Am J Kidney Dis 2014 Feb 63 (2 Suppl 2) s3 PDF

Clinical Challenges in Diagnosis and Management of Diabetic
Kidney Disease
Robert C. Stanton, MD
Diabetic kidney disease (DKD) is a major and increasing worldwide public health issue. There is a great
need for implementing treatments that either prevent or significantly slow the progression of DKD. Although
there have been significant improvements in management, the increasing numbers of patients with DKD
illustrate that current management is not wholly adequate. The reasons for suboptimal management include
the lack of early diagnosis, lack of aggressive interventions, and lack of understanding about which interventions are most successful. There are a number of challenges and controversies regarding the current
management of patients with DKD. Understanding of these issues is needed in order to provide the best care
to patients with DKD. This article describes some of the clinically important challenges associated with DKD:
the current epidemiology and cost burden and the role of biopsy in the diagnosis of DKD. Treatment controversies regarding current pharmacologic and nonpharmacologic approaches are reviewed and recommendations based on the published literature are made.
Am J Kidney Dis. 63(2)(S2):S3-S21. 2014 by the National Kidney Foundation, Inc.
INDEX WORDS: Diabetic kidney disease (DKD); diabetes mellitus; renal disease; prevalence; public health.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Diabetic kidney disease (DKD) accounts for a large
proportion of nephrology practice, and there is an
overwhelming need to implement treatments that will
either prevent the development or signicantly slow
the progression of DKD. Current approaches are not
adequate because the number of patients who develop
DKD or have progressive DKD continues to increase.
Many controversies exist regarding standard approaches to patients with both diabetes and renal
disease. This review discusses some of the clinically
important challenges associated with the diagnosis
and management of DKD.
Chronic kidney disease (CKD; estimated glomerular ltration rate [eGFR] , 60 mL/min/1.73 m2 or
urine albumin-creatinine ratio . 30 mg/g) is estimated to affect 13.1% of the US population. Diabetes
is the most prevalent cause of end-stage kidney disease, followed by hypertension. The Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimate that
1 in 3 adults in the United States will have diabetes
by 2050 if current trends continue, suggesting that
there will be a very signicant increase in DKD
in the future. However, data for the prevalence of
CKD could be disputed in multiple ways that could
either increase or decrease the reported impact
of CKD, and in particular DKD, on the overall
health of the population and on the reported costs
to the health care system. Physicians routinely use
eGFR , 60 mL/min/1.73 m2 as a marker of kidney
disease, but the formulas are general estimates
of GFR (there may 15%-20% variance between
GFR estimates and true GFR), and normal aging
will result in eGFR , 60 mL/min/1.73 m2 in many
Am J Kidney Dis. 2014;63(2)(suppl 2):S3-S21
people. Moreover, it is debatable whether microalbuminuria routinely reects kidney disease.

In addition, the specic impact of DKD on CKD can
be questioned because there often is inaccuracy of
documentation of medical diagnoses or a patient
labeled with DKD may have another diagnosis (eg,
hypertension or IgA nephropathy). Any individual
patient may have additional processes that can cause
kidney disease.
Perhaps a more accurate reection of the impact of
DKD (and CKD) in the United States is seen in endstage kidney disease data because there is no dispute
about the number of people who are receiving dialysis
or have a transplant. The number of new end-stage
kidney disease cases reported each year has been
steady since 2002, but the total number of patients
with end-stage kidney disease (prevalence) continues
to increase at a rapid rate, with diabetes being the
principal cause. Considering that there is greater
likelihood of death than progressing to end-stage
kidney disease and that mortality rates on dialysis
therapy are 15%-20% per year, there must be a very
From the Kidney and Hypertension Division, Joslin Diabetes

Center, Boston, MA.
Received May 31, 2013. Accepted in revised form October 8,
2013.
This article is part of a supplement that was developed with
funding from Novo Nordisk.
Address correspondence to Robert C. Stanton, MD, Kidney and
Hypertension Division, Joslin Diabetes Center, One Joslin Pl,
Boston, MA 02215. E-mail: robert.stanton@joslin.harvard.edu
2014 by the National Kidney Foundation, Inc.
0272-6386/$36.00
http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/j.ajkd.2013.10.050
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Robert C. Stanton
large CKD population even if the exact number is not

well dened.
Race and ethnicity have a major impact on the
risk for the development of kidney disease and
progression to end-stage kidney disease, also evident
in people with end-stage kidney disease caused by
diabetes. Rates of end-stage kidney disease due to
diabetes in the African American, Native American,
and Hispanic populations are increasing, whereas
rates have been unchanged for the past 10 years in
the white and Asian populations in the United
States. The major health disparity needs to be
addressed by providers so that screening for signs of
DKD is done routinely and aggressive interventions
are started as early as possible to slow progression.
It is of paramount importance that the nephrology
community provides leadership in early diagnosis,
best practices, aggressive management, costeffective interventions, research, and education so
that the health care community might slow this
epidemic.
Nephrologists do not make the initial diagnosis of
DKD; they rely on primary care and endocrinology
physicians to make the diagnosis. Thus, a major goal
for nephrologists is to provide much wider education
to non-nephrology physicians who care for patients
with diabetes so that they routinely evaluate for DKD
and either institute appropriate treatment or refer to a
nephrologist. The diagnosis of DKD usually is based
on a clinical history of diabetes, an appropriate sediment (usually bland), and absence of signs and
symptoms of another kidney disease. In general,
people with type 1 diabetes do not show clinical signs
of kidney disease until about 3-5 years after the
diagnosis of type 1 diabetes, whereas people with
type 2 diabetes may be given a diagnosis of DKD at
any time. Using a denition of DKD as microalbuminuria, overt proteinuria, decreased GFR, or
end-stage kidney disease in patients with diabetes, the
prevalence of DKD in patients with type 1 diabetes
may be as high as 50%, but lower in patients with
type 2 diabetes.
There essentially are 3 reasons to perform biopsy
on a patient with diabetes and kidney disease: diagnosis, prognosis, and research purposes. There is no
clinical indication to determine whether a patient with
diabetes primarily has DKD or hypertensive kidney
disease because the treatment is the same. As for IgA
nephropathy, there may be a reason to biopsy if a
patient has a urinary protein excretion . 1 g and
eGFR . 60 mL/min/1.73 m2 because recent research
has shown that intervening in the appropriate patient
may slow progression. There may be indications for
biopsy if the patient or physician wants to know the
extent of scarring. Routine prognostic biopsy
currently is not indicated in DKD. However, with new
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therapeutic approaches, knowing the degree of damage perhaps will be important for determining the
utility, timing, or efcacy of a particular drug therapy.
Biopsy for research purposes is an important issue;
most biopsy studies have been performed in patients
with type 1 diabetes and much less is known about
DKD pathology in type 2 diabetic nephropathy. In
2010, the Research Committee of the Renal Pathology Association tackled the issue of pathologic classication of DKD, with the goal of producing a
uniform classication system. This and the development of future targeted therapies might be assisted
through tissue biobanks. We should consider whether
we could enhance our knowledge and improve patient
care by performing more biopsies on patients with
diabetes.
Regarding treatment, the primary interventions that
slow the progression of DKD are control of glycated
hemoglobin (HbA1c; goal of , 7.0%), control of
blood pressure (BP; goal of ,130/80 mm Hg),
smoking cessation, and lowering of urine albumin
levels. Weight loss also may play an important role in
the prevention and slowing the progression of DKD.
There currently are a number of challenges and
shifting ideas about clinically important issues for the
treatment of DKD. Data suggest that lower BP (to an
extent) better preserves kidney function, but each
patient should have individualized BP goals. A general
goal of BP , 130/80 mm Hg should be targeted in
patients with DKD unless there is signicant concomitant cardiovascular disease or microalbuminuria alone
with normal GFR.
There currently is little or no indication for the use
of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors or
angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) in the prevention of DKD in patients with diabetes and normal
urine albumin excretion and BP. They offer reasonable rst-line treatment for patients with hypertension
and normal urine albumin levels; however, selection
of antihypertensive agents should be made on an
individual basis, taking into account factors such as
comorbid conditions, cost, and patient adherence to
treatment. It is appropriate to use ACE inhibitors or
ARBs in patients with microalbuminuria to help
prevent the progression to macroalbuminuria. For
overt proteinuria (.300 mg/g of urine albumin), there
is a clear indication for treatment with ACE inhibitors
or ARBs. Multiple studies using a combination of
an ACE inhibitor and ARB therapies suggest little
benet and possibly harm.
Aldosterone inhibition, when added to an ACE
inhibitor or ARB, conveys a signicant decrease in
proteinuria. Although treatment is associated with an
increased risk of hyperkalemia, the overall benet of
aldosterone inhibition appears to outweigh the risks.
There are no long-term studies that show a denitive
Challenges in Diagnosis and Management of DKD
benet of a low-protein diet on DKD, although some

studies have reported reduced albuminuria. It is
strongly recommended that all patients with DKD
cease smoking, considering the effects of smoking on
general health and diabetes specically. At present,
there is no specic recommendation on the benets
of lowering cholesterol and/or triglyceride levels in
patients with DKD. Obesity is a clear risk factor for
kidney disease in general and for DKD, but it is not
clear whether the main reasons obesity is associated
with kidney disease are the factors associated with
obesity or other factors unique to the obese person
(eg, inammatory mediators).
In the past 30 years, there have been signicant

improvements in slowing the progression of and preventing DKD, yet DKD is a major and increasing
worldwide public health concern. The primary goals of
the health care system need to be the prevention and
slowing of progression of DKD, as well as identication of those at risk for the development and progression of DKD. Further education is required across
all health care providers to understand the scope of the
problem, implement interventions that prevent the
development of DKD, ensure proper screening, understand how to diagnose, and improve knowledge of
treatments and when to refer to nephrology.
INTRODUCTION
Survey) data, 19.3% of all people with diabetes

had GFRs , 60 mL/min/1.73 m2, 29.9% had urine
albumin-creatinine ratios . 30 mg/g, and 8.6% of
all patients with diabetes had both.1 For those
reporting hypertension without diabetes, reported
prevalences for the signs of CKD were 12.9% for
eGFR , 60 mL/min/1.73 m2, 14.8% for urine albumin level . 30 mg/g, and 4.1% for both.1 However,
these estimates may not accurately reect the prevalence of DKD for several reasons. The data for the
CKD population could be disputed in multiple ways
that could either increase or decrease the reported
impact of CKD, and in particular DKD, on the
overall health of the population, as well as on reported costs to the health care system.
First, one could question the accuracy of documentation of medical diagnoses (diagnosis code
selection, diagnosis code documentation, time over
which diagnostic codes are selected, and others).7
Current coding allows separate codes for diabetes,
CKD stages, and proteinuria, as well as combined
codes for diabetes with kidney disease (subcategorized into type 1 and type 2 diabetes). Hence,
there may be bias in which code(s) the clinician
selects and which codes are selected by the researcher
for studies. Research results could be affected by
the tools, software, databases, and parameters that
researchers select to determine the incidence and
prevalence of DKD.
Second, any individual patient may have additional
processes that can cause kidney disease. The most
common cause of kidney disease in patients with
diabetes (other than diabetes) is hypertension, but
other entities such as IgA nephropathy also may be
present. For example, one study was designed to
evaluate the presence of kidney disease in patients
who had been given a diagnosis of DKD to determine whether nondiabetic kidney disease was observed. Sixty-six kidney biopsies from patients with
diabetes showed that 10 had signicant deposits of
IgA consistent with IgA nephropathy (6 had type 1
The number of people with diabetic kidney disease (DKD) continues to increase and is responsible
for a large proportion of the practice of all nephrologists. If present trends continue, DKD could soon
account for .50% of the patients in dialysis
units.1 Hence, there is an overwhelming need to
implement treatments that will either prevent the
development of DKD or signicantly slow the
progression. Research during the past 40 years has
led to major advances in early diagnosis and management and has led to treatments to prevent or slow
the progression of DKD, yet current approaches
clearly are not adequate because the number of
patients who develop DKD and the number of
patients with progressive DKD continue to increase.
Several recent reviews discuss current treatment options in great detail.2-5 Many controversies remain
regarding standard approaches to patients with both
diabetes and renal disease. The intent of this review is
to discuss some of the clinically important challenges
associated with the diagnosis and management of
DKD.
EPIDEMIOLOGY: HOW PREVALENT IS DKD?

Chronic kidney disease (CKD; dened as estimated
glomerular ltration rate [eGFR] , 60 mL/min/1.73 m2
or urine albumin-creatinine ratio . 30 mg/g) is estimated to affect 13.1% of the US population, according to the 2012 US Renal Data Survey (USRDS)
report.1 Diabetes is the most prevalent cause of endstage kidney disease, with hypertension second in
the cohort in 2005-2010. Data from the Centers
for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in
Atlanta, GA, report that there are approximately 22
million people in the United States with diabetes.6
Moreover, the CDC estimates that 1 in 3 adults in
the United States will have diabetes by 2050 if
current trends continue. Based on NHANES III
(Third National Health and Nutrition Examination
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Robert C. Stanton
diabetes and 4 had type 2 diabetes).8 Any type of

kidney disease can occur in patients with diabetes, but
depending on the country of origin of the study, other
biopsy-proven diseases in addition to IgA nephropathy are focal and segmental glomerulosclerosis,
minimal change disease, and interstitial nephritis.9,10
Therefore, only routine kidney biopsies can denitively differentiate the cause of kidney disease in
diabetes. Clinically, one usually would not perform a
kidney biopsy to differentiate DKD from hypertensive
kidney disease because it would not affect prognosis
or treatment. However, from an epidemiologic and
clinical research perspective, the lack of a precise
diagnosis is important in that the assumption that the
scientist is evaluating DKD may not be fully accurate.
Third, physicians generally use eGFR , 60 mL/min/
1.73 m2 as a marker of kidney disease. There are 2
matters to consider here. First, the equations used
to estimate GFR are not accurate reections of GFR,
but rather general estimates. In one study in which
GFR estimates from the Cockcroft-Gault, MDRD
(Modication of Diet in Renal Disease) Study, and
CKD-EPI (CKD Epidemiology Collaboration)
equations were compared with measured GFRs using
iothalamate clearances (271 participants), the mean
absolute difference from measured GFR ranged from
12-15 mL/min/1.73 m2.11 The authors found that the
accuracy (bias was described as the mean difference
between estimated and measured kidney function) of
all the equations was affected by age (generally more
accurate at older age), GFR level affected the MDRD
Study and CKD-EPI creatinine estimates (absolute
bias was greater in patients with higher GFRs), and
weight or body mass index (BMI) affected the accuracy
of the Cockroft-Gault formula (absolute bias was
greater in patients with higher weight or BMI). These
equations serve to inform the clinician of the relative
level of kidney function, which enables more accurate
estimates of prognosis, risk for complications of
kidney disease, need for intervention, drug dosing,
risk of dye studies, etc. However, the inherent lack
of precision of these equations must be considered in
the context of research studies. The second consideration to bear in mind is that normal aging will result in
an eGFR , 60 mL/min/1.73 m2 in many people. Thus,
should everyone with eGFR , 60 mL/min/1.73 m2,
irrespective of age, be classied as having signicant
CKD? Perhaps it would be better to select ageappropriate targets for the denition of stage 3 CKD.
For example, GFR , 60 mL/min/1.73 m2 is an
appropriate indicator for those 50 years or younger,
whereas the denition of stage 3 CKD should be
eGFR , 45 mL/min/1.73 m2 in people older than
50 years.
Perhaps a more accurate reection of the impact
of DKD (and CKD) in the United States is seen in
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end-stage kidney disease data. This is because there is

no dispute about the numbers of people who are
receiving dialysis or have a transplant. In 1978, there
were about 35,000 dialysis patients and about 6,000
transplant recipients.1 As of 2010, there were
approximately 415,000 dialysis patients and 180,000
transplant recipients. The incidence of end-stage
kidney disease has increased from 86.8 per million
to 347 per million cases per year. Of interest, incidence rates of end-stage kidney disease had been
increasing steadily up to 2002, but have remained
almost stable since, although the prevalence continues
to increase. There has been a slowing of incidence
rates of end-stage kidney disease due to diabetes
when corrected for the increase in patients with diabetes. Many studies have documented that a person
with CKD and declining GFR is much more likely to
die of a cardiovascular event rather than surviving to
receive dialysis or a transplant for diabetic nephropathy in type 2 diabetes.12-15 A recently published
study determined that patients with diabetes with
CKD compared to nondiabetic kidney disease have
much higher death rates for a given level of GFR.12
Hence, there is a close correlation between GFR
and mortality in patients with type 2 diabetes. The
authors concluded that all excess mortality in the type
2 diabetes population compared to the population
without diabetes is associated with declining GFR.
Another recent study from the United States showed
that 51% of dialysis patients are alive 3 years after
starting dialysis therapy and 82% who received a preemptive transplant are alive at 3 years.1 Taking this
information together, there must be a very large
number of patients with CKD (and patients with CKD
with diabetes) because the dialysis and transplant
patient numbers continue to increase every year.1
Since 1990, the rate of end-stage kidney disease
cases due to diabetes has increased at a signicantly
higher rate than any other cause (hypertension cases
also have increased, but at a much lower rate; Fig 1).
As noted, the number of new end-stage kidney disease cases per year has been steady since 2002, but
the total number of patients with end-stage kidney
disease (prevalence) continues to increase at a rapid
rate, with diabetes being the principal cause (Fig 2).
There is some hope that this trend might not continue
because there are recent reports suggesting that this
rapid increase may be slowing.16 Whether these
reports reect a true slowing of new cases or just
a temporary lull will become evident over the next
5-10 years.
Another important issue to consider in appreciating the impact of DKD is the effect of race and
ethnicity. In the United States, this becomes evident
by regional differences in the incidence of end-stage
kidney disease. The Southern United States, from
Figure 1. Incidence counts and rates for the major causes of

end-stage kidney disease. Diabetes mellitus has become the
main cause for new cases of end-stage kidney disease. Reproduced from the US Renal Data System 2012 Annual Data
Report.1
Figure 2. Prevalence counts and rates for the major causes

of end-stage kidney disease. Diabetes mellitus has become the
main cause for all cases of end-stage kidney disease. Reproduced from the US Renal Data System 2012 Annual Data
Report.1
Southern California to Southern Texas, has an especially high incidence of end-stage kidney disease, as
does the Midwest (rates ranging from 450-950 cases
per million in these areas compared with 200-300
cases per million in other regions).1 This likely
reects the important nding that race and ethnicity
have a major impact on risk for the development of
kidney disease and the progression to end-stage kidney disease.1 The racial and ethnic disparities that are
seen in the overall end-stage kidney disease data also
are evident in the people with end-stage kidney disease caused by diabetes (Fig 3). Although the white
population has the highest overall number of patients
with end-stage kidney disease in the United States,
African Americans have the highest incidence rates
per capita (Fig 3).1 Additionally, Native Americans17
and people of Hispanic origin18 have signicantly
higher incidence and prevalence rates per capita
compared with the white population (Figs 3 and 4).
Rates of end-stage kidney disease due to diabetes in
the African American, Native American, and Hispanic populations, especially in younger age groups,
are increasing, whereas rates have been unchanged for
the past 10 years19 in the white and Asian populations
in the United States. This major health disparity needs
to be addressed by providers, by recognizing who is at
risk so that screening for any signs of DKD is done
routinely and aggressive interventions are started
as early as possible in order to slow progression.
Research to address these issues is ongoing,20-23 but
more is required to understand the underlying mechanisms responsible for this health disparity.
The nancial costs of the end-stage kidney disease population are staggering.1 The approximately
595,000 patients who are either receiving dialysis or
have a transplant constitute w0.2% of the US population. This patient population cost Medicare w$30
billion in 2010, which is almost 6% of the annual
Medicare budget.1 In this era of rapidly increasing
health care costs, lawmakers certainly will be paying
signicant attention to very expensive services. The
personal burden of the combination of diabetes and
kidney disease includes decreased quality of life and
increased nancial costs. It is of paramount importance that the nephrology community provide leadership in early diagnosis, best practices, aggressive
management, cost-effective interventions, research,
and education so that the health care community as a
whole might work together to slow this epidemic.
A sobering statistic in the USRDS data is that
nephrologists do not make the initial diagnosis of
DKD; they rely on primary care and endocrinology
physicians to make the diagnosis. In 2010, a total of
43% of patients started dialysis therapy without ever
seeing a nephrologist.1 Even when patients were
known to have diabetes, 38.9% started dialysis therapy
without ever seeing a nephrologist. This means it is
likely that providers were not adequately screening
patients and did not recognize declining kidney
function. It does not mean that nephrologists need to
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Robert C. Stanton
500
Counts
Non-Hispanic
Number of patients
(in thousands)
400
300
200
Hispanic
100
0
Rate per million population
2500
Rates
Hispanic
2000
All
1500
Non-Hispanic
1000
96 98 00 02 04 06 08 10
Figure 3. Prevalence counts of end-stage kidney disease by

race. Although the white population has the highest number of
cases, the prevalence rate is significantly higher in African Americans and Native Americans. Reproduced from the US Renal
Data System 2012 Annual Data Report.1
Figure 4. Prevalence counts of end-stage kidney disease in

the Hispanic population. The Hispanic population has a significantly higher prevalence than the non-Hispanic population.
Data supplied by the US Renal Data System.1
see every patient with a GFR , 60 mL/min/1.73 m2

and urine albumin level . 30 mg/g, but that nonnephrologists need to routinely screen by calculating
eGFR and measuring urine albumin-creatinine ratios
in patients with diabetes. Referral should occur if
eGFR is declining (,45 mL/min/1.73 m2 should at
least prompt a screening visit to a nephrologist) and
urine albumin levels are increasing, certainly if urine
albumin-creatinine ratio is .300 mg/g (or urine
protein-creatinine ratio is .0.5 g/g). Thus, another
major goal for nephrologists to achieve is to provide
much wider education in many different forms to
non-nephrology health care practitioners who care
for patients with diabetes so that they routinely
evaluate for DKD and either institute appropriate
treatment or refer to a nephrologist for diagnosis and
concomitant care.
range from 10%-40% for both type 1 and type 2 diabetes patient groups, depending in part on the denition
of the disease.2,24 In general, using a denition of DKD
as microalbuminuria, overt proteinuria, decreased
GFR, or end-stage kidney disease in patients with
diabetes, the prevalence of DKD in patients with type 1
diabetes may be as high as 50%, but lower in patients
with type 2 diabetes.25,26 A recent study from Spain
determined a DKD prevalence of 27.2% in patients
with type 2 diabetes.26 So when is a biopsy indicated in
a patient with diabetes and kidney disease?
There are essentially 3 reasons to biopsy: diagnosis,
prognosis, and for research purposes. First, from a
diagnostic perspective, it always is important to
consider diseases other than diabetes as the cause of
kidney disease in patients with diabetes and kidney
disease. In the United States, the most common diseases that cause nondiabetic kidney disease in people
with diabetes (and reasonably bland sediment) are
hypertension and, less commonly, IgA nephropathy.
There is no clinical indication to determine whether a
patient with diabetes primarily has DKD or hypertensive kidney disease because the treatment is
the same. As for IgA nephropathy, there may be
a reason to biopsy if a patient has a urinary protein
excretion . 1 g and eGFR . 60 mL/min/1.73 m2
because recent research has shown that intervening
with steroids in the appropriate patient may slow
progression.27 The decision to biopsy also is affected
signicantly by other factors, such as the likelihood of
DIAGNOSIS: IS A KIDNEY BIOPSY INDICATED?

The diagnosis of DKD usually is based on a clinical
history of diabetes and an appropriate sediment
(generally bland, but a small number of red blood cells
may be present) and absence of signs and symptoms of
another kidney disease. In general, people with type 1
diabetes do not show clinical signs of kidney disease
(decreased GFR and/or increased urine albumincreatinine ratio) until about 3-5 years after the diagnosis of type 1 diabetes, whereas in people with type 2
diabetes, DKD may be diagnosed at any time.2,24 Estimates of the prevalence of DKD vary widely and
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discovering another kidney disease in a specic

population. For example, in China, where the estimated prevalence of CKD is about 10%-11%,28,29
primary glomerulonephritis (mostly IgA nephropathy) is the major cause of CKD (w40% of all cases of
CKD), with DKD being a smaller percentage
(w10%).30 However, new research suggests that the
ongoing epidemic of diabetes in China will lead to a
very substantial increase in DKD.31
Other diagnostic reasons to perform biopsy on
patients with diabetes are rapidly declining eGFR,
rapidly increasing urine protein or very high protein
level, active urinary sediment, signs or symptoms
suggestive of a nondiabetic cause for kidney disease,
concerns that a medication might be causing reduced
kidney function (eg, interstitial nephritis), or a sudden
change in eGFR, urine albumin excretion, or urine
sediment in a patient with known DKD. Of note, the
absence of diabetic retinopathy in the absence of other
indications is not a reason to biopsy. Although it used
to be stressed that the lack of diabetic retinopathy
indicates a high likelihood for a nondiabetic cause of
kidney disease, it now is clear that this is not the case,
especially in patients with type 2 diabetes and kidney
disease. For example, a study of 323 patients with
type 1 diabetes and 906 patients with type 2 diabetes
determined that a majority of patients with type 1
diabetes and macroalbuminuria had some retinopathy,
whereas 47.5% of patients with hypertension and
type 2 diabetes with overt proteinuria did not have
retinopathy.32 Therefore, the absence of diabetic
retinopathy in a patient with DKD should raise the
question of whether the kidney disease process is due
to a disease other than diabetes, especially in people
with type 1 diabetes. However, if there are no other
supporting signs or symptoms from the patients
history, physical, or laboratory results, there usually is
little indication for biopsy.
Also relevant to the use of biopsy for diagnosis, the
absence of an increase in urine albumin level despite
decreasing GFR is not necessarily an indication for
biopsy. Although it is common for urine albumin
level to increase prior to any decrease in GFR, it now
is well established, especially in patients with type 1
diabetes, that GFR can decrease independently of
urine albumin level. In a study of 103 patients with
normoalbuminuric type 1 DKD, patients underwent
biopsy for research purposes and were stratied into
normal (mean, 121 mL/min/1.73 m2) or low (mean,
75 mL/min/1.73 m2) eGFR categories.33 Evaluation
of the biopsy specimens revealed multiple signs
of diabetic nephropathy (ie, thickened glomerular
basement membrane and mesangial expansion).
Another study designed to assess the predictive value
of microalbuminuria as a predictor for pathologic
changes consistent with DKD in patients with type 1
diabetes34,35 revealed that there was a signicant increase in pathologic indicators of DKD in the group
with persistent microalbuminuria (ie, increased
glomerular basement membrane thickness) compared
with other groups (eg, intermittent microalbuminuria)
over a 5-year period. However, 64% of research participants had reversion of microalbuminuria to normoalbuminuria. This may reect improvement in
pathology or possibly a disconnect between albuminuria and pathology. Other researchers have reported
similar ndings in patients with type 1 diabetes,
including reversion of microalbuminuria to normoalbuminuria36 and disconnect between level of albuminuria and rate of GFR decline37; that is, GFR may
decline in the absence of albuminuria. Similar ndings
have been reported in patients with type 2 diabetes.
The DEMAND (Developing Education on Microalbuminuria for Awareness of Renal and Cardiovascular Risk in Diabetes) Study evaluated a large cohort
of patients with type 2 diabetes (32,208 patients aged
18-80 years).38 The authors reported that CKD was
noted in 17% of those with normoalbuminuria (CKD
stages 3-5), and signicantly reduced kidney function
was found in 27% of those with microalbuminuria
and 31% of those with overt proteinuria. Creatinine
clearance was ,60 mL/min/1.73 m2 in 20.5% of
those with normoalbuminuria, 30.7% of those with
microalbuminuria, and 35.0% of those with macroalbuminuria. Hence, in patients with either type 1 or
type 2 diabetic nephropathy, increasing urine albumin
levels are associated with declining GFR, but it also is
clear that people with diabetic nephropathy may have
reduced GFR and normal urine albumin levels.
Therefore, a patient with diabetes, declining GFR, and
normal urine albumin level does not necessarily have a
clinical indication for biopsy unless there are other
signs or symptoms that suggest a disease other than
diabetes.
As for prognosis, there may be indications for
biopsy if the patient or physician wants to know the
percent of scarring. The level of albuminuria may not
correlate with severity of disease and the inherent
variability of eGFR may not accurately reect the
degree of damage to the kidneys. There are not many
studies that relate test values to kidney damage;
however, a study from 2005 reported on biopsies
from 105 patients with diabetic glomerulosclerosis
and followed up for 56 months.39 The prognostic
values (how many progressed to dialysis therapy) of
duration of diabetes, creatinine level, proteinuria, and
histologic score were evaluated. Serum creatinine
level and histologic score were statistically signicant
predictors, whereas duration of diabetes and proteinuria were not. A routine prognostic clinical biopsy
currently is not indicated in patients with DKD.
However, with new therapeutic approaches, knowing
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Robert C. Stanton
Table 1. Recently Revised Pathologic Classification of Diabetic Kidney Disease
Class
Description
Inclusion Criteria
Mild or nonspecific LM changes and EM-proven

GBM thickening
Biopsy does not meet any of the criteria mentioned below for
class II, III, or IV; GBM . 395 nm in female and .430 nm
in male individuals 9 years and oldera
IIa
Mild mesangial expansion
Biopsy does not meet criteria for class III or IV; mild mesangial
expansion in .25% of the observed mesangium
IIb
Severe mesangial expansion
Biopsy does not meet criteria for class III or IV; severe mesangial
expansion in .25% of the observed mesangium
III
Nodular sclerosis (Kimmelstiel-Wilson lesion)
Biopsy does not meet criteria for class IV; at least 1 convincing
Kimmelstiel-Wilson lesion
IV
Advanced diabetic glomerulosclerosis
Global glomerular sclerosis in .50% of glomeruli; lesions from

classes I through III
Abbreviations: EM, electron microscopy; GBM, glomerular basement membrane; LM, light microscopy.
a
On the basis of direct measurement of GBM width by EM, these individual cutoff levels may be considered indicative when other
GBM measurements are used.
Reproduced with permission of American Society of Nephrology from Tervaert et al.44
the degree of damage perhaps will be important for

determining the utility, timing, or potential efcacy of
administering a particular drug.
Biopsy for research purposes is an important issue.
There has been much discussion about the pathologic
natural history of DKD. Glomerular basement membrane thickening is considered to be the earliest
measureable sign of DKD, followed by expansion of
the mesangial matrix and hyalinosis of the afferent
and efferent arterioles.40 Most longitudinal biopsy
studies have been performed in patients with type 1
diabetes,40 and much less is known about DKD
pathology in type 2 diabetic nephropathy. Furthermore, there is signicant interest and growing data on
potential roles for tubulointerstitial disease as an
initiating factor of DKD.41-43 Biopsy material potentially could help determine how important tubulointerstitial disease is in the pathogenesis and
progression of diabetic nephropathy. It also is not
clear what cells in the glomerulus are primarily at risk
for the damage caused by hyperglycemia: the
glomerular endothelial cell, mesangial cell, podocyte,
or a combination. As such, there has been growing
interest in establishing tissue biobanks in order to
examine diabetic kidneys at all stages of the disease to
answer these important pathophysiologic questions.
Clearly determining the cell type or types at risk
(along with determining underlying mechanisms) will
provide necessary information that can be used for the
development of future targeted therapies.
In 2010, the Research Committee of the Renal
Pathology Association tackled the issue of pathologic
classication of DKD, with the goal of producing a
uniform classication system that would assist in
ascribing uniform chronicity and staging criteria for
clinicians and researchers.44 The committee proposed
4 stages (Table 1), with glomerular basement membrane thickening as class I and advanced
S10
glomerulosclerosis as class IV. Of note, degree of

interstitial brosis (scored 0-2), interstitial inammation, and vascular lesions (Table 2) also were
included. The researchers reported very good interobserver variability when using these criteria. To test
their system, 5 pathologists classied 25 biopsy
specimens and found an intraclass correlation coefcient of 0.84. This classication is important for all
nephrologists to know because it provides a potential
framework for clinical prognosis and research. Only
with sufcient material will further insights into the
pathogenesis, prognosis, and interventions of DKD be
achieved. To date, there have been no truly successful
animal models of DKD, although many have been
working on this.45 Thus, we should consider whether
we could enhance our knowledge and improve patient
care by performing more biopsies on patients with
diabetes.
TREATMENT CONTROVERSIES
Overview
The primary interventions that slow the progression
of DKD are control of glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c)
levels,46-51 control of blood pressure (BP),52-55
smoking cessation,56,57 and lowering of urine albumin levels.58,59 Furthermore, weight loss60,61 also
may play an important role in prevention and slowing
the progression of DKD. Blood glucose management
issues are discussed in detail elsewhere in this supplement.62 Two excellent reviews of overall BP
management in patients with diabetes or diabetic
nephropathy, as well as thoughtful discussions about
albuminuria management, recently have been published.63,64 The rst focuses on optimal antihypertensive therapy in patients with type 2 diabetes and
hypertension and discusses areas of uncertainty.63
The second discusses the mechanisms involved in
Lesion
Interstitial lesions
IFTA
Interstitial inflammation
Vascular lesions
Arteriolar hyalinosis
Presence of large
vessels
Arteriosclerosis
(score worst artery)
Criteria
No IFTA
Score
,25%
25%-50%
.50%
Absent
3
0
Infiltration only in relation

to IFTA
Infiltration in areas without

IFTA
Absent
At least 1 area of arteriolar

hyalinosis
More than 1 area of

arteriolar hyalinosis
Yes/no
No intimal thickening
Intimal thickening less

than thickness of media
Intimal thickening greater

than thickness of media
Abbreviation: IFTA, intersitial fibrosis and tubular atrophy.

Reproduced with permission of American Society of
Nephrology from Tervaert et al.44
hypertension in patients with diabetic nephropathy

and reviews clinical trials using single agents as
therapeutics and trials involving novel drugs or drug
combinations used to treat these patients.64 However,
there currently are a number of challenges and shifting ideas on clinically important issues for the treatment of DKD, and they are addressed next.
Hypertension Management: What Is the BP Target?
There are considerable data supporting an essential
role of achieving BP goals in patients with DKD
for both primary prevention and slowing of disease
progression.52,54,55,64,65 The National Kidney FoundationKidney Disease Outcomes Quality Initiative
(NKF-KDOQI)-recommended goal for BP in patients
with diabetic nephropathy is ,130/80 mm Hg.4
However, recent studies have prompted some major
organizations, such as the American Diabetes Association, to alter their guidelines for BP goals from 130/80
to 140/80 mm Hg, which may have an impact on the
primary prevention of DKD.66 The impetus for these
changes came primarily from the ACCORD (Action to
Control Cardiovascular Risk in Diabetes) Study.67
ACCORD was a prospective, randomized, multicenter clinical trial of 4,733 patients with type 2
diabetes who were followed up for an average of
4.7 years. The study was designed to assess the
multiple interventions on cardiovascular outcomes in

high-risk patients with diabetes, including the benets
of intensively treating BP (,120 mm Hg) versus conventional treatment (140 mm Hg). The primary
outcome was rst occurrence of a major cardiovascular
event, dened as the composite of nonfatal myocardial
infarction, nonfatal stroke, or cardiovascular death.
The study found no benecial effect of intensive BP
control (systolic BP [SBP] , 120 mm Hg) on risk
of myocardial infarction or cardiovascular death,
although it found signicant lowering of stroke risk.
From a diabetic nephropathy perspective, it is important to note that the vast majority of patients in this
study did not have DKD (mean GFR, 91.6 mL/min/
1.73 m2, and mean urine albumin-creatinine ratio,
14.5 mg/g). The INVEST (International VerapamilTrandolapril Study), in which patients were 50 years
or older and had diabetes, also showed no benet of
lowering SBP beyond the goal of ,140 mm Hg
(signicantly decreased kidney function was present
in #5% in the INVEST group).68
Conversely, a number of studies have found that for
patients with DKD, BP , 130/80 mm Hg delayed the
progression of kidney disease. For example, a BP
analysis of the RENAAL (Reduction of Endpoints in
NIDDM with the Angiotensin II Antagonist Losartan)
Study in patients with type 2 diabetes determined that
those with SBP , 140 mm Hg had signicantly
improved outcomes.69 Likewise, an analysis of multiple studies correlated signicant slowing of loss of
GFR as BP decreased (Fig 5).70 Although these data
suggest that the lower the BP, the better preserved
the kidney function, there is reason not to lower it
too much. In the IDNT (Irbesartan Diabetic Nephropathy Trial), SBP # 120 mm Hg was associated with an
increase in all-cause mortality and cardiovascular
mortality compared with those with higher BP.71 Of
note, w60% of participants had cardiovascular disease.
In a subgroup analysis of 6,400 patients in INVEST,
increased cardiovascular mortality was observed in
participants with SBP , 115 mm Hg (Fig 6).68
95
98
101
MAP (mmHg)
104
107
110
113
116
119
0
-2
GFR
(ml/min/year)
Table 2. Recently Revised Pathologic Classification of

Interstitial and Vascular Lesions in Diabetic Kidney Disease
r=0.69; P<0.05
-4
-6
Untreated
HTN
-8
-10
-12
130/85
140/90
-14
Figure 5. Rate of decline in glomerular filtration rate slows as

mean arterial pressure is decreased. Adapted from Bakris et al70
with permission of National Kidney Foundation.
S11
Robert C. Stanton
10
<110
110
<115
115
<120
120
<125
125
<130
Systolic Blood Pressure mmHg

No. at risk
35
98
306
757
1059
No. of deaths
12
17
38
69
112
Figure 6. There is an increase in all-cause mortality in people with cardiovascular disease when systolic blood pressure
is ,115 mm Hg. Reproduced with permission of American Medical Association from Cooper-DeHoff et al.68
There is a growing recognition that BP goals need

to be targeted to the individual patient. In patients
with coronary artery disease, lowering SBP to
,140 mm Hg likely is sufcient and lowering to
,120 mm Hg appears to lead to worse outcomes.
However, although lower BP reduced the risk of
stroke in the ACCORD Study, this effect was not observed in INVEST. Furthermore, SBP , 130 mm Hg
leads to improved kidney-related outcomes in patients
with DKD. Thus, the ideal BP for a patient with
diabetes needs to be tailored to the patient. A general
goal of ,140/80 mm Hg should sufce provided the
patient has no evidence of DKD. However, a goal
of ,130/80 mm Hg should be targeted in patients
with DKD unless there is signicant concomitant
cardiovascular disease or microalbuminuria alone
with normal GFR.
ReninAngiotensinAldosterone Axis: Focus on
Angiotensin II Inhibition
Many studies have demonstrated increased activity
in the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS)
in patients with diabetes and patients with DKD.5,72-74
Blockade of this system (especially of angiotensin II)
has been the mainstay of DKD treatment for 30 years.
A number of recent studies have provided further
insights into the best use of these medications.
What Is the Mechanism of Action for ACE-Inhibitor and
ARB Medications?
The effects of blockade of the RAAS on angiotensin II and glomerular pressures has generated much
attention because decreased angiotensin II leads to
vasodilation of the efferent arteriole with a resultant
decrease in glomerular pressure gradient across the
basement membrane and a subsequent decline in
GFR.74 This decrease in intraglomerular pressures has
S12
been presumed to be the primary mechanism by

which these medications work; there certainly is
evidence for this from animal studies.74 However,
animal studies are problematic because all animal
models of DKD to date are thought to not accurately
reect human DKD.45 In addition, the measurements
(whether single-nephron GFR using micropuncture
techniques or by whole-animal clearance studies) are
snapshots and may be misleading. Angiotensin II has
multiple other actions, including stimulation of
inammation by stimulation of factors such as transforming growth factor b, activation of NADPH
(reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate) oxidase, and other effects, all of which may be
mechanistically important to angiotensin IImediated
damage to the kidney.74 Moreover, these medications
may have actions independent of angiotensin II that
are benecial. For example, the enzyme kininase II is
the same enzyme as angiotensin-converting enzyme
(ACE); hence, ACE inhibitors may alter 2 pathways:
the RAAS and the bradykinin pathway.74 Kininase II
blockade leads to the increase in bradykinin levels
that is thought to be responsible for the cough seen in
some patients receiving an ACE inhibitor. Additionally, increasing bradykinin levels may play a benecial role in kidney disease progression. These
medications have been of signicant benet in the
treatment of patients with proteinuria and DKD.
Determining the exact mechanism by which they
work may lead to an even more effective treatment.
Regardless of the exact mechanism, it has been
determined that the decrease in GFR seen with ACEinhibitor/angiotensin receptor blocker (ARB) treatments is at least an important indicator of their
effectiveness in slowing the progression of DKD.
Bakris et al70 reviewed this issue and reported that an
increase in serum creatinine level of up to 30% within
the rst 4 months of starting ACE-inhibitor treatment
(baseline up to 3 mg/dL) correlated with slower rates
of decline in kidney function after 3 or more years of
follow-up (Fig 7). In a recent subanalysis of the
RENAAL Study, in which losartan was given to
patients with type 2 diabetes to determine whether it
slowed disease progression,75 the authors found that
the greater the initial decline in GFR, the slower the
rate of progression of DKD (Fig 8). This important
nding emphasizes the need to monitor GFR after
prescribing these medicines. Measuring GFR (and
potassium) after starting treatment with an ACE
inhibitor or ARB anew or after increasing the dose
may be needed not only to determine whether GFR
has declined too much (or potassium increased too
much), but also to determine whether GFR has
declined at all. Hence, irrespective of whether the
protective effects of angiotensin II inhibition are due
to lowering of glomerular pressures, the decrease in
Bakris
(n=18)
Nielsen
(n=21)
MDRD (low BP goal)

(n=293)
MDRD (usual BP goal)

(n=292)
Mean arterial pressure at

trial end
Initial GFR rate of decline Final GFR rate of decline at

(<4 months)
trial end (16 years)
115
-3.8
-4
-6
-5.7
-8
-7
-10
-9.4
-12
-14.4
-16
Long-term eGFR slope

(ml/min per 1.73 m2 per year)
-1
-2
-4
-3.6
-4.1
-3.9
-4.4
-4.8
-5
-6
100
95
Tertiles of initial fall in eGFR

-8.6 -2.4 +4.2
-8.6 -2.4 +4.2
-3.8
105
105
98
94
-14
Are ACE Inhibitors and ARBs Effective for Primary

Prevention of DKD?
This question has received considerable attention
during the past 10 years due to the public health
implications of suggesting that all patients with diabetes be placed on ACE-inhibitor or ARB therapy for
the primary prevention of DKD. Two recent detailed
analyses have come to different conclusions.4,76 The
Cochrane review recommends the use of ACE
inhibitors (though not ARBs; the authors state that to
date, studies do not support use of ARBs for primary
prevention) for primary prevention in normotensive
normoalbuminuric patients,76 whereas the NKFKDOQI guidelines recommend against using these
medications in this clinical scenario.4 The Cochrane
review stated the following: We identied 26 studies
enrolling 61,264 participants. ACE-Is reduced the risk
-3
110
-2.8
-4
GFR directly reects the efcacy of the medications.

It is important to educate non-nephrology physicians
and counsel patients in the proper use of these medications because too often these medication treatments
are stopped when GFR decreases.
112
-1.3
mmHg
Figure 7. Increases in serum creatinine level of up to 30% from a baseline

up to 3 mg/dL within the first 4 months
of
starting
angiotensin-converting
enzyme inhibitor treatment correlated
with slower rates of decline in renal
function. Adapted from Bakris et al70
with permission of National Kidney
Foundation.
mL/min/year
-2
P=0.0089
P=0.0497
Unadjusted analysis
Adjusted analysis
Figure 8. In the RENAAL Study, the greater the initial decline

in glomerular filtration rate, the slower the rate of progression of
diabetic kidney disease. Reproduced with permission of Macmillan Publishers Ltd from Holtkamp et al.75
90
of new onset of microalbuminuria, macroalbuminuria

or both when compared to placebo (eight studies,
11,906 patients: RR 0.71, 95% CI 0.56 to 0.89), with
similar benets in people with and without hypertension (P 5 0.74).76(p1) The weight of this recommendation is based primarily on albuminuria.
NKF-KDOQI reviewed many of the same studies,
but was swayed more by the lack of denitive evidence for such outcomes as differences in pathologic
signs of DKD. For example, with respect to ACE
inhibitors and ARBs for primary prevention in type 1
diabetes, researchers studied 285 patients with type 1
diabetes and no evidence of DKD who were treated
with enalapril, losartan, or placebo for 5 years.77 At
the beginning of the study, 90% of patients had a
kidney biopsy that was repeated 5 years later. The
study showed that neither losartan nor enalapril prevented the development of microalbuminuria. Likewise, the biopsy data showed that there was no
prevention of early signs of DKD (Table 3). The
strength of the conclusions was greatly enhanced
because the study involved biopsy material.
There are conicting study results regarding the use
of ARBs for primary prevention. One large study in
which candesartan was prescribed to prevent the
development of microalbuminuria in patients with
diabetes showed no benet. Study participants were
normoalbuminuric and mostly normotensive in 3
separate clinical trials that included a total of about
3,300 people with type 1 diabetes and 1,900 with type
2 diabetes.78 The study showed no benet for prevention of the development of microalbuminuria
during a 4.7-year period.
Although the Cochrane review and NKF-KDOQI
guidelines differ in the utility of ACE inhibitors for
primary prevention, they agree on the lack of utility of
ARBs in primary prevention. Some large studies of
patients with type 2 diabetes have shown a benet in
slowing the development of albuminuria.79 However,
the estimated development of microalbuminuria
ranges from 10%-40% in patients with type 2 diabetes, which means that 60%-90% will not develop
S13
Robert C. Stanton
Table 3. Effects of Enalapril or Losartan Treatment on Primary Prevention of Development of an Early Pathologic Lesion of Diabetic
Kidney Disease
End Point (mesangial fractional volume)
Enalapril
Losartan
Placebo
Mean at baseline
0.201 6 0.044
0.189 6 0.041
0.187 6 0.045
Mean change at 5 y
Change vs placebo
Mean difference
P value
0.005 6 0.050
0.026 6 0.054
0.016 6 0.048
20.011
0.16
0.010
0.17
0 (reference)
20.006
0.38
0.008
0.26
0 (reference)
Adjusted change vs placebo

Mean difference
P value
Reproduced with permission of the Massachusetts Medical Society from Mauer et al.77
microalbuminuria.2,24-26 This would mean there

would be a signicant number of individuals taking a
medication they do not need. It is not clear at this time
whether prescribing an ACE inhibitor or ARB to all
patients with type 2 diabetes without kidney disease
and hypertension would cause more harm or good. If
the patient is hypertensive, an ACE inhibitor or ARB
may be the best initial medication.
Should ACE Inhibitors and ARBs Be Used in
Combination?
There were a number of studies showing the
benets of ACE inhibitors used in combination with
ARBs for the treatment of DKD.80-85 A meta-analysis
published in 2007 reviewed these studies and
concluded that there was therapeutic benet to using
the combination, but cautioned that their ndings may
be misleading by noting that many of the studies were
of short duration.84 In 2008, ONTARGET (Ongoing
Telmisartan Alone and in Combination With Ramipril
Global End-point Trial) changed attitudes about using
the combination of ACE inhibitors and ARBs.86
ONTARGET compared the efcacy of telmisartan
and ramipril in combination with that of telmisartan or
ramipril monotherapy with the intent of showing
noninferiority of telmisartan compared to ramipril.
This large study, about 25,500 participants, showed
that the combination was not superior to using these
medications alone. There appeared to be more adverse
events (decreased GFR and hyperkalemia) in patients
using the combination compared with those on
monotherapy. This large well-done study led many to
conclude that physicians should not use these medications in combination. The ONTARGET population
consisted of 38% with diabetes and 13% with
microalbuminuria, and the average GFR decreased
to within the normal range. Thus, the relevance of
ONTARGET to the population of patients with
stage 3 (GFR , 60 mL/min/1.73 m2) or worse CKD
and macroalbuminuria (the patient cohort with the
highest risk for progression to end-stage kidney disease) was unclear. To answer this issue, a subgroup
S14
analysis of ONTARGET was performed to determine

whether combination therapy improved outcomes in
participants with decreased GFR and/or increased
urine albumin level. Overall, the study did not show a
benet for combination therapy and may even have led
to worse outcomes. This analysis concluded that dual
blockade likely is not better than monotherapy and the
combination may well have been detrimental. However, the cause of the kidney disease in this population
was not clear (it was not specically evaluated).87
A recent study was published that evaluated
the effect of the combination of lisinopril and irbesartan versus lisinopril or irbesartan monotherapy in
patients with type 2 diabetes and average GFR of
w48 mL/min/1.73 m2 at maximal dose with the study
end points of .50% increase in serum creatinine
level, end-stage kidney disease, and death over a
4-year period.88 Results showed no benet of the
combination therapy compared to monotherapy, and
there were no differences in adverse events. Although
this is one of the rst studies to address this issue in
type 2 diabetes, it has limitations, as the authors noted
(the study included only 133 patients, mostly men,
with a mean age of 67 years). The study was not
double blind and the outcome event rate was lower
than expected in all groups. Because a number of
studies have demonstrated the benet of lowering
albumin excretion in patients with macroalbuminuria
for slowing the progression of DKD,15,58,89 it is
justiable to use a variety of methods to lower urine
albumin levels. Two debates published in 2010 provide excellent discussions of the pros and cons of
using an ACE inhibitor and an ARB in combination
for the treatment of CKD.90,91 A meta-analysis
recently was published that addressed the specic
question of whether there is support for using dual
RAAS blockade for treating patients with DKD.85
The detailed analysis concluded that dual blockade
should be used in patients with diabetes, macroalbuminuria, and normal potassium levels. Recently,
2 long-term studies were designed to develop better
understanding of the role of combination therapy in
patients with DKD: the VA NEPHRON-D Study,

which consists of 1,448 patients with type 2 diabetes
and a wide range of GFRs and was scheduled to be
completed by October 201492; and the VALID
(Preventing ESRD in Overt Nephropathy in Type 2
Diabetes) Study, which consists of approximately
100 patients with type 2 diabetes and signicant
kidney disease, as dened by serum creatinine level
of 1.8-3.5 g/dL and urine albumin-creatinine ratio
. 1,000 mg/g, and is due to be completed December
2015.93 The VA NEPHRON-D Study was stopped
earlier this year by the Data and Safety Monitoring
Board due to what was reported as increased acute
kidney injury and hyperkalemia events in the dualblockade cohort, and due to lack of efcacy. This
result certainly brings into question the safety and
efcacy of dual blockade.
Should ACE Inhibitors and ARBs Be Discontinued at a
Particular eGFR Level?
There are several acute situations that require at
least temporary discontinuation of these medications.
Signicant side effects should prompt a clinician to
stop the medication. However, in the absence of
complications and acute events, should these medications be continued until dialysis or transplantation?
In 2001, a secondary post hoc analysis of the REIN
(Ramipril Efcacy in Nephropathy) trial, consisting
of 322 patients with nondiabetic proteinuric CKD and
different levels of kidney function, was done to
evaluate this question.94 It was found that the best
effect for slowing the progression to end-stage kidney
disease was achieved in the group with the lowest
GFR. Moreover, the earlier ramipril treatment was
started and maintained, the better the protection.
Furthermore, data from the RENAAL Study with
losartan also suggested that prolonged use slows the
progression to end-stage kidney disease.95 There have
not been many detailed studies about this issue, but in
the absence of a reason to stop ACE-inhibitor or ARB
treatment in a patient nearing dialysis, it may make
sense to maintain the patients on these medications.
Recommendations for Use of ACE Inhibitors and ARBs
in DKD
1. There currently is little or no indication for the use

of ACE inhibitors or ARBs in the prevention of
DKD in patients with diabetes and normal urine
albumin excretion and BP.
2. They are a reasonable rst-line treatment for patients with hypertension and normal urine albumin
levels; however, selection of antihypertensive
agents should be made on an individual basis,
taking into account factors such as comorbid
conditions, cost, and treatment adherence.
3. Consider using ACE inhibitors or ARBs in patients

with microalbuminuria to help prevent progression
to macroalbuminuria.
4. For overt proteinuria (.300 mg/g of urine albumin), there is a clear indication for ACE-inhibitor
or ARB treatment. The stopping of VA
NEPHRON-D brings into question whether there
is any role for combination ACE-inhibitor/ARB
treatment for patients with DKD. The VALID
Study may be the nal arbiter as to whether there is
a role for dual blockade in patients with DKD.
An interesting question is whether these medications are of benet in patients with DKD who have
normal albumin levels but decreased GFR. There are
few data for this particular scenario. It may be recommended to use these medications if the patient also
is hypertensive. However, if complications arise as a
result of using these medications (such as hyperkalemia or cough), switching to another antihypertensive agent would be indicated.
ReninAngiotensinAldosterone Axis: Is There a Role
for Renin Inhibition?
There was much interest when the renin inhibitor
aliskiren was launched as an inhibitor of the
RAAS.96 One short-term study showed a promising
reduction in urine albumin excretion using aliskiren
and losartan combination therapy in patients with
diabetes.97 As such, aliskiren could be used in
combination with either an ACE inhibitor or ARB to
lower urine albumin levels and slow progression.
ALTITUDE (Aliskiren Trial in Type 2 Diabetes
Using Cardio-Renal Endpoints) was designed to
evaluate whether the addition of aliskiren to ACE
inhibitor or ARB treatment provided further renoprotective benets.98 In late 2011, the study was
stopped prematurely by the data safety and monitoring board for the study due to the occurrence of
excess adverse events (nonfatal stroke, hyperkalemia, hypotension, and decreased kidney function).99 Considering that generic forms of ACE
inhibitors provide a much more cost-effective solution to managing urine albumin levels than aliskiren,
the precise role for aliskiren in the treatment of DKD
is not clear at this time.
ReninAngiotensinAldosterone Axis: Focus on
Aldosterone Inhibition
Aldosterone inhibition has been widely underused
for DKD treatment. In addition to aldosterone effects
on sodium, potassium, and pH regulation, aldosterone leads to increased levels of reactive oxygen
species, transforming growth factor b, and plasminogen activator inhibitor and other effects that can
lead to glomerular podocyte loss, as well as tubulointerstitial brosis.100 Numerous articles have been
S15
Robert C. Stanton
published in the cardiovascular literature that discuss

the benecial effects of spironolactone, especially in
patients with congestive heart failure and/or cardiovascular disease.101-103 The benets of spironolactone for CKD, and in particular DKD, have
become apparent over the past 10 years.104 There
now are multiple studies showing a signicant
decrease in proteinuria when aldosterone inhibition
is added to ACE-inhibitor or ARB therapy. Treatment is associated with an increased risk of hyperkalemia, but the overall benet of aldosterone
inhibition may outweigh the risks.104,105 At this
time, spironolactone may be considered to possibly
be of benet for patients with DKD. However, there
are no long-term studies with spironolactone alone or
in combination with other RAAS inhibitors showing
improved kidney outcomes. Larger and long-term
studies are needed to better understand the relationship between aldosterone inhibition and DKD
outcomes.
Do Nondihydropyridine Calcium Channel Blockers
Lower Proteinuria and Help Slow the Progression
of DKD?
Studies during the past 15 years appeared to show
that nondihydropyridine medications (eg, diltiazem
and verapamil) slightly decreased proteinuria independently of any BP-lowering effects.106-108 A
recent study evaluated the effects of diltiazem on the
development of urinary albumin excretion in patients
with hypertension and type 2 diabetes, with persistent microalbuminuria despite ACE-inhibitor treatment.109 Thirty-six patients with type 2 diabetes,
hypertension, and microalbuminuria persisting after
more than 1 year of treatment with ACE inhibitors
were randomly assigned to receive captopril
(n 5 22) or captopril and 120 mg of diltiazem
combined therapy (n 5 14) for 2 years. There was no
increase in albumin excretion in the combinedtherapy group, whereas absolute albumin excretion
increased in the captopril monotherapy group. The
benecial effects of the addition of diltiazem were
independent of BP and metabolic control. More
recently, a head-to-head study of patients with type 2
diabetes compared trandolapril/verapamil combination therapy with benazepril/amlodipine combination
therapy, and both combinations were seen to reduce
proteinuria.110 Recommendations at this time are to
use either type of calcium channel blocker as an
addition to RAAS inhibitors, mostly for BP management. For patients unable to tolerate RAAS inhibitors (usually due to hyperkalemia) for the
reduction of proteinuria (not considering antihypertensive actions), there are data supporting the use of
nondihydropyridine monotherapy when compared
with dihydropyridine monotherapy.
S16
Is There a Role for Pentoxifylline in Treating DKD?

Pentoxifylline is a methylxanthine phosphodiesterase inhibitor that has been used for many years to
improve vascular blood ow, but also has been shown
to have anti-inammatory and immunoregulatory
effects.111-113
During the past 10 years, pentoxifylline has shown
antiproteinuria effects.111-113 All studies to date generally have been small and short in duration and have
focused entirely on reduction of proteinuria.111-113
Thus, it is difcult to know the utility of this
different class of medication, but it still may nd a
role in the treatment of DKD.
Protein Intake and DKD: Should Low-Protein Diets
Routinely Be Prescribed?
A role for protein in the progression of DKD has
been discussed for many years.95 Initial observations
illustrated that GFR increases signicantly after a
high-protein meal.95 Many subsequent studies using
animal models of DKD illustrated that a high-protein
diet accelerated the rate of increase in urine protein
levels and rate of decline in GFR in animal models of
DKD.114,115 The primary mechanism (determined by
single-nephron GFR micropuncture studies) illustrated that a high-protein diet (50% of the diet was
protein compared to a usual rat diet of 12% protein)
caused an increase in intracapillary glomerular pressure with a resultant increase in GFR.114,115 A lowprotein diet (6% protein in the diet) slowed the
decline in GFR and development of proteinuria.
These ndings led to the MDRD Study,116,117 which
was designed to show the benet of a low-protein diet
(,0.8 g/kg/d) in slowing the progression of CKD.
Unfortunately, there was no benet seen in this study.
There may be a number of reasons for this, including
the length of the study, that there are benecial effects
for certain subgroups that were not seen when
examining the entire cohort, and difculty maintaining a low-protein diet. The MDRD Study had a
relatively small subgroup with DKD. Subsequent
studies of patients with diabetes have used diets with
protein as low as ,0.4 g/kg/d (with supplementation
of essential amino acids), with most studies using
protein lower than 0.6-0.8 g/kg/d.118,119 Almost all
these studies have focused on patients with type 1
diabetes, are of short duration, and are small.
Although some studies have reported reduced albuminuria, there are no long-term studies that clearly
show a denitive benet for a low-protein diet. An
extensive review of protein intake and DKD is
beyond the scope of this review, but the published
data lead to the following recommendations:
1. There are no long-term data supporting the prescription of a low-protein diet (,0.6-8 g/kg/d) in
patients with DKD. The prescribed diet should

balance all the patients nutritional needs and
protein level should be prescribed in this context
primarily.
2. A low-protein diet may offer additional benets,
especially in patients who have maximized other
therapeutic approaches.
3. There are additional benets to low-protein diets
independent of protein level in that reduced protein
intake also is associated with reduced phosphate,
sodium, and fat intake and other potentially benecial effects.120 One study suggests that the
benecial effect of a low-protein diet might be due
primarily to the reduction in sodium intake and
subsequent improvement in BP.119
4. It is likely that high-protein diets are deleterious.
There are no studies of humans denitively
showing this, but the work in animal is very
compelling.115 Also, the exact denition of a
high-protein diet is not clear. Nevertheless,
avoiding protein supplements and weight-loss diets
that consist of a high-protein component seems
prudent for patients with DKD.
Smoking Cessation and DKD
Studies dating back 30 years showed that smoking
is a risk factor for both the development and progression of DKD.56,57,121 The data seem to be as
relevant for patients with type 1 DKD as for those
with type 2 DKD.56,57,121 There also are data suggesting slowing of DKD progression in smokers who
quit smoking.122 Hence, although the data are not
extensive or based on large studies, considering the
effects of smoking on general health and diabetes
specically, it is strongly recommended that all
patients with DKD cease smoking.
Is There a Specic Unique Role for Lipid Management
in DKD?
There have been a number of studies revealing an
association between hypercholesterolemia and rate
of progression of DKD.123-126 Elevated serum
cholesterol levels are correlated with decreased
GFRs in patients with either type 1 or type 2
DKD.127 Thus, it has been suggested that elevated
serum cholesterol level is a risk factor for the progression of kidney disease. Interestingly, in a study
that showed regression of microalbuminuria in patients with type 1 diabetes,36 low cholesterol and
triglyceride levels correlated with regression. The
FIELD Study evaluated fenobrate treatment on
albuminuria and eGFR and found that during a 5year period, fenobrate treatment modestly lowered
albuminuria and slowed eGFR decline compared
with groups not treated with fenobrate, especially
in patients with hypertriglyceridemia (but no
difference in end-stage kidney disease was seen).128

Fenobrate increased creatinine levels initially, but
this was not maintained, and 2 more recent studies
suggest that fenobrate likely is safe to use in patients with moderate kidney disease.129,130 However,
more studies clearly are needed to determine whether
treatment of cholesterol and/or triglyceride levels
will prevent the development or slow the progression
of DKD. Thus, no specic recommendation on the
benets of lowering cholesterol and/or triglyceride
levels can be made at this time. Perhaps a multifactorial approach to management (that includes
lipid management, BP control, blood glucose control, etc) as was done in the STENO-2 Study will
provide the best outcomes.131
Is There a Role for Weight Loss in DKD?
Obesity has been observed to be a clear risk factor
for kidney disease in general and for DKD.132 Obesity
is associated with increased lipid levels, hypertension,
endothelial cell dysfunction, and other metabolic
abnormalities.132 Thus, it is not clear whether the
main reason obesity is associated with kidney disease
are the factors associated with obesity or other factors
unique to the obese person, such as release of
inammatory mediators from visceral fat cells. Interestingly, one case report describes resolution of
albuminuria following bariatric surgery.133 It is not
clear whether this improvement is due to an intrinsic
change in cellular physiology associated with the
alteration in body habitus from obese to nonobese or
to improved blood glucose and BP control. A recent
review discusses the evidence linking obesity to
CKD.134
CONCLUSION
Much has been learned in the past 30 years that has
led to signicant improvements in treatments for
DKD that slow progression and interventions for
the prevention of DKD, yet DKD is a major, ever
increasing, worldwide public health problem. The
primary goals of the health care system need to be
focused on the prevention and slowing of progression of DKD. The nephrology community has a
dual task: to determine the best approach for both
diagnosis and management. However, further education also is required across all health care providers
(eg, endocrinologists, primary care physicians, nurse
practitioners, physician assistants, and nurses) to
understand the scope of the problem, implement interventions that prevent the development of DKD,
ensure proper screening, understand how to diagnose,
understand treatments if they do not want to refer, and
understand when to refer to nephrology. It is a tall
order, but a critical one.
S17
Robert C. Stanton
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
For the data reported here that were supplied by the USRDS, the
interpretation and reporting of these data are the responsibility of
the author and in no way should be seen as an ofcial policy or
interpretation of the US government.
Support: The development of this journal supplement was
funded by Novo Nordisk. Technical editing was provided by
Watermeadow Medical, funded by Novo Nordisk. Costs associated with publication were funded by Novo Nordisk. The author
received no remuneration for this work.
Financial Disclosure: The author declares that he has no relevant nancial interests.
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Clinical Challenges in Diagnosis and Management of Diabetic

people. Moreover, it is debatable whether microalbuminuria routinely reects kidney disease.

From the Kidney and Hypertension Division, Joslin Diabetes

large CKD population even if the exact number is not

Challenges in Diagnosis and Management of DKD

benet of a low-protein diet on DKD, although some

In the past 30 years, there have been signicant

Survey) data, 19.3% of all people with diabetes

EPIDEMIOLOGY: HOW PREVALENT IS DKD?

diabetes and 4 had type 2 diabetes).8 Any type of

end-stage kidney disease data. This is because there is

Challenges in Diagnosis and Management of DKD

Figure 1. Incidence counts and rates for the major causes of

Figure 2. Prevalence counts and rates for the major causes

Am J Kidney Dis. 2014;63(2)(suppl 2):S3-S21

Rate per million population

Figure 3. Prevalence counts of end-stage kidney disease by

Figure 4. Prevalence counts of end-stage kidney disease in

see every patient with a GFR , 60 mL/min/1.73 m2

DIAGNOSIS: IS A KIDNEY BIOPSY INDICATED?

Am J Kidney Dis. 2014;63(2)(suppl 2):S3-S21

Challenges in Diagnosis and Management of DKD

discovering another kidney disease in a specic

Mild or nonspecific LM changes and EM-proven

Mild mesangial expansion

Severe mesangial expansion

Nodular sclerosis (Kimmelstiel-Wilson lesion)

Advanced diabetic glomerulosclerosis

Global glomerular sclerosis in .50% of glomeruli; lesions from

the degree of damage perhaps will be important for

glomerulosclerosis as class IV. Of note, degree of

Challenges in Diagnosis and Management of DKD

Infiltration only in relation

Infiltration in areas without

At least 1 area of arteriolar

More than 1 area of

Intimal thickening less

Intimal thickening greater

Abbreviation: IFTA, intersitial fibrosis and tubular atrophy.

hypertension in patients with diabetic nephropathy

multiple interventions on cardiovascular outcomes in

Table 2. Recently Revised Pathologic Classification of

Figure 5. Rate of decline in glomerular filtration rate slows as

Systolic Blood Pressure mmHg

There is a growing recognition that BP goals need

been presumed to be the primary mechanism by

Challenges in Diagnosis and Management of DKD

MDRD (low BP goal)

MDRD (usual BP goal)

Mean arterial pressure at

Initial GFR rate of decline Final GFR rate of decline at

Long-term eGFR slope

Tertiles of initial fall in eGFR

Are ACE Inhibitors and ARBs Effective for Primary

GFR directly reects the efcacy of the medications.

Figure 7. Increases in serum creatinine level of up to 30% from a baseline

Figure 8. In the RENAAL Study, the greater the initial decline

of new onset of microalbuminuria, macroalbuminuria

Adjusted change vs placebo

microalbuminuria.2,24-26 This would mean there

analysis of ONTARGET was performed to determine

Challenges in Diagnosis and Management of DKD