Chapter 12

Heat exchangers
(Material presented in this chapter are based on those in Chapter 11, Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, Fifth Edition by Incropera and DeWitt)
Heat exchanger is a device for heat exchange between two fluids, say hot
and cold fluids. It is the workhorse of chemical, petrochemical, biochemical and power industries. Efficient energy transfer is an important aspect
of power management in any industry. Therefore design of heat exchangers
which facilitate energy transfer is very important. In this chapter, the functioning and characterization of heat exchangers and methods to assess their
performance.

12.1

Classifications

Heat exchangers (HEs) are typically of two types based on the contact
method, viz. direct contact HEs and two-phase HEs. Direct contact heat
exchangers typically consists of wall between tubes, plates etc. This type of
heat exchanger that has a wall between the two fluids is called transsmural
heat oexchange. Two-phase heat exchangers are those in which two-phases
are involved.
Heat exchangers are classified based on the (geometrical) construction or
flow arrangement. For instance heat exchangers can be concentric pipe heat
exchangers, cross-flow heat exchangers, shell-tube heat exchangers. In all
these cases, the hot and the cold may flow co-currently, that is, parallel-flow
or counter-currently. Many different forms of shell-and-tube HEs may be
possible, for example HE exchanger may involve multiple shell passes and
165

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CHAPTER 12. HEAT EXCHANGERS

multiple tube passes.

In the case of single shell-pass and multiple, say two tube pass case, the
fluid stream that enters a HE, will be circulated two times the length of the
heat exchanger. Such a configuration permits the exchange of heat from the
tube-side fluid two times with the shell-side fluid for the same length of the
heat exchanger. This presents an unique advantage to design heat exchangers
of certain length that will permit heat exchange over lengths that are several
fold longer than the length of the heat exchanger. A similar principle can be
applied to the shell side fluid as well to expose the shell-side fluid to a higher
heat transfer surface area.
Additionally, in the cross-flow heat exchangers and shell-tube heat exchangers, fins may be attached in order to induce some mixing in the streams.
The extent of heat exchange depends on the properties of the hot and cold
fluids and the amount of heat that has to be transfered. Therefore, it is often
an important question as to which configuration heat exchanger has to be
used for heat exchange between two fluids. Another important type of heat
exchanger is the compact heat exchanger which offers very high surface area
per unit volume. If gas is one of the fluids for heat exchange, then a very
high surface area per unit volume is required.

12.2

The overall heat transfer coefficient

Often it is useful for design calculations to obtain an overall heat transfer

coefficient for a HE (see Overall heat transfer coefficient in section (9.2.4)).
Overall heat transfer coefficient typically includes all the possible resistances
for heat transfer in a given heat exchanger. The common resistances offered
for heat exchange are those between hot fluid and the wall, between cold
fluid and the wall, and wall resistance. Additionally, during the operation of
HE, scales and films may form on the walls of the HE tubes. Formation of
these is called fouling. Fouling of the HEs can offer certain resistance which
is termed fouling resistances.
Therefore, overall heat transfer coefficient U accounting for all these re-

12.3. LOG-MEAN TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE

167

sistances is given by
1
1
1
=
=
= Rc,conv + Rc,f oul + Rwall + Rh,f oul + Rh,conv
UA
Uc Ac
Uh Ah

Rf,c
Rf,h
1
1
=
+
+ Rwall +
(12.1)
(hA)c (A)c
(A)h (hA)h
where, Rwall is the resistance offered by the wall, is the surface efficiency,
Rf is the resistance offered by the fouling, subscripts h and c represent hot
and cold fluid. The expression for heat transfer coefficient in Eq. (12.1)
assumes that the heat transfer area in the hot fluid side and the cold fluids
sides are different. Therefore the overall heat transfer coefficient depends on
whether the coefficient is based on the hot fluid side or cold fluid side heat
transfer surface area.
According to Newtons law of cooling, the overall heat exchanged by the
two fluids (using the overall heat transfer coefficient) is given by
q = U ATlmtd

(12.2)

where the log-mean temperature difference Tlmtd (Eq. 9.45) depends on the
flow configuration.

12.3

Log-mean temperature difference

Consider the case of heat exchange between two fluids. Assume the hot fluid
(with specific heat Cp,h to be flowing into the heat exchanger at temperature
Th,i at a mass flow rate of m
h and the cold fluid (with specific heat Cp,c to
be flowing into the heat exchanger at temperature Tc,i at a mass flow rate of
m
c . If the cold and hot fluid out stream temperatures are Tc,o and Th,o , then
the total heat lost by the hot stream is given by
qh = m
h Cp,h (Th,i Th,o )

(12.3)

and the total heat gained by the cold stream is given by

qc = m
c Cp,c (Tc,o Tc,i )

(12.4)

As the heat lost by the hot stream will be equal to the heat gained by the
cold stream under steady state conditions,
q = qh = qc = U ATlmtd

(12.5)

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CHAPTER 12. HEAT EXCHANGERS

12.3.1

Parallel-flow heat exchanger

Consider the case of a parallel-flow heat exchanger in which the hot and cold
fluids are flowing in two chambers separated by a wall (Fig. 12.1). Assume no
axial conduction and constant properties. Consider hot and cold fluids flowing through the two parallel chambers at mass flow rates and temperatures
shown in Fig. (12.1).

Figure 12.1: Parallel-flow heat exchanger

Consider a differential element with differential area of heat transfer from
the hot fluid stream to cold fluid stream to be dA. The heat exchanged is
given by
dq = m
h Cp,h dTh = m
c Cp,c dTc = U T dA
(12.6)
If the local temperatures on either side of the wall is Tc and Th , then the
local temperature difference is given by T = Th Tc and therefore


1
1
d(T ) = dTh dTc = dq
+
(12.7)
m
h Cp,h m
c Cp,c
Using Eq. (12.2), Eq. (12.7) can be integrated from the inlet to the outlet
of the HE to obtain
T
Z out

Tin

 ZA
1
1
= U
+
dA
m
h Cp,h m
c Cp,c
0




Tin
1
1
ln
= U A
+
(12.8)
Tout
m
h Cp,h m
c Cp,c


12.3. LOG-MEAN TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE

169

Using Eqs (12.4) and (12.3), Eq. (12.8) can be re-written as


ln

Tin
Tout


= U A [Tin Tout ]

(12.9)

where Tin = Th,i Tc,i and Tout = Th,o Tc,o . Equation (12.9) can be
modified to obtain the expression for total heat transferred given by
q = UA

[Tin Tout ]
 = U ATLM T D

Tin
ln T
out

where log-mean temperature difference TLM T D =

(12.10)

[T
in Tout
 ]
T
ln T in
out

[T1 T2 ]
T
ln T1
2

and subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the two ends of the HE.

Figure (12.2) shows the typical temperature profile during parallel flow
operation. By virtue of this design, irrespective of the length of the HE, the
temperature of the outlet stream of the hot fluid cannot exceed the outlet
cold fluid temperature. Therefore, there is an upper limit on the amount of
heat that can be exchanged by the two fluids when using a parallel-flow configuration. This can be circumvented by using a counter-flow configuration.

Figure 12.2: Counterflow temperature profile

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12.3.2

CHAPTER 12. HEAT EXCHANGERS

Counterflow heat exchanger

Cartoon and the temperatures and mass flow rate of a counterflow heat
exchanger is presented in Fig. (12.3). The log-mean temperature difference
for this case can be derived using the method as for the case Parallel-flow
heat exchanger case in section (12.3.1). The log-mean temperature difference
for a counterflow HE is given by
Tlmtd =

T1 T2


1
ln T
T2

(12.11)

where T1 = Th,i Tc,o and T2 = Th,o Tc,i are the temperature differences
at the two ends of the HE. Note that Tc,o can be greater than Th,o and

Figure 12.3: Counter flow heat exchanger

therefore for the same temperatures of the hot and cold fluid streams and
heat transfer surface area , the counterflow configuration will result in a
higher heat exchange when compared with the parallel-flow configuration.
This is because,
Tlmtd,CF > Tlmtd,P F

(12.12)

where CF and P F stands for counterflow and parallel-flow. So, in order to

achieve a certain heat exchange, for the same inlet and outlet temperatures
of the hot and cold fluids, lowest heat transfer area is required in the case of
CF as compared with the PF.
Figure (12.4) shows the typical temperature profile in both fluid streams
in a counterflow heat exchanger.

12.3. LOG-MEAN TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE

171

Figure 12.4: Temperature distribution in a counterflow heat exchanger

12.3.3

Special cases

There are three special cases under which the HE may operate.
When m
h Cp,h  m
c Cp,c or or condensation occurs (m
h Cp,h ),
then the hot fluid temperature will remain constant.
When m
c Cp,c  m
h Cp,h or evaporation occurs (m
c Cp,c ), then the
cold fluid temperature will remain constant.
When m
c Cp,c m
h Cp,h , then the temperature difference between the
hot and the cold fluid in all regions of the HE remains constant. Therefore, T1 = T2 = Tlmtd .

12.3.4

Multipass and Cross-flow HEs

Log mean temperature difference for a multipass and cross-flow HEs is given
by
Tlmtd = F Tlmtd,CF
(12.13)
where Tlmtd,CF is evaluated as though the flow is a counterflow. Expressions
for the efficiency factor F have been derived for several differenct cases and
are readily available in Incropera and DeWitt. Typically the F curves are
presented as a function of temperature efficiency of the heat exchanger given

172

CHAPTER 12. HEAT EXCHANGERS

by
P =

Tt,o Tt,i
Ttube
=
Ts,i Tt,i
Tmax

(12.14)

where s and t represent the shell and tube sides and relative thermal capacim
t Ct
ties (R = m
) of the tube side and shell side fluids. When P or R 0, then
s Cs
F 1, that is if the temperature change of one fluid is negligible, multipass
HEs behave line counterflow HE.

12.4

-NTU method

Suppose the inlet and outlet temperatures of both fluids are known then the
Tlmtd can be determined and LMTD method can be used to estimate the
HE design parameters. However if only the inlet temperatures are known,
then Tlmtd cannot be determined and hence a tedious, iterative LMTD
method will have to be used for obtaining the HE design parameters. An
alternative method to estimate design parameters under these conditions is
the NTU method.
The effectiveness  of a HE is the ratio of the actual heat exchange between the two fluids that is permitted by the HE and the fraction of the
maximum possible heat exchange between the two fluids. In order to find
the effectiveness, maximum possible heat transfer rate has to be estimated.
Parallel flow HE, even with infinite length cannot permit exchange of
maximum heat transfer. However, counterflow HE can permit maximum
heat exchange when the length is infinite. The question remains as to how
to find this maximum heat exchange rate.
Case I: Consider the case when m
c Cp,c < m
h Cp,h then, due to Eq. (12.6),
|dTc | > |dTh |. As the length of the HE , the cold fluid outlet temperature
must attain the hot fluid inlet temperature, that is, Tc,o = Th,i , and the
maximal heat transfer is
qmax = m
c Cp,c (Tc,o Tc,i = m
c Cp,c (Th,i Tc,i

(12.15)

Case II: Next, consider the case when m

c Cp,c > m
h Cp,h then, due to Eq.
(12.6), |dTc | < |dTh |. As the length of the HE , the hot fluid outlet
temperature must attain the cold fluid inlet temperature, that is, Th,o = Tc,i ,
and the maximal heat transfer is
qmax = m
h Cp,h (Th,i Th,o = m
c Cp,c (Th,i Tc,i

(12.16)

12.4. -NTU METHOD

173

In general, from case I and case II,

qmax = mC
p )min (Th,i Tc,i

(12.17)

Based on Eq. (12.17), the effectiveness  is given by

=

q
qmax

m
h Cp,h (Th,i Th,o )
(mC
p )min (Th,i Tc,i )

(12.18)

and the heat rate is given by

q = (mC
p )min (Th,i Tc,i )

12.4.1

(12.19)

Parallel flow heat exchanger

In the case of parallel flow, log-mean temperature difference can be written

as




Th,o Tc,o
UA
(mC
p )min
ln
=
1+
(12.20)
Th,i Tc,i
mC
p )min
(mC
p )max
Supposing, m
h Cp,h is the minimum, then the heat transfer rate can be expressed as
Th,i Th,o
(12.21)
q=
Th,i Tc,i
Defining the number of transfer units, NTU, as
NT U =

UA
(mC
p )min

(12.22)

which provides an estimate of the extent of heat that a heat exchanger can
transfer given a maximum heat gain or loss, whichever applicable permitted
by the fluid properties, Eq. (12.20) can be written as



Th,o Tc,o
(mC
p )min
= exp N T U 1 +
(12.23)
Th,i Tc,i
(mC
p )max
As (mC
p )min = m
h Cp,h ,
m
h Cp,h
(mC
p )min
Tc,o Tc,i
=
=
m
c Cp,c
(mC
p )max
Th,i Th,o

(12.24)

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CHAPTER 12. HEAT EXCHANGERS

Using Eqs (12.24) and (12.21),  in Eq. (12.23) can be expressed as

h
h
ii
mC
p )min
1 exp N T U 1 + ((mC
p )max
=
(12.25)
(mC
p )min
1 + (mC
p )max
If Cr =

(mC
p )min
(mC
p )max

then
=

1 exp [N T U (1 + Cr )]
1 + Cr

(12.26)

For several design calculations, it is also useful to have NTU expressed in

terms of the effectiveness . The NTU for parallel flow in terms of  is given
by
ln(1 (1 + Cr ))
NT U =
(12.27)
1 + Cr

12.5

Counterflow heat exchanger

The effectiveness as a function of NTU is given by

=

1 exp(N T U (1 + Cr ))
Cr < 1
1 Cr exp(N T U (1 Cr ))
NT U
=
Cr = 1
1 + NT U

(12.28)

and NTU in terms of  is given by




1
Cr < 1
Cr 1

NT U =
Cr = 1
1

1
NT U =
ln
Cr 1

12.5.1

(12.29)

Shell and tube heat exchanger

One shell pass, many tube passes

Effectiveness,  is given by
h
i 1

2 12

1
+
exp
N
T
U
(1
+
C
)
r
1

h
i
1 = 2 1 + Cr + (1 + Cr2 ) 2
1

1 exp N T U (1 + Cr2 ) 2

(12.30)

12.6. HEAT TRANSFER ANALYSIS CALCULATION METHODOLOGY175

and NTU is given by
N T U = (1 +
where E =

2
(1+Cr )
1
(1+Cr2 )1 2

E1
ln
E+1

1
Cr2 ) 2


(12.31)

N shell passes, many tube passes

Effectiveness is given by

= 

11 Cr
11

11 Cr
11

n

n

1
(12.32)

Cr

where 1 is the effectiveness for one shell pass and NTU is given by Eq.
(12.31) with

1
F 1
Cr 1 n
1 =
;F =
(12.33)
F Cr
1

12.6

Heat transfer analysis calculation methodology

If the inlet and outlet temperatures for both the hot and cold fluid streams are
known, then use log-mean temperature difference and find the area. While if
the heat exchanger type and the inlet temperatures are known and the areas
are known, then NTU can be used to find the heat transfer rate and the
temperatures of the outlet streams.