Task 01:

(a) The fundamental parameters of thermodynamics

Thermodynamics: It is a branch of natural science concerned with heat and its
relation to energy and work. It defines macroscopic variables (such as
temperature, internal energy, entropy, and pressure) that characterize materials
and radiation, and explains how they are related and by what laws they change with
time. Thermodynamics describes the average behavior of very large numbers of
microscopic constituents, and its laws can be derived from statistical mechanics.
Thermodynamics applies to a wide variety of topics in science and engineering
such as engines, phase transitions, chemical reactions, transport phenomena, and
even black holes. Results of thermodynamic calculations are essential for other
fields of physics and for chemistry, chemical engineering, aerospace
engineering, mechanical engineering, cell biology, biomedical engineering
and materials scienceand useful in other fields such as economics.
Much of the empirical content of thermodynamics is contained in the four laws.
The first law asserts the existence of a quantity called the internal energy of a
system, which is distinguishable from the kinetic energy of bulk movement of the
system and from its potential energy with respect to its surroundings. The first law
distinguishes transfers of energy between closed systems as heat and as work.
The second law concerns two quantities called temperature and entropy. Entropy
expresses the limitations, arising from what is known as irreversibility, on the
amount of thermodynamic work that can be delivered to an external system by a
thermodynamic process. Temperature, whose properties are also partially described
by the zeroth law of thermodynamics, quantifies the direction of energy flow as heat
between two systems in thermal contact and quantifies the common-sense notions
of "hot" and "cold".
Historically, thermodynamics developed out of a desire to increase the efficiency of
early steam engines, particularly through the work of French physicist Nicolas
Leonard Sadi Carnot (1824) who believed that the efficiency of heat engines was
the key that could help France win the Napoleonic Wars. Irish-born British
physicist Lord Kelvin was the first to formulate a concise definition of
thermodynamics in 1854:[

Thermo-dynamics is the subject of the relation of heat to forces acting between

contiguous parts of bodies, and the relation of heat to electrical agency.
Initially, the thermodynamics of heat engines concerned mainly the thermal
properties of their 'working materials', such as steam. This concern was then linked
to the study of energy transfers in chemical processes, for example to the
investigation, published in 1840, of the heats of chemical reactions by Germain
Hess, which was not originally explicitly concerned with the relation between energy
exchanges by heat and work. Chemical thermodynamics studies the role
of entropy in chemical reactions. Also, statistical thermodynamics, or statistical
mechanics, gave explanations of macroscopic thermodynamics
by statistical predictions of the collective motion of particles based on the
mechanics of their microscopic behavior.
(b) There are three different modes of heat transfer. They are:

1.)Conduction
2.)Convection
3.)Radiation

Conduction: When a temperature gradient takes place in either solid or stationary

fluid
Medium then the heat transfer which occurs because of the temperature difference
is called Conduction. In conduction heat transfer always takes place from higher to
lower temperature which means from higher energy to lower energy. The equation
used to express heat transfer by conduction is known as Fourier's Law and the
equation is given below:

Q kA

T
x

Where:

Q
= Heat transferred per unit time (W)

k = Thermal conductivity of the material (W/m K or W/mC)

A = Heat transfer area (m2)
T = Temperature difference across the material (K or C)
= Material thickness (m)

Convection: The transfer of heat energy which is between a surface and a moving
liquid or gas at different temperatures is known as convection.We can say that it is
the transport of heat within a gas or liquid because of the actual flow of material
itself mass motion. In building spaces, natural convection heat flow is largely
upward, somewhat sideways, not downwards. This flow is called "free convection".
The transfer of heat energy which caused by a phase change, process is also
because of convection. The equation for convection is expressed by the following
Newton's Law of Cooling which is shown below:

Q hAT
Where:

Q
= Heat transferred per unit time (W)
A = Heat transfer area of the surface (m2)
h = Convective heat transfer coefficient of the process (W/m 2 K
or W/m2C)
T = Temperature difference between the surface and the bulk
fluid (K or C)

Radiation: Radiation is basically any process by which energy is transmitted

through space and absorbed by an object. This type of heat transfer does not need
any material medium to transfer energy. It is most efficient in a vacuum.

Task 02:
(a) ) Convert:
i) We already know that, 1
And, that to convent, 0

C=1K

C into K

We simply add 273 therefor,

-(25+ID)

=) - (25+32)

=)-57+273
=)-216 K (ans)

Ii) Alternative versions of the formulae, to convent Fahrenheit to Celsius and vice
versa are,(202+1D)
= (202+32)
= 234

So,

C= (

F-32) x5/9

=(

234-32) x5/9

=(

202) x5/9

=1010/9
=112.22

C (ans)

Iii)
F may be convent to absolute temperature on the ranking scale by adding
459.67 to convent from ranking of K simply multiply by 5/9,
So, - (65+ID)
=- (65+32)
=- 97

F
F

So, - 97 +459.67

=362.67R
=362.67x5/9
=1813.35/9
=201.48 K
So, 201.48 K ( ans)

Task 03:
(a) A) Length, l=5m
t1=12

t2=350+32
=382

d= 15cm
So, r=15/2
=7.5cm
=0.075 m
12x10-6
Incise in length of the bar is given by,
X=

C (t2-t1)

=12x10-6x5(382-12)
=12x10-6x5x370
=0.0222m
This can be now added to the original length to give the final length
=5+0.0222m
=5.0222m
Increase in surface area of the sphere=2
surface area which is given by,

A (t2-t1).we first need to find the original

r2

A=4

=4x3.1416x0.0752
=0.070686 m2
And, above the increase in surface area,
=2

A (t2-t1)

= 2x12x10-6x0.070686 x370
= 6.277x10-4m
Therefore the percentage increase in area=
= (6.277x10-4/0.070686)x100
=) 0.88 % (ans)

(b) Here,
m=5Kg
c=900 J/KgK
t1=20

t2=40+32
=72

Q=?
We know that, thermal energy, Q=mc
=) 5x900x (72-20)
=) 5x900x52
=) 234000
=) 234 kj
So, Q= 234 kj (Ans)
(c) ) Here,

x100

Thermal energy required to convent ice to 0

using the equation, Q=mL

C into water at 0

C is calculate

And, the substituting values we get,Q=1002000 j

=1.002 Mj
The 3 Kg of water formed has to be heated from 0 to 30
required for thisis calculated using the equation,

C. Thermal energy

Q=mc
=3x4200x (30-0)
=3x4200x30
=378000j
=0.378 Mj
The total thermal energy required=1.002 Mj +0.378 Mj

=1.38 Mj
And Q =mL since we are converting stream to water 100
vaporization temperature of water into steam,
Q =mL
=32.2x2.226x106
=71677200 j
=71677.2 Kj
So, Q=71677.2 Kj
(d) Here,
Q=54 Kj
m=3 Kg
=30-10
=20
C=?

C which is the

P=?
Using, Q=mc
=) C= Q/m

=) C= 54/3x20
=) C= 54/60
=) C= 0.9
So, C=0.9 j/kg
And, thermal power, p=energy/time
P=54/25
P=2.16 wat
So, P=2.16 wat (Ans)

Task 04:
(a) Here,
V1=3 m3
V2= (10+32)m3
P1=6 bars
P2=?
The final pressure P1V1=P2V2
=) P2=P1V1/V2
=6x3/42
=18/42
=0.43
So, P2 =0.43(Ans)
(b) ) Here,

P1= (300+32)
=332K
P2=280K
V1=0.5 m3
V2=?
The final volume, P1V1=P2V2
=) V2=P1V1/P2
=332x0.25/280
=83/280
=0.29642 m3(Ans)
(c) Here,
P1=310+32
=342 KPa
P2=?
V1=0.5m3
V2= 0.25m3
T1=30+273
=303K
T2=140+273
=413K
Using the combined gas law,
P1V1/T1=P2V2/T2
=) P2=P1V1T2/T1V2
=) P2= (342x0.5x413)/303x.25
=) P2=232.89 KPa (Ans)
(d) Here,

m = 3.5 kg
V1 = 1.8 m3
T1 = 28oC = 301K
T2 = 270oC = 543 K
RW = 8314J/Kg

Gas constant, R =

RW
M

8314
28

R=296.9285714 J/kgk
Now,

mR T 1
P1=
V1

3.5 296.9285714 301

1.8

=173785.6944 Nm-2
(Answer 1)
From Charles law,

, P 2=

P1 T 2
T1

 , P 2=

173785.6944 543
301

P2 =313507.0833

Nm-2

(Answer2)

Task 05:

(a) Mercury thermometer: The mercury-in-glass or mercury thermometer was

invented by physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit in Amsterdam (1714).
Covering a wide temperature range from -38 C to 356 C, although the introduction
of a gas into the instrument can increase the range to 600 C or beyond.
Alcohol thermometer: The Alcohol thermometer or spirit thermometer is an
alternative to the mercury-in-glass thermometer, and functions in a similar way. :
200C to 80C, though range tends to be highly dependent on the type of alcohol used
Optical pyrometer: An optical pyrometer is a device which allows contactless
temperature measuring by using the incandescense color. Standard Temperature
Ranges 1300F - 5800 (700C - 3200C).

(b) The application of pyrometers on aircraft is given:

1.)Some pyrometers are used in aircraft turbines to measure the temperature of
the individual turbine blades so that these blades can prevent getting damages
because of overheating.
2.) They can be used to find bleed air leaks and they can also be used to check
temperature for hot brakes for safety purpose.
3.) Pyrometer is also used to measure the exhaust gas temperature.
Task 06:
(a)

Figure: PV diagram for the ideal practical cycle of reciprocating piston

engine.

Fig:TS diagram for the ideal practical cycle of reciprocating piston

engine.

Fig: P-V diagram of gas turbine engine

Fig: T-S diagram for gas turbine generator.

(b)The difference between reciprocating piston engine and gas turbine generator
are,
1) Gas turbine engines or its variants are expensive, while reciprocating engines are
relatively.

2) Gas turbines are sophisticated in design and manufacture, while reciprocating

engines are simpler in design and easier to manufacture.
3) Piston engines have reciprocating mechanisms (to and from motion) while gas
turbine engines have rotary mechanisms .

4) Both use the air as the working fluid, but the flow in gas turbines is continuous
while reciprocating engines have an intermittent flow.
5) Power to weight ratio of the gas turbine engines is much higher than that of
reciprocating engines.

Task 07:
(a)Different types of aircraft are cooling system:
1) Blower cooling system.
2) Fuel cooling system
3) Expandable cooling system.
4) Vapor cycle cooling system.
5) Ram air cooling system.
6) Expanded ram air cooling system.

(b) Physical principle:

Liquids can be vaporized at any temperature by changing the pressure acting on it.
To clearly understand this concept, we will take an example of water contained in a
vessel. When the vessel is at atmospheric pressure, the water will be boiling at
100C when heating. If I am pressurizing the vessel to more than the atmospheric
pressure, then water will not boil at 100C. If I am creating a drop in pressure in the
vessel by a vacuum pump, then water will boil at a temperature less than 100C.
Basic law of thermodynamics states that heat will always flow from hot body to cold
body. If I need a reverse of this, I have to add some work.

Typical System operation:

1. We are having the FREON as refrigerant in the vapor cycle cooling system. It has
a boiling point of 4C.
2. At the receiver I am having high pressure, so that FREON will have high boiling
point.
3. When the vapor cycle system is switched on, the compressor starts delivering the
pressure and thus making flow.
4. The highly pressurized FREON at the receiver is in liquid phase. When the Freon
flows through the circuit, first it expands at the Expansion valve. So pressure has
been dropped (i.e. Boiling point decreased).
5. The less pressure Freon then goes to the evaporator stage. Evaporator will be
exposed to Cabin. We blow the warm air of cabin over the evaporator coils by fan,
and thus doing a forced convection.
6. The heat transferred to the Freon makes it to change the phase which is from
liquid to vapor.
7. The less pressure Freon vapor is then compressed by the Compressor and thus it
delivers high temperature high pressure Freon vapor.
8. Now this high pressure and high temperature Freon vapor enters the Condenser
coils where the cool air from atmosphere will be blown over the coils (here too

making a forced convection). Condenser will be exposed to the Atmosphere.

Because of heat transfer the Freon losses heat and returns to liquid phase.
9. Then it goes to the receiver (high pressure low temperature Freon liquid)
10. The cycle continues as stated. Before doing any type of maintenance activities
to the vapor cycle system, we have to purge the system with inert gas in a open
atmosphere.
11. Freon is colorless, odorless, and non toxic; however, being heavier than air, it
will displace oxygen and cause suffocation. When heated over an open flame, it
converts to phosgene which is deadly!
12. To know the Freon level in the circuit a sight glass arrangement will be employed
between Receiver to Expansion valve. If the unit requires additional refrigerant,
bubbles will be present in the sight glass otherwise steady.
Air cycle cooling system
Principle: The air cycle system is based on the principle that the expanding air cool
down as it is passed through a turbine.

Operation:
1. Air from the compressor sections of the two engines is taken for air conditioning
and pressurization. We are making a cross connection so that it can supply uniform
flow of air.
2. Air is going to the flow limiter. Flow limiter limits the amount of compressed air to
entry into the system. Suppose if there is any pipeline ruptured in air cycle system,
then flow limiter wont allow the compressed air to enter into the air cycle system.
3. Partial amount of air from the flow limiter goes to the primary heat exchanger.
Primary heat exchanger utilizes ram air for cooling purpose. The compressed air
taken from the engine compressor may be at temp range of 200 deg to 400 deg
Celsius. We are cooling the air without reducing much pressure by using heat
exchanger, and heat exchanger works on Convective type.

4. Another amount of compressed air from flow limiter goes to mingle with the heat
exchanger outlet air to make a constant temperature air of 300 F. This constant
temperature can be attained only by proper operation of Primary heat exchanger
(PHE) bypass valve. For example if heat exchanger outlet air is at 200F, but I need
an output of 300F at outlet portion of Primary heat exchanger bypass valve, so we
are opening the bypass valve for some designated time and mixing the hot(directed
from flow limiter) and cold (PHE outlet ) flows.
5 .This 300F temperature air is going to split for three Purpose
a)

For Anti-icing

b)

To supply hot air to cabin(if required)

c)

To refrigeration unit

6. This 300F air can be directly used for anti-icing and de-icing purpose. This air will
be taken by the tubes and will be sprayed on the leading edge through suitable
arrangements. And one part of the 300F air flow is directed to the cabin for hot air
supply.
7. Remaining part of the air is directed towards refrigeration unit for further cooling.
On the way there is main control that is Main shut off Valve. This can be directly
controlled by the pilot.
8. After main shut off valve there is Refrigeration unit, this contains
a)

Compressor

b)

Turbine

c)

Water Separator

Both turbine and compressor are connected by the same shaft.

9. The air flows to the compressor region; there it strikes the compressor blade and
makes rotating at initial. After compressor starts it compresses the air and
Pressurizes the air so some amount of heat may be added to the air. Then Air is
going to the Secondary heat exchanger (SHE), where the heat from the air is taken
by the ram air by convection. The air has been cooled now.
10. The output of SHE goes to the Turbine. Since because of the turbine, here the
cold gas is allowed to expand, so that pressure drops, temperature again drops, it
may be on some minus F sometimes.
11. After expansion in the turbine, air which is in a circular motion is allowed to go
for the water separator region for separation of water particles in the cold air. Since
water particles are denser than air they get attached to the walls of the water

separator due to centrifugal force. In some specified place there are some holes
made on the water separator to drain the water particles attached.
12. In the cabin we need only a temperature range of 60F-125F (15C-51C) and a
pressure of 3p.s.i. which is suitable for human.
13. By opening and closing the refrigerant bypass valve, we can mingle the pure
cold air and 300F air, to make a possible living temperature for human beings.
14. After maintaining to proper temperature and pressure the air is allowed to go to
the cabin by suitable pipelines.
15. If there is any problem on the total system means, we can directly mix the hot
air supply with ram air (which is taken near SHE) and maintain the proper
temperature by proper mixing. But this method is only for emergency purpose.
Please note when using this ram air method of cooling pressurization should be
done separately by cabin superchargers or whatever the device builds up pressure.

(c) Merits of vapor cycle cooling system:

1) Perform glazing studies to determine an optimum glazing solution

2) Optimise control strategies with the integrated passenger comfort model
3) Evaluate alternative vapour cycle systems and their performance
4) Component sizing to meet cabin condition requirements
5)Reduce the need to use 3D CAD geometry & in-house code

Merits of air cycle cooling system:

1) The working fluid (air) is free, environmentally benign, safe and non-toxic
2) Air cycle equipment is extremely reliable, reducing maintenance costs and system
down-time
3) The performance of an air cycle unit does not deteriorate as much as that of a
vapour-compression unit when operating away from its design point

4) When operating in a refrigeration cycle, an air cycle unit can also produce heat at
a useful temperature. If this is used together with the cooling, highly efficient, low
energy processes are possible
5)Air cycle units can produce a much higher temperature difference between the hot and
cold sides compared to vapour-compression units.
This means that:
1) Very cold air can be produced for near-cryogenic processes
2) Heat can be produced at a useful temperature, which, if used together with the cooling,can
result in highly efficient, low energy processes