OCCASSIONAL

Managing
Case Studies

Trans-Boundary
on Sunderbans

PAPERS

Nature Reserves :
Mangrove
Ecosystems

Sudha Mehndiratta
Programme Coordinator

ASIA-PACIFIC REGIONAL BUREAU FOR

COMMUNICATIONAND INFORMATION
UNESCOHOUSE,
B-5/29, Safdarjung Enclave, New Delhi - 110029

Cover Page : Shrimp fry collection

Sunderbans,
Bangladesh

by using fine mesh nets,

The designations
employed and the presentation
of the
material in this publication do not imply the expression of
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on the part of the publishers
concerning, the legal status of any country or territory, or of
its authorities, or concerning the frontiers of any country or
territory.
The authors are responsible for the choice and the presentation
of the facts contained
in this book and for the opinions
expressed therein, which are not necessarily those of Unesco
and do ot commit the organisation.
No part of this book may be reproduced, in any form without
permission from the publishers except for the quotation of
brief passages for the purpose of review.
0 2002, UNESCO

TABLE

OF CONTENTS

Page No.
. ..
I-11

Preface
Case Studies
Ecology and Management of the Sunderbans
Mangrove Ecosystem, Bangladesh
MD. GIASUDDIN MIAH &
MD. NASIMUL BAR1
Ecology and Management of Sunderbans
Biosphere Reserve, India
SANJAY V. DESHMUKH, T. ANANDA RAO &
AMLiSH CHOUDHURY

1-44

45-73

Preface
UNESCO through its initiative under the Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme
has attempted to conceptualize and to provide a framework for looking at ecosystems
not merely as biophysical
systems, but to link it with the closely inter-linked
human
dimensions.
The Biosphere Reserve concept provides the spatial framework to look at
this linkage between the ecological and social dimensions, in the context of conservation
of natural resource rich ecosystems, as part of the landscape.
Biosphere Reserves/World Heritage sites/Nature Reserves spread across a large
ecological zone, cutting across national boundaries, often operating under diverse socioeconomic and political systems, offer opportunities for: (a) addressing common concerns
of biodiversity conservation and the linked sustainable development of local #communities;
(b) sharing/exchanging
knowledge on similar concerns and challenges that often cut
across differing socio-political and socio-cultural systems; and (c) thus contribute towards
a better understanding
between nations and people, by building a stronger foundation
for regional cooperation.
This is the context in which the whole issue of management of the trans-boundary
nature reserves of Sunderbans should be viewed. The two case studies from the Indian
and the Bangladesh side of this unique mangrove ecosystem are the product of a
shared common eco-cultural
heritage, with similar challenges in the area of natural
resource management
linked with human development.
Therefore,
management
solutions can come through a well coordinated research and developmental
initiative in
the protected areas that straddles across the national boundaries, as part of a continuum.
Many key issues have emerged through the two case studies.
lJnsustainable
land use practices have lead to rapid decline in biodiversity, which in turn has lead to
erosion in biodiversity and traditional land-use management linked traditional ecological
Both case studies, frorn Bangladesh
knowledge (TEK) base of the local communities.
and India, emphasize the need to monitor closely, various environmental
parameters
over time and space to get a better understanding
of the issues involved. The ultimate
message emerging from these studies are: (a) that Shrimp cultivation in Sunderbans
has to be adapted and restricted to sustainable
levels; (b) sustainable
agricultural
practices have to be evolved based on the traditional
knowledge base, appropriately
linked with the formal knowledge system. In a regional context of overall coastal-zone
management,
establishment
of a network of marine protected areas distributed
in
ecologically distinct zones all along the coast would be an important step for promoting
comparative studies that would enable us to arrive at meaningful generalizations,
on
a variety of issues such as participatory
management
of mangroves
ecosystems,
sustainable agriculture/shrimp
culture practices, urbanization
and eco-tourism.
These two short-term
studies were commissioned
in order to understand and
evaluate the impact of coastal resource use and environmental
degradation,
with
implications for the coastal communities living in the Sunderbans, in order to provide
guidelines for facilitating decision-making
process as well as ecosystem management
practices.

It is hoped that the two case studies dealing with management issues of Sunderbans
mangrove ecosystem would be useful for scientists, administrators,
managers and planners,
for making informed decisions on the conservation, use and management of this ecosystem.
It is a pleasure for UNESCO to thank all the authors of the two papers, particularly,
Prof. Md. Giasuddin Miah, Head, Department of Agroforestry and Environment, Bangabandhu
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University, Salna, Gazipur, Bangladesh, and Dr. Sanjay
V. Deshmukh,
Director (Research),
Rambhau Mhalgi Prabodhini, Thane, India, for their
commitment and dedication in undertaking this field study.
I would also like to thank Ms.
Sudha Mehndiratta
from UNESCO-New Delhi Office, who was responsible for overall coordination and management of this programme.

Director,

Prof. M. Tawfik
UNESCO, New Delhi

ECOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

OF THE SUNDARBANS
MANGROVE
ECOSYSTEM
- BANGLADESH
Md. Giashuddin

Miah and Md. Nasimul

Baril

Department of Agroforestry & Environment

Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University,
Gazipur, Bangladesh

The Sundarbans, located in the south-western

part of Bangladesh is a unique as well as the largest
single mangrove forest in the world. The forest area comprises parts of Bagerhat, Khulna, and Satkhira
districts
of Bangladesh.
Geographically
the forest area lies between
212730-22030O
North atitude and 8902OO-9000000
East Longitude. The total land area of the Sundarbans as a
whole is about 6017 km2, the Bangladesh part of which is around 5800 km2. With a total area of
577000 ha, the land mass is 401600 ha, with water bodies accounting for 175600 ha (Hossain and
Acharya, 1994). The rest part lies in the West Bengal State of India. The total mangrove forest area
is around 4.2% of the total land area of the country, this being 51% of the total forest area
(Canonizado
and Hossain, 1998). It is the most diverse and the richest natural resource in
Bangladesh. Being a very dynamic complex system, this fragile ecosystem is in a delicate balance,
inter-phasing
between land and water. This wildlife heritage of the country is a rich habitat for
offshore fisheries and onshore shrimp cultivation,
and rich in forest-based resources. Thus, it is a
major source of government
revenue, at the same time meeting the livelihood needs of the local
communities.
The Sundarbans is rich in floral as well as fauna1 biodiversity.
A total 334 species
representing
245 genera of plants thrive in the Sundarbans (Siddiqui, 1998). As many as 120
species of fish, 59 species of reptiles, over 300 species of birds, and 42 species of mammals have
been recorded in the Sundarbans (UNDP/FAO IRDP, 1995). The Sundarbans Reserve Forest and
surrounding areas have a rich avifauna and the most recent list of species indicates that at least 315
species representing
48% of the birds known to occur in Bangladesh, have been recorded here
(IUCN, 1994). Regarding its unique structure,
scenic beauty and biodiversity,
UNESCO in 1997
declared three wildlife sanctuaries of the Sundarbans as World Heritage Sites.
Human dependence on the Sundarbans forest resource has always been there. But in recent years
population has increased a lot. Currently, around 500,000 families are dependent on the Sundarbans
for their livelihood. About 200,000 fishermen are also dependent on this forest,, supporting about a
million household members (Canonizado and Hossain, 1998). With increased human pressure on the
natural resources, along with other natural catastrophes,
the biodiversity
of this forest has been
diminishing at an alarming rate. The degradation process started in the later part of the nineteenth
century when the then British Government decided to clear parts of the forest for settlement and
agricultural activities and it has led to land use conversions impacting upon the ecology of the region,
associated with loss of biodiversity. Introduction of modern rice cultivation and shrimp culture has led
to indiscriminate
use of agro-chemicals,
and the resultant pollution problems. Declining forest cover,
reduction of sweet water flow, increased salinity, unplanned embankments, water pollution from industrial
activities, etc. are some of the major consequences. However, the consequences from these impacts
are yet to be precised; our understanding of the ecological processes determining the dynamics of this
unique ecosystem functioning is still incomplete.

CASE

STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANS

MANGROVE

ECOSYSTEMS

The present study, therefore,

has the following

objectives:

(a) Characterization
of the historical trends in land-use in the Sundarbans region;
(b) Identifying recent trends in land degradation associated with agricultural/piscicultural
activities;
(c) Formulation of management strategies for the conservation of the natural resources, based on
ecological, economic and social considerations.
Study Area
Three Upazillas adjacent to the Sundarbans Reserve Forest under three coastal districts were selected.
These Upazillas were Mongla under Bagerhat District, Dacope under Khulna District, and Shyamnagar
under Satkhira District (Fig. 1). In each Upazilla one Union was selected for the study. These were
Chila Union under Mongla Upazilla, Sutarkhali Union under Dacope Upazilla, and Munshigonj Union under
Shyamnagar Upazilla. Again, one village under each Union was selected. These were Chila, Sutarkhali,
and Munshigonj village under Chila Union, Sutarkhali Union, and Munshigonj Union, respectively (Fig. 1).
The specific map of the Sundarbans Reserved Forest (SRF) along with its present species composition
has been shown in Fig. 2. It might be mentioned that the study villages were located within the buffer/
impact zone of the SRF (O-10 km), more specifically, within O-5 km of the SRF.
The study locations lie under Ganges Tidal Floodplain AEZ (AEZ No. 13) (Fig. 3). This region occupies
an extensive area of tidal floodplain land in the south-west of the country. Almost all parts of Khulna,
Bagerhat, Satkhira along with the Sundarbans Reserved Forest are included under this region. However,
small patches of areas representing High Ganges Floodplain were also evident. The total coverage of
this region is 17066 km2 with a total land mass of 1706600 ha (when Barisal, Jhalakathi, Pirojpur,
Patuakhali, and Barguna are included).
Soils:
General soil types of the study areas are in Fig. 4. The soils of Mongla are entirely Non-calcareous Grey
Floodplain Soils, whereas most soils under Dacope are also the same except Calcareous Dark Grey
Floodplain Soils at northern parts of the Upazilla. A considerable portion of the Shyamnagar Upazilla
represents Acid Sulfate Soils, although the survey area falls under Non-calcareous Grey Floodplain
Soils. A brief note on the general soil types in the region (adapted from Islam and Saha, 1998),
particularly within the study areas (Fig. 4) has been provided.
Non-calcareous
Grey Floodplain
Soils (Saline Phase): This general soil type occupies the major
areas of the Ganges Tidal Floodplain AEZ. The organic matter content is low (1.7%) in most cases.
Deficiency of N is acute and widespread. Status of exchangeable K is almost satisfactory, consequently
K deficiency is less frequently observed. Regional variation in P status is also remarkable. P deficiency
is generally prevalent in Satkhira, Patuakhali, Barguna and Bagerhat districts while in Khulna district
supply of P is almost satisfactory. Zinc deficiency is observed in all over the areas. Copper (Cu)
deficiency is also widespread in the coastal regions of Satkhira, Khulna, Bagerhat, and other areas.
Boron toxicity sometimes occurs in coastal saline soils because of high boron content of intruding
seawater.
Calcareous Dark Grey Floodplain
Soils: The top-soils are calcareous having pH values ranging from
7.2 to 8.1. Organic matter is quite variable (0.95-2.00%).
Potassium contents are quite high. This is
due to the presence of a large amount of K bearing minerals in these soils. N is deficient in all the
areas under this soils. P is generally deficient, while S deficiency is observed less frequently. Zinc
deficiency is prevalent in all the soil series because of high pH values.

CASE

STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANS

MANGROVE

ECOSYSTEMS

Figure 1: Location of the study areas

CASE

STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANS

MANGROVE

ECOSYSTEMS

81

--..w___-___--

CASE

STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANS

MANGROVE

ECOSYSTEMS

Figure 3: Agro-ecxMgical tonehi of Bangladesh

-._

I%w.+el
uwm
1

M
. .. .

I
i

CASE

-.

STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANS

MANGROVE

ECOSYSTEMS

--...-

Figure 4: Gsnefal soil types of ths study areas

___I--~.-n-_I.;___

CASE

_^,

STUDIES

-.-_

_.

.f

ON SUNDERBANS

-..

I.-_-.

.,__

MANGROVE

-_.-

..

,-x--_.-.,-.-I-._-~_~

ECOSYSTEMS

__._..X.

~~~~.^^~.~~-~-___.-,~-.^_I-_.~-l~~^

,..__

_-___-

Figure 5: Soil pH of the study areas

-.~-_~_~-__~~.~_I~--.
CASE

STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANS

~..--._c_--__l--l_---.^_-l_n_l_-^^--x-~---....~--~--..~--~---~~~MANGROVE

ECOSYSTEMS

- -.__-...^__-._..-~-~.^~
u

CASE

STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANS

MANGROVE

ECOSYSTEMS

89O

89w

8915

Figure 7: Agro-mologicalfy

90

89@45

constrained areas within the study region

-1-u

Deeply Inundated Area

Tidal Surge Area
Non Constrained Area

~_~~-_l__)

CASE
I

STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANS

-.I-

MANGROVE

I--.

-~-__p_-____l__

ECOSYSTEMS

~~-

~~u

Figure 8: Available soil moisture in the study region

CASE

STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANS

MANGROVE

ECOSYSTEMS

figure 9: Saline zone of Bangladesh

Salinity Categories
(by pm&
.

of total Upella area)

1 Non-Saline
Sl s 70%

52 > 70%
s1 +s2 > 60%
S2+Sl zs60%
sl +s3 > 60%
s3 3 60%
S2+53 > 60%
S3+S2 > 60%
S2+S4 > 60%
S3+54 > 60%

Acid Suifate Soils: About 0.7 million ha of acid sulfate soils have been identified in Bangladesh.
A significant proportion of Acid Sulfate Soils exists in Satkhira, Khulna and Bagerhat districts of
Gangetic Floodplain areas. Extreme acidity (pH 2.9-4.0) developed under dry conditions and possess
several adverse soil conditions in respect of soil fertility. Among them, toxicity of soluble iron and
aluminum and severe deficiency of P are quite remarkable.
Soils of the study area under Mongla were mostly moderately acid to neutral having a pH range
between 5.5-7.3 (Fig. 5). Although Dacope represents soils having the same pH range, however, a
considerable portion falls under moderately alkaline group (7.3-8.4).
Agro-ecological

Constraints

The study areas fall mainly under medium high land category (Fig. 6). However,
Union under Shyamnagar patches of medium high lands were also available.

in Munshigonj

Among the agro-ecological constraints the major one is, however, the susceptibility
of the region to
moderate to severe tidal surges. Major portion of the three Upazillas were tidal surge-prone (Fig. 7).
The study area under Mongla was entirely tidal surge-prone areas, whereas Sutarkhali Union under
Dacope and Munshigonj Union under Shyamnagar were partly under severe tidal surge area.
Status of soil moisture holding capacity shown in Fig. 8 suggest four different soil moisture regimes
in the region, ranging from low (100-200 mm) in Shyamnagar (Satkhira), while iin Dacope (Khulna)
and Mongla moisture levels were moderate (200-300 mm).
The entire region represents the saline zone of Bangladesh. Fig 9
percent of total Upazilla areas. Among the study areas, Dacope and
where salinity was in S2 category, which meant that over 70% of
salinity. In contrast, Shyamnagar falls under S2+S3 category meaning
is affected by salinity along with the dominance of S2 category.
___I___.

-~CASE

STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANS

shows salinity categories by

Mongla represents the areas
the Upazillas are affected by
that over 60% of the Upazilla

MANGROVE

ECOSYSTEMS

Demography

and Socio-Economics

An estimated figure of 957,000 people live within 10 km buffer zone of the Sundarbans and
1,157,OOO within a 20 km impact zone who depend directly or indirectly upon its resources for
livelihood (Canonizado and Hossain, 1998).
The demographic profile of the study areas given in Table 1, 2, and 3. All the three villages under the
study were within 5 km of the Sundarbans forest. Family size varied between 3 to 8 when all the
survey areas were considered. (Table 4). The average family size in Mongla, Dacope and Shyamnagar
were 5.1, 4.7 and 5.0, respectively (DAE Office records), with varied levels of literacy. Agriculture
was the principal occupation of the people at all the survey areas. In Mongla, landless category was
dominating;
small farm category was the major group in Dacope and Shyamnagar. Agriculture was
followed by fishing and forest related activities. Very few respondents in Mongla and Shyamnagar
were engaged in trading or business. Some of the secondary occupations were shrimp cultivation,
fishing, shrimp fry collection, fuel wood collection, honey collection, golpata collection, work as
labourer, and business/trading.
In Mongla, fuelwood collection was found to be the dominant
secondary occupation, whereas, in Dacope and Shyamnagar, fishing appeared as the dominant
Table 1 : Demographic
1 Mongla

Parameter
A. Population

Upazilla*

177217
96937
80280
13802
636
42.8

category

Bagerhat

Chila Union*

1 Chila Village**

13153
6776
6377
2453

3475
1895
1582

31.3

30.4

2991
Landless
Marginal
3641
3758
Small
2214
Medium
1198
Large
Total
* Source : DAE records, Mongla.
** Source : Canonizado and Hossain (1998)

Table 2 : Demographic

profile

522
794
673
310
154

of Dacope, Khulna

Dacope Upazilla* 1 Sutarkhali Union* 1 Sutarkhali Village**

Parameter
A. Population

of Mongla,

(No.)

Total population
Male population
Female population
Farming community
Population density (No. km-)
Literacy rate (%)
B. Landholding

profile

(No.)

Total population
Male population
Female population
Farming community
Population density (No. km-2)
Growth rate (%)
Literacy rate (%)

175000
91000
64000
25377
501
2.08
37.6

25481
13173
12308
4140

4689
2362
2327

29.6

34.5

* Source : DAE records, Dacope.

** Source : Canonizado and Hossain (1998)

CASE

STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANS

MANGROVE

ECOSYSTEMS

Table 3 : Demographic
Parameter
A. Population

profile

of Shyamnagar,

Satkhira

Shyamnagar
Upazilla*

Munahifonj
Union*

Munshigonj
Village**

265004
133721
131283
46592
135
28.20

30900
15000
15900
4952

1228
632
596

32.5

29.2

7710
11203
12131
6721
2610
40365

650
830
1500
750
290
4200

(No.)

Total population
Male population
Female population
Farming community
Population density (No. km)
Literacy rate (%)
B. Landholding

category

(BBS,-)

Landless
Marginal
Small
Medium
Large
Total
Source : DAE records, Shyamnagar
** Source : Canonizado and Hossain (1998)
l

secondary
secondary
cultivated.
General

occupation.
occupation.

At all the locations, shrimp cultivation appeared to be the second important

It may be noted that shrimp is cultured on the same land where rice is

Land Use Pattern

Historically the region was dominated by single crop i.e. local Aman rice in the predominant cropping
pattern: Fallow-T.Aman-Fallow
(BARC, 1998). During the early 196Os, the only cropping pattern
in the southern parts of Khulna, Bagerhat and Satkhira was Fallow-Fallow-T.Aman
Rice (Table 5).
Cropping patterns remained the same for years except during the early 1980s when introduction of
modern rice cultivation,
and more importantly,
brackish water shrimp cultivation
changed the
scenario, and three dominant cropping patterns emerged containing shrimp as a major component
in the land use pattern (Table 5). Since mid 198Os, brackish water shrimp cultivation has emerged
as a vital land-use with the emergence of new cropping patterns, e.g. Fallow-Shrimp-T.Aman
(Table 5). However, Fig. 10 showed the patterns as Fallow-T.Aman
(LIV)/Shrimp
Culture for
Shyamnagar, and Fallow%Aman
(HYV/LIV)-Fallow
for Dacope.
Introduction of modern rice varieties initiated the process of elimination/extinction
of local rice varieties
from the cropping systems in the region. Depletion of local rice variety was the severest in Shyamnagar
among the locations studied. Table 6 revealed that majority of the local varieties were at the stage of
near-elimination
or extinction.
Particularly 19 varieties were reported as already extinct from the
region. The principal reasons behind such elimination were adoption of modern rice varieties as well as
rapid expansion of brackish water shrimp cultivation.
Traditional variety is being gradually replaced by modern rice
water shrimp cultivation emerging as another major activity
Rice-Shrimp cultivation where shrimp was cultured during
cultivation. In some constrained areas, as in Shyamnagar,
land-use activity, with a rotational Shrimp-fallow
cycle.

-CASE

STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANS

-. ___.---~-~~
MANGROVE

-ECOSYSTEMS

___-.-

cultivar(s), since mid-1980s. With

the land use pattern appeared as
January to July-August, followed
however, shrimp cultivation was

brackish
Shrimpby rice
the sole

___~.m

._-.--...

Figure 10: Dominant propping pattern in the study region at present

~.~--

CASE

~l-_-~~-^.~_-_-^

--_-.--.-.n-.mm__I__c---

STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANS

MANGROVE

II-_x_I~xI-~i-

ECOSYSTEMS

_l^l-._,

~.-l..-x-l--~

^_._

--.--

_._.

^.._-I_ll_lill^

___^_

Table 4. Socio-economic

profile

of the respondent

Parameter

households

in three study areas

% Respondent

A. Age of respondents

Mongla

Dacope

25.00
35.00
15.00
5.00
20.00

20.00
30.00
25.00

Shyamnagar

(Year)

25-34
35-44
45-54
55-64
65-74

25.00

15.00
25.00
10.00
20.00
30.00

B. Family size (No.)

3
4
5
6
7
8

10.00
25.00
30.00
25.00
15.00

5.00
25.00
25.00
2.5.clo
15.00
5.clo

10.00
10.00
25.00
30.00
2t5.00

40.00
35.00
20.00

15.00
55.00
30.00

40.00
10.00
40.00
10.00

45.00
25.00
25.00
5.00

55.00
25.00
20.00

60.00
15.00
15.00
10.00

30.00
30.00
35.00
20.00
15.00
25.00
20.00

40.00
30.00
25.00
25.00
25.00
20.00
10.00

45.00
20.00
20.00
15.00
10.00
10.00
25.00

40.00
25.00
10.00
15.00
10.00

25.00
30.00
35.00
10.00

15.00
20.00
35.00
20.00
1cr.00

C . Education

Illiterate
Primary
Secondary
Higher secondary
University
D. Principal

5.00

Occupation

Agriculture
Fishing
Forest activities
Trading/Business
E. Secondary

occupations

Finishing
Shrimp fry collection
Fuel wood collection
Golpata collection
Honey collection
Labourer
Business/Trading
F. Landholding

category

Landless (~0.20 ha)

Marginal (0.21-0.50 ha)
Small (0.51-l .OOha)
Medium (1 .Ol-2.00 ha)
Large (>2.00 ha)

I__~~~

CASE

~-~~._-_-n

STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANS

_--~--~~

MANGROVE

~~~--.lII__^~~~~xcIIII~.~~.__._^lll_~,~

ECOSYSTEMS

-.--_

Table 5. Land utilization

in the coastal

region adjacent

Region

Land use during

Southern parts of
Bhola, Jhalakathi &
Pirojpur, Middle
parts of Patuakhali,
Northern pans of
Barguna, Bagerhat,
Khulna & Satkhira

Fallow- Fallow- T.Aman

to the Sundarbans

1963-75

during

Land use during

early 1960s and 1990s

1965-97

Fallow- Fallow- T.Aman

Fallow- T.Aus- T.Aman
Fallow- Sesame- T.Aman
Grasspea/Fallow-B.Aus/Jute- T.Aman
Grasspea/Fallow- Mixed B.Aus & Aman
Boro- B.Aman
Boro- Shrimp (Lobster)
Shrimp
Fallow- Fallow- Fallow

Fallow- B.Aus/Jute- T.Aman

Fallow- Mixed B. Aus & Aman
Fallow- B.Aman
Fallow- Fallow- Fallow

Southern parts of
Bhola, Patuakhali,
Barguna, Pirojpur,
Bagerhat, Khulna
and Satkhira

Fallow- Fallow- T.Aman

Fallow- Fallow- T.Aman

Fallow- Sesame- T.Aman
Fallow- Shrimp- T.Aman

Southern parts of
Bhola, Patuakhali,
Barguna, Bagerhat,
Khulna and
Satkhira

Fallow- Fallow- T.Aman

Fallow- Fallow- T.Aman

Fallow- Shrimp- T.Aman
Shrimp-Fallow-Fallow

Mangrove vegetation

Mangrove vegetation

Source: BARC (1998).

Table 6. Status of rice varieties
Variety

in the study areas

Status
Mongla
3
3

Modern

number
Shyamnagar
6
8

14

5
5
6

4
4
2
3
13

2
7
15
24

1
17

Managing

Location-wise
Dacope
5
2

Rice Cultivation

Soil fertility and pest management are two major elements in rice cultivation. However, weeding in
modern variety (MV) rice is another important management practice. Nitrogen and phosphorus are the
two commonly used fettilizers, with a greater emphasis on N (Table 7). Introduction
of modern rice
varieties lead to increased use of chemical fertilizers, particularly during the last 10 years. Ranges of
common fettilizers doses used in modern rice cultivation has been shown in Table 8. During fertilizer
dealer survey, it was revealed that the use of DAP, ZnSO, and Gypsum were also common in Dacope
and Shyamnagar. The dosage of fertilizers used, particularly N and P doses, were much higher than the
doses recommended by BARC (1997) for the AEZ representing the study region (AEZ-13). It was a
common viewpoint expressed by the people that the expected yield level could not be maintained if
fettilizer dose was not increased incrementally.
-~^-_

_-____^ll .~-l_xI-

CASE

STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANS

MANGROVE

ECOSYSTEMS

Table 7. Inventory

of fertilizer

use by respondent

households

at three study areas

% Respondent

Parameter

A. Types of fertilizer

Dacope

Shyamnagar

55.00
35.00
5.00

75.00
30.00
10.00

65.00
35.00
5.00

55.00

20.00

25.00

use

Urea
TSP
MP
B. Year of star-l of fertilizer

use

l-4
5-9
>lO
C. Fertilizer

Mongla

dose

Increased
Decreased
D. Crop yield

Increased
Decreased
No change
E. Comparative yield increase with incremental increase in fertilizer dose
Comparatively increased
Comparatively decreased
No change

Table 6. Fertilizer

doses used by the rice growers

l-

Fertilizer

Urea

TSP
MP
DAP
TSP (USA)
ZnS04
Gypsum

Fertilizer

in the study areas

dose (kg ha-l)

Mongla

Dacope

150-l 87
75-l 15
40-75

150-200
75-l 20
50-75

8-l 5
50-75

Shyamnagar

175-225
100-l 25
50-l 00
200-225
100-l 25
IO-20
60-75

Introduction
of modern rice cultivation lead to the use of insecticides in the region during the last
two decades (Table 9). However, in recent years, shrimp cultivation has also lead to widespread use
of insecticides. It was noted that expansion in area under shrimp cultivation at the expense of rice
coverage has resulted in severity of insect pests in the restricted areas of rice fields. Even local rice
varieties, which were earlier free from insect attacks, have become more susceptible, in recent years.
Farmers often used lower than the recommended doses of insecticides, but with higher frequency in
application. Though there was a net over-dosage, efficiency was lesser, with increased insect resistance
against insecticides, in recent years.

--.-^^__x.-- --x_I-__--.. ..._.- ._.. ___

,..._.-^_.- l^lll.l . ..._.^.,,. . ._-...-
,._._- _.I_..^_,__^
-. _, i .,. .l.~-.-._.._
.. _ ____-_-__ -..^_
_._x..._._,
___
CASE

STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANS

MANGROVE

ECOSYSTEMS

Table 9. Inventory

on plant protection

measures

taken by the respondent

Parameter

households

at three study areas

% Respondent
Mongla

Dacope

55.00

75.00

80.00

45.00

25.00

20.00

45.00
55.00

75.00
25.00

70.00
30.00

Can identify
Cannot identify

55.00
45.00

70.00
30.00

70.00
30.00

D. Use of dose

n= 11

n=15

n=16

Uses recommended dose

Dont use recommended dose

63.64
36.36

60.00
40.00

50.00
50.00

E. Year of start of use

n=ll

n= 15

n= 16

l-5
6-l 0
11-15
15+

63.64
18.18
9.09
9.09

20.00
73.33
6.67

6.25
56.25
31.25
6.25

A. Method of insectpest

control

Chemical control
Mechanical control
Traditional control
IPM
Do not control
B. Identification

Shyamnagar

of insect pests

Can identify
Cannot identify
C. Identification of insecticides

Yield

Potentials

of Rice:

Rice yield potential in the study areas compared to regional estimates of the Directorate of Agriculture
Extension indicated that the yield potential of rice varieties was much less than the regional average
(Fig. 11). At the same time, rice yield potential has been decreasing across the region, due to declining
soil fertility, increasing soil salinity and land degradation. Yield reductions observed were between 2935%
for MV rice and 18-24% for LV rice (Fig. 12). Even severe reductions up to 50% in MV rice were
not uncommon in recent years as reported during group discussions with community participants. At a
regional level too, declining trends in rice yield were evident (Fig. 13). Reduction in yield potential has
sometimes led to lower profit in modern varieties, and loss for local varieties (Fig. 14); this in turn has
led to a shift towards brackish water shrimp cultivation which had higher net returns (Fig. 15) compared
to MV rice cultivation.
Vegetable

Cultivation

Vegetable cultivation is an integral component of the farming systems of the local communities in the
region, though in recent years both land area and productivity of summer and winter vegetable crops
have been declining. At a regional level, it was found from government statistics that vegetable
cultivation has been increasing in the upstream as well as that under non-shrimp areas, unlike in the
study sites, which were shrimp cultivation areas. The principal reasons were increased submergence of
available land and increased soil and water salinity. Historically the cultivation of winter vegetables
was limited by the increased dry season salinity, though in recent times, salinity was higher even
during summer months limiting summer vegetable cultivation, and even import of vegetables from other
areas, such as Satkhira, Jessore, Khulna became common business.
-___;.
_~- -x-.^------ll^-~-~--~-~~---^
~~_.
.i__l-__-~-~_CASE

STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANS

MANGROVE

ECOSYSTEMS

~-~-_1 BIDbE
4 - q DAE
I
DAE
kIDbE
3.5
I
Field
q
Field
3 I

4.5

h
7

Estimate
Estimate
Estimate
Estimate
estimate
estimate

(Upatilla) W
(Upadlla) LV
(Union) MV
(Union) LV
MV
LV

/
i
;
I

2 2.5
e
0
2:
.1.5
1
0.5
0 .

Mongla

Dacope

Shyarnnagar

Location
Fig. 11. Yield potential of rice varieties in teh study areas

0
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25

Mongla

Dacope

Shyamnagar

Location

-:

Fig. 12. Yield reduction in rice varieties over ten years period in the study areas

~_
CASE

STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANS

MANGROVE

ECOSYSTEMS

.-,..-I__x_I-- ~

~~
m

3.5
3
2.5
7;
2
r
=I.5
2
2

1
0.5
0
1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1998

Year (represents

1997

preceding

1998

1999

Dacope

Mongla

during 1991-2001

Shyam nagar

Location
Fig. 14. Net return from rice cultivation

.-~

~-

__l_-.~.

STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANS

MANGROVE

ECOSYSTEMS

.-_..x___---__~-I~_~-

2001

fiscal year)

~--Fig. 13. Trends in rice yield potential in Shyamnagar

CASE

2000

in the study areas

Livestock

and Poultry

Livestock population in the region has been declining rapidly, with reductions up to 90%, with larger
reductions in Shyamnagar and Dacope; in Mongla livestock population increased (Table 10). Livestock
population in the upstream areas, in general, increased in recent years, which was offset by drastic
reductions in downstream areas where shrimp cultivation expanded. The decline in livestock and
poultry rearing in the study area is due to increasing scarcity of fodder and grasses, scarcity of
grazing lands, of drinking water, and widespread incidence of intestinal diseases, particularly for cattle
and ducks. All these problems are suggested to be due to increasing soil and water salinity as a result
of shrimp cultivation in the region. Declining livestock adversely affecting dung production (which also
is used as fuel), leading to declining organic matter contents in soils. With reduced dung, crop residues
and homestead plantations, the dependency on the Sundarbans for fuel wood has increased in recent
years.
Table 10. Trends in livestock
Location

Livestock

population
Population

1990

over time in the study areas

(No.)

% Change

1995

2000

Cattle
Buffal0
Goat
Sheep
Duck & Poultry

11735
635
1115
105
96735

17550
1450
1050
150
130250

Dacope

Cattle
Buffalo
Goat
Sheep
Duck
Poultry

44576
1244
13956
3211
50117
206162

Shyamnagar

Cattle
Buffalo
Goat
Sheep
Duck
Poultry

category

Mongla

74735
7533
40213
20505
33490
92881

l-

2001
49.55

125.35
-5.83
42.86
34.46
34716
1067
11915
3079
34096
122354

-22.12
-14.23
-14.62
-4.11
-31.97
-40.65

45355
1750
13200
6500
10400
95975

-39.31
-76.77
-67.17
-68.30
-68.95
+3.33

Source: DLS Office records, Mongla, Dacope, and Shyamnagar.

Fisheries
The two major fishery activities
fishing.
Brackish

Water

Shrimp

in the region are brackish water shrimp cultivation

and open-water

Cultivation:

The attractive price of shrimp as an export item, much higher net return compared to rice, and
cheap availability
of shrimp fry in the Sundarbans estuary encouraged the rich and influential
people from outside the region to start brackish water shrimp cultivation, as a commercial activity.
Shrimp cultivation expanded in Khulna region almost exponentially.
It eventually also encouraged,
and in many instances, forced the local farming communities to convert more and more rice fields
into shrimp farms.

CASE

STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANS

MANGROVE

ECOSYSTEMS

I_-

-.

...-_____.

---__--

_____
-

120000

q Improved traditional
EITraditional
100000

Fu
r

80000

c
E
3
z

60000

40000

2
20000

Mongla

Dacope

Shyam nagar

Location
---.--.
____
--~.
..--Fig. 15. Net return from shrimp cultivation in the study areas

I.-

Brackish water shrimp cultivation was practiced traditionally

in seasonal ponds encircled with muddykes in rice plots or outside (Plate 1). Starting from January to end July-September,
shrimp fries
reared for 4-7 months were introduced.
Net return from shrimp cultivation both under traditional practice as well as improved traditional
practice were estimated (Fig. 15). It was observed that shrimp cultivation
offered much higher
cash return than from rice cultivation.
High energy input shrimp cultivation
offered net return
ranging from Tk. 90000-111000
ha-l, while that from under traditional practices ranged between
Tk. 25000-30000
ha-l only still much higher than that in rice cultivation. This contributed to the
shift from paddy to shrimp cultivation in the region.
The growth and productivity of sweet water fishes decreased in recent years due to the increase in
pond water salinity as a result of shrimp cultivation.
Although shrimp cultivation started off in a
traditional
manner without any fertilizer use, intensive methods are on the increase, with high
inputs of fertilizers (Table 11) and insecticides, with a total of 10 common insecticides (Table 12),
often indiscriminately
and in high doses.
Table 11. Fet-tilizer use in shrimp
Fertilizer

Fertilizer

Urea

TSP
MP
Gypsum
Lime
Cow dung
~_~_x_-I

CASE

__--.

STUDIES

cultivation

_-__^_

ON SUNDERBANS

_.,..

-__x__._..-_^.-

MANGROVE

.._.

the study areas

dose (kg ha-l)

Mongla

Dacope

35-70
30-40

35-70
30-40

40-115
40-75

260-300
120-350
200-400

260-300
150-400
150-350

260-300
180-750
150-350

_~~~..---

ECOSYSTEMS

I_

__lx---.-~.__^.--_-~

Shyamnagar

_~~~--____I~~

-.l.-~--~.

.-~
m

Table 12. Insecticides/chemicals

Insecticide

used by the shrimp

Group

cultivators

in the study areas

Area

Mongla

Dacope

Shyamnagar

A. Granular formulation
Rotanol
Pilarcron
CV Plant Food

Rotanon
Organocarbamate
Unknown

B. Liquid formulation
Dimecron
Ripcord
Hildon
Thiodin
F-organ
Y-organ
Bleaching powder
Potassium (G)
Benicron
Renafitez
Renamycin
Azodrin
Clinical solution
Homaeopathic preparation

Organophosphate
Cypermethrin
Organophosphate
Organophosphate
Unknown
Unknown
Potassium
Organophosphate
Unknown
Unknown
Organophosphate
Unknown
Unknown

Shr -imp has emerged as an important export item and a source of hard foreign currency for Bangladesh
during the last two decades. In 1985-86, Bangladesh exported 13631 tons of frozen shrimp,
whereas in 1998-99, the amount was 20086 tons with a total value of Taka 1162.2 crore (Fig. 16).
Higher value of shrimp in the world market encouraged the quantum expansion of brackish water
shrimp cultivation in the country, particularly in the coastal region. Shrimp cultivation was started
in the region of Satlkhira during 197Os, following traditional
procedures. Eventually it became a
major enterprise in the whole coastal region of Bangladesh, particularly in the Khulna, Bagerhat and
Satkhira Districts in the south-west
(75 O/O of the total production),
and the rest in the southeastern region of the country (Mazid, 1998). Starting from 51812 ha under shrimp cultivation in
1983-84, the area under shrimp cultivation rose to 141353 ha by the end of 1998-99, with greatest
expansion in the Khulna Division where the conditions were more favourable and the cost of production
was lower (Fig. 17). Satellite images produced by SPARRSO (2001a) (Figs. 18 and 19) also confirm
such expansion.
Open-water

Fishing:

Open water fishing has been the traditional occupation of thousands of fishermen in the region.
However, in recent years the number of seasonal fishermen has gone up. Chanterasri (1994) estimated
that there were 110,000 fishermen engaged in shrimp fry collection in 1993, increasing by more than
15% each year, with an estimated number of 200,000 (Canonizado and Hossain, 1998), which perhaps
would now be more than 300,000. Table 13 showed the amount of fish collected per trip by the
respondent households. Forest Department records of fish collection were provided in Table 14.
Gears traditionally
used lead to destruction of numerous other species too. Another lethal practice
in recent years has been the use of poison/insecticide,
fishermen using Thiodin alnd Hildon smuggled
from India for this purpose. Use of these chemicals caused total destruction of all fishes and other
aquatic living beings within a given area.
CASE

STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANS

MANGROVE

ECOSYSTEMS

--_-i

-.--.~---.----ll.--.

----.

_ -

..-.- .__-

._-. - ._-_,_

._. ___I_

Table 13. Resources

collected

from Sundarbans

by the respondent

~ Resource

Collection

farm households

by household

Mongla

Dacope

June-August
11.00-12.00

Oct.-Feb.
18.00-20.00

Shyamnagar

A. Timber

Season
Collection per season (t)

I --I Oct.-Feb.

B. Fuel wood

Season
Collection per season (t)

Oct.-Feb.
11.00-12.00

year-round
11.00-12.00

18.00-l 9.00

year-round
11.00-l 9.00

C. Golpata

Season
Collection per season (t)

Oct.-Feb.
15.00-l 6.00

Oct.-Feb.
22.00-23.00

Oct.-Feb
18.00-l 9.00

Feb.-Apr.
0.15-0.20

March-April
0.08-0.10

March-April
0.5-0.7

Year round
200.00-250.00

Year round
150.00-200.00

Year round
200.00-250.00

Year round
150.00-l 70.00

Year round
130.00-l 70.00

Year round
150.00-200.00

D. Honey

Season
Collection per season (kg)
E. Fishing

Season
Collection per trip (Tk.)
F. Shrimp fry

Season
Collection per day (Tk.)

Table 14. Collection

of fish resources

from the Sundarbans

Year

under legal permits

Amount
Fish (000 t)

Bagda shrimp fry (Million)

1986-87

4.62

0.82

1987-88
1988-89
1989-90
1990-91
1991-92
1992-93
1993-94
1994-95
1995-96
1996-97
1997-98
1998-99
1999-2000

4.51
3.86
3.67
4.95
4.83
5.59
5.14
5.39
5.99
4.29
4.28
3.51
3.45

14.1
30.43
70.34
72.69
110.36
127.97
231.15
263.41
253.07
142.22
127.98
81.41
101.36

2000-01

3.14

96.08

Large Shrimp

Small Shrimp

391
367
270
241
317
307
274
281
277

191
104
132
126
533
791
855
593
655

Source:Canonizado and Hossain (1998); FAOIUNDP (1998), Karim (1995); FD records

CASE

STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANS

MANGROVE

ECOSYSTEMS

1 00000

14Oc

80000

, 0

12Oc

Reduction (t)

1ooc
60000

800
600

40000

400
20000
200
0

Fig. 16. National shrimp production and export statistics since 1985-86

160000
140000
120000

0
Cl
A
0

Khulna
Chittagong
Barisal+Dhaka
Total

100000
2
-

80000

60000

Year
Fig. 17. Divisionwise expansion of shrimp cultivation area since 1983-84
Shrimp

Fry Collection

The main impetus behind brackish water shrimp cultivation

in the mangrove region was the
abundance of shrimp fries in the rivers, canals and estuaries. Shrimp fry collection supported
resource-poor people groups, particularly women and children. A total of 44766 shrimp fry collectors
were identified in the three study areas. Forest Department statistics from 1986-87 to 2000-01 also
showed that shrimp fry collection has been increasing considerably in the Sundarbans region (Table
14). It may be noted that these figures are based on collections under legal permits. But the
unofficial collection figures are suggested to be many more times.
The major adverse impact of shrimp fry collection with fine mesh nets was the large-scale destruction
of other fish species (Plate 2). Recently government
put a ban on shrimp fry collection. Without
_~_x.~--,-_I__---x^___l

..-.

._ll.

----

,~)_I--_--^_-I__I_..

,.

_...~_^xI

CASE

.---

STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANS

MANGROVE

I-

.-.=._x

-,.--

_____-__l_--~_l^_-~--~~~

.^l-----llll

ECOSYSTEMS

--.-

- .- ----

-.-.

Figure 18 : Satellite image of the Sundar~ans and its surrounding

areas during 1984-85 (Landsat MSS)

~~~_-.

CASE

-~~-~l,___~-~l

STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANS

MANGROVE

.^__-~~--

ECOSYSTEMS

-1.__1~-~~~.~~.-.

.~~__~_

Figure 19

: Satellite ima e of the Sundarbans

areas during 7988 (Landsat TM)

--___^-~__^.-

-~_____-.
CASE

STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANS

MANGROVE

and its surrounding

ECOSYSTEMS

alternate livelihood sources, such a sudden ban could create adverse impact on the poorer sections
of the society. However, the Forest Department has yet to enforce such a ban.
Pond Fisheries
Most of the households in the study region had ponds in their homesteads. Local people used to rear
common carps and other sweet water fishes in these ponds, However, rearing of estuarine species was
also common. The total number of ponds in Mongla was 2622 covering 600.45 ha. The respective
figures for Dacope were 2016 comprising of 25.87 ha. In Shyamnagar, the number of ponds was 2085,
which covered around 135.06 ha of land. Majority of the respondent households in the study region
had ponds in their homesteads, with pisciculture following traditional procedure, without any energy
inputs; however, supplemental feeds are also now used frequently. Pond fisheries were based on
cultivation of common carps, other sweet water fishes, and estuarine species. But this traditional
practice is now under serious threat due to increased salinity of pond water, arising from extensive
shrimp cultivation, which is detrimental for carps and other sweet water fish species.
Homestead

Plantation

An inventory made of the homesteads of the respondent households showed a total of 14, 16 and 18
fruit species, along with 8, 10 and 12 forest species identified in Mongla, Dacope and Shyamnagar,
respectively. Average fruit tree stands per homestead was the highest in Dacope, and the least
numbers were in the homesteads in Mongla. In the case of forest species, the highest number of
stands was found in the homesteads of Mongla, whereas the least was observed in Dacope (Table 15).
It was reported that both number and productivity of homestead plantations, particularly sweet water
fruit species were declining in recent years. The principal reason identified was the increase in soil and
water salinity due to shrimp cultivation.
The common visible symptoms identified were growth retardation including yellowing of leaves, absence
of fruiting, premature fruit drop, ultimate death of the tree itself. In case of old and mature trees, the
symptom starts with the death of the apical portion (Plate 3). Death of sapling start only when the
root system reaches the deeper soil profile, when it is 3-5 years old. Decline in number and productivity
of homestead plantations has led to shortage of fodder, fuelwood and timber, around households, apart
from declining edible component.
Timber

and Non-timber

Forest

Products

(NTFPs)

from

the Sundarbans

Forest

Sundarbans has been playing a vital role in the livelihood of the rural people of the region for
generations. The forest provides timber, fuelwood, leaves for roof thatching (Nypa fruticans),
fish,
shrimp fry, honey, wax, grasses, fruits and other minor resources. It also offers ecological benefits,
such as protection from storms and tidal surges. What is given in Table 13 is indicative of the extent
of dependence of the people on NTFPs, since the sampling size was small in this study. Details of
resource collection from the Reserve Forest spread over a time period is shown in Tables 16 and 17.
The figures provided by the Forest Department represent only the collection under legal permits.
However, actual amounts collected legally, as well as that illegally obtained are much more. Confiscation
of NTFPs done by the Forest Department also revealed increase illegal logging operations in recent
years (Canonizado and Hossain, 1998; FAO/UNDP, 1998). The dependency on the Sundarbans, largely
for fuelwood has increased considerably in recent years, which was around 75-100% compared to only
lo-25%, two decades ago.
Table 17 shows the trends in collection of selected plant resources from the Sundarbans since
1984-85. Timber collection remained steady during the decade 1984-85 and 1994-95, but declined
progressively afterwards. However, collection of other resources increased during the same period,
particularly
that of fuelwood. Illegal logging of economically important timber resources such as
__I___^__.

,.__

^.-.

._l_.._~.,_^____I_

._..

._

___l__._l_.__-_l.

.l_._.-.I

_._.-___,

n_^_..

,__

._-

-_

_,-.

l-..r,_-___,__I^_

--.

.._

_....

,_.^
.

CASE

STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANS

MANGROVE

ECOSYSTEMS

_.

._..,_.r_^-._--__-~,
m

Table 15. Plantation

resources

in the homesteads

of respondent

Tree species

households

in the study areas

Average number/homestead
Mongla

Dacope

Coconut
Date palm
Jujubi
Sapota
Mango
Guava
Blackberry
Palmyra palm
Papaya
Betel nut
Jackfruit
Banana
Pome granate
Jamrul
Lime
Custard apple
Wood apple
Tamarind
Golden apple
Kodbeli

11.64
4.11
0.64
0.64
4.05
3.11
0.58
0.94
0.17
5.64
0.70
1.17
0.05
0.17

8.12
3.45
1.75
1.50
3.25
1.67
0.12
0.80
1.67
8.23
1.08
1.75
0.78

7.88
11.55
1.33
1.77
4.50
2.94
0.50
4.11
0.77
0.94
0.27
0.83
0.11

0.20

0.50
0.05
0.05

Average stands (No.)

33.61

39.17

38.25

Sissoo
Mahogoni
Babla
Shirish
Chambal
Eucalyptus
Koroi
Arjun
Shrishti
Ziga
Shishta mool
Gewa
Shimul
Krishnachura
Neem
Mehedi
Khoia babla

0.11
2.41
0.23
4.31
7.64
0.05
0.11
0.05

1.50
1.67
3.33

0.22
0.88
0.27

Average stands (No.)

14.91

Shyamnagar

A. Fruit species

0.05
0.75

0.16
0.27

B. Timber species

0.05
0.33

1.10
1.36

6.66
0.55
0.66
0.27

1.40
0.50
0.25
0.45
0.50

0.05
1.27
0.05
1.00

12.06

12.26

____^~
CASE

~-_..-.-

STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANS

MANGROVE

ECOSYSTEMS

--

--

II

----

-_-...

-- ___-_.-__

Table 16. Collection

of selected

floral resources

-r

from the Sundarbans

Amount

Timber
(million cft)

Fuelwood
(million cft)

Golpata
(million t)

GmSSeS
(000 t)

Hantal (t)

2.8
3.15
1.21
2.49
2.42

0.06
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.07

0.68
1.64
3.01
1.88
2.29
0.48
0.17
0.19
0.13
0.18
0.26

10.11
6.93
6.12
7.24
5.72
1.41
0.95
1.33
1.68
3.44
8.2

0.06
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.07
0.07
0.07
0.07
0.07
0.07
0.06
1.69
1.57
1.4
1
2.7
0.92

9.31
11.06
11.74
13.44
13.53
11.57
7.29
4.74
5.9
6.62
6.77
4.02
5.87
5.26
2.12
6.78
3.95

8910
5412
6087
7848
8339
7203
6747
9032
6053
6725
1712

1984-85
1985-86
1986-87
1987-88
1988-89
1989-90
1990-91
1991-92
1992-93
1993-94
1994-95
1995-96
1996-97
1997-98
1998-99
1999-2000
2000-01

Source:Canonizadoand Hossain(1998); FAO/UNDP(1998),Karim(1995);

Table 17.

.-I-

CASE

Collection

of selected

minor resources

Year

under legal permits

Annual collection
Mud crab (t)

Wax (t)

1984-85

257

64.24

1985-86
1986-87
1987-88
1988-89
1989-90
1990-91
1991-92
1992-93
1993-94
1994-95
1995-96
1996-97
1997-98
1998-99
1999-2000

226
230
223
100
147
210
160
183
107
91
161
193
131
149
208

56.4
57.49
55.76
25.13
36.56
52.76
43.46
45.86
26.63
22
39

2000-01

130

SourceCanonizadoand

Hossain(l998); FAO/UNDP(1998),Kariml(1995);

33
37
52

MANGROVE

...-t..l.-.

ECOSYSTEMS

,...

Shell (000 t)
2.69

2.67
3.2
3.62
3.66

15
15
14
26
86
274
491
527
711
851
895
824
440
488

3.17
3.35
4.36
3.95
4.28
1.02
0.82
3.3

^_^__-__l_cll__l~-~-~-~~.~-~~~~~

ON SUNDERBANS

712

FDrecords.

from the Sundarbans

Honey (t)

STUDIES

under legal permits

15
15
14
26
86
274
491
527
711
851
895
824
440
488

FD records.
__I~~
m

Sundri timber (cu.m .) j

El Sundri firewood (ton)

Fig. 20. Confiscation of illegally collected timber and fuelwood from Sundarbans Reserved Forest
Sun&-i is rampant, as seen from the confiscation
and Hossain, 1998; FAO/UNDP, 1998).

done by the Forest Department

(Fig. 20) (Canonizado

Table 14 shows the major fish resource collected from the Sundarbans since 1986-87, and there
was declining trend during recent years, particularly the harvest of common fishes, large shrimp as
well as shrimp fry collection. This could be explained as due to over-harvesting
over a period of
time, and habitat degradation.
Interestingly,
decline in availability
of the major fish resources
increased the pressure on minor fishes e.g. small shrimp which was being increasingly collected in
recent years.
Collection of other minor resources such as honey, bee-wax, mud crab and shells also showed a
decreasing trend in recent years (Table 17). Mud crab, which is a promising export item after
shrimp, showed an increasing collection up to 1996-97, with a subsequent decline. Green Keora
fruit collection increased in recent years. Landless women often collected Keora fruits for sale in the
local markets. These fruits are used as an additive in lentil soups and other food items. Many plants
used in traditional medicines are also collected. Turtle collection by Hindu communities was also
reported. However, turtle population reduced drastically in the study areas.
The major factors for natural resource depletion were identified as population pressure, poverty,
extensive shrimp cultivation, over-fishing, fishing with insecticide application, illegal logging/hunting,
poor governance.
The remedial measures identified were restricted shrimp cultivation,
ban on
fishing inside the forest areas, control over indiscriminate
use of insecticides in rice and shrimp
farms. It was reported that villagers and loggers often collect even tree saplings for fuelwood,
irrespective
of their other economic values. Suggestions
also emerged for improving
forest
management practices, stop illegal logging/hunting,
checking organized crime within the forested
~~

CASE

STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANS

~.~____1^^_~_1__--~

MANGROVE

ECOSYSTEMS

areas, deployment of river police and honest forest personnel only. An important suggestion was
made for alternate income sources for the resource-poor groups, to reduce the pressure on the
Sundarbans Reserve Forest. Apart from effective management
decisions, provision of alternate
income sources for the resource-poor
was also suggested. The participants
identified problems
such as tiger and crocodile menace affecting the local population, and undue pressures put on local
people, as problems of managing the forest, from their perspective.
Ecological

Issues

Two major issues emerge from the previous discussions as responsible for ecosystem/landscape
damage: (a) modern rice cultivation
and (b) brackish water shrimp cultivation,
the latter being
more serious than the former:
GIS map prepared by SPARRSO (2001b) based on the time integral images taken by NOAA
satellite (Resolution 1.1 X 1.1 km) during October 2000 revealed adverse impact upon Aman
rice and other rice varieties grown, and reducing their coverage to less than 40% in the region
including major parts of the study areas (Fig. 21), often due to land conversion to shrimp
culture.
Shrimp culture caused seasonal transformation
of upland agro-ecosystems
into those similar to
lowland ecosystems. Such transformation
resulted in the reduction in land area available for rice,
vegetable crops, grazing lands, homestead areas, and natural ecosystems; yield reduction in rice
was another consequence arising from increased salinity (Plate 4).
Increased insect pest problems occurred in two ways, firstly, due to expansion of modern rice
varieties, which attract more of insect pests; secondly, with the expansion of shrimp cultivation,
rice coverage area decreased substantially. As a result, insect pests attacked more severely, the
now reduced rice crop cover. Insect pest problems promoted insecticide use.
Submergence with brackish water also increased soil and water salinity
impacts on the physico-chemical
properties of the soils considerably.

as well as put adverse

Satellite images clearly revealed that forest clearing has started in the Sundarbans since 1975
(Fig. 22) and later these areas have been transferred into shrimp farms (Fig. 23). Forest clearing
for establishing shrimp farms has already destroyed the Chokoria Sundarbans in the south-eastern
coastal belt of the country. During 1980s the entire Chokoria mangrove area was brought under
shrimp cultivation through the initiatives of the policy makers in collaboration with international
donors. At present the denuded mangrove forest was standing with few scattered Sun&i trees.
Such encruachment of forestland for establishing shrimp farms has been a problem along the Asian
coastal zones, e.g. the Philippines (Ajiki, 1985; Primavera, 2000).
Further, over-crowding
and disturbance of the river banks by shrimp fry collectors as well as by
fishermen have also caused river bank erosion within the forested areas (Plate 5).
Unplanned shrimp culture and rice cultivation through modern methods in the study areas, as
in other coastal areas of Khulna, Bagerhat and Satkhira districts had serious impacts on ecosystem
functioning,
altering coastal ecology (Mazid, 1998)
Intensive use of chemical fertilizers in rice cultivation,
and land salinization were identified as
two important
causes for deteriorating
soil fertility and loss of land productivity.
Declining
trends in rice and vegetables yield potentials marked the severity of the problem. In recent
years farmers were increasingly
using fertilizers
e.g. lime and gypsum in shrimp farms.
Deterioration of soil health, reduced biodiversity, and incidence of human diseases were identified
as some notable outcomes.

CASE

STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANS

MANGROVE

ECOSYSTEMS

A. Passur river, Mongla Port (SRDI, 2001; Rahman and Ahsan, 2001)

25 ,

Jan

Feb

B. Shibsha

25

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

river, Paikgacha,

Mar

Jul

Aw

Khulna (SRDI, 2001; RahGn

Apr

C. Kakshiali

Jun
Month

May

Jun
Month

Jul

river, Kaligonj, Satkhira

Sep

Ott

Aw

Sep

Ott

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

1995

::
x
x
0

1996
1997
1998
1999
2000

Nov

Dee

Jul

Aw

Sw

Ott

I
j

0
0

/
I

Nov

1998
1999
2000

Dee

Month

L
D. Munshigonj

river, Munshigonj,

Shyamnagar

(Source: DoF, Shyamnagar,

Satkhira)
---

0
0A

0m

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

Fig. 21. River water salinity

-l___l~~.-~-.-____-.~.CASE

(Source: SRDI, 2001)

36

Feb

Dee

and Ahsan, 2001)

%
2 %

Jan

Nov

STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANS

May

Jun

at different

Month

Jul

locations

Aug
in Bagerhat,

Sep
Khulna

._.._.....,.x ._.,^,.
__-..-.-~-.^. .-.,-__._^____l__.x;
_^_---_,- _;__~ _-_-~
MANGROVE

ECOSYSTEMS

Ott

Nov

1996
1997
1998

2000
1999

Dee

and Satkbira
-I__ .--~~~~ ---x.--L-

Figure 22 : Satellite image of the Sundarbans forest near Shyamnagar

showing forest encroachment during 1975 (tandsat MSS)
R$574f

CASE

STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANS

MANGROVE

ECOSYSTEMS

Figure 23 : Satellite image of the Sundarbans forest near Shyamnagar

showing shrimp area expansion within the forest during
1998 (Landsat TM)

22fZ WW

rf4

221C xr-N

it6?3lrE

84-645-F

BOfbwF

695*l~,E

Source: SPARRSO Report on Study on Owwdation of Mangrovs Forest Due to Shrimp Farming
Using Remote Sensing and GIS in the Bangladesh Coastal Rqion, 2001

~
CASE

STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANS

MANGROVE

ECOSYSTEMS

Soil salinity is the most dominant factor determining crop production in the Ganges tidal floodplain,
where dry season cropping is handicapped by increased levels of soil and water salinity. Conversely,
salinity was also the single important factor contributing
for brackish water shrimp cultivation.
Increased salinity levels during normal peak periods (March-May), and beyond the peak periods
were reported (SRDI, 2001; Rahman and Ahsan, 2001; DoF, 2001) in soil, river water, groundwater
and pond water.
Increased pond and groundwater
water supply (Plate 6).

problems

for irrigation

and drinking

and other diseases in both

Increased salinity was also reported to be responsible for top-dying of Sundri (Heretiera
and other forest tree species (Plate 8) (Bhuiyan, 1994; Grepin, 1995).

spp.)

Fertilizer and insecticide use in modern agricultural practices have caused pollution of soil and
water resources leading to adverse impacts on soil/aquatic flora and fauna. Fishing with poisons
and insecticides within forested area is another major problem with adverse impacts on ecology
and biodiversity of the Sundarbans. Groundwater contamination
due to use of agro-chemicals accumulation of N and P, and toxic residues of certain pesticides are reported (FAO/UNDP, 1998),
leading to eutrophication
of rivers/toxic effects on the food chain. At least five insecticides were
identified which were already banned for their high toxic effect on health and environment.
With introduction of modern methods of rice cultivation and brackish water shrimp cultivation,
it is anticipated that within next 5-10 years no local rice variety will be used in the region. Apart
from the loss of valuable rice germplasm, crisis in availability of thatching materials, fodder, and
biomass fuel are anticipated.
Shrimp cultivation
has also reduced areas under vegetables,
sesame, jute, linseed, and other minor non-cereal crops.
Increased salinity has resulted in growth retardation,
non-bearing,
premature fruit crop, and
even death of the tree species dependent upon sweet water availability. Adverse impacts on
homestead plantation has increased the dependence of the people for food, timber, fodder and
biomass fuel on the Reserve Forest.
Decline in sweet water has been suggested
diversity including birds.
Sectors

A number

has also caused problems

Salinity caused severe fodder crisis as well as intestinal

human and livestock (Plate 7).

Other

salinity

Affecting

the Ecology

of other factors determine

to have contributed

to declining

plant,

animal

of the Sundarbans:
damage to the Sundarbans

ecosystem:

Engineering structures were constructed in the coastal region in the 1960s to protect agricultural
crops from intrusion of saline water. The impact of this was siltation of the major rivers in the
Sundarbans region (FAO/UNDP, 1998). These structures also encouraged unplanned growth of
shrimp cultivation, connectivity between village agro-ecosystems
which in turn caused ecological
degradation and declining coastal fish resources (Islam et al., 1998).
The restriction on the flow of Ganges river through the Farakka Barrage built during the 1960s
had its major impact on the Sunderbans (Islam et a/., 1998). It caused reduction of sweet water
flow through the rivers. The top-dying of Sundri tree is perceived to be due to the reduction of
sweet water flow.
Industrial setups in the upstream areas of the Sundarbans were also responsible for the ecosystems
damage. The wastewater discharges by these industries and factories were also responsible for
water pollution which were being carried to the Sundarbans through the Passur-Shibsha river
systems (ESCAP, 1987; Wahid, 1995).

-*_..-.^x__..___^______._,.__x,~_
-...- .l~-~.~.i~~~~~-~-n-^--l---.I. . _-__.
.._. .,....--.x.x..
--_---_.-_-~_--,-.-__;_- _-.- -~~.-_.^x.-I--.I....--_-._^___I____
CASE

STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANS

MANGROVE

ECOSYSTEMS

Oil pollution is another factor adversely affecting the environment of Sundarbans (Wahid, 1995;
Grepin, 1995). Oil slicks derived from mechanized boats, fishing trawlers, passenger boats and
ships cause damage to the plant saplings and fauna1 species (Lewis, 1983). Seedlings of Heritiera
and Excoecaria are found to be very sensitive to oil pollution.

Socio-economic

Issues

Brackish water shrimp cultivation brought major changes in the socio-economic

rural communities which included increased social conflicts and social disharmony,
food security system in the region.

settings of the
and fragility to

Shrimp farms forced the rice growers within or alongside these shrimp farms to convert
paddy land into shrimp farms, having no scope for rice growing in the area.
In the case of joint venture farms, social conflicts were : deprivation
choices, problems of joint-ownership
of lands, right to share benefits
harassment of poorer sections of the society, etc. by the rich and influential
1998).

their

of individual land use

equitably, court cases,
partners (Nuruzzaman,

In case of leasing arrangements,

the major social impact is denial of the right benefit defined in
the lease agreement, deprivation of terminal benefits, undue delays in shrimp harvest which
hampered rice transplanting
schedule, etc.
Decrease in coverage areas of rice and other crops including vegetables due to the expansion of
shrimp coverage resulted in lesser production of these commodities in the region, leading their
areas to food deficit areas. Declining livestock and poultry lead to shortages in meat, milk, egg,
etc. This apart from reduced income of certain resource-poor groups, particularly small, marginal
and landless groups.
Considerable amounts of rice, vegetables, livestock products and other agricultural commodities
were being imported from other areas to meet food demand. This resulted in the higher price of
essential commodities compared to other areas of the region. The resource-poor communities were
the worst sufferers. Change in food habits of resource poor groups were also observed, as a
consequence.
Intensive shrimp cultivation
by outsiders lead to surplus labour and unemployment
problem,
these farms being now owned by rich outsiders. These farm operators often imported cheap
labour from outside the region, aggravating social tension.
The end results of increased social conflicts and social disharmony in the environment were: fragile
food security, eviction from land, surplus labour, unemployment,
increase in cost of livelihood,
leading to a vicious poverty cycle. The ultimate outcome was the increased dependency on the
and more degradation
arising therefrom,
as
natural resources of the Sundarbans ecosystem,
revealed through the study. Shrimp cultivation did not bring any benefits to the livelihood of the
rural communities,
rather jeopardized the socio-economic settings of the whole communities,
and
at the same time it turned out to be the major factor responsible for increased degradation of the
Sundarbans.
It was difficult to recommend protection measures from the findings of a short duration study. Still
some guidelines were put forward for consideration to combat the whole range of issues encountered
during this study.

CASE

STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANS

MANGROVE

ECOSYSTEMS

Policy

Issues

Formulation of laws and regulations to restrict

to agricultural as well as forest lands.

Expand the areas under protected

Shrimp cultivation

water bodies and mangrove

and to reduce encroachments

ecosystems.

Promote interdisciplinary
efforts involving governmental
and non-governmental
agencies to
conserve natural resources and create awareness on the adverse impacts of present unsustainable
systems of Shrimp cultivation,
fishing, shrimp fry collection, and NTFP harvests.

Empowering the Department

of Fisheries
resources inside the Sundarbans.

Creating alternate employment and/or

reduce dependency on the forest.

Management
Issues
Enforcement of licensing

to popularize

system for establishing

rice-fish

culture

management

Restriction

on using of fine mesh nets and insecticides

Arrange

regular training

Salinity

tolerant

Strict control

Replanting
Enforcement

hatcheries

on the improved

regarding

and riverside

and regeneration

regarding

(Sweet Water Shrimp).

fry production

methods

should be developed

of laws and regulations

locally.

and introduced.

in rice fields and shrimp farms.

to be developed

in the degraded

regarding

and fishing.

for fishing

inside the SRF.

(IPM) packages.

programmes

programmes

areas.

of shrimp fry and fishes,

the lethal impacts of using insecticides

forestry

the layout of the

for shrimp fry collection

to encourage

and insecticides

pest management

as well as joint

beyond season and from protected

catching

varieties

on the use of fertilizers

of integrated

Social forestry

and fishing

crop and vegetable

Massive campaign
Development

shrimp

systems,

by using Golda Shrimp

on shrimp fry collection

of sufficient

the fishery

of Shrimp farms.

Restriction

Establishment

as well as control

in case of land leasing arrangements,

Bringing the Shrimp farms under improved

farms and management practices.
Initiatives

manage

income sources for the resource poor groups in order to

Laws to protect small farmers interests

venture farms for shrimp cultivation.

to monitor,

for the region.

forest areas.

illegal logging

and hunting.

Conclusions
Through this study many key issues have been identified which are linked with a steady decline in the
Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) base of the local communities. This in turn has been responsible
for declining quality of life for the local people. It was felt necessary to monitor various environmental
parameters over time and space, to get a better understanding of the issues involved. The ultimate
message arising from this study is that shrimp cultivation
in the Sunderbans be restricted to
sustainable levels, if not abandoned altogether. For meeting with the livelihood needs of the local
people, and to provide them with a better quality of life, it is important to build upon their local
knowledge base with appropriate input from formal knowledge base and technologies. Conservation
of this critical ecosystem should be based on a better understanding
of the functioning
of this
unique socio-ecological
system.
_^_...----
..---^-n_.^
,( I. I- .---- ^^. .. I.
.._. ;^_~-__x____
_...
^-_-.I. ..I. -I_^-- ---._r_^^___.~
CASE

STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANS

MANGROVE

ECOSYSTEMS

-. ., ..._ . --__-__,...,.
-- .l_m_l,

. ..__..^.._.^
m

References
Ajiki, K. 1985. The decreases of mangrove forests and its effect on local peoples lives in the Philippines,
pp. 51-54. In: Kikuchi, T. (ed.), Rapid Sea Level Rise and Mangrove Habitat. Institute for Basin
Ecosystem Studies, Gifa University, Gifa.
BARC. 1998. Changes in Cropping Patterns in Bangladesh over last two decades. Pp. 10.
BARC. 1997. Fertilizer Recommendation
Guide. Bangladesh Agricultural
Research Council,
Bangladesh.
Bhuiyan, M.R. 1994. Draft Final Report of the Soil Scientist,
Integrated Resource Development of the Sundarbans Reserved

Dhaka,

FAO/UNDP Project BGD/84/056,

Forest. Khulna, Bangladesh.

Canonizado, J.A. and Hossain, M.A. 1998. Integrated Forest Management Plan for the Sundarbans
Reserve Forest. GOB/WB Forest Resources Management Project Technical Assistance Component.
Chantarasri, S. 1994. Draft Report on Fisheries Resources Management for the Sundarbans Reserved
Forest, FAOP/UNDP Project BGD/84/056, Integrated Resource Development of the Sundarbans Reserved
Forest, Khulna, Bangladesh.
DoF. 2001. Office Records on monthly
Shyamnagar, Satkhira.

river water salinity

monitoring.

Department

of

Fisheries,

ESCAP 1987. Coastal Environment and Management Plan for Bangladesh; United Nations Social Commission
for Asia and the Pacific, Bangmkok, Thailand. Publication No. 81/ESCAP/618.
FAO/UNDP. 1998. Integrated Resource Development
Vol. 1, 1998. FAO/UNDP, Dhaka.

of the Sundarbans

Reserved Forest, Bangladesh.

Grepin, G. 1995. 1995. Draft Final Report on Mangrove Ecology. FAO/UNDP Project BGD/84/056, Integrated
Resource Development of the Sundarbans Reserved Forest. Khulna, Bangladesh.
Hossain, 2. and Acharya, G. 1994. Mangroves
Wetlands Programme, IUCN, Thailand.

of the Sundarbans.

Vol. 2: Bangladesh.

The IUCN,

Islam, M.A., Awal, S., Rahman, M.S., and Miah, M.A.H. 1998. The effects of human interventions
on
the fisheries resources of Ganges Floodplains and the Sundarbans Estuary. Proc. National Seminar on
Integrated Management of Ganges Floodplains and Sundarbans Ecosystem, 16-18 July, 1994, Khulna,
Bangladesh. Pp. 112-122.
Islam, M.S. and Saha, U.K. 1998. Integraed
Bangladesh. Proc.

nutrient

IUCN. 1994. Towards Sustainable Development:

Ministry of Environment and Forest, Government

management

of Gangetic

The National Conservation

of Bangladesh.

Floodplain

Strategy

Soils of

of Bangladesh,

Lewis, R.R. 1983. Impact of oil spills on mangrove forest, biology and ecology of mangroves.
Vegetation Science. H.J. Teas (ed), Vol. 8.

Tasks for

Mazid, M.A. 1998. Status and Potential of Shrimp Farming in Khulna Region. Proc. National Seminar
on Integrated Management of Ganges Floodplains and Sundarbans Ecosystem, 16-18 July, 1994,
Khulna, Bangladesh. Pp. 133-140.

I.._

-.

CASE

.-

_--_.-__^

STUDIES

I._.

..

-.

.^

ON SUNDERBANS

--

-_

--.(^I-.

__fi__x___.

MANGROVE

-...

l._ix.--.-.l-

ECOSYSTEMS

.-

.---

--.-

,x.--^,-..-

.~

-n_l_l-~.-

-_.__

~,

-_..-

..

..-

.-_._

Nuruzzaman, A.K.M. 1998. Floodplain Fisheries of Southwest

Seminar on Integrated
Management of Ganges Floodplains
July, 1994, Khulna, Bangladesh. Pp. 92-111.

Region of Bangladesh. Proc. National

and Sundarbans Ecosystem, 16-18

Primavera, J.H. 2000. Philippine Mangroves: Threats and Sustainable Development.

Asia Pacific
Cooperation on Research for Conservation of Mangroves. Proc. International
Workshop, 26-30 March,
Okinawa, Japan. Pp. 206-220.
Rahman, M. and Ahsan, M. 2001. Salinity Constraints and Agricultural
of Bangladesh. Soil Resources in Bangladesh: Assessment and Utilization.
Institute,
Dhaka, Bangladesh.
Siddiqui,

A.S.M.H.

1998. Sundarbans

at a glance.

BFRI, Khulna,

Productivity in Coastal Area

Soil Resources Development

Bangladesh.

SPARRSO. 2001a. Report on Study on Denudation of Mangrove Forest Due to Shrimp Farming Using
Remote Sensing and GIS in the Bangladesh Coastal Region, 2001. Space Research and Remote
Sensing Organization,
Dhaka, Bangladesh.
SPARRSO. 2001b. Aman rice coverage area in the Khulna region during October 2000 (time integral
NOAA AVHRR NDVI images of 2, 3, 5, 19 and 31 October 2000. Space Research and Remote
Sensing Organization,
Dhaka, Bangladesh.
SRDI. 2001. Soil and Water Salinity Monitoring Report. Khulna Barisal Division, 1998-2000. Volume2 (Draft Report). Soil Resources Development Institute, Regional Office, Khulna, Bangladesh.
UNDP/FAO IRDP. 1995. In: Canonizado, J.A. and Hossain, M.A. 1998. Integrated Forest Management
Plan for the Sundarbans Reserve Forest. GOB/WB Forest Resources Management Project Technical
Assistance Component.
Wahid, S.M. 1995. Final Report on Hydrological Study of the Sundarbans.
84/056. Integrated Resource Development of the Sundarbans Reserved

CASE

STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANS

MANGROVE

ECOSYSTEMS

FAO/UNDP Project BGD/

Forest, Bangladesh.

List of Plates

Plate-l:

Typical view of shrimp

Plate 2: Shrimp fry collection

farm

by using fine mesh nets

~~
~-._^-.-~__I--._---t._

CASE

STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANS

..-

MANGROVE

.~------.-

--.-.---

-..-_

_._-.

. ..1-1.-

-.--__-

___-___I^

_~_^__________l____

.-_-__._____^__l__

~__

ECOSYSTEMS
m

-..

-_I.--

.----

-.

____I_____

Plate 3: Top dying of Palmyra

palm trees due to higher salinity
caused by shrimp cultivation

Plate 4: Damage
of rice due to
higher soil salinity
caused by shrimp
cultivation
in the
same land
_,-i__^.--~-.-_
CASE

STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANS

_t-_,-_-_~~~--.IIX
MANGROVE

-..- . .~_I

ECOSYSTEMS

Plate 5: Soil erosion within the Sundarbans principally due to increased

crowding by fishermen and fry collectors

Plate 6: Rainwater

CASE

STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANS

MANGROVE

harvesting in earthen pots due to severe

scarcity of drinking water

ECOSYSTEMS

Plate 7: Soil and water salinity caused severe fodder crisis and
health problems in livestock

Plate 8: Top-dying of Sundri trees which was principally

increased salinity in the Sundarbans

due to

-~...._.-._ -..l-.^~l.-~..... _ .-._____

_. .,,.. _ ^^_^..^.-.
.^.^^..,... ^^..
_^^-.... .^_i^^^.._.
x _ _ .I ...I I. ..-.---.- -.-_-,-,-...^_.
STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANS

MANGROVE

ECOSYSTEMS

ECOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

SUNDERBANS
BIOSPHERE
RESERVE

OF

- INDIA

BY
Sanjay

V. Deshmukhl,

T. Ananda

RaoZ & Amalesh

Choudhury3

lDirector (Research), Rambhau Mhalgi Prabodhini, Keshav Srushti

Uttan Village, Bhayander (W), Thane 401106, Maharashtra, India
E-mail: drsanjaydeshmukh@vsnl.com
2Scientist-in-charge,
Central

Karnataka Association for the Advancement

College, Bangalore 560001, Karnataka, India

3Founder Director,

of Science

S. D. Marine Biological Research Institute,

D-44, Choudhurybari,
P.O. Sodepur, 24- Paraganas (N) 743178, West Bengal, India
E-mail: amaleshchoudhury@hotmail.com
II-------II-IIII-II--IIII--11111--II11-1111-1111111111--111111

Amarabati

1. Introduction
As in most tropical regions, mangrove swamps in India is a seriously endangered and vanishing
ecosystem. The main threat comes from over-exploitation
through clear felling and land-reclamation,
and through Industrial pollution. Mangrove niches often compete for space for industrial complexes,
exploiting
biomining and mineral resources along Sea coast, and thus subject to considerable
developmental
pressures. The usual of land transformation
is through dredging, and conversion to
dry land, on which mangrove vegetation cannot survive. This is apart from natural forces such as
storms and hurricanes. Large-scale transformations
also occur through settlements created by the
humans, and through biomass extraction through stripping of leaves, removal of small branches
and even uprooting of trees. These coastal ecosystems are, however, important to meet the needs
of the rapidly increasing local human population, for conserving coastal and offshore fish and shelf
fish stocks, and for its wave-breaking
and shore protecting properties. With major gaps existing in
our understanding
of the coastal biodiversity and its role in ecosystem functioning,
it is important
that we take up comprehensive analysis of a Biosphere Reserve such as the Sunderbans mangrove
ecosystem, which has ecological value for protection of the ecosystem health of the coastal areas,
with concerns for the livelihood needs of local communities living in the area.
2. Conservation

Issues:

Historical

It was not until 1878 that a system for conservation and protection of the Sunderbans was set up
by classifying forests here as Reserved and Protected. Although this helped to protect forests to
some extent, those who had previously depended upon the resources were now legally restricted
against its use. With tightening of regulations by 1900 the laws surrounding forest usage became
stricter by 1900 and were extended to include poaching, although local villagers were allowed gun
licenses for the defence of their fields and livestock. A tradition contributing
to the rapid demise of
the game species was the shikar, or aristocratic hunt. As larger game species were heading for
extinction, the Forest Service closed some areas off to human use completely. Non-governmental
organizations
increasingly became more and more involved in conservation
issues.
With the aristocracy realising the value of conservation,
the total authority
held by the Rajahs
guaranteed enforcement of laws, which helped to a decline in the activity of the poachers in private
lands. The implementation
of Central government
laws upon public forest lands was much more
difficult. However, subsequent to World War I lead to increase in poaching, arising out of improved
firepower. With the introduction of a National Park system, modelled upon western world perceptions,
India adopted a structure that did not offer solutions in dealing with the human and domesticated
animal populations already existing there. This was true for the Sunderbans as well.
CASE

STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANS

MANGROVE

ECOSYSTEMS

Resettling humans in the vicinity of mangrove niches proved to be a critical problem. In early
19OOs, Bakarganj was chosen as the District for human resettlement.
Earlier, in the 1870s, the
government had declared most of Khulnas Sunderbans under the category of Government Reserve
Forest. Therefore, Khulna remained untouched by settlers. Settlers found Bakarganj a well-drained
fertile land, less susceptible to tides, and salinity problems; therefore, by 1904, Bakarganj was over
90% settled and reclaimed
(Chaudhuri and Choudhury (1994).
The Sunderbans region has long been one of Indias last frontiers, an uninhabitable
thicket of
mangrove swampland separating the expanding Indian population from the Bay of Bengal. The
conversion of forested land into rice-paddy systems began long before the Muslim Indo-Turkish
sultans ruled Bengal from 1204 until 1575. Following this reign was that of the Muslim Mughals
which lasted until 1765, followed by the British rule. These foreign influences, particularly that of
the British, had adverse impact upon the Sunderban mangrove ecosystem.
The Wild Life Protection Act, 1972 adopted by the Central and most of the State governments,
banned killing of 61 endangered species, providing stiff penalties for offenders, thus laying the
legal framework for enforcement (Putman, 1976). A National Action Plan for Wildlife Conservation,
created in 1983, provided for: (a) the establishment of a representative
network of protected areas
ensured that all significant biogeographic regions of the country are covered; (b) provided for more
scientific
management/restoration
of protected
areas, (c) involving
local people in reserve
management
by combining wildlife protection with community
needs in multiple use areas; (d)
rehabilitation
of endangered
and threatened
species, including captive breeding programs for
reintroduction;
environmental
awareness designed for a variety of actors involved, including the
people living in and around the parks, and the general public; (e) research and monitoring.
In 1970, India had 10 Parks and 127 Sanctuaries. The Forest Conservation Act of 1980 created
more parks and sanctuaries. By 1990, India had 66 Parks and 300 Sanctuaries (Sutton, 1990). The
objective was protection of at least 40% of the countrys total land area, equally distributed throughout
India, to insure the survival of both flora and fauna. Though a good framework for conservation is
in place, enforcement itself is an issue.
3. Traditional

Livelihood

Patterns

of Local

Communities

Except for the Pods and Chandals, little is known of the Sunderbans indigenous human population.
However, temporary
fishing camps were established,
on islands such as Jambudwip (Bulberry
Island), every season in order to ensure a fresh supply of fish to the markets. These camps were set
up bringing fishermen from villages, sometimes from parts as far away as Bangladesh. Although
fishing was not regarded as being as worthy an occupation as was rice cultivation,
it has always
provided an important source of food in the Bengali diet. Fishing also ensured the survival of those
who were landless, for whom it was the only possible livelihood. In any case, living in the Sunderbans
required a great deal of adaptability on the part of its human inhabitants.
With increasing external pressures, the Chandal in the East and the Pod in the West moved from
fishing to an economic activity that is predominantly
based on rice cultivation.
In any case, this
economic transformation
already started happening very early on; fishing was considered a lowly
activity. In the spiritual Manasa-mangal composed in 1495 by Vipradas, the snake-Goddess, Manasa,
was first accepted by the cowherds, then by the fishermen, and finally received the patronage from
the Brahmin priests.
Traditionally the local communities depended upon fishing as an economic activity for meeting their
livelihood needs. During the period of the Muslim rule and subsequently
during the time of the
British, there was a gradual shift towards agriculture partly through governmental
incentives, and
partly because lagoons previously laden with fish eventually dried up as the major rivers washed
deposits of silt downstream.
By 1770, land tenures were given to the Bengalis who could reclaim
land for cultivation. Cultivation included a variety of crops such as date. mango, coconut, areca nut,
~X._^_....

CASE

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STUDIES

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ON SUNDERBANS

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MANGROVE

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ECOSYSTEMS

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jackfruit, and a variety of vegetables; however, these were grown mainly for personal consumption.
Organization of rice fields lead to further refinement of aquaculture techniques with some cultivators
culturing prawns and fish in the flooded rice fields. Gradual deterioration
of the mangrove forests
over a period of time lead to the extinction of wildlife such as the Two-horned Rhinoceros, the Indian
Cheetah, the Golden Eagle, and the Pink-headed Duck, all species indigenous to the Sunderbans.
With the establishment
of the Indian Forest Service in 1865, the forest department was charged
with the responsibility
of profitable timber extraction,
preservation of the remaining forests, and
meeting with the villagers subsistence needs. The higher authorities,
due to high revenue that
accrued to the government
exchequer, rewarded this commercial function of timber. Apart from
being ill-equipped
to understand
and meet the needs of resident peasants and tribals of the
Sunderbans, the role of the foresters in this regard was exacerbated by their colonial mentality
(Tikader, 1942).
4. Sunderbans

as a Biosphere

Reserve

As a part of the National Man and Biosphere Programme (MAB) of the Ministry of Environment and
Forests, Government of India established through a notification in 1989, the Sunderbans Biosphere
Reserve in West Bengal. The core area of the Biosphere Reserve is part of the World Heritage Sites
of UNESCO, since 1989. Also, Sunderbans was included in UNESCOs World Network of Biosphere
Reserves in September 2001. The Biosphere Reserve (BR) covers the largest inter-tidal
area
formed due to the merging of two mighty rivers - the Ganga and the Brahmaputra in the Bengal
basin, with a common delta region, which is one of the worlds largest, spreading across India and
Bangladesh. It is an ecologically active zone, the dynamic nature being due to shifts in river flows
and riverine island formation, covering an area of 26,000 km2.
The Indian part of the Sunderbans covers an area of 9630 km2, with two Districts of the State of
West Bengal, namely, 24 Paraganas, North and South. Spread across about 102 islands of which, 54
are under human habitation. They are separated by many rivulets and tidal creeks (Chaudhuri and
Choudhury, 1994). Conversion of the mangrove forests for human settlements
has been an ongoing process since the 18th century, which now covers a substantial area (5430 km2). In spite of
this, large stretches of intact mangrove forests still exist, as part of the Project Tiger, Managed
since 1869, the earliest mangrove ecosystem that came under management,
is a habitat for a
number of endangered species, notably for the Tiger and the Salt-water Crocodile. Rich in biodiversity
due to a variety of habitats - beaches, estuaries, mangrove swamps, tidal flats and creaks, coastal
sand dunes, etc. With a humid tropical maritime climate and with an annual rainfall ranging
between 1650-1800 mm, violent storms are frequent in the pre-monsoon and post-monsoon periods,
which often turn into cyclones accompanied by large tidal waves.
The soils have their origin in the Ganga, Bhagirathi, as well as the Hoogly River systems, with Ganga
bringing in much of the silt. A rapid phase of growth of the delta occurred till the 12th century, when
Ganga changed its course eastwards into the present day Bangladesh. This diversion of Ganga into
Padma deprived the forest area from fresh water and has changed the forest structures.
The
Biosphere Reserve comprises of alluvial clay, salt and sand particles, with sand becoming predominant
along the sea face, with three zones, namely, (a) Open sea inter-tidal zone, (b) Mixed inter-tidal
zone, and (c) Estuarine inter-tidal zone. Soils are neutral to slightly alkaline on the islands, with
organic carbon ranging from 0.26% - 1.86%. Good forest cover exists along the Hooghly-Malta
estuarine complex. The main estuaries that run north to south are Saptamukhi, Thakuran, Malta,
Bidya, Ajmatmari,
Bidyadhari, Gosaba, Kalindi and Raimangal. With an average tidal amplitude
varying between 3.5 to 5.0 m, and extensive reclamation of river bank, the changed topography has
constricted the area of silt deposition, leading to sediment accumulation in the river bed itself, thus
raising the level of the river and making it more prone to flooding.
Along the north-south
profile the important geomorphic units are: (a) distributory
channels, (b)
marginal marshy area, (c) tidal sand bars and islands, (d) sub-aqueous distal bars, and (e) pro~-I^___x-_~I^____.,-~

CASE

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STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANS

____119_.

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MANGROVE

.I-

ECOSYSTEMS

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delta clays and silts. The islands and sandbars are perpendicular to the shoreline and parallel to the
direction of tidal flow. The delta experiences strong and weak tidal currents during February-May
and winter months respectively. During the monsoon, the drainage pattern is determined by the
interaction of headwater discharge and tides. On such occasions, interesting phenomenon is the
subsidence of parts of Sunderbans causing disappearance of forest and settlement areas.
The following Sanctuaries and National Parks established prior to the formation
Biosphere Reserve itself, now form an integral part of the Biosphere Reserve:
Haliday

Island

Wildlife

of the Sunderbans

Sanctuary:

Haliday Island Wildlife Sanctuary, which is located on an area of 5.95 km2. was established in June,
1976. The forests are classed as tropical evergreen coastal mangrove. The forest has Ceriops
interspersed with sparse stands of Excoecaria agallocha and Phoenix paludosa. A scrubby growth of
Avicennia
officinalis
and Sonneratia
apetala occurs sporadically.
Spotted Deer (Axis axis), Wild Boar (Sus scrofa) and Rhesus Macaque (Macaca mullata) are dominant
animals. The tiger (Panthera
tigris tigris) is also occasionally sighted. There is abundance of fish
species and among the reptiles, Chelonia mydas occurs offshore. Haliday Island is a nesting site for
Sea Turtles and estuarine Crocodiles.
Lothian

Island

Wildlife

Sanctuary:

This island, covering an area of 38,00 km2, was created as a sanctuary in 1948 and renotified in
1976. Situated at the confluence of Saptamukhi and the Bay of Bengal, the ground level is high in
the southern part of the island, while in northern areas the land is low. Avicennia
officinalis
is the
dominant species, Excoecaria agallocha and Heritiera fomes are sparsely distributed and Ceriops is
found scattered all over the island.
Spotted Deer (Axis axis), Wild Boar (Sus scrofa),
and Rhesus Macaques (Macaca mullata)
common. Various species of water birds are sighted all year round; migratory birds during
winter season are common.. Crocodiles are found, and the area provides a nesting site for
Turtles. The Bhagabatpur crocodile farm is located on Lothian island and has successfully reared
released a number of Crocodiles and Sea Turtles.
Sajnakhali

Wildlife

are
the
Sea
and

Sanctuary:

Sajnakhali wildlife sanctuary covers an area of 362,40 km2. Declared as a sanctuary in 1960 and
later re-notified in 1976, this sanctuary falls under the jurisdiction of Project Tiger. The forest cover
consists of scrubs of Ceriops, mixed with stunted Excoecaria.
There are some Sonneratia
apetala,
Xylocarpus
granatum
and Xylocarpus
mekongensis,
and thickets of Phoenix paludosa in the upper
intertidal region, while Avicennia
officinalis
is observed along the banks of creeks and rivers.
Sajnakhali was long renowned as a bird sanctuary and has remained an important breeding site for
many years for several species of migratory and resident birds. All the wildlife species found in the
Sunderbans occur, except for the Sea Turtles.
Project

Tiger

National

Park:

Alarmed by the steep decline in the Tiger population, (Panthera

tigris tigris) killing of Tigers was
prohibited in 1970, followed by a ban on all hunting. A countrywide tiger census in 1972 revealed
that the species count was down to less than 2,000, an alarming decline from an estimated 40,000
at the turn of the present Century. Armed with Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, Project Tiger was
launched in 1973. Presently there are 18 Tiger Reserves in 13 States across the country, covering
a total area of 28,017 km2 with 12,634 km2 as part of the core. Project Tiger is a comprehensive
collective programme with protection afforded to Tiger population within the natural ecosystem,
taking into consideration the livelihood needs of local communities living in close proximity.

CASE

STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANS

MANGROVE

ECOSYSTEMS

The Sunderbans Project Tiger initially started in 1973 covered 2585 km2 of area with a core of 1,330
km2, with an additional 241 km2 demarcated as a subsidiary wilderness zone. The core area was
later declared as a National Park. Under the overall supervision of a Field Director, the number of
Tigers in the Sunderbans Project Tiger area increased from 205 to 251 in the year between 19791993, though the experts in the area express some doubts about the numbers. The core area of
Project Tiger was declared a National Park in 1989. The pristine wilderness of this area and the
important role it plays in the survival of the Bengal Tiger has earned it UNESCOs recognition as a
World Heritage site.
5. Ecological
Ecological

and Biodiversity

Attributes:

characterization:

Mangroves of Sunderbans cover an area of approximately

400,000 hectares of forest of mosaic
system gradients, reflecting different types of adaptive radiations in fauna1 and floral diversity. The
recent work on the mangroves of the floral and fauna1 taxa of the mangrove habitats of the Sunderbans
by Chaudhuri and Choudhury (1994) is an important contribution
to conservation
of mangrove
systems.
Mangrove formation is a unique tropical phenomenon, which is unique for their survival. Apart from
external adaptive and internal structural features, physiological
adaptation is to tolerate salinity
stress and survive in waterlogged anaerobic soil.
Classification

of the mangrove

system:

Over the years, many workers have attempted to categories the forest types of the Sunderbans
based upon a system of classification,
mostly on physiognomy, climate or inundation levels. Prain
(1903) divided the entire Sunderbans
into three zones, namely (i) southern coastal strip and
South-western
part consisting of mangrove species, (ii) central zone of Heritiera
fames, and (iii)
north-eastern
part of Savannah type vegetation. The Indian Sunderbans falls in the first category,
with many different species at different locations (Box 1).
Box 1. Diversity
I

Fresh

in species composition

mud-band

of rivers:

Banks of larger
Rhizophora

I
0

rivers:

at diverse

Sonneratia

Bruguiera

habitats

(Prain,

1903).

apetala.

gymnorrhiza,

Ceriops

decandra,

Kandelia

candel

and

mucronata.

Banks of smaller

canals:

Phoenix

paludosa,

Sonneratia

Banks

of narrow

channels:

(!

Banks

of narrowest

Aegiceras
corniculatum,
Cerbera odollam,
caseolaris
and Xylocarpus
granatum.
Aegiceras

channels:

and Brownlowia

corniculatum

Nypa

Dalbergia

spinosa,

tersa.

fruticans.

Troup (1921) stressed that certain edaphic features prevent the development of the climatic climax,
and the available vegetation types in the Biosphere Reserve at best could be considered as edaphic
climax only, the obvious examples being the mangrove tidal forests of the estuarine ecosystems.
However, the classification
of Curtis (1933) is based on eco-physiological
characteristics
of the
floristic composition of the Sunderbans forests. He divided the Sunderbans into three mangrove
forests types: (i) freshwater forest, (ii) moderately
intense saltwater forest, and (iii) saltwater
forest, with diverse species composition (Box 2).
Champion (1936) classified the tidal forests under primary seral type of moist tropical seral formations
and did not regard the mangrove as a climax or pre-climax forest types. He divided the forests of
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STUDIES

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ON SUNDERBANS

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MANGROVE

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Box 2. Species composition

0 Freshwater
forest:
fomes and Xylocarpus
0 Moderately

salt

Sonneratia

0 Salt

apetala

water

Excoecaria

a)

Amoora
cucullata,
granatum.

water:
Bruguiera
and Xylocarpus

forest:

Acanthus
Rhizophora

agallocha.

the Sunderbans
Mangrove

based on salt-tolerance

of mangrove

Ceriops

decandra,

gymnorrhiza,
mekongensis.

Ceriops

ilicifolius.
apiculata,

Aegialitis
Sonneratia

species

Cynometra
decandra,

ramiflora,
Excoecaria

Heritiera
agallocha.

rotundifolia,
Avicennia
apetala and Xylocarpus

officinalis,
mekongensis.

forest and (ii) Tree mangrove

forest, and

region into:
forests consisting

of (i) Low mangrove

forest consisting

b) Heritiera
fomes
fomes forest.

of (iii) saltwater

Heritiera

fomes

and (iv) freshwater

Heritiera

The Indian Sunderbans fall under categories (i) and (ii) while the Sunderbans forests in Bangladesh
are considered to be representative
of types (iii) and (iv) (Chaudhuri and Choudhury, 1994).
Champion and Seth (1968) made one of the most comprehensive
assessments of the vegetation
communities
of the Indian Sunderbans. They divided the forest into categories based on broad
characteristics
of physiognomy
and structure.
The communities
were defined irrespective
of
physiographic,
edaphic or biotic factors, though some communities may be clearly associated with
definite site factors. Two types of forests, namely littoral forests and tidal swamp forests were
recognized, each with differences in composition
(Box 3). Chaudhuri and Chakraborty
(1973a,

Box 3. Vegetation
A. Littoral

composition

forests

extend

in littoral

and tidal swamp forest (Champion

over a limited

area:

Class I: With species such as Dolichandrone

Ixora araborea,
Tamarix troupii,
Thespesia,
Vitex trfolia.

Class II: comprised of Acanthus

and Saccharum
sponteneusm.

B. Tidal

swamp

a. Mangrove
rotundifolia,

forests

scrub

forest

Avicennia

forest

officinalis,
Xylocarpus

d. Brackish
gymnorrhiza,

Crotolaria

Erythrina
variegata,
Hibiscus tiliaceus
Trewia neudiflora,
Vitex negundo
and

spp. Lippia

with Class I and Class Ii comprised

Ceriops
of Acanthus

decandra,
ilicifolius

STUDIES

Porteresia

mangrove

coarctata

forests:

of species such as Aegialites

Excocecaria
agallocha
and Phoenix
and Brownlowia
lanceolata.

paludosa

of Avicennia
alba, Bruguiera
gymnorrhiza,
Ceriops decandra,
agallocha,
Kandelia
candel,
Lumnitzera
racemosa,
Rhizophora
apiculata,
Sonneratia
apetala,
Xylocarpus
granatum
and X.

mixed forest comprising of Aegialites

rotundifolia,
Amoora cucullata,
Avicennia
Bruguiera
gymnorrhiza,
Ceriops decandra,
Excoecaria
agallocha,
Heritiera
fomes,
and Nypa fruticans
and finally.
mekongensis
water

mixed

Heritiera

forest

fomes,

with class I comprising

Sonneratia

apetala,

ON SUNDERBANS

MANGROVE

ECOSYSTEMS

of Avicennia
officinalis,
Bruguiera
and Xylocarpus
mekongensis.

S. caseolaris

~~~xI_

CASE

geminata,

comprising

Ceriops
tagal, Excoecaria
mucronata,
Rhizophora
mekongensis.

c. Saltwater

spathacea,
populnea,

by high tides, which comprise following

alba,

and Class IV comprised

b. Mangrove

iliciflius,

inundated

and Seth, 1968).

~--_I
m

1973b, 1973c) divided the Mangrove forest into four types based on tidal level as (i) high tide, (ii)
above general tide level, (iii) frequently inundated by salt water and (iv) below tide level.
According to Blasco (1975), the spatial zonation suggested by Champion and Seth (1968) is not
practical because it does not consider the anthropogenic
and biotic factors (Box 4). Sidhu (1963)
pointed out that as a result of constant biotic interference
species of Acanthus
and Avicennia
generally occupy the affected regions as pioneer species.
Box 4. Spatial zonation
Back-mangrove
enerme,
Aegialitis

of vegetation

(Euhaline

Salicornia
rotundifolia

zone)

based on anthropogenic
found

on the

and biotic factors (Blasco, 1975).

riverbank,

brachiata,
Sesuvium
portulacastrum,
and Aegiceras
corniculatum.

Suaeda

Dense mangrove
consisting
of various species of plants.
trees of lo-15
m height,
440 shrubs of 4-8 m height
measuring less than 4 m in height.
Tall, dense trees of Heritiera
Brackish water
limited area.

fomes

of mixed

Palm swamps consisting

with their primary

Heritiera

fomes

of pure Phoenix

forest

consisting

maritime,

S. nudiflora,

One hectare may contain 12

and 2,200 of under growth

associate
with

of Clerodendrum

Excoecaria

Rhizophora

agallocha.

species

over

a very

paludosa.

Naskar and Guha Bakshi (1982) grouped the forests into five major zones as: (i) Sea- face or beach
forest, (ii) formative
island flora, (iii) flora of reclaimed land and low-lying areas, (iv) flora of
riverbanks and (v) swamp forest. Psammophytic plants due to the dryness of the sandy soil here
dominate the first category, with many dunes. The flora of the formative island:s consists mainly of
Porteresia

coarctata,

Suaeda

maritima,

Suaeda

nudiflora,

Phragmites

karka,

Acanthus

ilicifolius,

and a few tree species such as Avicennia,

Sonneratia
and Excoecaria spp. The reclaimed areas are
dominated by mesophytic flora, whilst the last two zones dominated by halophytic species.
Chaudhuri and Choudhury (1994) have recorded 36 species of Eumangroves (real mangroves with
clear-cut adaptive features), 25 species of mangrove associates of the obligatory kind, and many
facultative types and a few Euhaline (generally rocky and sandy substratum with salinity ranging
from 30 to 40 ppt) species. A detailed description of these species observed in 22 forest blocks
along with environmental
parameters and the associated biota is also provided by them.
Recently Rao and Suresh (2001) have introduced a more realistic classification for the mangrove
species, as they exist in nature to sort out their occurrence as a system of gradients under three
categories. Eumangroves are the real mangroves with clear-cut adaptive morphological
features
both external as well as internal. They have viviparous mode of germination,
pneumatophores
of
different shapes and sizes, aerial roots with lenticels and foliar glands. Internally, they have xeric
features and idioblasts of different categories like, crystals, tannins, sclereids, etc., which are very
helpful as an aid to diagnose the species. In nature, unless not disturbed, mangroves occur in strips
corresponding
to the salinity levels, with specificity for different mangrove taxa (Box 5).

CASE

STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANS

MANGROVE

ECOSYSTEMS

-..._.

Box 5. A habitat gradient

0

linked classification

of mangrove

vegetation

(Rao and Suresh, 2001).

Eumangroves:
Acanthus
ilicifolius,
A. volubilis,
Aegiceras
corniculatum,
Aegialitis
rotundifolia,
Avicennia
alba, A. marina, A. officinalis,
Bruguiera
cylindrica,
B. gymnorrhiza,
B. sexangula,
B. parviflora,
Ceriops
decandra,
Excoecaria
agallocha,
Kandelia
candel,
Lumnitzera
racemosa,
Rhizophora
apiculata,
R. mucronata,
Sonneratia
apetala, S. caseolaris,
Xylocarpus
grannatum,
X. mekongennsis.
The second category of mangrove vegetation comprises of mangrove-associated
biota. They
are of two types: obligatory or facultative assembly of species, tolerating different degrees
of salinity in the mangrove habitat. The obligatory types are all salt tolerant plants without
any external, spot characters. Their occurrence in Sunderbans area is more in terms of
species counts. The other type of species assembly belongs to the facultative
category
where ecological amplitude of the species extends from coast to inland. They thrive well
under saline or non-saline soils. Based on this view, the Sunderbans mangrove flora is
categorized below:

Mangrove
associates
(Obligatory
types): Amoora cucullata,
Brownlowia
tersa, Cerbera
odollam,
Cynometra
ramiflora,
Dalbergia
spinosa,
Derris
scandens,
D. umbellatum,
Dolichandrone
spathacea,
E. bicolour, Finalaysonia
obovata, Heritiera fomes, Hibiscus tiliaceus,
H. tortuousus,,
Nypa fruticans,
Phoenix paludosa,
Tamarix dioica.

Facultative
Types: Avicennia
catharitica,
Cyperus excaltatus,
curassavicum,
Hoya parasitica,

Euhaline

mangroves:

Salicornia
brachiata,
S&pus
triguetra,
Suaeda
logopoides,
Myriostachya
wightiana,
Porteresia
coarctata,
portulacastrum.

Aleuropus
Sesuvium

Biodiversity

lanata,
Ammannia
baccifera,
Caeslpinia
crista, Canavalia
Fimbristylis
halophia, Fimbristylis
Sub. bispicata, Heliotropium
Panicum repens, Paspalum
vaginatum,
Phragmites
karka.
maritima,
S. nudiflora
Sarcobolus
carinatus,

issues:

The Sunderbans Biosphere Reserve has 36 true mangrove species, 28 mangrove associates and 7
obligatory mangrove species. Phoenix paludosa
dominates the region with less tidal inundation;
elsewhere association of Ceriops decandra and Excoecaria are seen. Along riverbanks Avicennia and
Sonneratia
are seen. The other species are found scattered within the forest. Champion and Seth
(1968) divided the forest areas of Sunderbans into two divisions as Littoral forest and Tidal Swamp
forest. Naskar and Guha Bakshi (1982) have classified the forest into five zones as: Sea face or
beach forest, Formative island flora, Flora of reclaimed land, Flora of river banks and Swamp forests.
Naskar and Guha Bakshi (1987) have enumerated angiosperms from the lower Ganga Delta; Mandal
and Nandi (1989) have compiled an exhaustive list of fauna1 elements from Porifera to Mammals of
Sunderbans.
granatum
and Xylocarpus
mekongensis,
which were once very common mangrove
species of the Sunderbans,
are now sparsely distributed
due to poor regeneration
after felling.
There is a ban on felling of Nypa fruticans;
the only other area where this species is found to occur
naturally is Andaman Island in the Indian subcontinent.
Based on the present status, the mangrove
species that require immediate conservation measures have been identified as Aegiceras corniculatum,
Xylocarpus

Heritiera
fomes,
Sonneratia
alba,

Kandelia
candel,
Nypa fruticans,
Sonneratia
apetala and Sonneratia

Rhizophora
caseolaris.

Table 1 highlights the distribution

of plant species exclusive
with respect to their location in the inter-tidal region.

_xl-_________---~~~-.~.~---~~-~~--

~~-~

CASE

STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANS

to mangrove

--,--.--._-

MANGROVE

ECOSYSTEMS

mucronata,

Rhizophora

habitats

apiculata,

of Sunderbans

_^~~m

Table

1. List of plants

FAMILY

exclusive

to mangrove

AND NAME

habitats

of Sunderbans

COMMON ESTUARY
LOCATION

Biosphere

Reserve

HABITAT INTER-TIDAL
POSITION

ACANTHACEAE
Acanthus

ebracteatus

Acan thus

ilicifolius

Acan thus

volubilis

Vahl.

M,H

Li n n .

I,U

M/H

Wa II.

M,H

LM

Dr1

LM,H

M,H

Dr1

LM

M,H

M,H

LU

M,H

M,H

ARECACEAE
Nypa

(Thunb)

fruticans

Wurmb.

AVICENNIACEAE
Blume.

Avicennia

alba

Avicennia

marina

Avicennia

officinalis

(Forsk.)

Vieh.

Linn.

COMBRETACEAE
Lumnitzera

Willd.

racemosa

EUPHORBIACEAE
Excoecaria

Li nn .

agallocha

MELIACEAE,

TRIBE:

XYLOCARPAE
Koen.

Xylocarpus

granatum

Xylocarpus

mekongensis

(Prain)

Pierre

MYRSINACEAE
Aegiceras

(Linn.)

corniculatum

Blanc0

PLUMBAGINACEAE
Aegialitis

annulata

Aegialitis

rotundifolia

CASE

STUDIES

R.Br.

ON SUNDERBANS

Roxb.

MANGROVE

ECOSYSTEMS

FAMILY

AND NAME

COMMON ESTUARY
LOCATION

HABITAT INTER-TIDAL
POSITION

PTERIDACEAE
Acrostichum

aureum

Linn.

Acrostichum

speciosum

W i IId.

D,I

I RHIZOPHORACEAE

I
I

cylindrica

Bruguiera

gymnorrhiza

Bruguiera

parvifiora

BI. En.Pi.

(Linn.)

Savigny

(Griff.)

Ding Hou

decandra

Ceriops

tagal (Perr.) C.B. Rob

candel

(Roxb.) W.&R. ex Griff

Ceriops

Kandelia

(Linn.)

Bruguiera

(Linn.)

Druce.
BI.

Rhizophora

apiculata

Rhizophora

mucronata

Poir

D,I
D/I

M/H

LU

LM

RUBIACEAE

Scyphiphora

Sonneratia

alba

Sonneratia

apetala

Sonneratia

caseolaris

hydrophyllacea

Gaertn.

I SONNERATIACEAE
D

J. Smith
Buch.-Ham

L M

(Linn.)

STERCULIACEAE
Heritiera

fames

Heritiera

littoralis

Buch.-Ham.
Dt-yn.

TILIACEAE
f3rownlowia

______-

CASE

STUDIES

lanceolata

(Linn.)

xI_~~~

ON SUNDERBANS

MANGROVE

ECOSYSTEMS

Among the animals, the 1991 census of Tigers showed a population of nearly 550. This is the largest
single group found at one site anywhere in the world. Sunderbans also harbours many reptiles and
birds. Swamp Deer (Cervus devaucelli),
Hog Deer (Axis procinus),
Barking Deer (Muntiacus
muntiak),
Javan Rhino (Rhinoceros
sondaicus),
Wild buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) are considered to be extinct
from the Sunderbans, whereas the most vulnerable animals are Bengal Tiger, Leopard cat, Indian
Crested Porcupine, Chinese Pangolin, Swamp Partridge, Jungle Fowl, Python, King Cobra, Krate,
Viper, Olive Ridley Turtle and Estuarine Crocodile.
6. Socio-Ecological

History

Archaeological evidence suggests presence of human settlements in the region during the period
1500 - 4000 years BC, with active trade between Harrappan and Mohenjodaro civilizations. Records
of Greek and Chinese travellers contain references to the Kingdom of Gangaridi and the port of
Tamralipta. Huien Tsangs give an account of the fertile coastal land of Samatata, during his travels
of 629-641 AD. During the Gupta dynasty (320-540 AD), the area was under Buddhist influence;
this was followed by the Pal (760-1142 AD) and Sen (1118-1199 AD) dynasties. In the 13th century
the region was invaded by Muslim forces and then eventually came under Akbars rule. In 1757, the
Nawab of Bengal, Mir Jafar presented the 24-Parganas District to the British East India Company.
Reclamation of land and resettlement
history is given in (Box 6).

Box. 6. Reclamation

of land and resettlement

1829-30:
Lieutenant
boundary now known
leases were granted
settlements in Haroa,

history

Hodges and Commissioner

Dampier surveyed and defined the
as the Dampier Hodges line. Following this demarcation, systematic
to settlers from 1831-1833.
And Sunderbans
became open for
Minakhan, and Kakdwip and Patharpratima.

From 1830-1900's about 3737 km2 of a total forest area of 7,908 km;! was cleared for
cultivation and resettlement.
An estimate of 2783 km2 of area under cultivation has been
recorded in 1872. The 1904 estimate of total area settled was 5,158 km2.
From 1873 to 1939 reclamation of forest land for human inhabitation covered the whole
of Gosaba, Hingalgung,
Kakdwip, Kultachi, Mathurapur,
Namkhana,
Pathar Pratima,
Basanthi, Sagar and Sandheshkhali,
as well as the remaining areas of Canning.
The early settlers were migrants of tribal origin - basically the Bhumji, Mundas and
Oraon. Today these settlers are located in Sandeshkhali and Gosaba forest ranges. The
Santhals of Mayurbhang settled on Sagar Island, Patharpratima and Namkhana, Parr and
Puran. Under the Mugal rule a sizeable population was converted to Islam.

~
CASE

STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANS

MANGROVE

ECOSYSTEMS

The brief management history needs to be looked at in the context of reclamation and resettlement
history that would place the management issues themselves that need to be solved (Box 7).

Box 7. Management

history of the last four centuries

for the Sunderbans

Biosphere Reserve

Previous to 1658 the land was a common resource land, subjected to unrestricted use,
In 1658, Shah Sujah - a local King imposed a levy on the export of wood from the forest.

In 1757, the British East India Company suspended this levy and local landlords continued
to collect toll for forest products.

In 1853, 24 blocks of forest were leased for timber and the Canning company
the leases.

In 1869 the British Government resumed control of the forest. In 1878 the forests were
declared protected and in the following year a forest division was established.

As early as 1907, the Farringtons Working Scheme highlighted

the need to define
felling patterns. This was the first plan to ban the felling of certain mangrove species
such as Amoora, Bruguiera Heritiera, Sonneratia
and Xylocarpus.
The working plans that
followed laid stress on increased regeneration time and also allowed more mature trees
alone to be felled. The forest was brought under range and working circle management,
and a system of permits for timber extraction was developed.

After the partition of India (1947), the Forest Division adopted a felling cycle of 20
years. Fishing was allowed free in tidal waters, and fishing vessels were registered with
the Forest Department. Permits were issued for fuel, timber and NFTP and a schedule of
prices for different timber; and fuelwood was used to assess the harvest.

In 1973, when Project Tiger was launched, one of the initiatives

was to declare
Sunderbans Tiger Reserve with the Gosaba, Rampma, Bagna and Jinghakhali range,
with head quarter at Canning. The remaining ranges of Bakkhali, Bhagabatur, Matto
Malto and Namkhana had the head quarter located at Calcutta.

, Socio-economic

activities

of the local

purchased

population

With a large human population living in the region, human-mangrove

interaction is intense, with
various manglove dependent activities by diverse user groups behind these activities; arising from
this, the type of outputs/products
and the degree and nature of stress on the mangrove ecosystem.
Table 2 lists this information for the impact, economic benefits, and social equity. The ecological
impact of a given use being dependant upon the nature and degree of stress in the mangrove
ecosystem, the activities where the scale of operation has become critical, are distinguished
by a
question mark in the Table 2. Those destructive uses whose ecological impact is a function of the
scale of operation are distinguished
with a star mark in the Table (2).

CASE

STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANS

MANGROVE

ECOSYSTEMS

&I

Table 2. Man-mangrove
interactions:
economic benefits
forest areas (Swaminathan
and Deshmukh,
1995).
NO.

ACTIVITY

1.

Fishing

Farming

Fishpond

Creating

Fishery

products

Cleared area

Fry collection
for stocking

Fishery

products

Forested area

Collection of adult
fish, shrimps, etc.

Fishery

products

Forested area

Fish for consumption

Household
security

nutrition

Forested area

Tannin collection

Increased
of fish

durability

Forested area

Rice cultivation

Higher rice yield

Cleared area

Manure

Substitute for
chemical fertiliser

Damage (?)

(Qty)

Soil and water

pollution

Agricultural

Damage

Coastal

Land saved for

coastal protection

Forested area

Feed for cattle

operation, milk, etc.

Energy for
farm groups

Damage

Fuelwood

Energy for
household use,
Additional
income

Damage (7)

Herbal

Cleared area

owners

Farmers

Businessmen

livelihoods

protection

collection

Development Industry
activities

Urban
development

_I_x-~~

CASE

STUDIES

____^___^;I^__nI

ON SUNDERBANS

--IX

output

(Qlty)

(QW

(Qty)

medicine

Building materials,
charcoal, etc.

QlW)

Wood cutting for

own household
needs

Building

Damage (?)

Wastage disposal

Industrial

Oil spillage
Ports

Commercial
cutting

Other rural
groups
4.

STRESS ON
MANGROVE
ECOSYSTEM

OUTPUT/
PRODUCTS

rth;-ural

Logging

in mangrove

USES OF
MANGROVE
ECOSYSTEMS

Honey
3.

impacts

MANGROVE
DEPENDENT
GROUP

Fishermen

2.

and ecological

wood

Damage (Qty +

materials

products

Damage

(QW

Oil products

Damage

(Qlty)

Enhanced

Cleared area*

trade
-

._

MANGROVE

.--^-

^~..~-.-_-;_---.

ECOSYSTEMS

_----. _~l---l...

~_--.~-_^_(-^.-_.__.-~__-_-Ix-_.~-.

______~~

ACTIVITY

NO.

1MANGROVE
DEPENDENT
GROUP

USES OF
MANGROVE
ECOSYSTEMS

OUTPUT/
PRODUCTS

1 STRESS ON
MANGROVE
ECOSYSTEM

Roads

Communication

Cleared area*

Housing

Houses

Cleared area*

Sewage disposal

Cost saving

Damage (Qty +

Qlty)
Recreation
and resorts

Scientists

Beach hotels
earnings

Foreign

Canoeing,
watching,

Aesthetic
satisfaction,
recreation, etc.

Forested area

bird
etc.

exchange

Cleared area*

Research

Knowledge

Forested area

Preservation

Biodiversity

Forested area

Mining

Mineral

Damage (Qty +

Others

products

QlW)
Salt production

Salt and
employment

Cleared area*

An important element that emerges from Table 2 is the varying degrees of conflicts amongst the
four major activities, as well as between different users involved in the same activity. For example,
there is a conflict between fish-pond owners and rice cultivators in the mangrove area, as they often
compete for the same piece of land in the mangrove forest; between the fish-pond owners themselves,
often there is a conflict of interest for land from the common pool.
8. Indigenous

knowledge

Because of species diversity and varying degrees of it, there are varied levels of use of these
resources by the humans, depending upon the situations. Sunderbans Biosphere Reserve has a
multiple-use system (Table 3), unlike some other situation such as the mangroves in Gujarat in the
western coast of India, where the resources are exploited for limited resources only, such as fodder,
fuel wood and tan from bark.

Table

3. Traditional

uses of plant

products

ilicifolius

I-Acrostichum

aureum

corniculatum

Avicennia

alba

STUDIES

I Fronds
Pounded

Linn.

(Linn.)

Blanc0

MANGROVE

ECOSYSTEMS

habitats

in the Sunderbans.

USES
Relieve

rhizome

rheumatism

I Cure for snake bites, boils

Application on wounds

I
I

As fish poison

Seeds, bark
Seed powder/

Blume

ON SUNDERBANS

TYPE

Leaf extract

Li n n .

Aegiceras

CASE

mangrove

PRODUCT

NAME OF PLANT
Acan thus

from

paste

Cure for small-pox

PRODUCT

NAME OF PLANT
Avicennia

Ceriops

Wood

Firewood

Fruits

On eye ailment

Wood

Firewood

Tender leaves,
hypocotyle,
radicle

Consumption

tagal

(Perr.) C.B. Rob.

Wood

Firewood

Buch.-Ham.

Wood

Cure on piles, boat (canoe)

building, house construction

Leaves

Cure for health

Leaves

Thatching

Fruits

Human

Sap

Alcohol

Wood

As firewood

Prop and stilt roots

As firewood

fomes

Lumnitzera
infants

Pandanus
Rhizophora

apiculata

Rhizophora

mucronata

9. Limitations
Anthropogenic

Willd.

(Thunb)

notiallics

Savigny

(Lou r. ) Poi r

racemosa

fruticans

Vierh.

(Linn.)

sexangula

Heritiera

Nypa

Astringent

gymnorrhiza

Bruguiera

USES

Bark

(Forsk.)

marina

Bruguiera

TYPE

Wurmb.

Soland ex Park.
BI.

Poir

(as vegetables)

problems

in

material
consumption

to Conservation
pressures:

About 3.7 million people inhabit the Sunderbans. Operating at subsistence level, and with hardly
any alternative
source of employment,
the population within the Biosphere Reserve depends on
their traditional
skills of fishing, agriculture,
honey collection, exploitation
of some of the other
resources such as the mollusc shells, etc. These people live in reclaimed areas of the islands, which
are surrounded by earthen dams and dykes built to prevent tidal flushing. There is no restriction to
fishing except in the Tiger Project area. Man-eating Tigers stray out of the core area and cause
injury, and even death, with the consequent general tension between the people versus conservation,
apart from illegal local poaching and that from across the border. Dredging done to improve
navigability of large vessels and oil tankers directly impacts upon the benthic flora and fauna and
indirectly, the fishery stock. Dredging also increases the suspended particulate matter adversely
affecting primary productivity
of the system. One of the other problems is rapid urbanization
of
areas surrounding
the Biosphere Reserve, particularly
the ever-increasing
pressure from the
expanding metropolis of Calcutta cause siltation of the mouth of Ganges, at the same time increasing
demand for forest and marine resources. The engineering
and industrial activities, the pollution
arising there from, the indiscriminate
use of fertilizers and pesticides from the upstream region,
local timber felling, construction of earthen dams and dykes within the Biosphere Reserve itself are
all anthropogenic influences have both short and long term implications for biodiversity conservation.
Other important contributing factors are (a) resource degradation arising from shortage of managerial
staff and related infrastructural
facilities; (b) socio-political
conflicts arising from inadequacies in
institutional
arrangements such as in the operationalisation
of the Panchayat system in this difficult
landscape in terms of accessibility and movement;
(c) off-shore drilling for oil; (d) proposal for
opening the area for international
waterways.

CASE

STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANS

MANGROVE

-____t

ECOSYSTEMS

-_.
-

-.--

_-__-

_..__
.I_I.--_.x

._

_______

The biodiversity in this coastal zone mangrove Biosphere Reserve is also determined
factors, which are natural to the system itself (Box 8).
Box 8. Natural
Reserve.
Abiotic

factors

Factors

that affect

(long-term

biodiversity

damage,

of the mangrove

magnitude

1.

Tidal regime

2.

Hydrographic regime: Flooding, ocean currents,

discharge and erosion, walking islands.

3.

Type and amount of alluvial

characteristics,
granulometry,

4.

Climate factors: Temperature,

(cyclones, regular winds).

5.

Onshore

6.

Waves and tidal bores Marine Water intrusion,

7.

Neo-tectonic
area.

Biotic

marine

Factors

currents:

isolation,

of the Biosphere

visible)

sea transgressions

Directions,

precipitation
seasonality,

damage

in short

(cyclic, seasonal),

riverine

2.

Phenology,

3.

Human impact: Selective

and fertilizers upstream.

growth

seasonal and episodic events

erosion.

groundwater

properties.

to reduction

duration;

Associated flora and fauna: Microbes (bacteria

borers), amphipodes, nematodes, crustaceans,
relative

regime,

basin contributing

1.

pathology,

not instantly

of

sedimentation,
silt content of waters, physical and chemical
seasonality, formation of mud banks, sandbars, sills, winds.

tilt to the Gangetic

(long-term

ecosystems

by a variety

magnitude

instantly

visible)

and fungi), insects, mollucs (e.g., wood

algae, lichens and epiphytes in general.

rates and inter-specific

felling, total felling,

of fresh water flow into the

lopping,

selective

compatibility.
replanting,

use of pesticides

It is obvious from the above discussion on mangrove biodiversity issues, that areas of ecological
value, brought under the category of protected areas, are themselves becoming more and more
endangered.
The role of scientists - taxonomists,
ecologists, and all those concerned with the
science of conservation
biology need to be encouraged to take up studies within the Biosphere
Reserves: this has not yet been given adequate recognition. It is important to initiate long-term
studies and research, within the Biosphere Reserves. In the context of the coastal zone management,
establishment
of a network of marine protected areas distributed in ecologically distinct zones is
important for promoting comparative studies, to arrive at generalizations.
Sunderbans,
being a trans-national
Biosphere Reserve offers a great opportunity
for integrated
analysis and management,
as part of a larger ecological landscape. This offers opportunities
for
collaboration
between a variety of actors concerned with this BR management.
10.

Key Conservation

The biosphere

reserve

Issues
has the following

structure:

Core zone - this zone covers a total of 1,700 sq. km and is well covered with mangrove forests. The
tiger reserve and 1,330 sq km of the Sunderbans National Park are also included in this area.
Manipulation

~~.~--^.,_.~CASE

STUDIES

zone - This zone also comprises

mangrove

forest and covers an area of 2,400 sq. km.

.-.-___.-.-..-.-_1__1___I__I____I_x_r_^___--~.
------ ------ ._,^I-_~__~,xl.--.n-~-~-~-----~.--..ON SUNDERBANS

MANGROVE

ECOSYSTEMS

Restoration zone - This zone covers 230 sq km and comprises

degraded mud flats within the non-forest area.
Develooment zone - This zone, covering 5,330 sq. km. includes
solvi-pisci-culture,
animal husbandry,
apiculture,
horticulture,
etc.

degraded

forests,

saline blanks and

non-forest areas suitable

aquaculture,
mushroom

for agriculture,

The site contains the largest tiger population in India with an estimated 251 individuals according
to the 1993 census. The area also forms a nursery for the post-larval stages of Tiger Prawn and other
Shellfish. The region produces about 60 tons of honey ever year. A variety of endangered species
occur in the area including the Fishing Cat, Estuarine Crocodile, Olive Ridley Turtle, River Terrapin
and Monitor Lizards, among others. The Sunderbans is the only mangrove area in India which is a
Tiger habitat, and in the past has provided habitats for several other animals such as Javan Rhinoceros,
Swamp Deer, Water Buffalo and Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus)
which are no longer found in the
region.

11. Environmental

Degradation

The recent trend throughout Asia and the Pacific has been to convert the mangrove forests for the
culture of Tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon). In the Sunderbans there are presently over 33,200 ha
saline fisheries that produce 11,600 t. yri of shrimp and fish with an average yield of 1.4 metric t.
ha1 yrl.
Of 400,000 ha of brackish water bodies in the Sunderbans,
25,000 ha have been identified as
suitable for immediate development
of aquaculture.
Major projects for development
of brackish
water Shrimp culture are under consideration,
with serious implications
for the ecology of the
mangrove system. Already, unsustainable
practices have somewhat dampened the impact of this
industry. About 40,000 shrimp seed collectors annually harvest from the wild about 540 million
seed of P. monodon and in the process kill an estimated 10.26 billion seeds of other fish and shrimp,
which has serious implications for future yields of these species. Another major problem is due to
the development of acid sulphate soil. Many mangrove areas have soil containing a large amount of
Pyrites (FeS,), which oxidizes when exposed to air, releasing sulphuric acid. The soils become
extremely acidic and contain very high concentrations
of soluble salts, impacting upon soil quality.
This is apart from the ecosystem degradation discussed earlier whilst discussing the biodiversity
conservation
issues.
12. Administration

and Management

A multi-disciplinary
team of technical experts assists the Director of the Sunderbans Biosphere
Reserve. Assisted by a Deputy Director for socio-economic aspects, a Deputy Director for fisheries
and a Deputy Director for tourism, there are eight monitoring units, each unit being headed by a
technical staff for forestry (Range Officer), agriculture and fisheries. There is a management council
heady by the Chief Secretary of West Bengal Government.
In addition, there is a protection and
management committee headed by the State Chief Conservator of Forests, along with a research
and monitoring
committee.
Issues that are critical from the point of management are illegal timber harvesting, wildlife poaching,
over-exploitation
of many fish species and tiger prawn seeds, with rapidly declining stocks, unplanned
diversion of tidal creeks for reclamation or aquaculture, etc. To cope up with these problems, various
protective measures need to be taken through armed patrolling vehicles, camps and watch towers,
better communication
links, establishment
of fire lines for fire prevention,
restricted entry into
specified areas, etc.

CASE

STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANS

MANGROVE

ECOSYSTEMS

13. Income

Generating

Activities

for Local

Population

Improving the economic conditions of nearly 2.4 million people living in the Biosphere Reserve area
is critical, for effective management
of the reserve. Being dependant to some extent on forest
products like collection of post-larval Black Tiger Prawn (Penaeus monodon, sustainable utilization
has become an important consideration.
To improve and diversify the economic activities of the people living in the fringe areas of the
Sunderban forests, selected programmes for culturing oysters, crabs and honey bees are being
taken up. Oyster (Pleurotus
citrinopeleatus)
culture alone is expected to give an yield of 800-1000
kg. ha1 yrl, with an income, of Rs. 30,000-40,000.
Similar attempts are being made with the other
edible Oysters, Anadora Granosa and Casaustrea
cuculata,
although initial efforts to grow them
have not been encouraging. The common edible crab Scylla serrata is being cultivated, following
successful trials.
Privately cooperatives for extraction of honey, from wild Apis indica, using artificial beehives inside
the forest, have been initiated, although this species cannot be tamed; the yield has been about 2025 kg per box over a 2-month trial period.. This compares favorably with yields generated from Apis
dorsata, which only gives 3-4 kg per box. An annual harvest of 65,000 kg. of honey from the Apis
Indica beehives is expected, in the near future. Edible Agarics including Volvariella
sp. and Agaricus
sp. are being cultivated in the Sunderbans, with possibilities for enhanced yield (Table 5).
Table

5 : Income

generation

activities

in the Sunderbans

1990-91

ACTIVITY/FACILITIES
Mariculture

Biosphere

1991-92

(NO.)
5

pond

Crab culture

Reserve
(NO.)
6

Oyster culture

Mushroom

61

100

1,900

2,000

culture

Apiculture
Supply of fuel efficient

I Eco-restoration

chullah

and afforestation

plots

600

1,200

Earthen embankments,
stretching for 3,500 km. have been created to provide protection to local
communities
and agricultural
areas. Upon these embankments,
shelter-belts
of trees have been
established. A massive afforestation
programme has been initiated, targeting degraded areas and
the mud-flats, with encouragement
for community participation.
Shallow linear rainwater storage
canals and ponds have also been dug within the manipulation
zone.
Furthermore, high yielding varieties of fruit plants have been distributed and mushroom cultivation
has been encouraged. Other activities have included the promotion of aquaculture,
mariculture,
silvo-pisciculture
and apiculture within manipulation
zone. In addition, deep tube wells have been
sunk and ponds for drinking water have been excavated. In order to minimise the consumption of
wood-fuel,
a number of fuel-efficient
stoves have been provided. Alternatives,
including solar
lighting systems and windmills, have been erected.
14. Ecological

Rehabilitation

This project was designed to combine a full spectrum of activities, such as afforestation of degraded
systems that were identified (Table 6), conservation
of fragile areas, pasture development,
soil
~__ ._.._..--_n._.--~----~-.--~~..-..-~~~
mm-.-----.
CASE

STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANGNGROVE

ECOSYSTEMS

cm

conservation,
minor irrigation
activities,
cottage industry
development,
etc. involving
local
communities,
scientists,
technologists,
administrators,
peoples representatives,
NGOs, public
Through a community
participatory
plan, scientists and
institutions
and specific target groups.
technologists, governmental and non-governmental
agencies were involved in this integrated activity.
The project spread over four years (!991-1995)
was suggested to have created 3,270 ha of
plantations,
3,000 ha of natural regeneration
plots, and soil conservation
work over a 133 km
stretch, involving 94,000 daily wage opportunities
for locals during this four-year
period. The
emphasis was suggested to be on aquaculture, mariculture, apiculture, multiple-cropping
agriculture,
mushroom culture, agri-pisciculture,
etc. Long-term objectives were on issues such as soil and
water conservation,
and developing eco-tourism.
Table

6 Degraded

Source:

Captive

Adapted

Breeding

areas

from

in selected

Bhadury

parts

of the Indians

Sunderbans

(1992).

Programme:

The estuarine Crocodile (Crocodylus

porosus)
is one of the largest marine and estuarine reptiles.
The species was indiscriminately
killed in response to the demand for its skin for luxury goods. The
population subsequently
declined, making the species endangered. Under the Crocodile breeding
programme initiated by the Government of India, a saltwater crocodile breeding programme was
initiated in 1976 to build up a viable population of this species. The scheme based at Bhagabatpur
on Lothian Island, has since become one of the principal Crocodile breeding centres within the
country. By 1990, more than 197 Crocodiles) had been released into the Sunderbans.
All Sea Turtles including Olive Turtle (found in the Sunderbans) are protected species under the
Wildlife Protection Act. Rearing and rehabilitating
of Olive Turtle (Lepidochelys
olivacea),
an
endangered species, was attempted at Bhagabatpur Crocodile Rearing Centre and at Saptamukhi
Hatchery, and about a hundred were released, of which only a few could survive (Banerjee, 1985).

15. Conclusions
It is obvious from this discussion that areas of ecological value, brought under the category of
protected areas, are themselves becoming more and more endangered. The role of scientists taxonomists,
ecologists, and all those concerned with the science of conservation biology need to
be encouraged to take up studies within the Biosphere Reserves: this has not yet been given
adequate recognition. It is important to initiate long-term studies and research, within the Biosphere
Reserves. In the context of the coastal zone management, establishment
of a network of marine
protected areas distributed
in ecologically distinct zones is important for promoting comparative
studies, to arrive at generalizations.
Sunderbans, being a trans-national
Biosphere Reserve offers
a great opportunity for integrated analysis and management, as part of a larger ecological landscape.
This offers opportunities for collaboration between a variety of actors concerned with this Biosphere
Reserve management.
The threats facing marine environments of the Central Indian Ocean are many and well documented
(Pernetta 1993a, 1993b, 1993c, 1993d and 1993e). These threats include:
0

Pollution, including direct sewage disposal, discharges

and nutrient runoff

Land reclamation

Coral mining

Overfishing

Cutting

Uncontrolled

Sea level rise

from shipping,

industrial

waste, sediment

and coastal construction

of mangroves
tourism

for fuel and aquaculture

development

development

While some marine environments

have been subject to minimal pressure and remain in good
condition (particularly some of the offshore islands and atolls), others are under increasing pressure
and are becoming heavily degraded.
The Sunderbans is a vast complex of intertidal and estuarine areas situated on the border of India
and Bangladesh where the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers converge in the Bengal Basin.
About 65 percent of the Sunderbans lies in Bangladesh and 35 percent in India. The area includes
the most extensive areas of mangrove present in India (constituting
more than 60 percent of the
area of mangroves remaining
in India) (Swaminathan
and Deshmukh,
1995; Dwivedi, et. a/.,
1994).
A total of 32 mangrove species and 10 seagrass species have been recorded (Dwivedi, et. a/.,
1994). The area provides nursery grounds for many species of fish and invertebrates,
including
exploited species such as tiger prawns. Its productivity
plays a major role in supporting fisheries
along the east coast of India (Dwivedi, et, a/., 1994). Marine turtles, dolphins, estuarine crocodiles
and seabirds are also present. The Sundarbans are threatened
by the impacts of sewage and
industrial pollution, which have resulted in mangrove mortality and the threats to other species.
The Sundarbans has been identified as being of high conservation priority for the governments of
India and Bangladesh. India has established the Sundarbans National Park while Bangladesh has
established a forest reserve and three wildlife sanctuaries. These areas are not managed to effectively
conserve marine resources and biodiversity. Given the areas importance it is recommended that
MPAs be established in India and Bangladesh to provide for integrated management of marine
resources and protection of rare and endangered species.

CASE

STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANS

MANGROVE

ECOSYSTEMS

Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the UNESCO, New Delhi, for providing financial support to undertake this study.
We particularly
express our sincere gratitude to former Director, Prof. Moegiadi and Dr. Sudha
Mehndiratta, for giving us an opportunity to undertake this work. Thanks are due to various officials,
particularly Dr. R.K. Rai, and Dr. E.V. Muley - both Addl. Directors, of the Ministry of Environment
and Forests, Government of India, Dr. A.G. Untawale, Mangrove Society of Inclia, Goa; Pranavesh
Sanyal, IFS, R. H. Raha, IFS, K.K. Singh, D.N. Shukla and R. Deb Roy - all from the Department of
Forests, Govt. of West Bengal; Dr. L.K. Banerjee, Botanical Survey of India, Govt. of India, for their
guidance, encouragement
and help in a variety of ways in the preparation of this document. Prof.
P.S. Ramakrishnan
of Jawaharlal Nehru University,
New Delhi provided valuable inputs, which
helped in improving technical quality of this paper. We are grateful to him.
The first author would like to express his sincere gratitude to Prof. M.S. Swaminathan,
FRS, M.S.
Swaminathan
Research Foundation, Chennai for his continued guidance and sustained interest in
his research work. He is also grateful to Mr. Vinay Sahasrabuddhe,
Director General, Rambhau
Mhalgi Prabodhini for the infrastructure
support as well as encouragement
provided for conducting
this work. Field level and other assistance provided by Mr. Amol Deshmane, Research Scholar of
Rambhau Mhalgi Prabodhini is also gratefully acknowledged.

-~_1_~1_^_.~---11_--1111.._1~~~~-------F---~~.--.-^--t~~.-~~--~--li-.

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2.

Banerjee,

R. 1985. Captive rearing of Olive Ridley Turtle. Hamdryad

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18.

19.

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CASE

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ON SUNDERBANS

MANGROVE

ECOSYSTEMS

20.

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STUDIES

Animals
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2: pp. 231-390.

Geographic
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Cultural

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CASE

National

of India I: East Godavari

29.

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of India

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Climatic Changes:
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Press, Oxford.

in. ,<,l~

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confined to Sunderbans, apart from Andaman islands.

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STUDIES

ON SUNDERBANS

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in the creeklets

MANGROVE

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of prawn seeds : a source of livelihood

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