Instrumentation - Basics

Role of Instrumentation
1. Measuring of process parameters
2. Basics of field Instrumentation
3. Controlling of Process parameters

1 Measuring and monitoring of process parameters

1.1 Measurement:
A set of operation having the object of determine the quantity, property or condition which is being
measured. Sometimes referred to as the measurand .In other way the measurements in general are
made with the objective of determining the physical characteristics of an item

1.2 Purpose of Measuring and monitoring of process parameters

Good control requires measurements that are accurate, reliable, responsive and maintainable. These
factors are influenced by the choice of principle used for the measurement, the detailed specifications
and features of the instrument selected, how well the installation and maintenance.
The vast majority of physical measurements are Flow, Pressure, Temperature, Level, and Weight &
Position.

1.3 Terminologies use in measurement technique

Range:The region between the limits within which a quantity is measured, received or transmitted, expressed
by stating the lower and upper range values

Error:This is the difference between the measured signal value or actual reading and the true (ideal) or
desired value.

Span:The algebraic difference between the upper and lower range values, expressed in the same units as the
range in other word Span is the difference between Maximum and minimum values. Input span is
Imax - Imin and Output span is Omax Omin.

Accuracy: Degree of conformity of a measured value to an accepted standard value (or) closeness of a reading

Precision (Repeatability):This is the maximum difference between output readings when the same input is applied
consecutively. This is the closeness of agreement among consecutive measurements of an output for
the same value of input under the same operating conditions, approaching from the same direction. It
is usually measured as non- repeatability and expressed as a percentage of span.

Calibration
It defined, in general, as the process of determination / verification by measurement or comparison
with a standard of greater accuracy in order to detect, correlate, report or eliminate by adjusting any
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deviation in accuracy; or determination of the settings of a control device that correspond to particular
values of its characteristics.

1.4 Measuring parameters in an Industry

Pressure
Temperature
Level
Flow
Weight
Vibrations
Quality Parameters
Speed
Position

Pressure
It is defined as the force per unit area. Pressure is generally measured in pounds per square inches
(psi) or inches of water column (WC) or in bars or Kg/Cm2
Terminologies used in Pressure measurements
Static pressure is the pressure of a fluid at rest.
Dynamic Pressure:
If the fluid is in motion, its pressure will depend on its flow velocity and it is termed as the dynamic
pressure.
Absolute pressure: At sea level atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psi (Also expressed as 1 bar or 100Kpa)
but it varies 0.5 psi for every 1000ft elevation. Absolute pressure is measured with respect to vacuum
(Zero pressure). In other words Absolute pressure is the Pressure referenced to full vacuum ie
atmospheric pressure (1 bar).

Gauge Pressure:Pressure indicate in Gauge in other words the indicative pressure with out atmospheric pressure
Pressure measuring technique and instruments
Variety of pressure measurements methods are used, such as manometers, bourdon tubes and bellows,
and diaphragm
Pressure Gauge:
This is an instrument used to measure the pressure in a process line. Most of the pressure gauges are
Bourden, bellows or Diaphragm types
Pressure gauges are passive instruments it means it does not required electrical power sources; hence
it cant be used for remote indication applications

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Leading Manufacturers of Pressure Gauge: Waree, Forbs marshal, Mic, Feiabig, H-guru
Pressure Switch: This is an instrument used to sense a particular pressure (with respected to the set
point) in a process line. Most of the pressure switches are bellows or Diaphragm types
Construction: Pressure switch are constructed with a sensing mechanisms (Bellow or diaphragms),
reference set pointing mechanisms and a switch mechanisms. Control supply has been taken through
the switch and the switch will act with respect to the set point. The switch is widely used for control
purpose as well as HIGH / LO pressure remote indication applications

Leading Manufacturers of Pressure switch: Indfos, Switzer,

Pressure transmitter:
This is an instrument which is used to measure the pressure in a process line and indicates locally /
remote by means of conversion of measured pressure in to electrical signals like 4-20 mA or a special
communication protocols. Most of the pressure transmitter measures pressure by sensing the
deflection of a diaphragm. Pressure Transmitters are active instruments it means it required electrical
power sources; hence it cant be used for remote / multiple indication applications

Leading Manufacturers of Pressure Transmitters: Rosemount, Yokogawa, Forbes-Marshall

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PRESSURE CONVERSION TABLE

Pascal

Bar

psi

Pa

Torr

mmH2O

1.45038 x
10-4

7.50062 x
10-3

0.10197

10-5

1
Bar

14.5038
105

4.01463

2.953

x 10-3

x 10-4

750.062

10197

401.47

6894.76

0.0689476

mm

9.80665

9.80665 x 10-5

51.7149

703.07

27.6798

2.03602

1.42233 x
10-3

3.93701

2.8959

x 10-2

x 10-3

0.5352

3.937

7.35559 x
10-2

H2O
1.33322 x 10-3

1.93368 x
10-2

13.595

x 10-2

Torr
in

249.089

2.49089 x 10-3

3.61272 x
10-2

1.86832

25.4

7.35559
x 10-2

H2O
in

29.53

psi

133.322

inHg

mmHg

Pa

mmHg

inH20

3386.39

3.38639 x 10-2

0.491154

25.4

3.4532 x 10-2

13.595

Hg

Temperature
Temperature is a degree of hotness or coldness the can be measured using a thermometer. It's also a
measure of how fast the atoms and molecules of a substance are moving. Temperature is measured in
degrees on the Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Kelvin scales.
To measure temperature qualitatively we need to define a temperature scale. This is done by choosing
two temperatures at which some readily identifiable physical effect occurs. Other temperatures can
then be found by interpolation.
The Fahrenheit and Celsius (Centigrade) scales use the freezing and boiling points of water as the two
reference points
Freezing point of Water
Boiling point of Water

Temperature in Fahrenheit
32
212

Temperature in Degree centigrade

0
100

Calculation to convert F to C and C to F

F= 9/5 C + 32 and C = 5/9 (F-32)
SI unit of temperature is Kelvin (K), where K = C +273.15
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Terminologies used in Temperature measurements

Ambient temperature:The average or mean temperature of the atmospheric air which is surrounding a sensor or instrument.

Ambient temperature compensation:An automatic correction which prevents the reading of a sensor or instrument from being affected by
variations in ambient temperature
Temperature measuring technique and instruments
In general there are four types of temperature sensors based on the following physical properties,
which are temperature dependent.
1. Expansion of a substance with temperature, which produces a change in length, volume or pressure.
Exa: Mercury in glass thermo meter

2. Change in electrical resistance with temperature. Exa: RTD Pt-100

A resistance-temperature detector (RTD) is a temperature sensor that is based on the principle of metal
resistance increasing with temperature. Metals used in these devices vary from platinum, which is
very repeatable, quite sensitive, and very expensive, to nickel, which is not quite as repeatable, more
sensitive, and less expensive.
RTD Circuit:

3. Change in contact potential between dissimilar metals with temperature. Exa: Thermocouples K,
J.R, S types
4. Changes in radiated energy with temperature. Exa: Optical and radiation pyrometers.

Level
Level instrument: - A device that measures the height of materialtypically liquidinside a tank or
other vessel.
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Wherever liquids or bulk solids are used, stored or conveyed, some type of level measurements are
used. Level measurements are done to find the accurate inventory, to determine the contents of the
vessel where reactions are taking place, or just to keep the tank from overflowing or from going
empty. For liquids the level can be measure using the pressure at the bottom of the tank or by
weighing the tank.
Mainly two types of level measurements are available.
1. Direct level measurement.
Float The most obvious measurement is to use a float to determine the liquid level.

Ultrasonic and radar These measurements work by sending a pulse wave signal from the top of
the tank that hits the surface of the material inside the tank and reflects back to the instrument. The
distance to the surface is then determined by the transmission time.

Capacitance A metal probe is located vertically in the tank and electrically isolated from the tank.
The probe and the walls of the tank form a capacitor that has a value that depends on the amount of
material in the tank and the medium between the wall and the probe.

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2. Inferring level measurement.

a. Differential pressure The most common method of determining the level of a liquid by measuring
the pressure or head at some point in the tank below the zero level. Since this method is often used in
closed tanks, it is also necessary to measure the pressure in the vapor space at the top of the tank and
subtract that pressure. A differential pressure transmitter is ideal for this type of technique.

Flow
Flow measurement is the quantification of bulk material (fluid) movement
Flow measurement is done using many different techniques.
Volumetric flow is the commonest and is used to measure the volume of flow fluid past a given point
per unit time.
Mass flow is the mass of fluid past a given point per unit time.
There are several classes into which flow measurement can be divided. An important one is liquids,
gases or slurries. Flow measurement for liquid is the simplest because the liquid is considered as
incompressible. With gas flow measurements it is always necessary to make correction for
temperature and pressure and to make allowance for the compressibility of the gas. Slurries are liquids
with suspended solids and can vary from mud-like substances to relatively clear liquids carrying large
pieces of solid matter.
Based on type of flow such as gas, liquid or slurry different types of flow techniques are used.
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Flow measurements can be grouped in to four categories

1. Inferential method: - Placing an obstruction in the flow path causes the velocity to increase and
the pressure to drop. This pressure difference in the pipe can be used to measure the flow rate. An
orifice type is the most common one used in this technique
2. Velocity methods Magnetic flow meters depends on this principle that motion between a
conductor (the flowing fluid) and a magnetic field develops a voltage in the conductor that is
proportional to the velocity of the fluid. Exa: Vortex, Turbine, Ultrasonic
3. Mass flow this type of flow measurement measures actual mass flow.
4. Volumetric flow type This type separates the flow stream in to known volume and by vanes,
pistons, diaphragms or gears, and then counts the segmented volumes. Exa: Positive displacement
Weight
Weight measurement is an essential part of most industrial processes, particularly where batch
manufacturing is used. Weight is also the method of determining the value of most goods, so there is
often an economic and legal requirement for accurate weight measurement.
Strain weigher is the most commonly used technique. The applied load causes a deflection of the
weigher structure. This deflection is measured by a secondary transducer and the load is deduced from
knowledge of the mechanical properties of the structure.

Sensing technology
Many different types of sensing devices are available today. Most common types are explained here.
Position transducer can measure linear displacement or angular displacement. The measurement of
position can be absolute or incremental. An absolute transducer measures the position at all times with
respect to some fixed datum. An incremental transducer gives a signal corresponding to distance
moved, and as such does not correctly indicate position after a power failure. Ex: Pulse counter.

Limit Switches is a switch placed to sense a mechanism has reached the end, or limit, of its travel. It
is used to sense the actual completion of a motion prior to commencing the next part of sequence of
operation.

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Non contact electrical sensors

Hall Effect sensors These sensors are mounted outside of the hydraulic/pneumatic cylinder to sense
the piston at various points in its stroke.
Proximity sensors Can be applied to discriminate between various materials, or to sense objects in
a dirty environments where optical sensing might be unreliable due to dust, oil etc.

Photo electric sensors Can be employed to sense across distances, or using optical technology,
where other type of sensing is not practical
Position Sensing is used frequently to obtain position information beyond the end-of-stroke
indication provided by limit switches. Technologies employed for this purpose are incremental
absolute encoders and resolvers. These types are used only for rotor motion.

Magnetostrictive sensors are sometimes applied for linear position sensing of long hydraulic
cylinders. This technique uses a long wave guide, down which an electromagnetic reference pulse is
induced. A permanent magnet typically connected to a moving mechanical element (Exa: piston) rides
on this wave guide and, when the reference pulse reaches the magnetic field of this magnet a strain
pulse is generated which travel s back down the waveguide. Precise timing between the induction of
the reference pulse and the receipt of the strain pulse provides the position of the magnet, and
therefore the piston.
Barcode reader One approach of product tracking is the use of barcode technology, through the
application of a unique barcode or data matrix code to a product or a product carrier. Fixed-mount
barcode readers are then employed to read and transmit the barcode information to a control system,
typically via an RS-232 serial interface
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Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) Another technology used in Industrial automation for
tracking is RFID. This approach consists of a tag capable of transmitting a unique identification
number back to a Transceiver.

Actuation technology
Actuation technology in common use today include the following
Fluid power devices
Pneumatic cylinders, rotary actuators
Hydraulic cylinders and motors
Solenoids
Solenoids are the most common actuator components. The basic principle of operation is there is a
moving ferrous core (a piston) that will move inside wire coil as shown in Fig: Normally the piston is
held outside the coil by a spring. When a voltage is applied to the coil and current flows, the coil
builds up a magnetic field that attracts the piston and pulls it into the center of the coil. The piston can
be used to supply a linear force. Well known applications of these include pneumatic values and car
door openers.

Solenoid
As mentioned before, inductive devices can create voltage spikes and may need snubbers, although
most industrial applications have low enough voltage and current ratings they can be connected
directly to the PLC outputs. Most industrial solenoids will be powered by 24Vdc and draw a few
hundred mA.
Valves
The flow of fluids and air can be controlled with solenoid controlled valves. An example of a solenoid
controlled valve is shown in below fig: The solenoid is mounted on the side. When it actuated it will
drive the central spool left. The top of the valve body has two ports that will be connected to a device
such as a hydraulic cylinder. The bottom of the valve body has a single pressure line in the center with
two exhausts to the side. In the top drawing the power flows in through the center to the right hand
cylinder port. The left hand cylinder port is allowed to exit through an exhaust port. In the bottom
drawing the solenoid is in a new position and the pressure is now applied to the left hand port on the
top, and the right hand port can exhaust. The symbols to the left of the figure show the schematic
equivalent of the actual valve positions. Valves are also available that allow the valves to be blocked
when unused.

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Solenoid Controlled 5 Ported, 4 Way 2 Position Valve

Some of the ISO symbols for valves are shown in the Fig below. When using the symbols in drawings
the connections are shown for the un-energized state. The arrows show the flow paths in different
positions. The small triangles indicate an exhaust port. The flow control valve is used to restrict the
flow. The shuttle valve allows flow in one direction, but blocks it in the other.

ISO Valve Symbols

Cylinders
A cylinder uses pressurized fluid or air to create a linear force/motion as shown in below fig:. In the
figure a fluid is pumped into one side of the cylinder under pressure, causing that side of the cylinder
to expand, and advancing the piston. The fluid on the other side of the piston must be allowed to
escape freely - if the incompressible fluid was trapped the cylinder could not advance. The force the
cylinder can exert is proportional to the cross sectional area of the cylinder.

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Cross Section of a Hydraulic Cylinder

Single acting cylinders apply force when extending and typically use a spring to retract the cylinder.
Double acting cylinders apply force in both directions.
Control Valves
Control valves are valves used to control process conditions such as flow, pressure, temperature, and
liquid level by fully or partially opening or closing in response to signals received from controllers
that compare a "set-point" to a "process variable" whose value is provided by sensors that monitor
changes in such conditions.
The opening or closing of control valves is done by means of electrical, hydraulic or pneumatic
systems. Positioner is used to control the opening or closing of the actuator based on Electric, or
Pneumatic Signals. These control signals, traditionally based on 3-15psi (0.2-1.0bar), more common
now are 4-20mA signals for industry, 0-10V for HVAC systems, & the introduction of "Smart"
systems, HART, Field bus Foundation, & Profibus being the more common protocols

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Fig: Control Valve with Positioner

Electrical motors
DC & AC motors
Servo / Stepper motors
The choice of actuation technology is typically dictated by the characteristics of the each technology
and how they match with the application. Exa: Pneumatic cylinders can create linear motion with
reasonably high degree of force achievable is determined by the air pressure applied multiplied by the
area of the cylinders piston, as given below.
Force obtained from cylinder actuator is F = PA, where F is force in pounds, P is applied pressure in
PSI & A is area of the cylinder in square inches
In applications require great level of force, Pneumatic actuation has limitations of Compressibility of
the air & pressure available for actuation. For safety and practicability Pneumatic pressure availability
in a shop floor is limited to roughly 80 PSI (5.5) Bar.
For higher force application, hydraulic systems are often used. Disadvantages of hydraulic systems
are the cost & leakage of hydraulic fluid which makes it difficult to use in cleaner environments.
Development in modern technologies has reduced the cost of electrical based controls like AC/DC
motors and stepper / servo motors. With appropriate gearing these devices can generate great amount
of force, although the force is typically in the form of rotary motions. To obtain linear motion using
these devices, a lead screw or belt drive is used.
Fluid Control
The most common method of interfacing fluid power actuators to a control system is through the use
of solenoid valves. These are the valves which are actuated by means of an electric solenoid using
230Vac or 24Vdc power. Solenoid valves have 2way/3way ports which will be open the flow of air or
hydraulic liquid to supply of fluid power to the actuators.
Electrical control
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A common motor technology used is AC induction motor. These motors are generally controlled using
Motor starters which, typically includes a switching mechanism and some form of overload
protection. Another popular method is to use of Variable frequency drives (VFD) which, instead of
driving with a constant frequency of 50 Hz, vary the frequency to control the speed. Use of VFD in
many applications can result in considerable savings of energy.
Advantages offered by DC motor technologies like the ability to position actuator quickly and
accurately under program control, applications where flexibility is important. Using Stepper/Servo
motor coordinated axis movement is possible which, making them ideal for robotics. The controller
used for Stepper/Servo motor for multiple axis co-ordination is called Motion Controller.

2 Basics of field instrumentations

Piping and Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID)
The Piping & Instrumentation Diagram, which may also be referred to as the Process &
Instrumentation Diagram, gives a graphical representation of the process including hardware (Piping,
Equipment) and software (Control systems); this information is used for the design construction and
operation of the facility.
The P&ID also provides important information needed by the constructor and manufacturer to
develop the other construction input documents (the isometric drawings, or orthographic physical
layout drawings, etc.). The P&ID provides direct input to the field for the physical design and
installation of field-run piping. For clarity, it is usual to use the same general layout of flow paths on
the P&ID as used in the flow diagram.
The P&ID ties together the system description, the flow diagram, the electrical control
schematic, and the control logic diagram. It accomplishes this by showing all of the piping,
equipment, principal instruments, instrument loops, and control interlocks. The P&ID contains a
minimum of text in the form of notes (the system description minimizes the need for text on the
P&ID).
P&ID standards
Before development of the P&ID can begin, a thorough set of standards is required. These standards
must define the format of each component of the P&ID.
The following should be shown on the P&ID:
Mechanical Equipment
Equipment Numbering
Presentation on the P&ID
Valves
Hand valves
Control valves
Piping
Pipe numbering
Nozzles & Flanges
Equipment & instrument numbering systems
A completed P&ID may therefore appear as shown in Figure

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Field Instrumentation

Field Digital
Junction box
(DJB)
P
G

P
S

ON/OFF
Controller
Liner
Controller

P
T
Field
Analogue
Junction box
(AJB)

Fig illustrates the functional lay out of field instrumentation

Transducer is a device that converts one physical quantity into another, the second being an analog
representation of the physical quantity.
Sensor: It a device which will sense the presents of physical quantity (Object, temperature etc...) in
other word nothing but a transducer
Transmitter is a signal processing device which receives signal from a sensing device (transducer)
and converts it to 4 to20mA or 0 to10v for transmitting to Control or Display devices
Digital Signals: - The signals from field / to the field have two states as ON of OFF called Digital
signals. Widely used digital signals are 24V DC, 230V Ac, and 110V Ac
Smart device: - Any microprocessor based device that can be programmed; has a memory; can
perform calculations; perform self-diagnostics; reports faults; and can be communicated with from a
remote location. A smart transmitter can be programmed with the type of sensor, range, can linearize
the signal, and can correct for errors due to ambient temperature.
Smart transmitter: - A microprocessor-based transmitter that can be programmed; has a memory;
can perform calculations; perform self-diagnostics; reports faults; and can be communicated with
from a remote location.
Analogue signals: - An analog or analogue signal is any continuous signal for which the time
varying feature (variable) of the signal is a representation of some other time varying quantity. It
differs from a digital signal in that small fluctuations in the signal are meaningful. Most commonly
used analogue signals are 4-20mA and 0-10V
Protocols: - An agreed-upon format for transmitting data between two devices. The protocol
determines the following:
The type of error checking to be used
Data compression method, if any
How the sending device will indicate that it has finished sending a message
How the receiving device will indicate that it has received a message
Commonly used protocols are RS-232, RS-485, Modbus, profibus, field bus and Ethernet protocols
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JIC Wiring Symbols

To standardize electrical schematics, the Joint International Committee (JIC) symbols were
developed, these are shown below

JIC Schematic Symbols

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JIC Schematic Symbols

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3 Controlling of Process parameters

A control system is a system of integrated elements whose function is to maintain a process variable
at a desired value or within a desired range of values. The control system monitors a process variable
or variables, and then causes some action to occur to maintain the desired system parameter.
A control system is a device or set of devices to manage, command, direct or regulate the behavior of
other devices or systems.

Method of process control

Manual: It means take necessary action by a man to control the process parameters. In this case only
process indicating instruments will be available.
Automatic: By using a control device maintains the process parameters with in the accepted limit.
Automatic process controls are implemented in four levels as follows Open loop control, closed loop
control, Sequential Controller and Logic controller

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Open loop controller: By this concepts the process parameters (PV) are measured / monitored from
particular point and based on the set point - SV (Operation control point) output signal (ON/OFF
-Control signal) will be generated and it will actuate / operate the controlling device
Closed loop control
If the PV, the objective of control, is used to determine the control action it is called closed loop
control system.
In the case of linear feedback systems, a control loop, including sensors, control algorithms and
actuators, is arranged in such a fashion as to try to regulate a variable at a set point or reference value.
An example of this may increase the fuel supply to a furnace when a measured temperature drops.
PID controllers are common and effective in cases such as this. Control systems that include some
sensing of the results they are trying to achieve are making use of feedback and so can, to some
extent, adapt to varying circumstances. Open-loop control systems do not directly make use of
feedback, but run only in pre-arranged ways

Proportionalintegralderivative controller (PID controller)

It is a generic control loop feedback mechanism (controller) widely used in industrial control systems.
A PID controller attempts to correct the error between a measured process variable and a desired setpoint by calculating and then outputting a corrective action that can adjust the process accordingly and
rapidly, to keep the error minimal.
The PID controller calculation (algorithm) involves three separate parameters; the
proportional, the integral and derivative values. The proportional value determines the reaction to
the current error, the integral value determines the reaction based on the sum of recent errors, and the
derivative value determines the reaction based on the rate at which the error has been changing. The
weighted sum of these three actions is used to adjust the process via a control element such as the
position of a control valve or the power supply of a heating element .
By tuning the three constants in the PID controller algorithm, the controller can provide control action
designed for specific process requirements. The response of the controller can be described in terms
of the responsiveness of the controller to an error, the degree to which the controller overshoots the
set-point and the degree of system oscillation. Note that the use of the PID algorithm for control does
not guarantee optimal control of the system or system stability.
Some applications may require using only one or two modes to provide the appropriate system
control. This is achieved by setting the gain of undesired control outputs to zero. A PID controller will
be called a PI, PD, P or I controller in the absence of the respective control actions. PI controllers are
particularly common, since derivative action is very sensitive to measurement noise, and the absence
of an integral value may prevent the system from reaching its target value due to the control action.

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Block diagram of PID controller

PID controller theory

This section describes the parallel or non-interacting form of the PID controller. For other forms
please see the Section "Alternative notation and PID forms".
The PID control scheme is named after its three correcting terms, whose sum constitutes the
manipulated variable (MV). Hence:

Where
Pout, Iout, and Dout are the contributions to the output from the PID controller from each of
the three terms, as defined below.

Plot of PV vs time, for three values of Kp (Ki and Kd held constant)

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The proportional term (sometimes called gain) makes a change to the output that is proportional to the
current error value. The proportional response can be adjusted by multiplying the error by a constant
Kp, called the proportional gain.
The proportional term is given by:

Where
Pout: Proportional term of output
Kp: Proportional gain, a tuning parameter
e: Error = SP PV
t: Time or instantaneous time (the present)
A high proportional gain results in a large change in the output for a given change in the error. If the
proportional gain is too high, the system can become unstable (See the section on loop tuning). In
contrast, a small gain results in a small output response to a large input error, and a less responsive (or
sensitive) controller. If the proportional gain is too low, the control action may be too small when
responding to system disturbances.
In the absence of disturbances, pure proportional control will not settle at its target value, but will
retain a steady state error that is a function of the proportional gain and the process gain. Despite the
steady-state offset, both tuning theory and industrial practice indicate that it is the proportional term
that should contribute the bulk of the output change.

Plot of PV vs time, for three values of Ki (Kp and Kd held constant)

The contribution from the integral term (sometimes called reset) is proportional to both the magnitude
of the error and the duration of the error. Summing the instantaneous error over time (integrating the
error) gives the accumulated offset that should have been corrected previously. The accumulated error
is then multiplied by the integral gain and added to the controller output. The magnitude of the
contribution of the integral term to the overall control action is determined by the integral gain, Ki.
The integral term is given by:
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Where
Iout: Integral term of output
Ki: Integral gain, a tuning parameter
e: Error = SP PV
t: Time or instantaneous time (the present)
: a dummy integration variable
The integral term (when added to the proportional term) accelerates the movement of the process
towards set-point and eliminates the residual steady-state error that occurs with a proportional only
controller. However, since the integral term is responding to accumulated errors from the past, it can
cause the present value to overshoot the set-point value (cross over the set-point and then create a
deviation in the other direction). For further notes regarding integral gain tuning and controller
stability, see the section on loop tuning.

Plot of PV vs time, for three values of Kd (Kp and Ki held constant)

The rate of change of the process error is calculated by determining the slope of the error over time
(i.e., its first derivative with respect to time) and multiplying this rate of change by the derivative gain
Kd. The magnitude of the contribution of the derivative term (sometimes called rate) to the overall
control action is termed the derivative gain, Kd.
The derivative term is given by:

Where
Dout: Derivative term of output
Kd: Derivative gain, a tuning parameter
e: Error = SP PV
t: Time or instantaneous time (the present)
The derivative term slows the rate of change of the controller output and this effect is most noticeable
close to the controller set-point. Hence, derivative control is used to reduce the magnitude of the
overshoot produced by the integral component and improve the combined controller-process stability.
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However, differentiation of a signal amplifies noise and thus this term in the controller is highly
sensitive to noise in the error term, and can cause a process to become unstable if the noise and the
derivative gain are sufficiently large.
The proportional, integral, and derivative terms are summed to calculate the output of the PID
controller. Defining u (t) as the controller output, the final form of the PID algorithm is:

Where the tuning parameters are:

Proportional gain, Kp
Larger values typically mean faster response since the larger the error, the larger the Proportional term
compensation. An excessively large proportional gain will lead to process instability and oscillation.
Integral gain, Ki
Larger values imply steady state errors are eliminated more quickly. The trade-off is larger overshoot:
any negative error integrated during transient response must be integrated away by positive error
before we reach steady state.
Derivative gain, Kd
Larger values decrease overshoot, but slows down transient response and may lead to instability due
to signal noise amplification in the differentiation of the error.
Sequential Controller
An automatic sequential control system may trigger a series of equipments in the correct sequence to
perform a task. For example various electric and pneumatic transducers may fold and glue a
cardboard box, fill it with product and then seal it in an automatic packaging machine.
Logic controller
Pure logic controls were historically implemented by electricians with networks of relays, and
designed with a notation called ladder logic. Nowadays, most such systems are constructed with
programmable logic controllers.
Logic controllers may respond to switches, light sensors, pressure switches etc and cause the
machinery to perform some operation. Logic systems are used to sequence mechanical operations in
many applications. Examples include elevators, washing machines and other systems with interrelated
stop-go operations.
Logic systems are quite easy to design, and can handle very complex operations. Some aspects of
logic system design make use of Boolean logic.

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