that evaluates
to a matrix value. The Constant value parameter is converted from its data type to the
specified output data type offline using round-to-nearest and saturation.
Interpret vector parameters as 1-D:

If you select this check box, the Constant block outputs a vector of length N if the
Constant value parameter evaluates to an N-element row or column vector, i.e., a
matrix of dimension 1xN or Nx1. If you uncheck this option, you can interact with the
Sampling mode parameter.
Sampling mode:
Specify whether the output signal is Sample based or Frame based.
Sample time:
Specify the interval between times that the Constant block's output can change during
simulation (e.g., as a result of tuning its Constant value parameter). The default
sample time is inf, i.e., the block's output can never change. This setting speeds
simulation and generated code by avoiding the need to recompute the block's output.
57
The Signal Attributes pane of the Constant block dialog appears as follows:
Figure 4.4.3b constant block parameters (signal attributes)
Output minimum:
 Parameter range checking
 Simulation range checking
Output maximum:
 Parameter range checking
 Simulation range checking
Output data type:

Specify the output data type.
A rule that inherits a data type, for example, Inherit: Inherit via back propagation
• Zero Paddings
The zero paddings are at position

1:28, 129 and 230:256
4.4.4 IFFT
Compute inverse fast Fourier transform (IFFT) of input.
58
Figure 4.4.4 IFFT block diagram
• Description
The IFFT block computes the inverse fast Fourier transform (IFFT) of each channel.

The Main pane of the IFFT block dialog appears as follows.
Figure 4.4.4a IFFT block parameters (main)
Twiddle factor computation:

In Table lookup mode, the block computes and stores the sine and cosine values
before the simulation starts.
Optimize table for:

Select the optimization of the table of sine and cosine values for Speed or Memory.
This parameter is only available when the Twiddle factor computation parameter is
set to Table lookup.
This parameter must be set to Speed for fixed-point signals.
Inherit FFT length from input dimensions:

Select to inherit the FFT length from the input dimensions. When this parameter is
selected, the input length P must be a power of two. When this parameter is not
selected, the FFT length parameter is available.
The Fixed-point pane of the IFFT block dialog appears as follows.

59
Figure 4.4.4b IFFT block parameters (fixed point)
Rounding mode:
Select the rounding mode for fixed-point operations. The sine table values do not
obey this parameter; they always round to Nearest.
Overflow mode:
Select the overflow mode for fixed-point operations. The sine table values do not
obey this parameter; they are always saturated.
Sine table:
Choose how you specify the word length of the values of the sine table. The fraction
length of the sine table values is always equal to the word length minus one:
 When you select Same word length as input, the word length of the
sine table values match that of the input to the block.
The sine table values do not obey the Rounding mode and Overflow mode
parameters; they are always saturated and rounded to Nearest.
Product output:
Use this parameter to specify how you would like to designate the product output
word and fraction lengths.
We have selected "Inherit via internal rule" so the product output word length and
fraction length are calculated automatically.
60
Accumulator:
Use this parameter to specify how you would like to designate the accumulator word
and fraction lengths.
We have selected "Inherit via internal rule" so the accumulator word length and
fraction length are calculated automatically.
Output:
Chooses how to specify the output word length and fraction length.
In Inherit via internal rule, the output word length and fraction length are calculated
automatically.
4.4.5 Selector (Add Cyclic Prefix)

Select input elements from vector, matrix, or multidimensional signal.
Figure 4.4.5 cyclic prefix block diagram
• Description
The Selector block generates as output selected or reordered elements of an input

vector, matrix, or multidimensional signal.
A Selector block accepts vector, matrix, or multidimensional signals as input. The
parameter dialog box and the block's appearance change to reflect the number of
dimensions of the input.
Based on the value you enter for the Number of input dimensions parameter, a table
of indexing settings is displayed. Each row of the table corresponds to one of the input
dimensions in Number of input dimensions. For each dimension, you define the
elements of the signal to work with. Specify a vector signal as a 1-D signal and a
matrix signal as a 2-D signal. When you configure the Selector block for
multidimensional signal operations, the block icon changes.

The parameter dialog box appears as follows:
61
Figure 4.4.5a cyclic prefix block parameters
Number of input dimensions:

Enter the number of dimensions of the input signal.
Index mode:
Specifies the indexing mode: One-based or Zero-based. If One-based is selected, an
index of 1 specifies the first element of the input vector, 2, the second element, and so
on. If Zero-based is selected, an index of 0 specifies the first element of the input
vector, 1, the second element, and so on.
Index Option:
Define, by dimension, how the elements of the signal are to be indexed.
Incase of Index vector (port) as here no further configuration is required.
Index:
If the Index Option is Index vector (dialog), enter the index of each element you are
interested in.
Output Size:
Enter the width (number of elements from the starting point) of the block output
signal.
62
Input port size:

Specify the width of the block input signal (-1 for inherited) — 1-D signals only.
Sample time (-1 for inherited):

Specify the time interval between samples. To inherit the sample time, set this
parameter to -1.
• Cyclic Prefix
We have added in cyclic prefix the last 25% samples i-e from 193 to 256.
4.4.6 Outport
4.5 Channel (AWGN)
Add white Gaussian noise to input signal.
Figure 4.5 AWGN block diagram
• Description
The AWGN Channel block adds white Gaussian noise to a real or complex input
signal. When the input signal is real, this block adds real Gaussian noise and produces
a real output signal. When the input signal is complex, this block adds complex
Gaussian noise and produces a complex output signal. This block inherits its sample
time from the input signal.

63
Figure 4.5a AWGN channel block parameters
Initial seed:
The seed for the Gaussian noise generator.
The Initial seed parameter in this block initializes the noise generator. Initial seed can
be either a scalar or a vector whose length matches the number of channels in the
input signal.
Mode:
The mode by which you specify the noise variance.
SNR (dB):
It is the ratio of signal power to noise power in dB.
Input signal power (watts):

The mean square power input samples in watts.
4.6 OFDM Demodulation
This block is itself composed of the following blocks.

64
• Inport
• Selector (Remove Cyclic Prefix, Remove Zero Padding )
• FFT
• Frame Status Conversion
• Multiport Selector
• Terminator
• Outport
Figure 4.6 OFDM demodulator block diagram
4.6.1 Inport
4.6.2 Selector (Remove Cyclic Prefix)
We are removing the prefix those were introduced by the OFDM block.
Figure 4.6.2a selector (remove cyclic prefix) block diagram
• Dialog Box
65
Figure 4.6.2b selector (remove cyclic prefix) block parameters
4.6.3 FFT
Compute fast Fourier transform (FFT) of input.
Figure 4.6.3 FFT block
• Description
The FFT block computes the fast Fourier transform (FFT) of each channel

The Main pane of the FFT block dialog appears as follows:
66
Figure 4.6.3a FFT block parameters (main)
Twiddle factor computation:

The block computes and stores the sine and cosine values before the simulation starts.
Optimize table for:

Select the optimization of the table of sine and cosine values for Speed or Memory.
This parameter is only available when the Twiddle factor computation parameter is
set to Table lookup.
This parameter must be set to Speed for fixed-point signals.
Inherit FFT length from input dimensions:

Select to inherit the FFT length from the input dimensions. When this parameter is
selected, the input length P must be a power of two. When this parameter is not
selected, the FFT length parameter is available.
The Fixed-point pane of the FFT block dialog appears as follows:

67
Figure 4.6.3b FFT block parameters (fixed-point)
Rounding mode:
Select the rounding mode for fixed-point operations. The sine table values do not
obey this parameter; they always round to Nearest.
Overflow mode:
Select the overflow mode for fixed-point operations. The sine table values do not
obey this parameter; they are always saturated.
Skip divide-by-two on butterfly outputs for fixed-point signals:

When you select this parameter, no scaling occurs. When you do not select this
parameter, the output of each butterfly of the FFT is divided by two for fixed-point
signals.
Sine table:
Choose how you specify the word length of the values of the sine table. The fraction
length of the sine table values is always equal to the word length minus one:
 When you select Same word length as input, the word length of the sine table
values match that of the input to the block.
The sine table values do not obey the Rounding mode and Overflow mode
parameters; they are always saturated and rounded to Nearest.
Product output:
68
Use this parameter to specify how you would like to designate the product output
word and fraction lengths.
In Inherit via internal rule, the product output word length and fraction lengths are
calculated automatically.
Accumulator:
Use this parameter to specify how you would like to designate the accumulator word
and fraction lengths.
In Inherit via internal rule, the accumulator word length and fraction length are
calculated automatically.
Output:
Chooses how you specify the output word length and fraction length:
In Inherit via internal rule, the output word length and fraction length are calculated
automatically. The internal rule first calculates an ideal output word length and
fraction length. Using these ideal results, the internal rule then selects word lengths
and fraction lengths that are appropriate for your hardware.
4.6.4 Frame Status Conversion:
Specify frame status of output as sample based or frame based.
Figure 4.6.4 frame status conversion block
Description:
The Frame Status Conversion block passes the input through to the output, and sets
the output frame status to the Output signal parameter, which can be either Frame-
based or Sample The Frame Status Conversion block passes the input through to the
output, and sets the output frame status to the Output signal parameter, which can be
either Frame-based or Sample-based. The output frame status can also be inherited
from the signal at the Ref (reference) input port, which is made visible by selecting
the Inherit output frame status from Ref input port check box.
When the Output signal parameter setting or the inherited signal's frame status differs
from the input frame status, the block changes the input frame status accordingly, but
does not otherwise alter the signal. In particular, the block does not rebuffer or resize
2-D inputs. Because 1-D vectors cannot be frame based, when the input is a length-M
1-D vector, and the Output signal parameter is set to Frame-based, the output is a
frame-based M-by-1 matrix (that is, a single channel).
When the Output signal parameter or the inherited signal's frame status matches the
input frame status, the block passes the input through to the output unaltered-based.

69
Figure 4.6.4a frame status conversion block parameters
Output signal:
The output frame status here is Frame-based.
4.6.5 Selector (Remove Zero Padding):

To remove the zero padding those were introduced by the OFDM block.
Figure 4.6.5 selector (remove zero padding and reorder) block diagram
• Dialog Box
Figure
4.6.5a
selectors
(remove
zero padding
and reorder)
block
parameters
4.6.6 Multiport Selector (To Remove Pilot Carriers)

70
Distribute arbitrary subsets of input rows or columns to multiple output ports.

Here we have used it to remove pilot carriers.
Figure 4.6.6 multiport selector (to remove pilot carriers) block
• Dialog Box
Figure 4.6.6a multiport selector (to remove pilot carriers block parameters
4.6.7 Terminator
Terminates unconnected output port.
Figure 4.6.7 terminator block

71
• Description
The Terminator block can be used to cap blocks whose output ports are not connected
to other blocks. If you run a simulation with blocks having unconnected output ports,
Simulink® software issues warning messages. Using Terminator blocks to cap those
blocks avoids warning messages.
• Pilot carriers removal

The pilot carriers at remove at points
[13 38 63 88 113 138 163 188]
• Dialog Box
Figure 4.6.7a terminator block parameters
4.6.8 Outport
4.7 IQ DEMAPPER
Doing the inverse of IQ Mapper that is, removing the QAM.

This block itself consists of the following blocks.
• Inport
• Math
• General QAM(Base band Demodulator)
• Integer to bit converter
• Outport
Figure 4.7 IQ demapper block

72
4.7.1 Inport
4.7.2 Math
 NOTE: Same as described earlier in IQ Mapper.
4.7.3 General QAM (Base band Demodulator)
Demodulates QAM-modulated data.
Figure 4.7.3a general QAM block
• Description
The General QAM Demodulator Baseband block demodulates a signal that was
modulated using quadrature amplitude modulation. The input is a baseband
representation of the modulated signal.
The input must be a discrete-time complex signal. The Signal constellation parameter
defines the constellation by listing its points in a vector of complex numbers. The
block maps the mth point in the Signal constellation vector to the integer m-1.
The input can be either a scalar or a frame-based column vector and must be of data
types single or double.
73
Figure 4.7.3b general QAM demodulator block parameters
Signal constellation:
A real or complex vector that lists the constellation points.
[0.3162 + 0.3162i 0.3162 + 0.9487i 0.3162 - 0.3162i 0.3162 - 0.9487i

0.9487 + 0.3162i 0.9487 + 0.9487i 0.9487 - 0.3162i 0.9487 - 0.9487i
-0.3162 + 0.3162i -0.3162 + 0.9487i -0.3162 - 0.3162i -0.3162 - 0.9487i
-0.9487 + 0.3162i -0.9487 + 0.9487i -0.9487 - 0.3162i -0.9487 - 0.9487i]'
4.7.4 Integer to Bit Converter
 NOTE: Same as described earlier.
4.7.5 Outport

74
4.8 Data Sink
Gives the original data generated at the source.

It consists of the following blocks:
• Inport
• Bit to integer converter
• Terminate
Figure 4.8 data sink block
4.8.1 Inport
4.8.2 Bit To Integer Converter
4.8.3 Terminate

75
4.9 Performance Tests
This includes the following blocks:

• Goto
• From
• System performance tests
• Display
Figure 4.9 performance test block
4.9.1 GOTO
Pass block input to From blocks
Figure 4.9.1a goto block
• Description
The 'Goto' block passes its input to its corresponding 'From' blocks. The input can be
a real- or complex-valued signal or vector of any data type. From and Goto blocks
allow you to pass a signal from one block to another without actually connecting
them.
A Goto block can pass its input signal to more than one From block, although a From
block can receive a signal from only one Goto block. The input to that Goto block is
passed to the From blocks associated with it as though the blocks were physically
connected. Goto blocks
and From blocks are
matched by the use of
Goto tags, defined in
the Tag parameter.
• Paramet
ers and
Dialog
Box
76
Figure 4.9.1b goto block parameters
Goto Tag:
The Goto block identifier. This parameter identifies the Goto block whose scope is
defined in this block.
Tag Visibility:
The scope of the Goto block tag: local, scoped, or global. The default is local.
Icon Display:
Specifies the text to display on the block's icon. The options are the block's tag, the
name of the signal that the block represents, or both the tag and the signal name.
4.9.2 From
Accept input from Goto block
Figure 4.9.2a from block
• Description
The From block accepts a signal from a corresponding Goto block, then passes it as
output. The data type of the output is the same as that of the input from the Goto
block. From and Goto blocks allow you to pass a signal from one block to another
77
without actually connecting them. To associate a Goto block with a From block, enter
the Goto block's tag in the Goto Tag parameter.
A From block can receive its signal from only one Goto block, although a Goto block
can pass its signal to more than one From block.
Figure 4.9.2b from block parameters
Goto Tag:
The tag of the Goto block that forwards its signal to this From block. To change the
tag, select a new tag from this control's drop-down list. The drop-down list displays
the Goto tags that the From block can currently see. An item labeled <More Tags...>
appears at the end of the list the first time you display the list in a Simulink session.
Selecting this item causes the block to update the tags list to include the tags of Goto
blocks residing in library subsystems referenced by the model containing this From
block. Simulink software displays a progress bar while building the list of library tags.
Simulink software saves the updated tags list for the duration of the Simulink session
or until the next time you select the adjacent Update Tags button. You need to update
the tags list again in the current session only if the libraries referenced by the model
have changed since the last time you updated the list.
Goto Source:
Path of the Goto block connected to this From block. Clicking the path displays and
highlights the Goto block.
Icon Display:
Specifies the text to display on the From block's icon. The options are the block's tag,
the name of the signal that the block represents, or both the tag and the signal name
4.9.3 System Performance Tests

78
This includes the following blocks
• Inport
• Error rate calculations
• Discrete time scatter scope plot
• Buffer
• Spectrum scopes
• Outport
Figure 4.9.3 system performance test block
4.9.3.1 Inport
4.9.3.2 Error Rate Calculations
Compute bit error rate or symbol error rate of input data
Figure 4.9.3.2a error rate calculation block
• Description
79
The Error Rate Calculation block compares input data from a transmitter with input
data from a receiver. It calculates the error rate as a running statistic, by dividing the
total number of unequal pairs of data elements by the total number of input data
elements from one source.
You can use this block to compute either symbol or bit error rate, because it does not
consider the magnitude of the difference between input data elements. If the inputs are
bits, then the block computes the bit error rate. If the inputs are symbols, then it
computes the symbol error rate.
• Dialog Box
Figure 4.9.3.2b error rate calculation block parameters
Receive delay:
Number of samples by which the received data lags behind the transmitted data. (If
Tx or Rx is a vector, then each entry represents a sample.)
Computation delay:
Number of samples that the block should ignore at the beginning of the comparison.
Computation mode:
Entire frame i-e the block should consider all of the input frames.
Output data:
Either Workspace or Port, depending on where you want to send the output data.
Stop simulation:
If you check this box, then the simulation runs only until this block detects a specified
number of errors or performs a specified number of comparisons, whichever comes
first.
Target number of errors:
80
The simulation stops after detecting this number of errors. This field is active only if
Stop simulation is checked.
Maximum number of symbols:

The simulation stops after making this number of comparisons. This field is active
only if Stop simulation is checked.
4.9.3.3 Discrete-Time Scatter Plot Scope
Display in-phase and quadrature components of modulated signal constellation
Figure 4.9.3.3a discrete time scatter plot scope block
• Description
The Discrete-Time Scatter Plot Scope block displays scatter plots of a modulated
signal, to reveal the modulation characteristics, such as pulse shaping or channel
distortions of the signal.The Discrete-Time Scatter Plot Scope block has one input
port. The input signal must be complex.
• Dialog Box
Figure 4.9.3.3b discrete time scatter plot scope block parameter(plotting properties)
Samples per symbol:
81
Number of samples per symbol.
Offset (samples):
Nonnegative integer less than the number of samples per symbol, specifying the
number of samples to skip before plotting points.
Points displayed:
Total number of points plotted.
New points per display:

Number of new points that appear in each display.
The Rendering properties pane of the dialog appears as follows:
Figure 4.9.3.3c discrete time scatter plot scope block parameter (rendering properties)
Markers:
Line markers used in the scatter plot. Tunable.
Line color:
The line color used in the scatter plot. Tunable.
Color fading:
When selected, the points in the scatter plot fade as the interval of time after they are
first plotted increases. Tunable.
High quality rendering:

When selected, the block renders a slow, higher-quality picture with overwrite raster
operations.Tunable.
Show grid:
Toggles the scope grid on and off. Tunable.
The Axes properties pane of the dialog appears as follows:

82
Figure 4.9.3.3d discrete time scatter plot scope block parameter (axes properties)
X-axis minimum:
Minimum value the scope displays on the x-axis. Tunable.
X-axis maximum:
Maximum value the scope displays on the x-axis. Tunable.
Y-axis minimum:
Minimum signal value the scope displays on the y-axis. Tunable.
Y-axis maximum:
Maximum signal value the scope displays on the y-axis. Tunable.
In-phase X-axis label:

Label for x-axis. Tunable.
Quadrature Y-axis label:

Label for y-axis. Tunable.
The Figure Axes properties pane of the dialog appears as follows:

83
Figure 4.9.3.3e discrete time scatter plot scope block parameter (figure properties)
:Open scope at start of simulation

When selected, the scope opens at the start of simulation. When cleared, you must
double-click the block after the start of simulation to open the scope.
:Scope position
A four-element vector of the form [left bottom width height] specifying the position
of the scope window. (0, 0) is the lower left corner of the display. Tunable.
Title:
Title of scatter plot. Tunable
4.9.3.4 Buffer
Buffer input sequence to smaller or larger frame size
Figure 4.9.3.4 a buffer block
• Description
84
The Buffer block redistributes the input samples to a new frame size. Buffering to a
larger frame size yields an output with a slower frame rate than the input.
• Dialog Box
The buffer Figure Axes properties pane of the dialog appears as follows
Figure 4.9.3.4b buffer block parameters
Output buffer size:

Specify the number of consecutive samples, Mo, from each channel to buffer into the
output frame.
Buffer overlap:
Specify the number of samples, L, by which consecutive output frames overlap.
Initial conditions:
Specify the value of the block's initial output for cases of nonzero latency; a scalar,
vector, or matrix.
85
4.9.3.5 Spectrum Scope
Compute and display periodogram of each input signal
• Description
The Spectrum Scope block computes and displays the periodogram of the input. The
input can be a sample-based or frame-based vector or a frame-based matrix.
• Dialog Box
The scope properties pane of the dialog appears as follows:
Figure 4.9.3.5a spectrum scope block parameters
Buffer input:
Select this check box to rebuffer the input data. This check box must be selected for
sample-based inputs, but is optional for frame-based inputs.
Buffer size:
Specify the number of input samples that the block buffers before computing and
displaying the magnitude FFT. When the Specify FFT length parameter is not
selected, this value must be a power of two.
This parameter is only visible when the Buffer input check box is selected.
86
Buffer overlap:
Specify the number of samples from the previous buffer to include in the current
buffer. The number of new input samples the block acquires before computing and
displaying the magnitude FFT is the difference between the buffer size and the buffer
overlap.
Window type:
Enter the type of window to apply.Tunable.
Window sampling:
Choose Symmetric or Periodic. Tunable.
.
Specify FFT length:
Select this check box to specify the FFT length yourself in the FFT length parameter.
FFT length:
Enter the number of samples on which you want the block to perform the FFT. This
value must be a power of two.
Number of spectral averages:

The number of spectra to average. Setting this parameter to 1 effectively disables
averaging.
87
4.10 Display
Show value of input
Figure 4.10a display block
Figure 4.10b display block parameters
Format:
Specify the format of the data displayed, as discussed in Description. The default is
short.
Decimation:
Specify how often to display data. The default value, 1, displays every input point.
88
4.11 Running Simulation
4.11.1 For SNR = 90dB
• Discrete time scatter plot at transmitter
Figure 4.11.1a Discrete time scatter plot at transmitter (for 90 dB SNR)
• Discrete time scatter plot at receiver
Figure 4.11.1b Discrete time scatter plot at receiver (for 90 dB SNR)

89
• Spectrum scope at transmitter
Figure 4.11.1c spectrum scope at transmitter (for 90 dB SNR)
• Spectrum scope at receiver
Figure 4.11.1d spectrum scope at receiver (for 90 dB SNR)

90
• Output in bits
Figure 4.11.1e output in bits (for 90 dB SNR)
4.11.2 For SNR = 50dB

91
Figure 4.11.2b Discrete time scatter plot at receiver (for 50 dB SNR)

92
• Output in bits
Figure 4.11.2e output in bits (for 50 dB SNR)
4.11.3 For SNR = 20dB

93
Figure 4.11.3b Discrete time scatter plot at receiver (for20 dB SNR)

94

• Output in bits
95
Figure 4.11.3e output in bits (for 20dB SNR)
4.11.4 Conclusion
So the more we reduce SNR, the more is the effect of noise. So the more it is difficult
to detect the signal and the more is the change in phase.
4.12 Effect of Channel Parameters On OFDM Signal With Different

Modulating Schemes (BPSK, QPSK, 16psk)
Now the simulation results are analyzed and discussed. The

simulation results were plotted in term of the performance of OFDM
system that is Bit Error Rate (BER). Three modulation techniques
including BPSK, QPSK and 16PSK were plotted to see the trade off
between system capacity and system robustness. The standard BER
that was used to determine the minimum performance of the OFDM
system is minimum BER for voice transmission, that is ten to the
power of minus three (10-3). Analysis was done by observing the
simulation result.
4.12.1 The Effect of Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN)

to the Performance
of OFDM Signal.
96
Figure 4.12.1 BER verses SNR for OFDM in AWGN channel using
BPSK, QPSK and16PSK modulation
The effect of Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) to the

performance of OFDM system for three modulation techniques
including BPSK, QPSK and 16PSK is shown in Figure 4.12.1 above.
It can be observed from Figure that to achieve the BER of 10-3, the
OFDM system using BPSK modulation needs at least SNR of about 7
dB, the OFDM system using QPSK modulation needs at least SNR of
about 12 dB and the OFDM system using 16PSK modulation needs
at least SNR of about 23dB.
It can also be analyzed that since OFDM technique is not intended to

overcome the effect of AWGN, hence the performance of OFDM is
similar to a standard single carrier digital transmission. However,
the OFDM has an ability to overcome the effect of burst error due to
sudden noise such as lightning by using parallel data transmission,
so that instead of several adjacent bits being completely error,
many symbols are only slightly distorted, and they can be fixed
using a simple Forward Error Correction (FEC) method.
4.12.2 The effect of Power Clipping to OFDM signal
Figure 4.12.2 BER verses Power Clipping for OFDM System Using
BPSK, QPSK and 16PSK modulation
97
The effect of power clipping to the performance of OFDM system for

three modulation techniques including BPSK, QPSK and 16PSK is
shown in Figure 4.12.2 above.
It can be observed from Figure that to have the BER of 10-3 or

below, the OFDM signal using BPSK modulation can be clipped up to
about 13 dB, the OFDM signal using QPSK modulation can be clipped
up to about 10 dB and the OFDM signal using 16PSK modulation can
be clipped up to about 5 dB.
It can be concluded from the analysis result that the OFDM signal is
resistant enough to clipping distortion caused by nonlinearity in
power amplifier used in transmitting the signal.
4.12.3 The Effect of Delay Spread for OFDM
Figure 4.12.3 BER verses SNR for OFDM in noisy channel using
BPSK, QPSK and
16PSK
The effect of delay spread to the performance of OFDM system for

shown in Figure 4.3 above. In this simulation, the multipath signal
containing single reflected echo that 3 dB weaker than direct signal.
98
It can be observed from Figure that BER will start to increase when
the length of delay spread reaches the length of effective guard
period and will increase rapidly when the length of delay spread is
longer than the length of guard period.
From Figure it can be concluded that the effect of Inter Symbol

Interference (ISI) due to multipath fading can be eliminated as long
as the length of guard period is longer than the length of delay
spread. This allows OFDM to transmit data in high data rate without
causing the effect of ISI.
4.12.4 The effect of Impulse Noise
The effect of impulse noise to the performance of OFDM system for

shown in Figure 4.12.4 In this simulation, the impulse noise power
was set equal to power of OFDM signal. The range between impulse
noise signal was simulated to be occurred 3761 times of the length
of impulse noise.
It can be observed from Figure that to have the BER of 10-3 or below,
the OFDM signal using BPSK modulation can tolerate impulse noise
that has length up to about 0.7 of length of OFDM symbol, the OFDM
signal using QPSK modulation can tolerate impulse noise that has
length up to about 0.3 of length of OFDM symbol and the OFDM
signal using 16PSK modulation can tolerate impulse noise that only
has length up to about 0.01 of length of OFDM symbol.
It can be concluded that OFDM using QPSK and BPSK modulation is

immune enough to the effect of impulse noise, while OFDM using
16PSK modulation does not show to has strong enough immunity to
the effect of impulse noise.
99
Figure 4.12.4 BER versus Normalized length of impulse Noise

100
4.13 Performance of OFDM Signal with Different Modulating Schemes

(BPSK, QPSK, 16psk) in Rural and Urban Environment
4.13.1 Performance of OFDM in Rural Channel
Figure 4.13.1 BER verses SNR in Rural Channel
The performance of OFDM system in rural channel for three

modulation techniques including BPSK, QPSK and 16PSK is shown in
Figure above and was simulated at mobile velocity of 150 km/hour.
It can be observed from Figure that to achieve the BER of 10-3, the
OFDM system using BPSK modulation needs at least SNR of about
19 dB, the OFDM system using QPSK modulation needs at least SNR
of about 24 dB and the OFDM system using 16PSK modulation
needs too high SNR to achieve BER 10-3, so that OFDM using 16PSK
modulation is not conducive in urban channel.
101
4.13.2 Performance of OFDM in Urban Channel
Figure 4.13.2 BER verses SNR in Urban Channel
The performance of OFDM system in urban channel slow and urban fast
for three modulation techniques including BPSK, QPSK and 16PSK is shown in
Figure above. Urban fast channel was simulated for mobile velocity of 60 km/hour
while urban slow channel was simulated for mobile velocity of 2 km/hour.
It can be observed from Figure 4.5 that to achieve the BER of 10-3, the
OFDM system using BPSK modulation needs at least SNR of about 15 dB for urban
slow and about18 dB for urban fast, the OFDM system using QPSK modulation
needs at least SNR of about 22 dB for urban slow and about 25 dB for urban fast.
From Figure it can be also observed that an OFDM system using 16PSK
modulation needs too high SNR to achieve BER 10-3, so that the OFDM system
using 16PSK modulation is not conducive in urban channel.
102
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Signal Processing First, James H. McClellan, Ronald W.Schafer.
2. MATLAB 7.0
3. Data Communications and Networking , Behrouz. A. Forouzan, fourth edition
4. Digital and Analog Communication, B.P. Lathi, third edition
5. Digital Communications Fundamentals and Applications, Bernard Sklar, second

edition.
6. Prof. Bikash. Kumar. Dey Electrical Engineering Department, IIT Bombay,

Lecture 31 (Fundamentals of OFDM)
7. R.W. Chang, “Synthesis of band -limited orthogonal signals for

multichannel data
transmission system, “ Bell sys, tech. J., Vol.45, pp.1775-1796, Dec.
1996
8. E. Feig and F. Mintzer, “ Sequence transmission: Coding in frequency

domain, “
IBM Res Rep RC 13701, IBM T. J. Watson Res. Cen, Mar 1998.
9. Erich Cosby, OFDM Simulation (matlab), 2001 Virginia Tech. Northern

Virginia
Center
10. Eric Lawrey, Thesis, The suitability of OFDM as a modulation

technique for
wireless telecommunications, with a CDMA comparison, 1997
11. OFDM for Wireless Communication Systems, Ramjee Prasad

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1.1 Project Background

Nowadays, the mobile telecommunications industry faces the

Several systems have been proposed as candidate for the 3 rd

generation mobile telecommunication system, OFDM is one of

The first reason is that the successful implementation of OFDM in

Since OFDM can overcome the effect of multipath fading by using a

Since OFDM has a lot of advantages compared to conventional

This project is to study OFDM and its simulation in MATLAB(2008-a) and to

1.3 Organization of Thesis

The first chapter briefly introduces this project by explaining the

The third chapter explains the OFDM generation, transmission and

 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is a technology

 OFDM is a modulation scheme that allows digital data to be efficiently

 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is an alternative

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is a multicarrier transmission

Coded Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (COFDM) is the same as OFDM

In FDMA each user is typically allocated a single channel, which is

TDMA partly overcomes this problem by using wider bandwidth

There are however, two main problems with TDMA. There is an

Each carrier in an OFDM signal has a very narrow bandwidth (i.e.1

2.2 OFDM History

Before digital signal processing technology involved and

Since OFDM is robust to multipath propagation, it is likely to be considered for

Recently, OFDM has been successfully implemented in audio

2.3 OFDM Operation

2.3.1 Definition of the Orthogonality

 Signals are orthogonal if they are mutually independent of each other.

interference. Loss of orthogonality results in blurring between these

The carriers of an OFDM system are sinusoids that meet this

2.3.2 Benefit of Orthogonality

 Better utilization of available spectrum

Ch.2 Ch.4 Ch.6 Ch.8 Ch.10

Figure 2.3.2 differences between OFDM and FDM bandwidth utilization

2.3.3 Preliminary Concepts

It is perfectly valid to generate a signal in the frequency domain, and convert it to a

Figure 2.3.3 Parameter maping from time to frequency for DFT

2.3.4 OFDM and Modulation

Figure 2.3.4 Time and frequency representation of OFDM modulated carrier

2.4 Characteristics of Mobile Radio Channel

Figure 2.4.1 Radio Propagation Effects

2.4.2 Multipath Effects

2.4.2.1 Rayleigh Fading

Figure 2.4.2.1Typical Rayleigh fading while the Mobile Unit is moving

By transmitting a wide bandwidth signal or spread spectrum as CDMA, any dips in

2.4.2.3 Delay Spread

Figure 2.4.2.3 Multipath Delay Spread

2.4.2.4 Doppler Shift

2.4.2.5 Intersymbol Interference (ISI)

 ISI can be caused by many different reasons. It can be caused by

Here we only discuss ISI in regard of frequency selective fading. In a multipath

Figure 2.4.2.5a showing Multipath environment

Figure2.4.2.5b showing multipath signal

Figure2.4.2.5c showing different delay spread due to different paths

Inter-symbol interference (ISI) is an unavoidable consequence of both wired and

• How it effects now?

Fig shows a data sequence, 1,0,1,1,0,1 which we wish to send.

Figure 2.4.2.5g received signal vs transmitted signal

Bandwidth W being divided into K sub-carriers, leading to carrier spacing Δf,

Symbol duration T satisfying

Is the coherence bandwidth

Coherence bandwidth is a statistical measurement of the range of frequencies over

2.4.2.6 Intercarrier Interference (ICI)