By:
Mortada Chamas
________________________________________________
President
Member
Member
STRUCTURAL REPORT
Design criteria-Structural Analysis-R.C Design
1.
The aim of the present report is to conduct the structural study of the project parts and to
assess the adequacy of the preliminary structural resisting systems for gravitational and
lateral loads, as specified by the design criteria and according to the specifications.
The assessment to the structural systems adequacy will be done considering the following
factors:
- The latest architectural drawings
- The specified super imposed dead loads and live loads.
- The structural response of the buildings to the lateral loads
In this Phase of study the basic design criteria (codes, loadings, materials) and the
analysis methods are presented. The basic assumptions of the numerical analysis are also
stated. Based on the design criteria and assumptions data, a rigorous structural analysis is
conducted with three dimensional models of the buildings using the ETABS software.
The buildings response, obtained from the analysis results, led to the determination of:
- the maximum lateral sway of buildings which allows the adjustment of the expansion
joint gap.
- the internal forces in the different structural elements, which allowed the checking /
design of the vertical structural elements (columns, walls)
- the transfer of data to other software (Safe, S-concrete) which allowed the checking of
the proposed foundations and slabs dimensions .
2. Preface
eing a civil engineer graduate, we are going to introduce the structural skills
acquired through our learning process in the faculty of engineering-Lebanese
University. Our project is one of the engineering articles concerning structural
The project consists of ten residential buildings of various heights and floor areas,
summer club, and winter club. The current block A (my project) consists of two Basement
floors, one Ground floor, 11 residential floors.
BASEMENT PLAN
USUAL
FLOOR
PLAN
GF
3. Major Constraints
The structural analysis and concrete design of the project was governed by the following
constraints:
- the architectural requirements of the buildings which induced irregularities in the
buildings shapes and the distribution of the supporting elements.
- the relatively large spacing between supports.
4. Design Criteria
4.1 Codes of Practice , standards
The buildings straining forces (gravitational and lateral) and the capacity of the
structural resisting elements were determined in accordance to the following code of
practice:
- the Uniform Building Code UBC 97 for the determination of lateral forces intensity
and distribution (Earthquake and Wind pressure).
- ACI 318-02 for the determination of loads combinations, the design and detailing of
various concrete elements (slabs, beams, columns, walls and foundations).
- ASCE-05 code: for wind loads and analysis
4.2 software :
In addition, the design is going to be done with the aid of the following software programs:
- Autodesk AutoCAD
Draw and plan and detail any needed figure, with 2D and 3D features.
- CSI- Etabs
ETABS is a sophisticated special purpose analysis and design program
developed specifically for building systems. It is mainly used for
modeling, and mainly the design of vertical elements.
- CSI- Safe
Design of slabs, beams and foundations, reinforced and post tensioned
concrete.
- S-CONCRETE
S-concrete is a stand-alone product that investigates, designs, and
graphically details reinforced concrete beam, column, and wall
sections.
- BEAMD
Design and draw any given beam. Get the loads and gives the resulting
forces and moments, and checks code capability with the results.
- TALREN
Design and draw the supporting system of any excavation, including
piles, anchorages. And gives detailed report of the results. Used
especially for sliding circles.
5. Design Assumptions
In order to be able to start our design, we must start from a definite point, where we
determine the main materials that is going to be used. Also we should recognize the
structural elements presented in the building, and give a predimension for each element to
be checked then. Finally we have to load each member by the codes recommended load
related to its type.
5.1 Materials:
Two main materials are to be used in the construction phase of the building: Concrete and
Steel.
In our project we will use concrete with fc= 20MPa, and another type of fc= 32MPa. And
steel with tensile yield fy=420MPa for longitudinal reinforcement, and fy= 280 MPa for
transversal reinforcement.
e) Footings: Thickness and dimensions are related to loads and bearing capacity
of supporting soil. Thus whole design is found in footing design paragraph.
1.92
4.8
3.84
50
100
80
50
2.4
4.8
3.84
2.4
100
75
4.8
3.6
125
250
6.0
12.0
As our project is an residential building, in addition to car garages in the basement floors,
we can assume live loads as follows:
Seismic Coefficient
Seismic Coefficient
Referring
to
TABLE 16-N
Ca = 0.24
Cv = 0.32
UBC97
Over-strengthFactor,
R = 4.5 (BWS)
I - Combinations:
50 combos.
II- Modifiers:
1- Slabs:
1
1
1
0.25
0.25
0.25
1
1
1
1
2- Shear Walls:
1
1
1
0.70
0.70
0.70
1
1
1
1
3- Columns:
1
1
1
1
0.70
0.70
1
1
4- Beams:
1
1
1
1
0.35
0.35
1
1
Base shear (V) is the total lateral force or the shear at the base for which a
building in a seismic zone is to be designed.
The total design base shear in a given direction shall be determined from the
following formula:
V = Cv .I .
The total design base shear need not exceed the following:
Vmax = 2.5 Ca .I .W/R
The total design base shear shall not be less than the following:
Vmin = 0.11 Ca .I .W
The values of fi represent any lateral force distributed. The elastic deflections, i, shall be
calculated using the applied lateral forces, fi.
Note: TB is calculated through the software: ETABS
V - Finding the Distribution of Lateral Forces
In Accordance with section 1630.5 in UBC97, the total force shall be distributed over the height of
the structure according to the general formula:
The concentrated force Ft at the top, which is in addition to Fn , shall be determined from the
formula: Ft = 0.07 T.V = 4952 KN < 0.25V = 13061.6 KN.
The remaining portion of the base shear shall be distributed over the height of the structure
according to the following formula:
TYPE
NAME
STATIC
Load
DEAD
Load
SIDL
0.0374
0.0000
Load
LIVE
0.0146
0.0000
Load
EQX
99.9963
75.4668
Load
EQY
99.9994
91.8971
Load
WIND
Load
WIND-2
99.9999
98.7186
Load
WIND-3
99.9998
97.8448
Load
WIND-4
99.9998
97.8201
Load
WIND-5
99.9997
96.8875
Load
WIND-6
100.0000
99.0771
Load
WIND-7
99.9999
98.2314
0.0250
99.9998
DYNAMIC
0.0000
97.6071
Load
WIND-8
99.9999
98.1201
Load
WIND-9
99.9999
98.6219
Load
WIND-10
99.9998
97.2416
Load
WIND-11
99.9997
97.1819
Load
WIND-12
99.9999
98.5175
Accel
UX
99.9990
96.2777
Accel
UY
99.9999
99.5175
Accel
UZ
0.0000
0.0000
Accel
RX
100.0000
99.9991
Accel
RY
100.0000
99.9982
Accel
RZ
-802.9596
94.6961
= 100 mph
Exposure type
=D
Importance Factor
Topographical
=1
Factor
Gust Factor
Directionality
Factor
Wind Coefficient
= 0.8
Leeward coefficient
= 0.5
ASCE code contributes to make 12 load case for wind loads W1 to W12 changing the
eccentricity of wind application to the building.
6 . Structural Materials
Concrete Compressive Strength:
- 20 MPa, for Cyclopean & Blinding Concrete.
- 32 MPa, for all structural R.C. elements.
: 420 MPa,.
7- Modeling
Our model is going to be formed and analyzed on Etabs software. To achieve good results
and secure structure, accuracy is indeed. In this paragraph we will explain the algorithm
through modeling process.
i-
Clearly, any structure is composed of its elementary members called structural elements.
Forming a structure means to form its elements first. In Etabs, we define the materials and
elements sections.
i-
parameters:
Elements in used structure are grouped into types: frame sections containing beams
and columns, and wall and slab.
i-
Drawing
Drawings including slab layout and columns and walls positions, are going to be imported
from the AutoCAD software to Etabs. Thus we have a model exactly the same as the real
one.
to
the
slabs
that
8- Model Check
Just after finishing the model creation, and running the analysis of the structure, results
are derived. These results must be checked to have a structure adequate to the code's
recommendations. Checks are mainly concern lateral forces and dynamic loads, and the
structure response to these load.
i-
The analysis is done, so we can get the results. When checking the story shears, we must
find that shears due to static load cases (QX and QY), should be equal to that of
dynamic loads (SPEC1 and SPEC2). Etabs results the following table:
Story Load
Loc
P
VX
VY
T
MX
MY
GF
QX1 Bottom
0
-861.8
0
28492.17
0
-37346
GF
QY1 Bottom
0
0
-901.3 -24955.8 38925.8
0
GF SPEC1 Bottom 836.72 553.51 68.26 21099.07 27045.57 27906.38
GF SPEC2 Bottom 838.03 61.55 769.74 23646.8 37418.91 21433.67
Note that VX of QX does not equal to that of SPEC1, also for VY of QY and SPEC2.
Solving this problem is to change the scale factor of the functions defined in the spectrum
case. The new scale factor is going to be modified as follows:
SPEC1:
X-function: scale factor = old scale factor (g/R)
3.397.
Z- function: scale factor= 2/3 x X-function scale factor = 2/3 x 3.397 = 2.265.
SPEC2:
Y-function: scale factor = old scale factor (g/R)
Z- function: scale factor= 2/3 x Y-function scale factor = 2/3 x 2.555 = 1.703
Running the analysis after changing the scale factors, Etabs gives:
Story Load
Loc
P
VX
VY
T
MX
MY
GF
QX1 Bottom
0
-861.8
0
28492.17
0
-37346
GF
QY1 Bottom
0
0
-901.3 -24955.8 38925.8
0
GF SPEC1 Bottom 1591.75 862.48 116.85 32914.53 51452.83 49341.96
GF SPEC2 Bottom 1198.06 77.05 902.06 27744.23 49127.37 30639.19
ii-
The period is the elastic fundamental period of vibration, in seconds, of the structure in
the direction under consideration. UBC97-sec-1630.2.2 states that the period can be
determined by two methods:
Method A: T = Ct (hn)3/4
(30-8)
Method B:
(30-10)
Period
SumUX
SumUY
SumUZ
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
2.332414
1.637249
1.583653
0.659333
0.424169
0.413839
0.329521
0.267101
0.231288
0.219785
0.210394
0.205257
0.191917
0.187803
0.181941
53.8224
53.9477
55.4966
65.8319
65.8319
65.8376
70.3861
70.3861
70.3862
70.3862
71.9396
71.9396
72.0843
72.9041
72.9042
0.0042
0
49.576 0.0058
54.0382 0.0062
54.0382 0.0062
55.063 0.0095
68.4963 0.0486
68.5136 0.0487
68.5802 5.2236
68.6621 5.5975
68.6647 5.6346
68.6647 5.6346
68.8186 6.2408
73.7151 6.2715
74.5093 6.2953
74.5547 41.6235
Mode
Period
SumUX
SumUY
SumUZ
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
0.165011
0.153554
0.145773
0.138037
0.130703
0.115838
0.103682
0.09689
0.088349
0.073711
0.064931
0.060205
0.031684
0.027242
0.024377
72.9137
72.914
72.9668
74.6957
74.7511
74.7512
74.9873
76.7801
76.9062
77.0199
78.2223
82.6731
83.1421
95.8861
96.0941
74.5555
74.5804
74.6184
74.6186
74.6405
77.7486
77.9021
77.9023
79.1748
79.4012
82.086
83.0659
83.2651
83.3165
92.6502
42.139
44.29
47.7438
48.4442
63.3034
63.959
72.1298
73.7942
74.3971
82.5712
83.0557
83.0627
93.6872
94.1491
94.3351
iii-
Story Drift
By definition, UBC97 states that "STORY DRIFT is the lateral displacement of one
level relative to the level above or below. While STORY DRIFT RATIO is the story drift
divided by the story height". This drift results from the application of seismic loads to
the structure.
UBC97 also declared limitations to the story drift. Section 1630.10.2 states that
"Calculated story drift shall not exceed 0.025 times the story height for structures
having a fundamental period of less than 0.7 second. For structures having a
fundamental period of 0.7 second or greater, the calculated story drift shall not exceed
0.020 times the story height."
As our structure has a period 2.3 > 0.7 s, then the limit will be:
Story Drift < 0.02 x story height
The following table shows the drifts resulting from the Etabs analysis:
Story
STORY9
STORY9
STORY9
STORY9
STORY8
STORY8
STORY8
STORY8
STORY7
STORY7
STORY7
STORY7
STORY6
STORY6
STORY6
STORY6
STORY5
STORY5
STORY5
STORY5
STORY4
STORY4
STORY4
STORY4
STORY3
Item
Max Drift X
Max Drift Y
Max Drift X
Max Drift Y
Max Drift X
Max Drift Y
Max Drift X
Max Drift Y
Max Drift X
Max Drift Y
Max Drift X
Max Drift Y
Max Drift X
Max Drift Y
Max Drift X
Max Drift Y
Max Drift X
Max Drift Y
Max Drift X
Max Drift Y
Max Drift X
Max Drift Y
Max Drift X
Max Drift Y
Max Drift X
Load
SPEC1
SPEC1
SPEC2
SPEC2
SPEC1
SPEC1
SPEC2
SPEC2
SPEC1
SPEC1
SPEC2
SPEC2
SPEC1
SPEC1
SPEC2
SPEC2
SPEC1
SPEC1
SPEC2
SPEC2
SPEC1
SPEC1
SPEC2
SPEC2
SPEC1
Point
1115
1151
1115
943
1115
1151
1115
943
1115
1151
1115
943
1115
1151
1115
943
1115
1151
1115
943
1115
1151
129
943
1115
DriftX
0.002385
DriftY
0.000942
0.000505
0.002048
0.00245
0.000961
0.000522
0.002052
0.002481
0.000966
0.000529
0.002026
0.002467
0.00095
0.000525
0.001959
0.002392
0.000914
0.000507
0.001839
0.002236
0.000851
0.000592
0.00165
0.001968
STORY3
STORY3
STORY3
STORY2
STORY2
STORY2
STORY2
STORY1
STORY1
STORY1
STORY1
GF
GF
GF
GF
BASE 1
BASE 1
BASE 1
BASE 1
BASE 2
BASE 2
BASE 2
BASE 2
1151
163
943
1115
1151
1115
943
1115
1151
1115
1151
1438
1186
1438
200
1361
1186
15
200
1361
1186
15
200
0.000761
0.000436
0.001389
0.001511
0.000629
0.00034
0.000993
0.000738
0.00043
0.000244
0.000496
0.000128
0.000062
0.000042
0.000173
0.00001
0.000006
0.000007
0.000026
0.00001
0.000006
0.000007
0.002481
0.000026
0.002052
iv-
Story Displacement
ASCE-code provide that story displacements due to wind load must not exceed the total
height of the structure divided by 500. Getting story displacement tables from Etabs, gives
us the maximum value of story displacement which is 0.0125 meters.
The height if the building is 64 meters, divided by 500 it becomes 0.128. Note that
0.0125<0.128, thus the structure is approved for wind loads.
v-
BWS-system Applicability
As we consider the Bearing Wall System (BWS) to resist lateral forces, then columns shall
not carry more than 10% of the total shear present at the level. Taking the least level
(basement), we calculate the percentage of the carried shear by columns to the total shear.
Results can be summarized by the following tables:
V2
V3
1.64
4.26
QX1
352.57 -149.96
BASE 1
PERCENTAGE 0.465156 2.84076
V2
V3
0.84
4.44
QX2
352.92
-164.29
BASE 1
PERCENTAGE 0.238014281 2.70254
V2
V3
-1.94
-55.5
QY1
-205.35 2517.21
BASE 1
PERCENTAGE 0.944729 2.20482
V2
V3
-0.44
-55.9
QY2
-205.91
2543.67
BASE 1
PERCENTAGE 0.213685591 2.19761
All percentages are less than 10% then the assumption of BWS is allowed.
vi-
Eccentricity Check
This check is done to know whether we are supposed to consider or ignore torsion
reinforcement. Let us define some terms:
ex = X-center of mass X-center
of rigidity.
Story
XCM
YCM
XCR
YCR
ex
ey
STORY9
25.54
32.667
25.752
28.732
-0.212
3.935
STORY8
25.54
32.667
25.722
28.415
-0.182
4.252
STORY7
25.54
32.667
25.684
27.971
-0.144
4.696
STORY6
25.54
32.667
25.636
27.326
-0.096
5.341
STORY5
25.54
33.593
25.574
26.35
-0.034
7.243
STORY4
25.563
31.537
25.489
24.806
0.074
6.731
STORY3
25.562
31.415
25.364
22.207
0.198
9.208
STORY2
25.54
32.457
25.161
17.233
0.379
15.224
STORY1
23.423
25.24
24.961
11.162
-1.538
14.078
GF
23.114
29.546
25.153
27.442
-2.039
2.104
BASE 1
23.685
29.685
25.461
27.217
-1.776
2.468
BASE 2
24.733
31.019
24.799
27.07
-0.066
3.949
0.379
15.224
then torsion
reinforcement is to be ignored,
and V.S. Etabs results the
adjacent table.
Maximum e
Torsion is considere
Floor Slabs
Tipical
Pre-dimensioning:
In our project we shall use two way flat plate slab since the span length ranges
between 6 and 7 m. So a flat plate of thickness 25 cm was our choice as the
minimum thickness for deflection control.
Loads:
Self-weight: dead load computed by the program, with density of concrete
2.5 T/m3.
Super imposed dead load: uniform load formed of partition (0.2T/m 2) and
finishing (0.2T/m2) on pedestrians floors while in parking floors 0.2T/m 2.
Live load: (0.25T/m2)
iii.
Load combinations:
Service combination: DL+LL
Sustained load combination: DL+0.4 LL
Ultimate combination: 1.2 DL+1.6 LL
iv.
Punching shear:
The punching shear is checked on a critical section at a distance of d/2 from the face
of the support (ACI_318M-05 11.12.1.2).
For rectangular columns and concentrated loads, the critical area is taken as a
rectangular area with the sides parallel to the sides of the columns or the point loads
(ACI_318M-05 11.12.1.3).
v.
Punching:
Punching ratios Vu/Vc are given by safe software. Notice that all ratios are less
than one, which is the condition for approval of punching for columns.
vi.
Deflection check :
Deflections appear in two manners: short term and long term deflections. Short term
deflections are due to the immediate application of live loads, while long term
deflections are due to effect of the sustained loads. The following diagram is a typical
example of deflections.
Taking basement 1 as an example, the maximum values of long term and short term
deflections are as follows:
1. DL deflection: 1.894 mm
2. Service load deflection: 2.234 mm
3. Sustained load deflection: 2.997 mm
Deflection limitations are provided by ACI_318M-05 table 9.5(b)
Short term deflection = def. (ser.) def. (dead)
< l/360 = 23.88mm
Long term deflection = DL.def (dead) + sus. (def. (sus.) - def. (dead))
=5.34 mm < l/240 = 35mm
Where:
DL=
9.11)
sus=
vii.
9.11)
While = 0.002, minimum compressive reinforcement in slabs.
Reinforcement:
Minimum reinforcement in SLAB is shrinkage and temperature steel which is for
grade 60 (420MPa) = 0.0018bh = 4.5 cm2 (4T12/m) - ACI_318M-05 10.5.4 and
7.12.2.1.
Reinforcing the slab with minimum reinforcement, we now search for any needed
additional steel.
Additional top and bottom reinforcement to 5T12/m (5.65 cm2) at top and
5T14/m (7.7cm2)
Special structures
i.
Stair case
a) Stairs are common elements that are found almost in all
structures made of several floors. Stairs may differ due
to its span and assigned load. Being in a public
structure, the stairs are supposed to carry high loads,
0.25 t/m2 as super imposed dead loads and 0.48 t/m2 as
live loads. It sufficient to define only teo load
combinations, strength combination (1.2DL + 1.6LL)
and working stress combination (1.0DL + 1.0 LL).
The plan dimensions of the stairs are as shown in the
adjacent figure.
b) Design:
Stairs will be treated as one way slab supported on beams.
Supporting beam: two identical beams support the stairs, then each one carry half the
load.
DL= 0.25 x 2.2 = 0.55 t/m
LL= 0.48 x 2.2 = 1.056 t/m.
The results are as follows:
Shear and deflections (Note that deflection is L/544 < L/360) are ok, the required steel area is 4.09
cm2 then we can use 3T14@ 10 cm
Stairs
Also stairs defined on BeamD as beam of 125 cm width and 17 cm depth.
DL= 0.25 x 1.25 = 0.3125 t/m
LL= 0.48 x 1.25 = 0.6 t/m
The results are as follows:
Shear and deflections (L/1209 < L/360) are ok, the required steel area is 6.15 cm2 then we can use
6T12@ 20 cm
ii.
Ramp:
Ramp is considered as a one way 25 cm thick slab supported on its adjacent shear walls.
Main reinforcement will be as joining the walls. In the second way minimum
reinforcement will be added.
Live load is to be considered 0.24 t/m2, while super imposed dead loads are null.
It is defined as one meter width, 25 cm thick slab pinned on the walls. The span equals to
6.6m.
DL= (2.5 x 0.25) x 1 = 0.825 t/m
LL= 0.24 x 1 = 0.24 t/m.
The next figure shows that shear is ok for this section (25 x 100 cm), then use T8@20
cm as stirrups. Steel area is 8.33 cm2, then we use 5T16 @20cm per meter.
Reinforcement in the second direction is going to have area as temperature steel
requirements:
As2= 0.0018 x b x h = 0.0018 x 100 x 25 = 4.5 cm2, then use 5T14 @ 20cm per meter.
I - Supporting Soil
The soil present in the project location is of sand nature, where it is of 30 t/m2 bearing
capacity. Excavating for 14 meters, we can say that the soil at this level is compacted. Thus
the new bearing capacity can be considered as:
B.C. = 30 + 14 x 1.8 (density) = 54 t/m2.
Designing on "safe" software, we have to define the soil subgrade modulus instead of
bearing capacity. A simple relation can transform the bearing capacity to subgrade
modulus:
Subgrade Modulus= Bearing Capacity x 120 = 54 x 120 = 6480 t/m3.
X-Top Reinforcement
X-Bottom Reinforcement
Y-Top Reinforcement
Y-BOTTOM Reinforcement
df
Therefore we found that microsilica is an eligible subject to be discussed in the following section.
Microsilica is a mineral admixture composed of very fine solid glassy spheres of silicon
dioxide (SiO2). Most microsilica particles are less than 1 micron (0.00004 inch) in diameter,
generally 50 to 100 times finer than average cement or fly ash particles.
Frequently called condensed silica fume, microsilica is a by- product of the industrial manufacture
of ferrosilicon and metallic silicon in high-temperature electric arc furnaces. The ferrosilicon or
silicon product is drawn off as a liquid from the bottom of the furnace. Vapor rising from the 2000degree-C furnace bed is oxidized, and as it cools condenses into particles which are trapped in huge
cloth bags. Processing the condensed fume to remove impurities and control particle size yields
microsilica.
Microsilcas effectiveness as a pozzolan and a filler depends largely on its composition and
particle siz which in turn depend on the design of the furnace and the composition of the raw
materials with which the furnace is charged. At present there are no U.S. standard specifications
for the material or its applications.
Dosages of microsilica used in concrete have typically been in the range of 5 to 20 percent by
weight of cement, but percentages as high as 40 have been reported.
Used as an admixture, microsilica can improve the properties of both fresh and hardened concrete.
Used as a partial replacement for cement, microsilica can substitute for energy-consuming cement
without sacrifice of quality.
A.1-Pozzolanic action
Addition of microsilica to a concrete mix alters the cement paste structure. The resulting paste
contains more of the strong calcium-silicate hydrates and less of the weak and easily soluble
calcium hydroxides than do ordinary cement pastes. Because the microsilica particles are so
smalltheir average diameter is about 1100 that of cement particlesthey disperse among and
separate the cement particles. The resulting fine, uniform matrix can give markedly higher
compressive, flexural, and bond strength. Compressive strengths as high as 15,000 psi with
ordinary aggregates and 30,000 psi or more with special aggregates have been reported.
A.2-Freeze-thaw durability
The small microsilica particles are very good at infiltrating and plugging capillary pores in
concrete making pores smaller and fewer and concrete more dense. This gives the concrete good
resistance to freezing and thawing. Air entrainment improves the resistance of microsilica
concrete in the same way it does ordinary concrete. However, microsilica concrete even with
relatively low cement content can reportedly be compounded to be frost resistant without airentraining agents.
A.3-Protection of reinforcement
Concretes ability to protect embedded steel against corrosion depends mainly on the alkalinity of
the pore water. As long as the water is highly alkaline, a passive oxide film on the steel protects it.
If the passivity is destroyed by aggressive ions, either carbonates or chloride ions, the steel will
corrode at a rate depending on the concretes electrical resistivity and rate of oxygen transport
through water- saturated concrete.
Fortunately, microsilica thanks to its pore-filling capabilities reduces (in some if not all cases) the
rate of carbonation, decreases permeability to chloride ions, imparts high electrical resistivity, and
has little effect on oxygen transport. Therefore, microsilica concrete can be expected to be strongly
protective of reinforcement and embedments.
development of concrete in which fly ash replaces cement tends to be slow because fly ash is
relatively inert during this period of hydration. Adding microsilica, which is more reactive in early
hydration, can speed the strength development.