Hammersley Sequence

International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 40 (2000) 427443
On the selection of flatness measurement points in

coordinate measuring machine inspection
Weon-Seok Kim, Shivakumar Raman
School of Industrial Engineering, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK 73019, USA

Received 15 October 1998; accepted 23 May 1999
Abstract
Inspection of form tolerances using the coordinate measuring machine (CMM) presents two distinct
problems: data collection and data fitting. The former problem deals with the selection of the sample size
and the sample point location while the latter involves the determination of the tolerance zone enveloping
these points.
Four types of strategies and five different sample sizes were studied in this work to address the former
problem. The accuracy of flatness measurement was investigated using realtime experiments with respect
to the above two factors and their respective levels. In addition, the length of the probe path was studied
with respect to the two factors using a simulation study. A priority coefficient was developed to combine
the influence of accuracy and path while selecting sampling strategies and sample size. Preliminary observations made suggest that any one sampling method may not be the best solution in all cases, while
considering the accuracy of flatness and the shortest CMM probe path. 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All
rights reserved.
Keywords: Coordinate flatness measurement; Sample size; Sampling method; Sampling strategy; Travelling salesman
problem
1. Introduction
Sampling strategies in measurement consider the sampling method and the sample size that
can obtain the maximum representative information from a population, for a given specification,
in terms of time and cost. Several types of sampling strategies are employed such as simple
random sampling, stratified random sampling, and systematic sampling. The appropriate sampling
* Corresponding author.
0890-6955/00/$ - see front matter 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 8 9 0 - 6 9 5 5 ( 9 9 ) 0 0 0 5 9 - 0
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W.-S. Kim, S. Raman / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 40 (2000) 427443
method is selected according to the accuracy requirement, the geometry features of the workpiece,
and the condition of the machine producing the workpiece.
A few research efforts are evident in the development of formal procedures for efficient sampling in coordinate measuring machine (CMM) measurement. Sample size (the number of points
measured) is typically proportional to time and cost and for a given sampling strategy; savings
in time may be achieved through a reduction of the sample size. Moreover, it maybe worthwhile
to attempt a minimization of the length of CMM probe paths in addition to reducing the sample
size for achieving further time reductions. This work sought to examine alternative sampling
strategies in the context of accuracy, number of points inspected and the length of the CMM probe
tool path. The combined consideration of CMM path minimisation and accuracy enhancement
in the light of alternative sampling strategies and sample sizes has not been addressed in the
CMM literature.
Four kinds of sampling sequences (the Hammersley sequence sampling [1], the HaltonZaremba sequence sampling, the aligned systematic sampling, and the systematic random sampling)
were investigated for each of five sample sizes (4, 8, 16, 32 and 64). The sample sizes for testing
were arbitrarily selected to represent typical small sizes used in such testing and also to provide
some consistent basis for comparing alternate sampling sequences. Four kinds of tour construction
algorithms and two kinds of tour improvement algorithms were applied to find the shortest CMM
probe path for each combination of sampling method and sample size. The employed models for
tour construction were the nearest neighbor insertion, the random tour, the cheapest insertion, and
the arbitrary insertion. The models used for the tour improvement were the LinKernighan [2]
method and the two-opt heuristic.
Thirty square plates (3.03.00.5 in) fabricated using cold rolling followed by milling were
employed in the flatness measurement experiments (replicates). An analysis of data obtained was
used to make some preliminary conclusions regarding the CMM probe path and accuracy.
It was found that the systematic random sampling method possessed the highest accuracy with
a discrepancy rate of 23.9 at a sample size of 32 while measuring the accuracy of flatness. The
aligned systematic sampling method had the shortest length rate at the sample sizes of 4 and 32.
Considering the total sampling efficiency through trade-off between the accuracy of flatness and
the shortest CMM probe path, the HaltonZaremba sequence and the systematic random sampling
method exhibited the best efficiency at higher ranges of priority coefficient (accuracy highlighted
priority). On the other hand, at lower ranges of priority coefficient (path highlighted priority), the
aligned systematic and the systematic random sampling methods performed the best. These results
strengthen the need for consideration of multiple factors in CMM sampling.
2. Literature review
The sampling method is a procedure providing how to choose units from the population scientifically and objectively and provide a sample that can estimate the population totals and averages
[3]. In order to make sampling more efficient, it is important to develop the sampling methods
that provide true and accurate estimates at the minimum cost.
Woo and Liang [4] investigated the number and location of the discrete samples for the dimensional measurement of machined surfaces. Accuracy and time were considered as the criteria for
429
assessing sampling error. It was hence proposed that the accuracy be expressed by the discrepancy
of a finite set of N points for which a lower bound exists and the time be quantified in terms of
N. For the sampling strategy, the Hammersley sequence was compared against the uniform sampling. The results showed a remarkable improvement in reducing the number of samples and units
of time, while maintaining the same level of accuracy. The Hammersley points were of the same
order of accuracy as the uniform points, despite significant reduction in number.
Woo et al. [5] investigated two kinds of basic questions regarding the relationship between the
sample size and the error in measurement. The first question dealt with raising the accuracy of
sampling for a given sample size. The second question dealt with the reduction of the size of the
sample for a given accuracy. They suggested that the key to both questions were directly related
to the sample point distribution. To experiment this, the used sequences were the Hammersley
sequence sampling, the HaltonZaremba sequence sampling, and the uniform sampling. Through
experiments, it was proved that there was no discernable difference in the performance between
the Hammersley and the HaltonZaremba in 2-D space.
Lee et al. [6] created a feature-based methodology, which coordinates the Hammersley sequence
and the stratified sampling method. They tried to compare the effectiveness of the Hammersley
sequence sampling, the uniform sampling and the random sampling during the dimensional
measurement of the part.
Most of the studies in this area have relied on simulation of pseudo-random surfaces and do
not verify their results with respect to measurement of actual surfaces.
The CMM probe path planning allows the determination of the inspection path joining the
CMM measurement points based on the geometry of an existing part model and the specification
for inspection. Few works have been done in the development of CMM probe path planning.
Moreover, majority of the CMM probe path studies has concentrated on generating the path for
collision-free inspection of parts having multiple surfaces.
Lim and Menq [7] introduced the notion of path generation in CMM dimensional inspection.
Feasible probe orientations were determined through which collision was avoided between the
workpiece and the touch probe and probe stylus. Lu et al. [8] developed an algorithm for generating an optimum CMM inspection path to improve the throughput of CMMs. Yau and Menq [9]
presented a hierarchical planning system for path planning in dimensional inspection using CMM.
The proposed system was designed to generate inspection paths efficiently for geometrically complex parts having multiple surfaces.
This work has studied the issues of accuracy of flatness measurement, as determined by the
CMM, and the length of tool path with reference to the sampling strategy and sample size. Thus,
two measures of sampling time reduction were investigated. Furthermore, actual manufactured
parts were used in experimental validation. The CMM probe path problem was formulated as a
travelling salesman problem in this work.
The travelling salesman problem (TSP) is a classical problem to find a path that minimises the
total distance while visiting N cities and returning to the starting city. The assignment problem
is to ensure that the salesman visits all the cities only once and finishes at the same city where
he began. Many heuristics have been developed to find appropriate solutions to this problem, by
many researchers, working on a diverse set of applications. However, it has been difficult to
guarantee an optimal solution in a polynomial time and the TSP has hence been considered a NP
complete problem.
430
For TSP, Golden et al. [10], Bozer et al. [11], and Bentley [12] have mentioned two broad
categories of algorithms; tour construction and tour improvement. Tour construction algorithms
construct a route of all the tour points, while leaving each point exactly once and arriving at each
point exactly once. And then, tour improvement algorithms provide the improved tour by switching the position of points in the tour.
3. Experimental design
To experiment the efficiency of sampling strategy relevant to the CMM probe path, two experimental objectives were considered. The first objective sought to evaluate the model of the sampling strategy for minimising the sample size. The second objective was to investigate alternative
optimisation models for minimizing the CMM probe path.
The selected models of sampling methods chosen were those commonly employed in CMM
inspection literature. Four kinds of sampling methods were investigated to compare the effectiveness of the sampling method in CMM measurement: Hammersley sequence sampling, Halton
Zaremba sequence sampling, aligned systematic sampling, and systematic random sampling.
3.1. Hammersley sequence sampling
Lee et al. [6], Woo et al. [5], and Woo and Liang [4] used a sampling methodology that
integrated the Hammersley sequence and a stratified sampling method. This sampling was derived
in 2-D, so the coordinates of Hammersley point were made in accordance with the following:
Pii/N
(1)
k1
Qi
bij 2j1
(2)
j0
where N is the total number of sample points; i[0,N1]; bi is the binary representation of the
index i; bij is the jth bit in bi; k is log2N.
For N=8, the Pi could be denoted by 0/8, 1/8, 2/8, 7/8. And Qi could be obtained by multiplying the term bij to 2j 1 and summed from j=0 to j=k1, where
klog2N
is the smallest integer greater than or equal to (log2N). bi denotes the binary notification in terms
of the index i. Computed Qi, the coordinates for N=8 could be expressed as 0/8, 4/8, 2/8, 6/8,
1/8, 5/8, 3/8, and 7/8 by taking the mirror image of the binary representation for i about the
decimal point. For example, if i is equal to 1 or Pi is equal to 1/8 by Eq. (1), bi would be (0 0 1)
and the mirror image would be expressed by bij=(1 0 0). Hence, 2j 1 could be calculated by
(212223). So, Qi could be obtained by Eq. (2). That is, Qi would become
121+022+023=1/2. The coordinates for N=8 is shown in Fig. 1(a).
431
Fig. 1. Coordinates of each sampling method: (a) Hammersley sequence sampling; (b) HaltonZaremba sequence
sampling; (c) aligned systematic sampling; (d) systematic random sampling.
3.2. HaltonZaremba sequence sampling

Woo et al. [5] used a sampling methodology which integrated the HaltonZaremba sequence
and a stratified sampling method. This sampling was derived in 2-D and the coordinates of the
HaltonZaremba point were found in accordance with the following procedures. However, to use
this method, there is a restriction on the sample points that the number be a power of 2. For
example, N could be 2k=2, 4, for k1.
k1
Pii/N
bij 2(kj)
(3)
j0
k1
Qi
bij 2j1
(4)
j0
where N is the total number of sample points; i[0,N1]; bi is the binary representation of the
index i; bij is the jth bit in bi; bij is 1bij for j odd, and is bij otherwise; k is [log2N].
For N=8, the Pi could be denoted by 0, 1/8, 2/8, 7/8, and Qi could be obtained by multiplying
the term bij to 2j 1 and summed from j=0 to j=k1, where k=log2N. And bi denotes the binary
432
notification in terms of the index i. Computed Qi, the coordinates for N=8 could be expressed as
1/4, 3/4, 0, 1/2, 3/8, 7/8, 1/8, 5/8. For example, if i=1 and bij=(0 0 1), j would be from 0 to
k1=2. And then, bij would be determined by the value of j. If j=0, bij=1. However, bij=1
because j is even. If j=1, bij=0. In the same way, bij=1 because j is odd. If j=2, bij=bij=0 because
j is even. Therefore bij=(1 1 0). And Pi is equal to 1/8 by Eq. (3). By the way, 2j 1 could
be calculated as (212223). So, Qi could be obtained by Eq. (4). That is, Qi would become
121+122+023=3/4. The coordinates for N=8 are shown in Fig. 1(b).
3.3. Aligned systematic sampling
The aligned systematic sampling is a uniform sampling method. For the systematic sampling
in two dimensions, the square grid pattern is a representative type of aligned sample as shown
in Fig. 1(c). The sample was first determined by the choice of a pair of random numbers to make
a decision for the coordinates of the upper left unit. The same interval and same location determined the remaining column of strata and the row of strata. Suppose that a population is arranged
in the form of zr rows and each row consists of xy units. When a systematic sample of xz units
is selected, the basic procedure is as follows. A pair of random numbers (p,q) needs to be obtained
first so that pr and qy. These numbers would decide the coordinates of the upper left unit by
the qth unit in the pth row. Then the rows consist of p, p+r, p+2r,,p+(z1)r, while the columns
consist of q, q+y, q+2y,,q+(x1)y. The position of the xz selected units were determined by
the point at which the x selected rows and z selected columns intersect [13]. Fig. 1(c) shows an
example of aligned systematic sampling sequence for N=8 in the case that x=2, y=4, r=0.5, z=0.25,
p=0.1 and q=0.1.
3.4. Systematic random sampling
This is a newly developed sampling method for experimentation in this study. The basic principle is to mix systematic sampling with random sampling. To fix the coordinate of the upper
left unit in strata, a pair of random numbers are first selected like the aligned systematic sampling.
The selection of two random numbers is to determine the horizontal and the vertical location of
that coordinate. Then the locations of the horizontal coordinates of the remaining units in all
columns of strata are fixed by the selection of additional random numbers. So are the locations
of the vertical coordinates of the remaining units in all rows of strata. However, the interval of
each column and each row is determined like the aligned systematic sampling in fixing the
locations of all the points.
The detailed procedure is as follows: independently x random integers p11,p12,,pxy, are selected and each of them is less than or equal to r. And then y random integers p11,p12,,pxy, are
selected in the same manner such that each of them is less than or equal to z. Then the sample
units locate the coordinates: (p11+wr,q11+kz), (p12+wr,q12+kz), (p13+wr,q13+kz),,(p(w+1)(k+1) +
wr,q(w+1)(k+1)+kz); w=0,1,2,,(x1) and k=0,1,2,,(y1). One may note that this is a modified
unaligned systematic sampling.
Fig. 1(d) shows this systematic random sampling for N=9 when x=2, y=4, r=0.5, and z=0.25.
It is an example of coordinates of systematic random sampling in the case that the selected random
433
numbers are p11=0.1, p12=0.3, p13=0.2, p14=0.1, p21=0, p22=0.2, p23=0.1, p24=0, q11=0, q12=0.1,
q13=0.1, q14=0.05, q21=0, q22=0.1, q23=0.2 and q24=0.1 from the random table.
3.5. Preparation of software
Three computer programs were used to conduct the experimentation. The first software was
prepared to designate the location of sampling points on the workpiece according to each sampling
method using Matlab. A computer numerical control (CNC) program was then prepared to
operate the CMM according to the sampling strategy. The third set of software used to measure
the distance between each sample point for finding the shortest CMM probe path were the ones
developed by Soh [14].
4. Experimental procedure
Thirty sample plates were employed in experimentation of the efficient sampling strategies
while using the CMM for determination of accuracy of flatness. The selection of the number of
plates was made in accordance with the minimum requirement for the assumption of normal
distribution. Four kinds of sampling methods (the Hammersley sequence sampling, the Halton
Zaremba sequence sampling, the aligned systematic sampling, and the systematic random
sampling) and five kinds of sample sizes (4, 8, 16, 32 and 64) were used in this experiment. The
response variables evaluated were the accuracy of flatness and the shortest length of CMM probe
path. A two-factor factorial experiment was introduced. A different experiment was conducted
for each of the two response variables: one experimental and the other analytical. To develop
estimators for the parameters in the two-factor model (for accuracy), let yijk be the observed
response when factor A (sampling method) is at the ith level (i=1,2,3,4), factor B (sample size)
is at the jth level (j=1,2,,5) for the kth replicate (k=1,2,,30). The observations can be described
by the linear statistical model as:
yijkmtibj (tb)ij eijk
where m is the overall mean effect, ti is the effect of the ith level of the column factor A (sampling
method), bj is the effect of the jth level of the row factor B (sample size), (tb)ij is the effect of
the interaction between factors A and B and eijk is the random error component. k represents
replicates and there are a total of (4)(5)(30)=600 observations.
The accuracy of flatness was measured using a commercial CMM (Brown and Sharpe.
PFx454). The shortest length of the CMM probe path was computed using a program developed
by Soh [14]. While determining the shortest length of CMM probe path, only the XY plane was
considered. The detailed measurement procedure used is listed as follows:
1. The first step was to select randomly the replicates; the plate samples were numbered serially
from 1 to 30.
2. The coordinates of sample points on the plates were then generated. This step was to designate
the position of the sample points for measurement of flatness on the plate according to the
sampling strategy.
434
3. The sample plate was installed on the CMM worktable by fixing it with the clamping tool such
that the plate could not be moved. This was done to minimize the measurement error included
during measurement. Thus the measurement was initialised.
4. Actual measurement started with calibration, to teach the probe data to the CMM. After calibration of the CMM probe, the reference system was set up to teach the standard 3-dimensional
data to the CMM. Two data files were used in the CNC part program to measure the flatness
of the surface of a sample plate.
5. The CNC part program was written and run in the Matlab software to create the source files
adaptable for the program compiler of the CMM manufacturer. For covering the general sample
sizes and sampling methods, this procedure was repeated.
6. The accuracy data was collected from the CMM during measurement of flatness on each sample plate.
The CNC part programs were tailored for the appropriate combination of sample sizes and
sampling methods. A new sample plate was loaded on the worktable of the CMM after all
measurements on the previous plate were finished.
For computing the length of the shortest CMM probe path, computer simulation was used in
two dimensions (XY). The program code used was written by Soh [14]. The coordinates of measuring points on the plates were generated using the same procedure as described in the first experiment.
5. Results and discussion

5.1. Average discrepancy rate for accuracy of flatness
Flatness data was collected using the CMM on 30 sample plates. Accuracy of measurement
for each case was recorded and a discrepancy rate calculated based on the maximum achievable
accuracy of measurement. The average discrepancy rate (r) was computed as:
r
(ab)
100
a
(5)
where a is a value regarded as the highest achievable accuracy for a sample plate (large sample
size) and b is the actual data value obtained through the experiment for a specific sample size.
To obtain the value of a, regression analysis was employed. In this work, the most accurate value
of the flatness measurement of sample plates was assumed to be obtainable at a sample size of
300. This is an arbitrary assumption, based on the supposition that a very large sample size results
in the highest achievable accuracy. It was also assumed that beyond 300 the accuracy does not
increase further. The accuracy at a sample size of 300 was determined using extrapolation through
linear regression, based on data obtained from experimentation at the sample sizes specified above.
The corresponding discrepancy rate data for the 30 sample plates were calculated by using Eq.
(5). The average discrepancy rate shown in Table 1 has been averaged over the 30 sample plates.
The unconverted accuracy data of flatness for the 30 plates is shown in the Appendix.
435
Table 1
Average discrepancy rate for accuracy of flatness of 30 sample platesa
Sampling method
Hammersley sequence sampling

HaltonZaremba sequence sampling
Aligned systematic sampling
Systematic random sampling
Sub-total mean
a
Sample size
Sub-total mean
16
32
64
77.7
62.9
95.8
58.7
73.8
57.7
52.4
73.4
69.6
63.3
43.9
37.6
58.2
45.4
46.3
36.2
34.1
46.9
23.9
35.3
29.2
28.4
39.0
26.0
30.7
48.9
43.1
62.7
44.7
49.9
Unit: %.
5.2. Length data of CMM probe path

The length data of the CMM probe path was collected using computer simulation. After running
several algorithms, the shortest path among them was chosen for each combination of sampling
method and sample size. Table 2 shows the relative length rate for the CMM tool path. The
relative length rate (l) is the percentage ratio of the actual path to the longest path for each sample
size as:
n
l 100
m
(6)
where m is the longest path among the lengths of all the sample sizes and n is the length of the
actual path obtained through the experiment for a specific sample size. For example, while computing the relative length rate for the HaltonZaremba sequence sampling at a sample size of 32,
the length of the actual path for this was 16.99218 and the length of the longest path was 24.15501.
Therefore, the relative length rate (l) was computed by Eq. (6) as 70.3.
Table 2
Relative length rate for CMM tool path by sampling strategiesa
Sampling method

HaltonZaremba sequence sampling
Systematic random sampling
Sub-total mean
a
Unit: %.
Sample size
Sub-total mean
16
32
64
27.8
27.8
24.8
31.5
28.0
37.3
41.0
31.0
30.7
35.0
52.2
48.6
49.7
44.1
48.7
71.9
70.3
59.0
67.2
67.1
100.0
96.2
99.4
92.1
96.9
57.8
56.8
52.8
53.1
55.1
436
Table 3
ANOVA summary for all factors
Source of variation
Sum of squares
Degree of
freedom
Mean square
PrF
Sampling method
Sample size
Interaction
Error
Total
35619.05
161701.69
16234.31
38787.76
252342.81
3
4
12
580
599
11873.02
40425.42
1352.86
66.88
177.54
604.49
20.23
0.001
0.001
0.001
5.3. Analysis of the accuracy of flatness

A two-factor factorial, fixed effects model was used to analyse the gathered accuracy of flatness
for the sample plates. The two independent variables included in the model were sample size and
sampling method. The response variable was the accuracy of flatness. The ANOVA is presented
in Table 3. The statistical analysis system (SAS) was used to analyse the collected data. Table
3 shows that the main effects of accuracy of flatness were highly significant for all the independent variables.
Considering this table, one can conclude that there is a significant interaction between sample
size and sampling method because F0.05,12,350=1.75 from the table of the percentage points of the
F distribution. Moreover, the main effects of sample size and sampling method are also significant
because F0.05,3,580=2.60 and F0.05,3,580=2.37, respectively. A pictorial graph (Fig. 2) of the average
responses at each treatment combination is helpful in getting a better understanding of the individual effects of the model.
Fig. 2 shows a comparison of the average discrepancy rate by alternative sampling strategies.
The lack of parallelism of the lines indicates significant interaction. Generally, increased sample
size shows low discrepancy through all the sampling methods. From a sample size of 4 to a
Fig. 2. Comparison of average discrepancy rate by sampling strategies.
437
sample size of 8 and from a sample size of 32 to a sample size of 64, the discrepancy rate with
the systematic random sampling method increases, whereas that of the other sampling methods
decreases. The discrepancy rate of the HaltonZaremba sequence sampling is a little less than
that of the Hammersley sequence sampling. The HaltonZaremba sequence sampling gives better
results than the Hammersley sequence sampling for all sample sizes. But the systematic random
sampling gives the lowest discrepancy rate in the range of the sample sizes of 32 and 64. On
the other hand, the aligned systematic sampling shows the largest discrepancy rate through all
the sample sizes.
5.4. Analysis of the shortest length of CMM probe path
To help explain the results of the length of CMM probe path obtained through different sampling strategies, a graph (Fig. 3) of the average response at each treatment combination is useful.
The relative length rate was obtained by taking the percentage of the actual path to the longest
path and setting the longest path to 100. From the above graph, the aligned systematic sampling
method showed the shortest length at the sample sizes of 4 and 32. The Hammersley sequence
sampling showed the longest length at the sample sizes of 16, 32, and 64. Generally, the aligned
systematic sampling and the systematic random sampling method showed a shorter length than
the Hammersley or the HaltonZaremba sequence sampling.
5.5. Efficient sampling strategies
Accuracy is important during measurement to maintain a high level of quality. This accuracy
could usually be improved by increasing the sample size. But, increasing the number of sampled
points is time consuming, impacting the economy. Therefore, a trade-off must be established
between the objectives.
In recent literature, it has been shown that the accuracy could be increased by using more
efficient sampling sequences, at a given sample size. Thus, when the same sample size is used
Fig. 3.
Relative length rate of CMM probe path by sampling strategies.
438
for general measurement, it looks as though an efficient sampling method may be selected that
provides the highest accuracy. On the other hand, a manufactured product may not need a high
level of quality in all cases. In such cases, the most efficient sampling method would be one that
minimises the measuring time. Different sampling methods result in different lengths of CMM
probe path, even for a given sample size.
In this paper, a quantification of the trade-off was attempted for alternative path selection
through different sampling methods. A concept of a priority coefficient was developed, to determine the most efficient sampling method in the light of the two objectives. Hence, the sampling
efficiency (Et) was arbitrarily constructed as:
Et(100Ra)b(100Rp)(1b)
(7)
where Ra is the discrepancy rate of accuracy of flatness and Rp is the relative length rate of the
length of CMM probe path. b is the priority coefficient which indicates the priority of accuracy
versus length for path selection. This priority coefficient could be decided based on the quality
philosophy of the manufacturer. The sampling efficiency equation is arbitrarily selected to demonstrate the rationale for combining multiple factors in path planning. Hence, the simplest possible
combining equation that is intuitive is chosen (remember the weights assigned to each factor must
total to 1). Future research can concentrate on applying sturdier procedures such as the analytic
hierarchy process for determining (priority coefficients) weights for the equation. For example,
given a discrepancy rate of flatness of 77.7, the relative length rate of CMM probe path of 27.8,
and the priority coefficient of 0.8, the sampling efficiency could be obtained from Eq. (7) as
Et(10077.7)0.8(10027.8)(10.8)32.3
Table 4 shows the sampling efficiency computed as the result of the trade-off between the
accuracy of flatness and the length of CMM probe path according to a priority coefficient. Evaluating the sampling efficiency in terms of the sample size and the priority coefficient, it was observed
that a smaller sample size and a lower priority coefficient exhibited a higher sampling efficiency.
Also a larger sample size and a higher priority coefficient exhibited a higher sampling efficiency.
The total mean illustrated the total sampling efficiency by the trade-off between the average
accuracy of flatness and the average length of CMM probe path for all sample sizes.
Fig. 4(af) plots the sampling efficiency as a function of the trade-off between accuracy of
flatness and CMM probe path length, against both the priority coefficient and sample size. Fig.
4(a) shows that the efficiency of the systematic random sampling method at a sample size of 4
was highest at higher values of the priority coefficient, but had a lower value at the low ranges
of the priority coefficient. On the other hand, the efficiency of the aligned systematic sampling
method at a sample size of 4 was lowest at a higher range of the priority coefficient and highest
at lower ranges of the priority coefficient. Considering the mid-range of the priority coefficient
from 0.4 to 0.6, the HaltonZaremba sequence and the systematic random sampling methods at
a sample size of 4 exhibit the highest efficiency. Similar inferences may be made at other sample
sizes as shown in Table 4 and Fig. 4(be).
Fig. 4(f) shows the combined data for all sample sizes. For higher ranges of the priority coefficient, the HaltonZaremba sequence sampling and the systematic random sampling method provided the highest efficiency, and the aligned systematic sampling method had the lowest
439
Table 4
Sampling efficiency by the trade-off between the accuracy of flatness and the length of CMM probe path, according
to the priority coefficienta
Sample size
16
32
64
Total mean
Sampling method Priority coefficient
HM
HZ
AS
SR
HM
HZ
AS
SR
HM
HZ
AS
SR
HM
HZ
AS
SR
HM
HZ
AS
SR
HM
HZ
AS
SR
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
72.2
72.2
75.2
68.5
62.7
59.0
69.0
69.3
47.8
51.4
50.3
55.9
28.1
29.7
41.0
32.8
0
3.8
0.6
7.9
42.2
43.2
47.2
46.9
62.2
65.2
61.0
63.1
58.6
56.7
60.5
61.5
49.5
53.6
48.6
55.6
35.2
36.9
43.4
41.5
14.2
17.4
12.7
21.1
44.0
45.9
45.2
48.6
52.2
58.2
46.8
57.6
54.5
54.4
52.0
53.7
51.1
55.8
46.9
55.4
42.4
44.2
45.8
50.1
28.3
30.9
24.8
34.3
45.8
48.7
43.3
50.3
42.3
51.1
32.6
52.2
50.5
52.2
43.6
46.0
52.8
58.0
45.2
55.1
49.5
51.4
48.3
58.8
42.5
44.5
36.8
47.6
47.5
51.4
41.3
51.9
32.3
44.1
18.4
46.7
46.4
49.9
35.1
38.2
54.4
60.2
43.5
54.9
56.7
58.7
50.7
67.4
56.7
58.0
48.9
60.8
49.3
54.2
39.3
53.6
22.3
37.1
4.2
41.3
42.3
47.6
26.6
30.4
56.1
62.4
41.8
54.6
63.8
65.9
53.1
76.1
70.8
71.6
61.0
74.0
51.1
56.9
37.3
55.3
a
HM, Hammersley sequence sampling; HZ, HaltonZaremba sequence sampling; AS, aligned systematic sampling;
SR, systematic random sampling.
efficiency. At lower ranges of the priority coefficient, the sampling method that had the highest
efficiency was the aligned systematic and systematic random sampling method, while the Hammersley and the HaltonZaremba sequence sampling method had the lowest efficiency.
Considering that the mid-range of the priority coefficient was from 0.4 to 0.6, the systematic
random and the HaltonZaremba sequence sampling method resulted in the highest efficiency.
The selection of a path in CMM inspection must consider both accuracy and time. The sampling
path changes based on the method used and the sample size. This paper has thus shown that
significant interaction exists between each of the methods and sample sizes. Combining the two
objectives and setting a priority for each indicates that different methods are efficient at different
sizes and different priority coefficients. This paper represents the first attempt in the literature to
combine the interaction between the two factors. It is hence the recommendation to measurement
personnel to explore all methods, sample sizes, and their priorities while selecting a path during
inspection of tolerances using CMMs.
440
Fig. 4. Plot of sampling efficiency (trade-off between accuracy of flatness and CMM probe path length): (a) at the
sample size of 4; (b) at the sample size of 8; (c) at the sample size of 16; (d) at the sample size of 32; (e) at the
sample size of 64; and (f) at the sample size of total mean.
6. Discussion, conclusions and recommendations

Statistically analysing the data obtained through experimentation, the sampling method and the
sample size had a significant effect (a=0.05) on the accuracy of flatness of plates. Stated otherwise,
the accuracy of flatness is directly affected by the sampling method and sample size.
It was observed that, as the sample size increased, the discrepancy rate of flatness decreased
like a unimodal function through three kinds of sampling methods: the Hammersley sequence
sampling, the HaltonZaremba sequence sampling, and the aligned systematic sampling. The systematic random sampling method behaved in a somewhat irregular function. The irregularity in
the systematic random sampling method may have been caused by the random number generation
(no regular law) process.
For the total mean accuracy of flatness, it was seen that the HaltonZaremba sequence sampling
method was the most accurate at a mean discrepancy rate of 43.1. The systematic random sampling
method, with a mean discrepancy rate of 44.7, was also very accurate. On the other hand, the
aligned systematic sampling method was the worst in terms of accuracy with a mean discrepancy
rate of 62.7.
Evaluating the accuracy of flatness through the total sample size, the systematic random sam-
441
pling method showed the highest accuracy at a discrepancy rate of 23.9 at the sample size of 32.
The next most accurate method was also the systematic random sampling method with a discrepancy rate of 26.0 at the sample size of 64. The worst accuracy was seen with the aligned systematic
sampling method, with a discrepancy rate of 95.8 at a sample size of 4.
The aligned systematic sampling method showed the shortest length rate at the sample sizes
of 4 and 32. But the Hammersley sequence sampling method showed the longest length rate at
the sample sizes of 16, 32 and 64. In general, the aligned systematic and the systematic random
sampling method yielded paths shorter than the Hammersley and the HaltonZaremba sequence
sampling methods.
The most accurate sampling method may not always be the most efficient sampling method
during inspection of products. For example, in the case of mass-produced products that require
only a reasonable accuracy, it will be important to reduce time. Therefore, in this work a new
approach is suggested to find the efficient sampling method through a trade-off between the accuracy and the shortest CMM probe path in measurement.
The trade-off between the accuracy of flatness and the shortest CMM probe path was modelled
using a priority coefficient. The efficiency of a path can thus be evaluated in a proposed way that
integrates the accuracy and path length considerations.
The most efficient sampling method was varied according to the priority coefficient and the
sample size. The details are summarised in Table 5. Note that this table is derived purely based
on the observations during analysis.
Considering the total sampling efficiency, the HaltonZaremba sequence and the systematic
random method possessed the highest efficiency at the high range of the priority coefficient.
However, the aligned systematic and the systematic random sampling method had the highest
efficiency at the low range of the priority coefficient. At the mid-range of the priority coefficient,
the HaltonZaremba sequence and the systematic random sampling method possessed the highest efficiency.
This experiment was conducted using rectangular plates. So, the response variable was selected
as the accuracy of flatness measurement of the plate surface. In future studies, it is recommended
to use other shapes of samples such as spheres, cylinders, and cones and determine relevant
Table 5
Efficient sampling methodsa
Sample size
4
8
16
32
64
Total
a
Priority coefficient
Low accuracy priority
Mid accuracy priority
High accuracy priority
AS
AS or SR
SR
AS
SR
AS or SR
HZ
HZ
HZ
SR
SR
HZ
SR
HZ
HZ
SR
SR
HZ or SR
or SR
or HM
or SR
or SR
HM, Hammersley sequence sampling; HZ, HaltonZaremba sequence sampling; AS, aligned systematic sampling;
SR, systematic random sampling.
442
accuracies of sphericity, cylindricity and conicity, respectively. Also, this study was focused on
the smaller ranges of sample size to give a reference for practical measurement of manufactured
products in industry. So, it would be advisable for future researchers to increase the sample size
beyond 64 to investigate the behavior-relevant factors.
The development of the priority coefficient using sturdy decision analysis methods to integrate
accuracy with time (length) is another challenging work that must be researched in the future. A
more challenging task would be to design an integrated program which can detect the efficient
method and sampling size automatically and drive the CMM according to the requirement of the
accuracy specified and the time constraints of measurement.
Appendix A
Table A1
Table A1
Accuracy of flatness for thirty sample plates
Sample sizea
Sampling method

Halton-Zaremba sequence sampling
Unaligned systematic sampling
a
Mean
Std. dev
Mean
Std. dev
Mean
Std. dev
Mean
Std. dev
16
32
64
0.000382
0.000162
0.000646
0.000167
0.000074
0.000054
0.000711
0.000246
0.000722
0.000184
0.000820
0.000175
0.000455
0.000200
0.000517
0.000116
0.000970
0.000228
0.001078
0.000227
0.000719
0.000156
0.000934
0.000201
0.001098
0.000206
0.001134
0.000212
0.000911
0.000182
0.001309
0.000256
0.001215
0.000215
0.001230
0.000222
0.001048
0.000201
0.001270
0.000222
Unit: inch.
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International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 40 (2000) 427443

On the selection of flatness measurement points in

School of Industrial Engineering, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK 73019, USA

3.2. HaltonZaremba sequence sampling

5. Results and discussion

Hammersley sequence sampling

5.2. Length data of CMM probe path

Hammersley sequence sampling

5.3. Analysis of the accuracy of flatness

Fig. 2. Comparison of average discrepancy rate by sampling strategies.

Relative length rate of CMM probe path by sampling strategies.

Sampling method Priority coefficient

6. Discussion, conclusions and recommendations

Mid accuracy priority

High accuracy priority

Hammersley sequence sampling

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