Unit-1

Chapter 1 : Introduction to Computer Networks
Topic List:
A. Need to Share Resources
B. Layering Concept and Example
C. TCP/IP and OSI Layering Models
D. Connection Oriented vs. Connectionless Transfer
E. Top-Down and Bottom Up Approaches to study layer.
F. What is the need of resource sharing?
G. Give functions of Each Layer in OSI/TCP Model.
H. Distributed Systems and Networks
___________________________________________________________________________
A. What is the need of Networks?

For resource sharing.
Major requirement of user community.
We need to generate and disseminate information.
Also information should be accessible by each one in user group.
B.
Layering Concept & Example:

Based on Principle: Divide and Conquer.
Each big problem divided into smaller pieces.
Example: ABC is a middle level company, located at A, selling
computers, having: o Manager
o Secretary
o Route Operator
o Warehouse Keeper Cum Security Officer
o Transporter
XYZ is also a company, located at B, ordered ABC for 5000 units of computers.
How to deliver? Steps:

1. Manager passes the order to deliver 5000 computers to XYZ company and keep track of
the delivery.
2. Secretary communicates through letter with secretary of XYZ that consignment
5000 units of computer is sent, once delivered, give us acknowledgement.
3. Secretary tells route operator to deliver the consignment to XYZ at B. He has map,
using multiple transportations, he sends box.
4. ABC has transport office at R1,R2,R3.
5. At each destination, warehouse keeper takes care of delivery and security of goods
at the time of unloading and loading.
Advantage:
1 Clear Job Distribution:
Work of each employee is clearly defined.
We can easily replace anyone of them with new employee without affecting
efficiency of overall process.
If new employee has different style of functioning, it doesnt affect us.
When job is clearly divided, complex job becomes manageable.
2. Every employee taking or giving services. Also called interface in computer networks.
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Advantages of Layers
Reducing the complexity
Division of Work
Standard Interfacing between Components
Replacing a component is easy
Independence in Protocol design
Disadvantage of Layers
Reduced Speed and Performance
Increased Memory usage
Sensor Networks Node
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C. Differentiate between OSI and TCP/IP layer:

OSI
TCP/IP
The ARPANET, a research network group
OSI (Open System Interconnection) Designed
connected
hundreds of universities and govn
by ISO (International Standards Organization)
installations, using
leased telephone lines which later became
in 1983.
TCP/IP.
Layers 7
Layers 5
Distinction between these three concepts are
Did not clearly distinguish between service,
explicit.
interface and protocol.
Protocols in TCP/IP model are not hidden and
Protocols in the OSI model are better hidden
tough
than in the TCP/IP model and can be replaced
to replace if technology changes.
relatively easily as the technology changes.
The model was not biased toward one
The protocols came first, and the model was
particular set of
really just a description of the existing
protocols, a fact that made it quite general.
protocols.
Designers have much experience with the
Designers did not have much experience with
subject and
have clear idea of which functionality to put in
the subject and did not have a good idea of
which
which functionality to put in which layer.
layer.
Network Layer, supports both, connection
Network Layer supports only connectionless
oriented
communication.
and connectionless communication.
More General.
More precise.
Doesnt give emphasis on clear interface
Describes the difference between protocol and
between
layers. Protocol works specially for transport
interface.
and
network layer.
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D. Connection Oriented v/s Connectionless Transmission

Connection Oriented Transmission
Connectionless Transmission
Connection establishment
No Connection establishment.
Complete line occupied
Complete line not occupied
Packet can be not be compressed (PktSize: 64 kb = Packet can be compressed (Pkt Size: 8kb)
8x8)
Multiplexing not there, costly if transmitting small Multiplexing multiple packets in one large pkt.
packets.
Robustness of the connection is not very good.
Robustness of the connection is very high. Single
Single link down results to connection break.
link down results to alternate path.
Cost of the connection high
Cost of the connection less
Quality of service : Reliable, Delay if greedy user
Quality of service: Unreliable, Minor delay if
occupy channel with large flow.
compressed.
Order of delivery Important.
Order of delivery not Important.
Eg. ISD Telephone Call
Eg: Internet Voice Call
E. Top-Down and Bottom-Up Approaches to study Layers:

If we follow top-down approach, we need to discuss the lower layers to show how a specific
service is implemented which is required at upper layers.
If we follow bottom-up approach, we need to discuss the services that are to be provided for
functionality that we are describing.
It should be clearly described which layers renders which service to top and bottom.
Similarly, description should also clearly describe which services are taken from peer layers by
the layer described.
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F. What is the need Share Resources?
We need to generate information and disseminate information. Eg.

Music files can be downloaded and uploaded on internet from LAN
Emails
Skype Voice Video Calls
Access information from blogs
Access Database at remote location
Audio and Video Conferencing
G. Give functions of Each Layer in OSI/TCP Model.

1. Physical Layer:
Transmitting raw bits over a communication channel.

Works as Transporter, to carry bits from one end to another.
Converts the bits to voltage or light pulse and at the other end, converts incoming voltage or light pulse
to bits.
Checks whether message has to be broadcasted or unicasted.
2. Data Link Layer
The No Monopoly idea and the framing

Framing Techniques
Error Control
Flow Control
Classification into 1) MAC 2) LCC
3. Medium Access Layer
Receive/transmit normal frames

Half-duplex retransmission and backoff functions
Append/check FCS (frame check sequence)
Inter-frame gap enforcement
Discard malformed frames
Append(tx)/remove(rx) preamble, SFD(Start Frame Delimiter), and padding
Half-duplex compatibility: append(tx)/remove(rx) MAC address
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4. Network Layer
Handling accounting for usage of network resources

Devise and implement mechanisms of identifying each machine uniquely
Implement connectionless or connection-oriented forwarding
Multiplexing and de-multiplexing the transport layer and the data link layer jobs
5. Transport Layer
Retransmission
Adapted Retransmission Time according to Load
Ordered Delivery
Optimum Utilization of Bandwidth
Flow Control
Real Time Delivery
Quality of Delivery
6. Session Layer
Allow users on different machines to establish sessions between them.

Sessions offer various services, including
Dialog Control (keeping track of whose turn it is to transmit),
Token Management (preventing two parties from attempting the same critical operation at the same
time), and
Synchronization (check pointing long transmissions to allow them to continue from where they were
after a crash).
7. Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information transmitted.
In order to make it possible for computers with different data representations to communicate, the data
structures to be exchanged can be defined in an abstract way, along with a standard encoding to be
used ''on the wire.''
The presentation layer manages these abstract data structures and allows higher-level data structures
(e.g., banking records), to be defined and exchanged.
8. Application Layer
Application layer contains a variety of protocols that are commonly needed by users.
Widely-used application protocol is HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol), which is the basis for the
World Wide Web.
When a browser wants a Web page, it sends the name of the page it wants to the server using HTTP.
The server then sends the page back.
Other application protocols are used for file transfer, electronic mail, and network news.
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H. Distributed Systems and Networks:
Node: The members of network are popularly known as nodes.

Normal nodes and server nodes are connected by a network which acts as the medium to provide
services.
We need Username and Password for taking access of remote printer or remote file with additionally exact
set of commands for every change we make in the file. It is not transparent to users.
Internet that all of us are so familiar with, also contain quite a large number of servers known as web
servers also known as www (world wide web).
When we click on a link and transfer from one webpage to another webpage, it is not possible to shift
from server from one country to server from another country. Problem? Yes.
Solution? HTTP Protocol. It allows us to transfer from one link to another and similarly web server from
one country to another without even knowing about the details of such movement to the users.
This service that hides the underlying complexity from user is known as Distributed System.
Distributed service is transparent to user where, no need to provide additional exact set of commands to
make changes to files in remote servers.
Network is a physical infrastructure on top of which the distributed systems are built.
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Chapter 2 : Network Fundamentals

I. Home Network Applications:
Refrigerator reminds about buying vegetables
Stranger trying to break into your house
Babysitter is sleeping
TV has a serious problem and it conveys

Electric bulb tells us if it is going down
Lamp dims itself when you are asleep
Night lamp automatically switches on and off
Smart spectacles helps old people
Smart Keys
A phone receiver transfers the call automatically

Control house via Internet or phone.
The shower adjusts the temperature
Single remote control for many home devices
Issues:
Robustness
Cost
Security issues
Regular upgrades
Maintenance and availability
Wired or Wireless
Holding the vendor responsible
J. Mobile Network Applications:

MANETs has big set of applications.
Exchanging notes with classmates with single click.
Access to library from any location inside/outside college premises.
VANETS, automatic intelligent solution for vehicles.
Control home equipments using sms and android applications.

Issue? Security and delay being mobile.
C. Define Networks:
The computer network can be defined as a collection of computing devices (nodes) interconnected by wires
or other means and governed by a set of standards (protocols) in order to share the data and resources.
D. Categorize networks based on multiple factors.
1. Division based on Scope
2. Division based on Connection
3. Division based on Communication
4. Division based on Usage
1. Network Division Based on Scope:
a) PAN
b) LAN
c) MAN
d) WAN
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a. Personal Area Network
Network meant for one person.
Eg: Connecting Wireless mouse, keyboard, printer to computer.
b. Local Area Network:
Privately owned networks
Size: few kilo meters
Widely used in?
To connect PC to warehouse in company and factories to share resources.
Restricted in Size.
Transmission Technology generally used is?
Cables.
Traditional LANs:
o Speed, 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps.

p Low delay (micro second or nano second)
q Make few errors.
Newer LANs:
o Speed Upto 40 Gbps.
c. Metropolitan Area Networks
A metropolitan area network based on cable TV.

Covers a City
Eg: Cable Television Network.

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Wireless Internet Connectivity.
Wired n/w got converted to Wireless n/w technology.
Centralized Head End.
d. Wide Area Networks
Relation between hosts on LANs and the subnet.

Spans large geographical area, country or continent.

Purpose: Send message from Host to Host.
Who fulfill this purpose? Subnet.

Subnet Components:
1. Transmission Lines

Eg: optical fiber, co-axial cable

2. Switched Elements
Eg: Router, Switch, Hub.

Two important characteristics of Subnet:
1. Store & Forward Subnet.

2. Packet Switched Subnet.
1. Store & Forward Subnet: What if congestion exist for line where packet is to be sent? Router
stores that packet until congestion
is resolved and once resolved, it forwards packets to that line. This is
called Store & Forward Subnet.
2. Packet Switched Subnet: A stream of packets from sender to receiver. Packets follow
route ACE, rather than ABDE or ACDE. Some n/w predetermine route that is to be followed. First
decision is taken by A with the help
of some routing algorithm and then by C. All WANs are not
packet switched. See next figure.
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2. Division Based on Connection:

a) Wired
b) Wireless
i) Sensor Networks
ii) MANETs
a) Wired Networks:
Need some sort of cables for connectivity.

Most popular are UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) and Fiber Optics.
Fast Ethernet provides 100MB/s, Gigabit Ethernet provides 1Gbps/s, 10G provides 10Gbps/s and
40/100G would come to Indian market soon.
Fiber Optics provides nearly 5000 Times more bandwidth of conventional telephone cables.
b) Wireless Networks:
First wireless network was ALOHA.

Ethernet is successor of ALOHA.
Other networks like Wi-Fi (802.11), Wireless Fidelity providing LAN Interpretability is widely accepted
wireless networks.
WiMax (802.16) wireless microwave access is covering large area of entire city.
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i) MANets:
Mobile Ad Hoc Networks

Nodes can come and join at their own will and leave on their own will.
Services Provided are as follows:
o One can access internet from hotel by joining hotel network
o One can join network of railway station with session of 15 minutes
Student can access network of college from parking area or lobby
o We can use internet during flight n share the files with co-passengers.
o Students can exchange class notes without writing it manually.
Issues in MANets:
o Topology is dynamic
Power Consumption is important concern for mobile nodes. When A is communicating with C
through intermediate node B, if the battery of B is low, it would not forward packets of A to C.
Security must be more stringent with such networks as we expect guest to join the network any
time.
o War Driving: It is a common Mechanism deployed by hackers to join wireless networks and
extract information that is vital. This process is described as War Driving.
ii) Sensor Networks:
Sensor Networks are special type of Ad Hoc Networks, where the members of this network are tiny
sensors rather than mobile computers or large devices.
Sensors are sometimes mobile and sometimes stationary.
Eg. Temperature Sensors detect temperature and sends it to some other nodes.
Sensors are designed with much less memory and processing power is also too small.
3) Division Based on Communication Type:

a) Point to Point
b ) Multicast
c) Broadcast
a)Point to Point:
P2P requires to know where the recipient is

Sender must know where each router is
Similarly each router must be aware of where other routers are located
For inherently broadcast network P2P communication is not possible.
Little advantage for high bandwidth case.
See next figure.
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b) Broadcast Networks:
Better when a very low probability of more than one user transmitting simultaneously
It is useful when the network is inherently a broadcast network.
Better when routing through neighbours or addressing each node of the network is not required
Broadcasting helps when the topology is not fixed.
See the next two given figures.
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4. Division based on Usage:
a) Home Networks
b) Sensor Networks
c) Other Networks
a) Home Networks
Refrigerator reminds about buying vegetables

Stranger trying to break into your house
Babysitter is sleeping
TV has a serious problem and it conveys
Electric bulb tells us if it is going down
Lamp dims itself when you are asleep
Night lamp automatically switches on and off
Smart spectacles helps old people
Smart Keys
A phone receiver transfers the call automatically
Control house via Internet or phone.
The shower adjusts the temperature
Single remote control for many home devices
Home Networking issues:
Robustness
Cost
Security issues
Regular upgrades
Maintenance and availability
Wired or Wireless
Holding the vendor responsible
b) Sensor Networks:
Used for specific purpose like monitoring a process or recording the outcomes of continuous experiment.
What is the need of sensor networks?
o Fire erupts in a warehouse in an industry can call fire brigade by using sensor networks.
o If sudden rainfall in Rajkot, can cause adverse effect to the farm, to what extent of humidity is
there in the farm, can be determined by sensor networks
o After the earthquake, building with sensors can monitor record vibration data to confirm that
structure is safe to enter.
Sensor networks have large number of nodes.
Sensor networks have no fixed topology.
Sensor nodes have less memory and processing power.
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c) Other Networks:
Pervasive computing and research on wearable computers are helping.

Pervasive networking means, if you are out on vacation, all the emails are copied to yr outlook and they
are msged that u r on vacation.
Wearable computers are those which can be worn on the body like a dress.
Microprocessors are also the example for it.
Passive Environment becomes Active: eg. U enter the room and light automatically switches on and light
music starts playing.
In todays scenario, toll booth have long queues. But if we have sensors, RFID can just pass by, all the
details are recorded, and toll is deducted from the RFID card.
Phones are used to check emails and computers answer the phone calls.
E. Differentiate between MANETS and SENSORS:

Points of Difference
Number of nodes?
Mobility?
Processing Power?
Memory Embedded inside the nodes?
Addressability to the nodes are clear or confusing?
Power Consumption by nodes?
Routing Empowerment? Is complex routing algo can be
implemented?
Requirement of security to nodes? Are the nodes subjects to be
captured? Do we need to them to be configured under strict
vigilance?
Size of the nodes?
MANETs
Small (100s)
Low (Fixed)
Low
Low
Confusing
Low
No
SENSORS
Large (1000s)
High (Mobile)
High
High
Clear
High
Yes
Need More
Security
No. Chances are

less.
Small (in
centimeters)
Large (in
meters)
F. Network Components:
a) NIC
b) Cables for Wired Communication
c) Frequency Band for Wireless Communication
d) Servers and Nodes
e) Interconnecting Devices
i) Hub
ii) Switch
iii) Repeater
iv) Bridge
v) Router
a) NIC: The first requirement of connectivity at nodes end is Network Interface Card NIC or LAN Card.
Eg. Ethernet Card (Wired ) and Centrino Card (Wireless).
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b) Cables for Wired Communication: There is a LAN cable slot in motherboard on which network cable fits.
Cables can be for different types. Eg. UTP (Cat 3,5,6,7), Copper Cable (Thin and Thick) and Fiber Optics.
c) Frequency Band for Wireless Communication: More the frequency more is the data rate. Rights has to be
taken from Government of India, body DoT (Department of Telecommunication) to transmit data using
frequency.
d) Servers and Nodes: Networking machine in networking parlance is known as a node or host. We have LAN
card and wire to connect. Nodes giving service is server and nodes demanding service is client.
e) Interconnecting Devices: Its not possible to get connected to every client directly. So we need some
interconnecting device that connects each of us.
i) Hub: A Hub is an intermediate device that connects to server with its clients through wires. It has multiple
ports. It is broadcast by nature. Impose network load as do not store addresses of communicating clients to
its memory.
ii) Switch: Switch is an interconnecting device that supports P2P communication in a local network.
Switch stores the information of its connected nodes in its buffer so that it can utilize it for point to point
communication. It reduces network load.
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iii) Repeater: Signals strength reduces gradually by covering the distance. The device that reshapes the
digital signal is called a repeater. For this, Amplifiers are needed by analog signals. Repeaters also
remove noise from the digital signals which is not done by amplifiers for analog signals.
iv) Bridge: Special device called bridge is used to connect more networks. A bridge is similar to switch but
is designed to provide additional services like broadcasting in a particular LAN segment, finding out the
shortest path between different LAN segments. A bridge keeps broadcast in network limited to that network
only. It keeps, logically separate segments physically separate. Bridge operates upon Data Link Layer.
v) Router: A router is a device or, in some cases, software in a computer, that determines the next network
point to which a packet should be forwarded toward its destination. A router may create or maintain a table
of the available routes and their conditions and use this information along with distance and cost algorithms
to determine the best route for a given packet.
vi) Gateway: Gateways are conventionally used to connect the networks. It operates on higher layers like
transport layer and application layer. It provide an application seamless access to remote networks. Eg.
Proxy Server. Two types of gateways are there. 1) Transport gateway: connect two computers using
different connection-oriented transport protocols (TCP, ATM). 2) Application gateway: translate format
and contents of data. E.g., email gateway: translate Internet message into SMS for mobile phones.
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Chapter 3: Data Communication Fundamentals

Topic List:
Topic List, Introduction
Bandwidth & Data Rate
Analog & Digital Signalling
Analog & Digital Transmission
Coding Mechanism
Modulation
Modulation in Practice
A. Bandwidth & Data Rate:
(a) Bandwidth:
Represents the range of frequencies that can pass thru a medium.
More the bandwidth larger the data it can transmit.
Fixed
Eg. Wider the road, larger #Vehicles accommodated.
(b) Data Rate:
Data rate is the actual traffic passing at given time.
Purely depends on bandwidth.
Variable.
Eg: Driver asking for infinite speed (bandwidth) for transmission.
Data Rate depends on:
o Bandwidth utilization
o If Analog, #constellation points
o If Digital, Number of levels
o Receivers sensitivity
Media resistance and temperature
B. Frequency & Band:
Signal travels thru a medium in range of frequencies.
This range of frequencies is called frequency band.
If we try to accommodate more radio stations in a band, they become too noisy.
Similarly for LANs, limits the #users.
C. Media Effect on Bandwidth
Distortion: Due to elimination of higher frequency components from signal results to distortion.
Attenuation: Adding more number of different frequency causes attenuation.
Swimmers lane: Middle lanes provide less resistance than outer lanes. Larger the frequency, more
the noise, smaller the frequency, larger the data transmission rate.
D. Harmonics and composite wave:
Fourier Component: Components of a composite signal are known as Fourier Component.
Composite Signals: When a signal contains multiple frequencies, it is called composite signals.
Fundamental Frequency: Frequency of first harmonic (Fourier Component) is knows as Fundamental
Frequency.
If first component is f, 2nd is 3f and 3rd is 5f.
Frequency is inversely proportional to amplitude.
Large amplitude signals cover smaller distance.
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c) Properties of Channel:
i) More the bandwidth of the media, more the number of harmonics that can pass through the media.
ii) Higher the data rate, less will be the number of harmonics that can pass through the media.
iii) Baud Rate: #signals that passes thru media in unit time, usually in seconds. As bandwidth is fixed,
Baud Rate is also fixed.
iv) Bit Rate: #bits that passes thru a media in unit time, usually in seconds. If 1 signal carry n bits then
Baud Rate is 1 and Bit Rate is n.
v) Signal: Combination of zeros and ones.
vi) Maximum Baud Rate: No of harmonics that can be accommodated in a given bandwidth.
vii) We can obtain Maximum Data Rate (MDR) if we know bandwidth and sensitivity of receiver
(#harmonics recognized correctly).
viii)
Data rate is doubled when baud rate is quadrupled, tripled when baud rate is 8 times, and so
on.
d) Baud Rate & Bit Rate Relation:
Nyquist:
MDR of a channel = 2 Bandwidth
MDR of a channel = 2 Bandwidth log2 (signal levels)
Claude Shannon:
MDR of a channel = Bandwidth log2 (1 + S/N)
Signal to noise ratio (decibel):
When signal to noice ratio is equal:
S/N =10 log (Ps/Pn)
Where, Ps Signal Power, Pn Noise Power
When Ps/Pn becomes 1
MDR = Bandwidth log2 (1+10 log e 1)
Bandwidth log 2 (1+0)
Bandwidth log 2 1
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Filtering a specific frequency:
Filter is a device used for restricting bandwidth of a medium to specified limit.
Used with telephone lines,
Actual bandwidth = 1.1 MHz
Using filter reduced to = 4 kHz
Remaining channel can be used for other telephone connections data transmission at a time.
Remaining channel can also be used for broadband.
Thats y we feel voice interference in laneline phone when internet is on.
DSL (Digital Subscribers Line) removes the filter from line to use entire bandwidth for internet
access.
Filter Types:
1. Low Pass Filter: Such filters keep only lower part of frequency out of given range.
2. Band Pass Filter: keeps middle part of frequency.
3. High Pass Filter: eliminates lower parts to keep only higher part of frequency.
Widely used is low pass filter.
H. Analog Signals:
Used to transmit video and audio signals.
Higher error rate.
Continuous by nature.
Uses curved wave forms.
Used when we dont have large bandwidth.
High error rate due to sine property.
Amplifiers are used which gives strength to signal but cant correct the signals.
Three different properties:
Amplitude: signals max voltage value.
Frequency: #oscillations per second.
Phase: direction of a signal
Can be used to transmit digital data also.
Also supports modulation techniques.
Technique to represent zeros and ones using one or more properties of wave is called modulation.
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Digital Signals:
o Used when we have large bandwidth.
p Used to transfer (0,1) bits generally for file transfer.
q Low error rate.
r Discrete by nature.
s Square wave forms.
t Repeaters are used to give strength to signal which can also correct signals.
u How to transfer digital data over wire?
Using electromagnetic waves
Using light
v MP3 (Music Player), MPEG (Moving Picture Expert Group) are the types where audio video signals
are converted from analog to digital.
w These signals can be of two types: Periodic and A periodic.
x Periodic Signals: Continuously repeats its shape after a specified interval. Used for data
transmission.
A-Periodic Signals: does not follow pattern.
Digital signaling and bit rate:

Baud Rate: #voltage signals we send per second is known as baud rate.
Bit Rate: #bits sent per second are known as bit rate.
If we use 2n different voltage signals, then
bit rate = baud rate n

If we use n voltage signals, then
bit rate = baud rate log2 n

n is number of levels.
Suppose we have 4 different voltage levels, say, 1,2,-1,-2.
1v = 10, 2v=11, -1v=01, -2v=00.
This means, 4(voltage) levels can represent 8(combination of 2) bits of data.
Suppose it takes 0.1 msec then voltage transmitted are 10 Mbps, but total bits transmitted is 20
Mbps.
Characteristics:
Square waveforms
Limited discrete values of voltage levels
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ii Need more bandwidth
iii Noise can be completely removed
Repeater reshapes(Digital), amplifier amplifies(Analog):
Amplification: Noise addition to waves
Analog Signal Transmission

Used to transmit video and audio signals.
Used when we dont have large bandwidth.
Higher error rate due to sine property.
Continuous by nature.
Uses curved wave forms.
Can travel short distance.
Amplifiers are used which gives strength to signal
but cant correct the signals.
Analog signals can be used for digital
transmission. E.g.; Modem sends digital data over
analog telephone lines.
Digital Signal Transmission

Used to transfer (0,1) bits generally for file
transfer.
Used when we have large bandwidth.
Low error rate.
Discrete by nature.
Square wave forms.
Can travel long distance.
Repeaters are used to give strength to signal which
can also correct signals.
Digital signals can be used for analog
transmission. E.g. You tube, Skype transmitting
audio video signals using digital signals.
J. Modulation:
Amplitude modulation
Frequency modulation
Phase Modulation
Modulation in cable TV
Modulation in ADSL
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Amplitude modulation:
5 represent 0 and 10 represents 1.

Easy to implement.
Problems:
o Noisy channel, difficult to correct errors.
o Impossible to detect errors also.
o Effects of temperature, rain, etc.
Distortion in digital signals:
Digital error occurs.

Atmospheric disturbance, electromagnetic disturbance (mobile beside tv),
Faulty circuitry, etc results to problems like crosstalk and noise.
It is possible to reshape the signals after some distance using repeaters.
Frequency modulation
Two different frequency representing 0 and 1.f

0 has more oscillations than 1.
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Phase Modulation
Out of phase situation for all three signals.

Done by shifting the phase at regular interval.
See next figure.
Justify the statement: Phase modulation is better than other modulation techniques:
Unlike frequency modulation, it doesn't require two different frequencies. (So better than frequency
modulation)
If error occurs and amplitude changes, will not have any adverse effect. (Better than amplitude
modulation).
In Amplitude modulation, gap between two amplitudes must be high, to transfer that signal, more
power is consumed.
Phase modulation, less power consumption.
Thus, Phase modulation is better than other modulation techniques.
(a) Modulation in cable TV
(b) Modulation in ADSL
Constellation pattern for QPSK:
QPSK: Quadrature Phase Shift Keying.

Total #bits sent are twice the total #signals. (i.e. while sending x signals, 2x bits sent).
Only mechanism where, amplitude is not affected.
Four phase values: 45*, 135*, 225* and 315*.
Distance from origin indicates amplitude (constant).
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QAM-16 constellation pattern
QAM-16 Quadrature Amplification Modulation.

Combination of phase and amplitude.
16 combinations represented by different combination of phase and amplitude.
Arrow represents phase.
Curves represent amplitude.
3 amplitude and 3 phase values represent 4 constellation points in one quadrant.
Such 4 quadrants (4x4) makes it 16.
Similarly we can have QAM-64 using 16 bits in each quadrant and QAM-256 with 64 bits in each
quadrant.
Disadvantage: More the constellation points in constellation diagram, more vulnerable to noise.
Vulnerability increases from QPSK, QAM-16, QAM-64, QAM-256...
Thus, prefer QPSK for noisy channels and prefer QAM-256 for noiseless channel.
(a) Modulation in Cable TV:

Cable TV uses analog signals to transmit.
Thick black TV cables having bandwidth 650 to 700 Mbps has much spare bandwidth other than
utilized by TV channel signals that can be utilized for Internet traffic.
This brought the era of Cable Internet.
See the next figure.
Up-stream uses QPSK, downstream transmission uses QAM-16 or QAM-256.
Frequency bands used in cable TV transmission:
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(b) Modulation in ADSL:

Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line.
Technique that uses telephone lines for voice communication as well as internet connectivity.
Telephone lines use small fraction of bandwidth.
i.e 4KHz out of 1.1 MHz.
Filters are kept to use remaining bandwidth for data transmission over internet.
If no telephone needed, filters are removed and entire bandwidth is used for internet.
Even division of bandwidth used for internet traffic need to be distributed into Upstream and
Downstream data transmission.
When division is equal for Upstream and Downstream, SDSL Symmetric Digital Subscriber Line is
used.
Generally preferred is more downstream and less upstream bandwidth for which A-symmetric
Digital Subscriber Line is used.
See previous figure for distribution.
Q. What is Multiplexing and Demultiplexing?
The process of collecting individual connections at one end and distributing at the other end is known as
multiplexing and demultiplexing.
Examples:
Proxy Server multiplexes users URL request and sends to next router in chain
o Windows Server , Linux Server, client.
o Remote telnet server
o FTP Client connecting to FTP Server
o HTTP Client talking to Web Server
o Oracle or SQL Client connecting to Remote Database Server.
o Single TCP Process handling multiple Applications
o UDP application running VoIP and video conferencing application.
o A switch relies on multiple desktops in LAN relies on multiplexing to combine all transmission.
Two types:
o Time Division Multiplexing
o Frequency Division Multiplexing
o Time Division Multiplexing: TDM divides available spectrum such that each user gets a specific
time slot to transmit its data. Each sender gets its turn once in a cycle. When specific users turn
comes, entire bandwidth is given to him. This multiplexing does not impose any kind of delay.
TDM is useful when the data is transmitted using digital signaling.
o Frequency Division Multiplexing: in FDM, each user is given an exclusive frequency band. Each
channel is given a specific frequency. The entire spectrum available is multiplexed for all these
Stations. While multiplexing, the channel frequencies are separated by guard bands to prevent
interference from adjacent stations. FDM is used with analog signaling for data transmission.
o WDM: A variant of FDM known as WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexing ) is famous
for fiber optics which provides 100 channels of 10 Gbps each. WDM also provides quality of
service.
o Guard Bands: While multiplexing, the channel frequencies are separated by guard bands to
prevent interference from adjacent station.
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Q. Write a note on switching.
Switching is an operation where the decision of where to send the incoming data is instantaneous
and predetermined. In routing, decision is taken dynamically and hence service is little delayed than
switching.
Switching is generally done at second layer.
Layer 4 and Layer 5 are transport and application layer where data are populated.
Layer 4 switch separate UDP and TCP data flows.
Layer 5 switch send mail traffic in one direction and http traffic in another direction.
Layer 3 switches are like routers.
Telephone Lines use switches to route the traffic at physical layer.
Though switching is faster, it is monotonous.
Data does not flow continuously and so, it needs store and forwarding transmission facility.
Types: 1) Circuit Switching 2) Packet Switching 3) Message Switching.
Circuit
Switching
Packet
Switching
1) Circuit Switching:
In circuit switching, there is a dedicated line that connects the sender and the receiver.
Here, path is reserved for duration of connection.
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Eg. Telephonic Conversation.

Advantages of Circuit Switching:
o Guaranteed bandwidth
o Predictable communication performance
o Not best-effort delivery with no real guarantees
o Simple abstraction
o Reliable communication channel between hosts
o No worries about lost or out-of-order packets
o Simple forwarding
o Forwarding based on time slot or frequency
o No need to inspect a packet header
o Low per-packet overhead
o Forwarding based on time slot or frequency
o No IP (and TCP/UDP) header on each packet
Disadvantages of Circuit Switching:
o Wasted bandwidth
o Bursty traffic leads to idle connection during silent period
o Unable to achieve gains from statistical multiplexing
o Blocked connections
o Connection refused when resources are not sufficient
o Unable to offer okay service to everybody
o Connection set-up delay
o No communication until the connection is set up
o Unable to avoid extra latency for small data transfers
o Network state
o Network nodes must store per-connection information
o Unable to avoid per-connection storage and state
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2) Message Switching:
It is possible to have packets that are large enough to hold entire message. Such a mechanism is not in
practice is known as message switching.
Not used nowadays.
Communication is not continuous.
Each packets travel independently.
No physical path is established in advance between sender and receiver.
Instead, when the sender has a block of data to be sent, it is stored in the first switching office (i.e.,
router) and then forwarded later, one hop at a time.
Each block is received in its entirety, inspected for errors, and then retransmitted.
A network using this technique is called a store-and-forward network.
Used with telegrams.
3) Packet Switching:
Doesnt reserve entire path in advance.

Reserves only small portion of path.
Data is segregated into pieces and transmitted as packets.
In packet-based networks, the message gets broken into small data packets. These packets are sent out
from the computer and they travel around the network seeking out the most efficient route to travel as
circuits become available. This does not necessarily mean that they seek out the shortest route.
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Each packet may go a different route from the others.

Each packet is sent with a header address. This tells it where its final destination is, so it knows where
to go.
The header address also describes the sequence for reassembly at the destination computer so that the
packets are put back into the correct order.
One packet also contains details of how many packets should be arriving so that the recipient computer
knows if one packet has failed to turn up.
If a packet fails to arrive, the recipient computer sends a message back to the computer which originally
sent the data, asking for the missing packet to be resent.
Advantages:
o Security
o Bandwidth used to full potential
o Devices of different speeds can communicate
o Not affected by line failure (rediverts signal)
o Availability do not have to wait for a direct connection to become available
o During a crisis or disaster, when the public telephone network might stop working, e-mails and
texts can still be sent via packet switching
Disadvantages
o Under heavy use there can be a delay
o Data packets can get lost or become corrupted
o Protocols are needed for a reliable transfer
o Not so good for some types data streams e.g real-time video streams can lose frames due to the
way packets arrive out of sequence.
Q. Differentiate between Circuit Switching and Packet Switching.
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Q. Define Attenuation, Distortion and Noise:
1) Attenuation: Change in shape of a signal due to loss of energy after travelling some distance. Different
fouier components have different attenuation and thus the resultant signal not only gets diminished, but also
acquired signal requires reshaping. This is known as attenuation. Attenuated signals require reshaping.
Attenuation also depends on media.
2) Distortion: A signal is said to be distorted when different frequency components reach at the other end
at different times. This effect is known as distortion. The speed mismatch between different components
changes the shape of the signals. This is known as delayed distortion or distortion in short.
3) Noise: It is the error produced in a signal due to various reasons. Noise is the external interference which
changes the shape of the signal.
Thermal Noise: The disturbance caused due to electrons present in the media. This noise depends on the
temperature. More the temperature, more is the thermal Noise.
Non-Thermal Noise: It is caused due to other external reasons like cross-talking, malfunctioning of devices,
etc.
Noise is also used as a synonym of errors. Eg. An image with noise means an image with errors.
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Unit-1

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Unit-1

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Chapter 1 : Introduction to Computer Networks

A. What is the need of Networks?

Layering Concept & Example:

How to deliver? Steps:

Chapter 1 : Introduction to Computer Networks

C. Differentiate between OSI and TCP/IP layer:

Chapter 1 : Introduction to Computer Networks

D. Connection Oriented v/s Connectionless Transmission

E. Top-Down and Bottom-Up Approaches to study Layers:

Chapter 1 : Introduction to Computer Networks

F. What is the need Share Resources?

We need to generate information and disseminate information. Eg.

G. Give functions of Each Layer in OSI/TCP Model.

Transmitting raw bits over a communication channel.

2. Data Link Layer

The No Monopoly idea and the framing

3. Medium Access Layer

Receive/transmit normal frames

Chapter 1 : Introduction to Computer Networks

Handling accounting for usage of network resources

Allow users on different machines to establish sessions between them.

Chapter 1 : Introduction to Computer Networks

Node: The members of network are popularly known as nodes.

Chapter 2 : Network Fundamentals

TV has a serious problem and it conveys

A phone receiver transfers the call automatically

J. Mobile Network Applications:

Exchanging notes with classmates with single click.

Access to library from any location inside/outside college premises.

VANETS, automatic intelligent solution for vehicles.

Control home equipments using sms and android applications.

Chapter 2 : Network Fundamentals

a. Personal Area Network

Network meant for one person.

Eg: Connecting Wireless mouse, keyboard, printer to computer.

b. Local Area Network:

Privately owned networks

Size: few kilo meters

Widely used in?

To connect PC to warehouse in company and factories to share resources.

Transmission Technology generally used is?

o Speed, 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps.

o Speed Upto 40 Gbps.

c. Metropolitan Area Networks

A metropolitan area network based on cable TV.

Eg: Cable Television Network.

Chapter 2 : Network Fundamentals

Wired n/w got converted to Wireless n/w technology.

Centralized Head End.

d. Wide Area Networks

Relation between hosts on LANs and the subnet.

Who fulfill this purpose? Subnet.

Eg: Router, Switch, Hub.

1. Store & Forward Subnet.

Chapter 2 : Network Fundamentals

2. Division Based on Connection:

Need some sort of cables for connectivity.

First wireless network was ALOHA.

Chapter 2 : Network Fundamentals

Mobile Ad Hoc Networks

ii) Sensor Networks:

3) Division Based on Communication Type:

P2P requires to know where the recipient is