EXPERIMENT 1: GASES EXCHANGE IN ANIMALS

OBJECTIVE
To relate the effect of various factors on the human pulse rate.
INTRODUCTION
Gas exchange is the process by which oxygen and carbon dioxide (the respiratory
gases) move in opposite directions across an organism's respiratory membranes, b
etween the air or water of the external environment and the body fluids of the i
nternal environment. Oxygen is needed by cells to extract energy from organic mo
lecules, such as sugars, fatty acids, and amino acids. Carbon dioxide is produce
d in the process and must be disposed.
The random movement of molecules is called diffusion. Although individual molecu
les move randomly, a substance can have directed movement, or net diffusion. The
net diffusion of a substance occurs because of a difference in its concentratio
n, or gradient , along its course. Within an animal's body as oxygen is used up
and carbon dioxide produced, the concentration gradient of the two gases provide
s the direction for their diffusion. For example, as air or water nears the resp
iratory membrane, the oxygen concentration on the outside of the membrane is hig
her than on the internal side so oxygen diffuses inward. The concentration gradi
ent for carbon dioxide is in the opposite direction, and so net diffusion of car
bon dioxide keeps it diffusing out of the body.
The solubility of the respiratory gases in water is low, and the solubility of o
xygen is only about one-twentieth that of carbon dioxide. Special transport mole
cules within body fluids increase the oxygen content by holding oxygen molecules
within circulating fluids. These molecules are called respiratory pigments and
include hemoglobin , which is red, and hemocyanin, which is blue. These molecule
s combine with oxygen at the respiratory membrane, where oxygen concentrations a
re relatively high and easily release the oxygen in deeper tissues, which are lo
w in oxygen.
Animals with small bodies exchange respiratory gases sufficiently through the bo
dy surface without specialized respiratory membranes. Even some vertebrates, suc
h as small, slender salamanders, exchange respiratory gases solely across the sk
in, which is richly supplied with blood vessels. Larger animals require an exten
ded surface for gas exchange. This specialized respiratory membrane is often fol
ded to increase its surface area without occupying excessive space. For most fis
h, many aquatic invertebrates, and some terrestrial invertebrates the specialize
d respiratory organs are the gills. In crustaceans, gills are often found where
the legs attach to the body; moving the legs sweeps water across the gill surfac
es. In fish and some mollusks, gills are ventilated by muscular contractions tha
t pump water across the respiratory surface.
Terrestrial animals must protect their respiratory membranes from drying out. Ma
ny spiders have book lungs, which are specialized, leaf-shaped, inward folds of
the cuticle, surrounded by an air chamber that can be ventilated with muscular c
ontractions. In larger terrestrial insects, the respiratory organs are inward, b
ranching, tubular extensions of the body wall called tracheae. The system is so
extensive that most cells are in close proximity to a tracheal branch and the ti
ssues do not depend on blood circulation for gas transport.
Terrestrial vertebrates generally have lungs. The surface area for gas exchange
is correlated with metabolic rate. Endotherms, such as birds and mammals, have a
high metabolic rate and a correspondingly high respiratory surface area. Birds
have one-way flow through their lungs, enabled by a complex system of air-storin
g sacs. Since fresh air is always flowing through the lung, the oxygen concentra
tion can be maintained at a constant, high level.

Mammals, reptiles, and amphibians have saclike lungs with tidal (two way) air fl
ow. This results in residual air remaining in the lungs, reducing the concentrat
ion of available oxygen in comparison to bird lungs. Reptile lungs have fewer ai
r sacs and less respiratory surface area than mammals, and amphibian lungs have
less surface area than reptilian lungs.
MATERIALS
1. Stop watch
2. Stethoscope
3. Stool, 45 cm high
4. Facilities for taking vigorous exercise, e.g. running track or field for perf
orming 100 metre sprint
PROCEDURE
A. Effect of Posture on The Pulse Rate
1. The subject was lie down for five (5) mintutes after which his or her pulse r
ate determined.
2. The subject then stood up for a further three (3) minutes after which the pul
se rate was taken. The difference between the two readings was explained in the
dicussion.
B. Effect of Hyperventilation on Pulse Rate
1. In this experiment, the continuous readings of the subject's pulse over a per
iod of seven (7) minutes was obtained. The number of pulses every fifteen (15) s
econds was counted and was converted these to pulses per minute afterwards.
2. The subject was seated and as relaxed as possible, the partner has taken the
subject's pulse rate continuously for two (2) minutes.
3. The subject then has engaged in forced deep breathing for 30 seconds; as deep
ly and frequently as possible, but with the minimum of muscular effort to the bo
dy as a whole.
4. The subject then breathed normally for further five (5) minutes during which
the partner recorded his pulse rate every fifteen (15) seconds.
C. Effect of Exercise on Pulse Rate
1. The subject has engaged in a standard bout of exercise as follows: step onto
a stool of 45 cm high and then down again, once every three (3) seconds, thus ta
king (15) seconds in all.
2. Immediately after the exercise, the partner was measured the subject's pulse
rate at 10 second intervals until it returns to the normal standing rate.
3. A graph of results was plotted, putting pulse rate on the vertical axis, and
time on the horizontal axis.
4. Repeated after a much heavier bout of exercise, e.g. performing a 100-metre s
print. The result with the previous exercise was repeated and compared.
CONCLUSION
We successfully related the effect of various factors on the human pulse rate. W
e also successfully determine the pulse rate in the Effect of Posture on The Pul
se Rate, Effect of Hyperventilation on Pulse Rate and Effect of Exercise on Pul
se Rate. Through this experiment, we learn that the vigorous exercise can increa
ses the breathing and the heartbeat rates. The increase in heartbeat rate helps
the blood to deliver more oxygen and glucose to the respiring cells. At the same
time, carbon dioxide is removed from cells at a faster rate.
REFERENCES
1. http://www.biologyreference.com/Fo-Gr/Gas-Exchange.html
2. http://www.livestrong.com/article/307646-posture-heart-rate/

2. Gan Wan Yeat, Success Biology SPM, 2013, Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd.