Ethnic group

Ethnicity and Peoples redirect here. For other uses, acculturation, adoption and religious conversion, it is possee Ethnicity (disambiguation) and Peoples (disambigua- sible for some individuals or groups to leave one ethtion).
nic group and become part of another (except for ethnic groups emphasizing racial purity as a key membership
criterion).
An ethnic group or ethnicity is a socially dened category of people who identify with each other based Ethnicity is often used synonymously with ambiguous
on common ancestral, social, cultural or national terms such as nation or people.
experience.[1][2] Membership of an ethnic group tends
to be dened by a shared cultural heritage, ancestry,
origin myth, history, homeland, language and/or dialect,
symbolic systems such as religion, mythology and ritual, 1 Terminology
cuisine, dressing style, physical appearance, etc.
The term ethnic is derived from the Greek word
ethnos (more precisely, from the adjective ethnikos,[3] which was loaned into Latin as ethnicus). The
inherited English-language term for this concept is folk,
used alongside the latinate people since the late Middle
English period.

The largest ethnic groups in modern times comprise hundreds of millions of individuals (Han Chinese being the
largest), while the smallest are limited to a few dozen
individuals (numerous indigenous peoples worldwide).
Larger ethnic groups may be subdivided into smaller subgroups known variously as tribes or clans, which over
time may become separate ethnic groups themselves due
to endogamy and/or physical isolation from the parent
group. Conversely, formerly separate ethnicities can
merge to form a pan-ethnicity, and may eventually merge
into one single ethnicity. Whether through division or
amalgamation, the formation of a separate ethnic identity is referred to as ethnogenesis.

In Early Modern English and until the mid 19th century,

ethnic was used to mean heathen or pagan (in the sense
of disparate nations which did not yet participate in the
Christian oikumene), as the Septuagint used ta ethne (the
nations) to translate the Hebrew goyim the nations, nonHebrews, non-Jews.[4] The Greek term in early antiquity (Homeric Greek) could refer to any large group, a
host of men, a band of comrades as well as a swarm
or ock of animals. In Classical Greek, the term took
on a meaning comparable to the concept now expressed
by ethnic group, mostly translated as "nation, people";
only in Hellenistic Greek did the term tend to become
further narrowed to refer to foreign or "barbarous" nations in particular (whence the later meaning heathen,
pagan).[5]

Depending on which source of group identity is emphasized to dene membership, the following types of ethnic
groups can be identied:
Ethno-racial, emphasizing shared physical appearance based on genetic origins;
Ethno-religious, emphasizing shared aliation with
a particular religion, denomination and/or sect;

In the 19th century, the term came to be used in the sense

of peculiar to a race, people or nation, in a return to the
original Greek meaning. The sense of dierent cultural
groups, and in US English racial, cultural or national
minority group arises in the 1930s to 1940s,[6] serving
as a replacement of the term race which had earlier taken
this sense but was now becoming deprecated due to its
association with ideological racism. The abstract ethnicity had been used for paganism in the 18th century, but
now came to express the meaning of an ethnic character (rst recorded 1953). The term ethnic group was rst
recorded in 1935 and entered the Oxford English Dictionary in 1972.[7] The term nationality depending on context may either be used synonymously with ethnicity, or
synonymously with citizenship (in a sovereign state). The
process that results in the emergence of an ethnicity is

Ethno-linguistic, emphasizing shared language, dialect and/or script;

Ethno-national, emphasizing a shared polity and/or
sense of national identity;
Ethno-regional, emphasizing a distinct local sense of
belonging stemming from relative geographic isolation.
In many cases for instance, the sense of Jewish peoplehood more than one aspect determines membership.
Ethnic groups derived from the same historical founder
population often continue to speak related languages and
share a similar gene pool. By way of language shift,
1

called ethnogenesis, a term in use in ethnological literature since about 1950.

Denitions and conceptual history

Ethnography begins in classical antiquity; after early

authors like Anaximander and Hecataeus of Miletus,
Herodotus in ca. 480 BC laid the foundation of both
historiography and ethnography of the ancient world.
The Greeks at this time did not describe foreign nations
but had also developed a concept of their own ethnicity, which they grouped under the name of Hellenes.
Herodotus (8.144.2) gave a famous account of what dened Greek (Hellenic) ethnic identity in his day, enumerating

DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTUAL HISTORY

The second debate is between "constructivism" and

"essentialism". Constructivists view national and
ethnic identities as the product of historical forces,
often recent, even when the identities are presented
as old.[21][22] Essentialists view such identities as
ontological categories dening social actors, and not
the result of social action.[23][24]
According to Eriksen, these debates have been superseded, especially in anthropology, by scholars attempts
to respond to increasingly politicised forms of selfrepresentation by members of dierent ethnic groups and
nations. This is in the context of debates over multiculturalism in countries, such as the United States and Canada,
which have large immigrant populations from many different cultures, and post-colonialism in the Caribbean and
South Asia.[25]

Max Weber maintained that ethnic groups were knstlich (articial, i.e. a social construct) because they were
1. shared descent ( - homaimon, of the same
based on a subjective belief in shared Gemeinschaft (comblood),[8]
munity). Secondly, this belief in shared Gemeinschaft
2. shared language ( - homoglsson, did not create the group; the group created the belief.
Third, group formation resulted from the drive to mospeaking the same language)[9]
nopolise power and status. This was contrary to the
3. shared sanctuaries and sacrices (Greek: prevailing naturalist belief of the time, which held that
- then hidrumata socio-cultural and behavioral dierences between peote koina kai thusiai)[10]
ples stemmed from inherited traits and tendencies derived
[26]
4. shared customs (Greek: - thea ho- from common descent, then called race.
motropa, customs of like fashion).[11][12][13]
Another inuential theoretician of ethnicity was Fredrik
Barth, whose Ethnic Groups and Boundaries from 1969
Whether ethnicity qualies as a cultural universal is to has been described as instrumental in spreading the usage
some extent dependent on the exact denition used. Ac- of the term in social studies in the 1980s and 1990s.[27]
cording to Challenges of Measuring an Ethnic World: Barth went further than Weber in stressing the conScience, politics, and reality,[14] Ethnicity is a funda- structed nature of ethnicity. To Barth, ethnicity was
mental factor in human life: it is a phenomenon inherent perpetually negotiated and renegotiated by both external
in human experience.[15] Many social scientists, such as ascription and internal self-identication. Barths view
anthropologists Fredrik Barth and Eric Wolf, do not con- is that ethnic groups are not discontinuous cultural isosider ethnic identity to be universal. They regard ethnic- lates, or logical a prioris to which people naturally beity as a product of specic kinds of inter-group interac- long. He wanted to part with anthropological notions of
tions, rather than an essential quality inherent to human cultures as bounded entities, and ethnicity as primordialist bonds, replacing it with a focus on the interface begroups.[16]
tween groups. Ethnic Groups and Boundaries, thereAccording to Thomas Hylland Eriksen, the study of ethfore, is a focus on the interconnectedness of ethnic idennicity was dominated by two distinct debates until retities. Barth writes: "... categorical ethnic distinctions
cently.
do not depend on an absence of mobility, contact and
information, but do entail social processes of exclusion
One
is
between
"primordialism"
and
and incorporation whereby discrete categories are mainIn the primordialist view,
"instrumentalism".
tained despite changing participation and membership in
the participant perceives ethnic ties collectively, as
the course of individual life histories.
an externally given, even coercive, social bond.[17]
The instrumentalist approach, on the other hand, In 1978, anthropologist Ronald Cohen claimed that the
treats ethnicity primarily as an ad-hoc element identication of ethnic groups in the usage of social sciof a political strategy, used as a resource for entists often reected inaccurate labels more than indigeinterest groups for achieving secondary goals such nous realities:
as, for instance, an increase in wealth, power or
... the named ethnic identities we accept,
status.[18][19] This debate is still an important point
of reference in Political science, although most
often unthinkingly, as basic givens in the literscholars approaches fall between the two poles.[20]
ature are often arbitrarily, or even worse inac-

2.1

Approaches to understanding ethnicity

curately, imposed.[27]

In this way, he pointed to the fact that identication of

an ethnic group by outsiders, e.g. anthropologists, may
not coincide with the self-identication of the members
of that group. He also described that in the rst decades
of usage, the term ethnicity had often been used in lieu of
older terms such as cultural or tribal when referring
to smaller groups with shared cultural systems and shared
heritage, but that ethnicity had the added value of being able to describe the commonalities between systems
of group identity in both tribal and modern societies. Cohen also suggested that claims concerning ethnic identity (like earlier claims concerning tribal identity) are
often colonialist practices and eects of the relations between colonized peoples and nation-states.[27]
According to Paul James, formations of identity were often changed and distorted by colonization, but identities
are not made out of nothing:
Social scientists have thus focused on how, when, and
why dierent markers of ethnic identity become salient.
Thus, anthropologist Joan Vincent observed that ethnic
boundaries often have a mercurial character.[29] Ronald
Cohen concluded that ethnicity is a series of nesting
dichotomizations of inclusiveness and exclusiveness.[27]
He agrees with Joan Vincents observation that (in Cohens paraphrase) Ethnicity ... can be narrowed or
broadened in boundary terms in relation to the specic
needs of political mobilization.[27] This may be why descent is sometimes a marker of ethnicity, and sometimes
not: which diacritic of ethnicity is salient depends on
whether people are scaling ethnic boundaries up or down,
and whether they are scaling them up or down depends
generally on the political situation.

2.1

Approaches to understanding ethnicity

Dierent approaches to understanding ethnicity have

been used by dierent social scientists when trying to understand the nature of ethnicity as a factor in human life
and society. Examples of such approaches are: primordialism, essentialism, perennialism, constructivism, modernism and instrumentalism.
"Primordialism", holds that ethnicity has existed at
all times of human history and that modern ethnic
groups have historical continuity into the far past.
For them, the idea of ethnicity is closely linked to
the idea of nations and is rooted in the pre-Weber
understanding of humanity as being divided into primordially existing groups rooted by kinship and biological heritage.
"Essentialist primordialism" further holds that
ethnicity is an a priori fact of human existence,
that ethnicity precedes any human social interaction and that it is basically unchanged by it.

3
This theory sees ethnic groups as natural, not
just as historical. It also has problems dealing
with the consequences of intermarriage, migration and colonization for the composition
of modern day multi-ethnic societies.[30]
"Kinship primordialism" holds that ethnic
communities are extensions of kinship units,
basically being derived by kinship or clan
ties where the choices of cultural signs (language, religion, traditions) are made exactly to
show this biological anity. In this way, the
myths of common biological ancestry that are
a dening feature of ethnic communities are to
be understood as representing actual biological history. A problem with this view on ethnicity is that it is more often than not the case
that mythic origins of specic ethnic groups
directly contradict the known biological history of an ethnic community.[30]
"Geertzs primordialism", notably espoused by
anthropologist Cliord Geertz, argues that humans in general attribute an overwhelming
power to primordial human givens such as
blood ties, language, territory, and cultural differences. In Geertz' opinion, ethnicity is not
in itself primordial but humans perceive it as
such because it is embedded in their experience of the world.[30]
"Perennialism", an approach that is primarily concerned with nationhood but tends to see nations
and ethnic communities as basically the same phenomenon, holds that the nation, as a type of social and political organisation, is of an immemorial or perennial character.[31] Smith (1999) distinguishes two variants: continuous perennialism,
which claims that particular nations have existed for
very long spans of time, and recurrent perennialism, which focuses on the emergence, dissolution
and reappearance of nations as a recurring aspect of
human history.[32]
"Perpetual perennialism" holds that specic
ethnic groups have existed continuously
throughout history.
"Situational perennialism" holds that nations
and ethnic groups emerge, change and vanish through the course of history. This view
holds that the concept of ethnicity is basically
a tool used by political groups to manipulate
resources such as wealth, power, territory or
status in their particular groups interests. Accordingly, ethnicity emerges when it is relevant as means of furthering emergent collective interests and changes according to political changes in the society. Examples of a
perennialist interpretation of ethnicity are also
found in Barth, and Seidner who see ethnicity

3
as ever-changing boundaries between groups
of people established through ongoing social
negotiation and interaction.
"Instrumentalist perennialism", while seeing
ethnicity primarily as a versatile tool that
identied dierent ethnics groups and limits
through time, explains ethnicity as a mechanism of social stratication, meaning that
ethnicity is the basis for a hierarchical arrangement of individuals. According to Donald Noel, a sociologist who developed a theory on the origin of ethnic stratication, ethnic stratication is a system of stratication
wherein some relatively xed group membership (e.g., race, religion, or nationality) is utilized as a major criterion for assigning social positions.[33] Ethnic stratication is one
of many dierent types of social stratication, including stratication based on socioeconomic status, race, or gender. According to
Donald Noel, ethnic stratication will emerge
only when specic ethnic groups are brought
into contact with one another, and only when
those groups are characterized by a high degree of ethnocentrism, competition, and differential power. Ethnocentrism is the tendency
to look at the world primarily from the perspective of ones own culture, and to downgrade all other groups outside ones own culture. Some sociologists, such as Lawrence
Bobo and Vincent Hutchings, say the origin
of ethnic stratication lies in individual dispositions of ethnic prejudice, which relates
to the theory of ethnocentrism.[34] Continuing
with Noels theory, some degree of dierential power must be present for the emergence
of ethnic stratication. In other words, an inequality of power among ethnic groups means
they are of such unequal power that one is
able to impose its will upon another.[33] In addition to dierential power, a degree of competition structured along ethnic lines is a prerequisite to ethnic stratication as well. The
dierent ethnic groups must be competing for
some common goal, such as power or inuence, or a material interest, such as wealth or
territory. Lawrence Bobo and Vincent Hutchings propose that competition is driven by selfinterest and hostility, and results in inevitable
stratication and conict.[34]
"Constructivism" sees both primordialist and perennialist views as basically awed,[34] and rejects the
notion of ethnicity as a basic human condition. It
holds that ethnic groups are only products of human
social interaction, maintained only in so far as they
are maintained as valid social constructs in societies.
"Modernist constructivism" correlates the

ETHNICITY AND NATIONALITY

emergence of ethnicity with the movement

towards nationstates beginning in the early
modern period.[35] Proponents of this theory, such as Eric Hobsbawm, argue that
ethnicity and notions of ethnic pride, such as
nationalism, are purely modern inventions,
appearing only in the modern period of world
history. They hold that prior to this, ethnic
homogeneity was not considered an ideal or
necessary factor in the forging of large-scale
societies.
Ethnicity is an important means by which people may
identify with a larger group. Many social scientists, such
as anthropologists Fredrik Barth and Eric Wolf, do not
consider ethnic identity to be universal. They regard ethnicity as a product of specic kinds of inter-group interactions, rather than an essential quality inherent to human groups.[16] Processes that result in the emergence of
such identication are called ethnogenesis. Members of
an ethnic group, on the whole, claim cultural continuities
over time, although historians and cultural anthropologists have documented that many of the values, practices,
and norms that imply continuity with the past are of relatively recent invention.[36]
Ethnic groups dier from other social groups, such as
subcultures, interest groups or social classes, because they
emerge and change over historical periods (centuries) in a
process known as ethnogenesis, a period of several generations of endogamy resulting in common ancestry (which
is then sometimes cast in terms of a mythological narrative of a founding gure); ethnic identity is reinforced
by reference to boundary markers - characteristics said
to be unique to the group which set it apart from other
groups.[37][38][39][40][41]

3 Ethnicity and nationality

Further information: Nation state and minority group
In some cases, especially involving transnational migration, or colonial expansion, ethnicity is linked to nationality. Anthropologists and historians, following the modernist understanding of ethnicity as proposed by Ernest
Gellner[42] and Benedict Anderson[43] see nations and
nationalism as developing with the rise of the modern
state system in the 17th century. They culminated in the
rise of nation-states in which the presumptive boundaries of the nation coincided (or ideally coincided) with
state boundaries. Thus, in the West, the notion of ethnicity, like race and nation, developed in the context
of European colonial expansion, when mercantilism and
capitalism were promoting global movements of populations at the same time that state boundaries were being more clearly and rigidly dened. In the 19th century, modern states generally sought legitimacy through

5
their claim to represent nations. Nation-states, however,
invariably include populations that have been excluded
from national life for one reason or another. Members
of excluded groups, consequently, will either demand inclusion on the basis of equality, or seek autonomy, sometimes even to the extent of complete political separation
in their own nation-state.[44] Under these conditions
when people moved from one state to another,[45] or one
state conquered or colonized peoples beyond its national
boundariesethnic groups were formed by people who
identied with one nation, but lived in another state.
Multi-ethnic states can be the result of two opposite
events, either the recent creation of state borders at
variance with traditional tribal territories, or the recent
immigration of ethnic minorities into a former nation
state. Examples for the rst case are found throughout
Africa, where countries created during decolonisation inherited arbitrary colonial borders, but also in European
countries such as Belgium or United Kingdom. Examples for the second case are countries such as Germany
or the Netherlands, which were ethnically homogenous
when they attained statehood but have received significant immigration during the second half of the 20th
century. States such as the United Kingdom, France
and Switzerland comprised distinct ethnic groups from
their formation and have likewise experienced substantial immigration, resulting in what has been termed
"multicultural" societies especially in large cities.

political use. It is assumed that, based on power relations,

there exist 'racialized ethnicities and 'ethnicized races.
Ramn Grosfoguel (University of California, Berkeley)
notes that 'racial/ethnic identity' is one concept and that
concepts of race and ethnicity cannot be used as separate
and autonomous categories.[49]
Before Weber, race and ethnicity were often seen as
two aspects of the same thing. Around 1900 and before, the essentialist primordialist understanding of ethnicity was predominant: cultural dierences between
peoples were seen as being the result of inherited traits
and tendencies.[50] This was the time when sciences
such as phrenology claimed to be able to correlate cultural and behavioral traits of dierent populations with
their outward physical characteristics, such as the shape
of the skull. With Webers introduction of ethnicity as
a social construct, race and ethnicity were divided from
each other. A social belief in biologically well-dened
races lingered on.

In 1950, the UNESCO statement, "The Race Question", signed by some of the internationally renowned
scholars of the time (including Ashley Montagu, Claude
Lvi-Strauss, Gunnar Myrdal, Julian Huxley, etc.), suggested that: National, religious, geographic, linguistic
and cultural groups do not necessarily coincide with racial
groups: and the cultural traits of such groups have no
demonstrated genetic connection with racial traits. Because serious errors of this kind are habitually committed
The states of the New World were multi-ethnic from the when the term 'race' is used in popular parlance, it would
onset, as they were formed as colonies imposed on exist- be better when speaking of human races to drop the term
'race' altogether and speak of 'ethnic groups.[51]
ing indigenous populations.
In recent decades feminist scholars (most notably Nira
Yuval-Davis),[46] have drawn attention to the fundamental ways in which women participate in the creation and
reproduction of ethnic and national categories. Though
these categories are usually discussed as belonging to the
public, political sphere, they are upheld within the private, family sphere to a great extent.[47] It is here that
women act not just as biological reproducers but also
as 'cultural carriers, transmitting knowledge and enforcing behaviours that belong to a specic collectivity.[48]
Women also often play a signicant symbolic role in conceptions of nation or ethnicity, for example in the notion
that 'women and children' constitute the kernel of a nation
which must be defended in times of conict, or in iconic
gures such as Brittania or Marianne.

Ethnicity and race

The distinction between race and ethnicity is considered

highly problematic. Ethnicity is often assumed to be the
cultural identity of a group, often based on language and
tradition, while race is assumed to be a biological classication, based on DNA and bone structure. Race is a more
controversial subject than ethnicity, due to its common

In 1982 anthropologist David Craig Grith summed up

forty years of ethnographic research, arguing that racial
and ethnic categories are symbolic markers for dierent
ways that people from dierent parts of the world have
been incorporated into a global economy:
The opposing interests that divide the working
classes are further reinforced through appeals
to racial and ethnic distinctions. Such appeals serve to allocate dierent categories of
workers to rungs on the scale of labor markets, relegating stigmatized populations to the
lower levels and insulating the higher echelons
from competition from below. Capitalism did
not create all the distinctions of ethnicity and
race that function to set o categories of workers from one another. It is, nevertheless, the
process of labor mobilization under capitalism
that imparts to these distinctions their eective
values.[52]
According to Wolf, races were constructed and incorporated during the period of European mercantile expansion, and ethnic groups during the period of capitalist
expansion.[53]
Writing about the usage of the term ethnic in the ordi-

6 ETHNIC GROUPS BY CONTINENT

nary language of Great Britain and the United States, in dissolution of the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian Em1977 Wallman noted that
pires, as well as those arising out of the former USSR, is
marked by inter-ethnic conicts. Such conicts usually
occur within multi-ethnic states, as opposed to between
The term 'ethnic' popularly connotes '[race]' in
them, as in other regions of the world. Thus, the conicts
Britain, only less precisely, and with a lighter
are often misleadingly labelled and characterized as civil
value load. In North America, by contrast,
wars when they are inter-ethnic conicts in a multi-ethnic
'[race]' most commonly means color, and 'ethstate.
nics are the descendants of relatively recent
immigrants from non-English-speaking countries. '[Ethnic]' is not a noun in Britain. In effect there are no 'ethnics; there are only 'ethnic
6 Ethnic groups by continent
relations.[54]

6.1 Africa

In the U.S., the OMB denes the concept of race as outlined for the US Census as not scientic or anthropolog- Main article: Ethnic groups in Africa
ical and takes into account social and cultural characteristics as well as ancestry, using appropriate scientic
methodologies that are not primarily biological or ge- Ethnic groups in Africa number in the hundreds, each
generally having its own language (or dialect of a lannetic in reference.[55]
guage) and culture.

Ethno-national conict

Further information: Ethnic conict

Sometimes ethnic groups are subject to prejudicial attitudes and actions by the state or its constituents. In the
20th century, people began to argue that conicts among
ethnic groups or between members of an ethnic group and
the state can and should be resolved in one of two ways.
Some, like Jrgen Habermas and Bruce Barry, have argued that the legitimacy of modern states must be based
on a notion of political rights of autonomous individual
subjects. According to this view, the state should not acknowledge ethnic, national or racial identity but rather
instead enforce political and legal equality of all individuals. Others, like Charles Taylor and Will Kymlicka, argue that the notion of the autonomous individual is itself
a cultural construct. According to this view, states must
recognize ethnic identity and develop processes through
which the particular needs of ethnic groups can be accommodated within the boundaries of the nation-state.

Many ethnic groups and nations of Africa qualify, although some groups are of a size larger than a tribal society. These mostly originate with the Sahelian kingdoms
of the medieval period, such as that of the Akan, deriving from Bonoman (11th century) then the Kingdom of
Ashanti (17th century).[56]

6.2 Asia
Main article: Ethnic groups in Asia

There are an abundance of ethnic groups throughout Asia,

with adaptations to the climate zones of Asia, which can
be Arctic, subarctic, temperate, subtropical or tropical.
The ethnic groups have adapted to mountains, deserts,
grasslands, and forests. On the coasts of Asia, the ethnic groups have adopted various methods of harvest and
transport. Some groups are primarily hunter-gatherers,
some practice transhumance (nomadic lifestyle), others
have been agrarian/rural for millennia and others becoming industrial/urban. Some groups/countries of Asia are
completely urban (Hong Kong and Singapore). The colThe 19th century saw the development of the political onization of Asia was largely ended in the 20th cenideology of ethnic nationalism, when the concept of race tury, with national drives for independence and selfwas tied to nationalism, rst by German theorists includ- determination across the continent.
ing Johann Gottfried von Herder. Instances of societies
focusing on ethnic ties, arguably to the exclusion of history or historical context, have resulted in the justica- 6.3 Europe
tion of nationalist goals. Two periods frequently cited as
examples of this are the 19th century consolidation and Main article: Ethnic groups in Europe
expansion of the German Empire and the 20th century Europe has a large number of ethnic groups; Pan and
Nazi Germany. Each promoted the pan-ethnic idea that Pfeil (2004) count 87 distinct peoples of Europe, of
these governments were only acquiring lands that had al- which 33 form the majority population in at least one
ways been inhabited by ethnic Germans. The history of sovereign state, while the remaining 54 constitute ethnic
late-comers to the nation-state model, such as those aris- minorities within every state they inhabit (although they
ing in the Near East and south-eastern Europe out of the may form local regional majorities within a sub-national

7
Ethnic penalty
Ethnicity and health
Ethnocentrism
Ethnocultural empathy
Ethnogenesis
Genealogy
Genetic genealogy
Some European ethnic groups, such as Basque people, do not
constitute a majority in any one country.[57]

entity). The total number of national minority populations in Europe is estimated at 105 million people, or 14%
of 770 million Europeans.[58]

Human Genome Diversity Project (HGDP)

Identity politics
Ingroups and outgroups
Intersectionality

A number of European countries, including France,[59]

and Switzerland do not collect information on the ethnicity of their resident population.

Kinship and Descent

Russia has over 185 recognized ethnic groups besides the

80% ethnic Russian majority. The largest group are the
Tatars 3.8%. Many of the smaller groups are found in the
Asian part of Russia (see Indigenous peoples of Siberia).

List of indigenous peoples

List of ethnic groups

List of modern ethnic groups

List of stateless ethnic groups

6.4

North America

Main articles: Ethnic origins of people in Canada, Ethnic

groups in Central America, Demographics of Mexico
and Ethnic groups in the United States

Meta-ethnicity
Minority group
Multiculturalism
Nation

6.5

South America

Main article: Ethnic groups in South America

National symbol
Passing (ethnic group)
Polyethnicity

See also
Ancestry
Clan
Diaspora
Ethnic autonomous regions

Population genetics
Race (classication of human beings)
Race and ethnicity in censuses
Race and ethnicity in the United States Census
Stateless nation

Ethnic cleansing

Transethnic

Ethnic ag

Tribe

Ethnic nationalism

Y-chromosome haplogroups by populations

References

[1] ethnicity: denition of ethnicity. Oxford Dictionaries.

Oxford University Press. Retrieved 28 December 2013.
[2] People, James; Bailey, Garrick (2010). Humanity: An Introduction to Cultural Anthropology (9th ed.). Wadsworth
Cengage learning. p. 389. In essence, an ethnic group is
a named social category of people based on perceptions
of shared social experience or ancestry. Members of the
ethnic group see themselves as sharing cultural traditions
and history that distinguish them from other groups. Ethnic group identity has a strong psychological or emotional
component that divides the people of the world into opposing categories of us and them. In contrast to social
stratication, which divides and unies people along a series of horizontal axes on the basis of socioeconomic factors, ethnic identities divide and unify people along a series of vertical axes. Thus, ethnic groups, at least theoretically, cut across socioeconomic class dierences, drawing
members from all strata of the population.
[3] , Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A GreekEnglish Lexicon, on Perseus
[4] ThiE. Tonkin, M. McDonald and M. Chapman, History
and Ethnicity (London 1989), pp. 1117 (quoted in J.
Hutchinson & A.D. Smith (eds.), Oxford readers: Ethnicity (Oxford 1996), pp. 1824)
[5] , Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A GreekEnglish Lexicon, on Perseus
[6] Oxford English Dictionary Second edition, online version
as of 2008-01-12, ethnic, a. and n.. Cites Sir Daniel
Wilson, The archology and prehistoric annals of Scotland 1851' (1863) and Huxley & Haddon (1935), We Europeans, pp. 136,181
[7] Cohen, Ronald. (1978) Ethnicity: Problem and Focus in
Anthropology, Ann. Rev. Anthropol. 1978. 7:379-403;
Glazer, Nathan and Daniel P. Moynihan (1975) Ethnicity Theory and Experience, Cambridge, Mass. Harvard
University Press. The modern usage denition of the
Oxford English Dictionary is:
a[djective]
...
2.a. Pertaining to race; peculiar
to a race or nation; ethnological.
Also, pertaining to or having common racial, cultural, religious, or
linguistic characteristics, esp. designating a racial or other group
within a larger system; hence (U.S.
colloq.), foreign, exotic.
b ethnic minority (group), a group
of people dierentiated from the
rest of the community by racial
origins or cultural background,
and usu. claiming or enjoying ofcial recognition of their group
identity. Also attrib.
n[oun]

REFERENCES

...
3 A member of an ethnic group or
minority. Equatorians
(Oxford English Dictionary Second edition, online version
as of 2008-01-12, s.v. ethnic, a. and n.)
[8] , Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A GreekEnglish Lexicon, on Perseus
[9] , Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A
Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus
[10] I. Polinskaya, Shared sanctuaries and the gods of others:
On the meaning Of 'common' in Herodotus 8.144, in:
R. Rosen & I. Sluiter (eds.), Valuing others in Classical
Antiquity (Leiden: Brill, 2010), 43-70.
[11] , Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A
Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus)
[12] Herodotus, 8.144.2: The kinship of all Greeks in blood
and speech, and the shrines of gods and the sacrices that
we have in common, and the likeness of our way of life.
[13] Athena S. Leoussi, Steven Grosby, Nationalism and Ethnosymbolism: History, Culture and Ethnicity in the Formation of Nations, Edinburgh University Press, 2006, p. 115
[14] in Challenges of Measuring an Ethnic World: Science,
Politics and Reality : Proceedings of the Joint CanadaUnited States Conference on the Measurement of Ethnicity, April 13, 1992, Joint Canada-United States Conference on the Measurement of Ethnicity, Department of
Commerce, Statistics Canada, 1993
[15] ", a conference organised by Statistics Canada and the
United States Census Bureau (April 13, 1992) Statistics
Canada
[16] Fredrik Barth ed. 1969 Ethnic Groups and Boundaries:
The Social Organization of Cultural Dierence; Eric Wolf
1982 Europe and the People Without History p. 381
[17] Geertz, Cliord, ed. (1967) Old Societies and New States:
The Quest for Modernity in Africa and Asia. New York:
The Free Press.
[18] Cohen, Abner (1969) Custom and Politics in Urban Africa:
A Study of Hausa Migrants in a Yoruba Town. London:
Routledge & Kegan Paul.
[19] Abner Cohen (1974) Two-Dimensional Man: An essay on
power and symbolism in complex society. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
[20] J. Hutchinson & A.D. Smith (eds.), Oxford readers: Ethnicity (Oxford 1996), Introduction, 8-9
[21] Gellner, Ernest (1983) Nations and Nationalism. Oxford:
Blackwell.
[22] Ernest Gellner (1997) Nationalism. London: Weidenfeld
& Nicolson.
[23] Smith, Anthony D. (1986) The Ethnic Origins of Nations.
Oxford: Blackwell.

[24] Anthony Smith (1991) National Identity.

mondsworth: Penguin.

Har-

[25] T.H. Eriksen Ethnic identity, national identity and intergroup conict: The signicance of personal experiences
in Ashmore, Jussim, Wilder (eds.): Social identity, intergroup conict, and conict reduction, pp. 4270. Oxford:
Oxford University Press. 2001
[26] Banton, Michael. (2007) Weber on Ethnic Communities:
A critique, Nations and Nationalism 13 (1), 2007, 1935.
[27] Ronald Cohen 1978 Ethnicity: Problem and Focus in
Anthropology, Annual Review of Anthropology 7: 383
Palo Alto: Stanford University Press
[28] James, Paul (2015). Despite the Terrors of Typologies:
The Importance of Understanding Categories of Dierence and Identity. Interventions: International Journal
of Postcolonial Studies 17 (2): 174195.
[29] Joan Vincent 1974, The Structure of Ethnicity in Human Organization 33(4): 375-379
[30] (Smith 1999, p. 13)
[31] Smith (1998), 159.
[32] Smith (1999), 5.
[33] Noel, Donald L. (1968). A Theory of the Origin of
Ethnic Stratication. Social Problems 16 (2): 157172.
doi:10.1525/sp.1968.16.2.03a00030.
[34] Bobo, Lawrence; Hutchings, Vincent L. (1996). Perceptions of Racial Group Competition: Extending
Blumers Theory of Group Position to a Multiracial Social Context. American Sociological Review
(American Sociological Association) 61 (6): 951972.
doi:10.2307/2096302. JSTOR 2096302.
[35] (Smith 1999, pp. 47)
[36] Hobsbawm and Ranger (1983), The Invention of Tradition, Sider 1993 Lumbee Indian Histories.

[44] Walter Pohl, Conceptions of Ethnicity in Early Medieval

Studies, Debating the Middle Ages: Issues and Readings,
ed. Lester K. Little and Barbara H. Rosenwein, (Blackwell), 1998, pp 1324, notes that historians have projected the 19th-century conceptions of the nation-state
backwards in time, employing biological metaphors of
birth and growth: that the peoples in the Migration Period had little to do with those heroic (or sometimes
brutish) clichs is now generally accepted among historians, he remarked. Early medieval peoples were
far less homogeneous than often thought, and Pohl follows Reinhard Wenskus, Stammesbildung und Verfassung. (Cologne and Graz) 1961, whose researches into
the ethnogenesis of the German peoples convinced him
that the idea of common origin, as expressed by Isidore of
Seville Gens est multitudo ab uno principio orta (a people
is a multitude stemming from one origin) which continues in the original Etymologiae IX.2.i) sive ab alia natione secundum propriam collectionem distincta (or distinguished from another people by its proper ties) was a
myth.
[45] Aihway Ong 1996 Cultural Citizenship in the Making
in Current Anthropology 37(5)
[46] Nira Yuval-Davis, Gender & Nation (London: SAGE
Publications Ltd, 1997)
[47] Nira Yuval-Davis, Gender & Nation (London: SAGE
Publications Ltd, 1997) pp. 12-13
[48] Floya Anthias and Nira Yuval-Davis Woman-Nation
State (London: Macmillan, 1989), p 9
[49] Grosfoguel, Ramn (September 2004). Race and
Ethnicity or Racialized Ethnicities? Identities within
Global Coloniality. Ethnicities. 315-336 4 (3): 315.
doi:10.1177/1468796804045237. Retrieved 2012-0806.
[50] Banton, Michael. (2007) Weber on Ethnic Communities:
A critique, Nations and Nationalism 13 (1), 2007, 1935.
[51] A. Metraux (1950) United nations Economic and Security Council Statement by Experts on Problems of Race,
American Anthropologist 53(1): 142-145)

[37] Camoro, John L. and Jean Camoro 2009: Ethnicity

Inc.. Chicago: Chicago Press.

[52] Grith, David Craig, Joness minimal: low-wage labor in

the United States, State University of New York Press, Albany, 1993, p.222

[38] The Invention of Tradition, Sider 1993 Lumbee Indian

Histories

[53] Eric Wolf, 1982, Europe and the People Without History,
Berkeley: University of California Press. 380-381

[39] O'Neil, Dennis. Nature of Ethnicity. Palomar College.

Retrieved 7 January 2013.
[40] Seidner,(1982), Ethnicity, Language, and Power from a
Psycholinguistic Perspective, pp. 23
[41] Smith 1987 pp. 2122
[42] Gellner 2006 Nations and Nationalism Blackwell Publishing
[43] Anderson 2006 Imagined Communities Version

[54] Wallman, S. Ethnicity research in Britain, Current Anthropology, v. 18, n. 3, 1977, pp. 531532.
[55] A Brief History of the OMB Directive 15. American
Anthropological Association. 1997. Retrieved 2007-0518.
[56] Cohen, Robin (1995). The Cambridge Survey of World
Migration. Cambridge University Press. p. 197. ISBN 0521-44405-5. Wickens, Gerald E; Lowe, Pat (2008). The
Baobabs: Pachycauls of Africa, Madagascar and Australia. Springer Science+Business Media. 2008. p. 360.
ISBN 978-1-4020-6431-9.

10

9 FURTHER READING

[57] Mughal, Muhammad Aurang Zeb. 2012. Spain. Steven

L. Denver (ed.), Native Peoples of the World: An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures, and Contemporary Issues, Vol.
3. Armonk, NY: M .E. Sharpe, pp. 674-675.
[58] Christoph Pan, Beate Sibylle Pfeil,Minderheitenrechte
in Europa. Handbuch der europischen Volksgruppen
(2002). Living-diversity.eu, English translation 2004.
[59] (French) article 8 de la loi Informatique et liberts, 1978:
Il est interdit de collecter ou de traiter des donnes caractre personnel qui font apparatre, directement ou indirectement, les origines raciales ou ethniques, les opinions
politiques, philosophiques ou religieuses ou l'appartenance
syndicale des personnes, ou qui sont relatives la sant ou
la vie sexuelle de celles-ci.

Further reading

Healey, Joseph F., and Eileen O'Brien. Race, ethnicity, gender, and class: The sociology of group conict
and change (Sage Publications, 2014)
Hobsbawm, Eric, and Terence Ranger, editors, The
Invention of Tradition. (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1983).
Thomas Hylland Eriksen (1993) Ethnicity and Nationalism: Anthropological Perspectives, London:
Pluto Press
Kappeler, Andreas. The Russian empire: A multiethnic history (Routledge, 2014)
Levinson, David, Ethnic Groups Worldwide: A
Ready Reference Handbook, Greenwood Publishing
Group (1998), ISBN 978-1-57356-019-1.

Abizadeh, Arash, Ethnicity, Race, and a Possible

Humanity World Order, 33.1 (2001): 23-34. (Article that explores the social construction of ethnicity
and race.)

Merriam, A.P. 1959. African Music, in R. Bascom and, M. J. Herskovits (eds), Continuity and
Change in African Cultures, Chicago, University of
Chicago Press.

Barth, Fredrik (ed). Ethnic groups and boundaries.

The social organization of culture dierence, Oslo:
Universitetsforlaget, 1969

Morales-Daz, Enrique; Gabriel Aquino; & Michael

Sletcher, Ethnicity, in Michael Sletcher, ed., New
England, (Westport, CT, 2004).

Beard, David and Kenneth Gloag. 2005. Musicology, The Key Concepts. London and New York:
Routledge.

Omi, Michael and Howard Winant. Racial Formation in the United States from the 1960s to the 1980s.
(New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul, Inc., 1986).

Billinger, Michael S. (2007), Another Look at Ethnicity as a Biological Concept: Moving Anthropology Beyond the Race Concept, Critique of Anthropology 27,1:535.

Seeger, A. 1987. Why Suy Sing: A Musical Anthropology of an Amazonian People, Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press.

Craig, Gary, et al., eds. Understanding 'race'and

ethnicity: theory, history, policy, practice (Policy
Press, 2012)
Danver, Steven L. Native Peoples of the World: An
Encylopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contemporary
Issues (2012)
Eriksen, T.H. 1993. Ethnicity and Nationalism:
Anthropological Perspectives, London, Pluto Press.
Eysenck, H.J., Race, Education and Intelligence
(London: Temple Smith, 1971) (ISBN 0-85117009-9)
Hartmann, Douglas. Notes on Midnight Basketball
and the Cultural Politics of Recreation, Race and AtRisk Urban Youth, Journal of Sport and Social Issues. 25 (2001): 339-366.
Hasmath, R. ed. 2011. Managing Ethnic Diversity:
Meanings and Practices from an International Perspective. Burlington, VT and Surrey, UK: Ashgate.

Seidner, Stanley S. Ethnicity, Language, and Power

from a Psycholinguistic Perspective. (Bruxelles:
Centre de recherche sur le pluralinguisme1982).
Sider, Gerald, Lumbee Indian Histories (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1993).
Smith, Anthony D. (1987). The Ethnic Origins of
Nations. Blackwell.
Smith, Anthony D. (1998). Nationalism and modernism. A Critical Survey of Recent Theories of Nations and Nationalism. London New York: Routledge.
Smith, Anthony D. (1999). Myths and memories
of the Nation. Oxford University Press.
Thernstrom, Stephan A. ed. Harvard Encyclopedia
of American Ethnic Groups (1981)
^ U.S. Census Bureau State & County QuickFacts:
Race.

11

10

External links

Race and Ethnicity in Advertising: America 1890Today

Ethnicity at DMOZ
Ethnicity entry in the UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology
Downloadable article: Evidence that a West-East
admixed population lived in the Tarim Basin as early
as the early Bronze Age Li et al. BMC Biology
2010, 8:15. Biomedcentral.com
Rian.ru
American Psychological Associations Oce of
Ethnic Minority Aairs

12

11

11
11.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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Ethnic group Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_group?oldid=676855951 Contributors: Derek Ross, The Anome, Slrubenstein, DanKeshet, Gianfranco, Ant, Stevertigo, Ubiquity, Jahsonic, Dcljr, Ahoerstemeier, Marteau, Bogdangiusca, Scott, Andres, Nikola
Smolenski, Ike9898, Joy, Wetman, Jusjih, Anjouli, Frazzydee, Lumos3, Chrism, PBS, COGDEN, Merovingian, Academic Challenger,
Tobias Bergemann, Adhib, Jpta~enwiki, Wilfried Derksen, Paploo, Robert Weemeyer, Jurema Oliveira, Mackeriv, Andycjp, Quadell,
Beland, Mzajac, Al-Andalus, Zfr, Joyous!, Hillel, JamesTeterenko, Heegoop, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Rama, Vsmith, EliasAlucard, Trekie8472, Kostja, D-Notice, Dbachmann, SamEV, Bender235, Brian0918, RJHall, Bennylin, El C, Kwamikagami, Shanes, Jpgordon, Bobo192, Yonghokim, Reinyday, Vortexrealm, Kappa, Giraedata, Pearle, Espoo, Ranveig, Alansohn, Hektor, Foant, Atlant,
Riana, SlimVirgin, SeanLegassick, Malo, Hohum, Snowolf, Stephan Leeds, Mikeo, Vuo, GabrielF, HenryLi, Red dwarf, Kenyon, Lupita, PANONIAN, Velho, Woohookitty, Camw, Jersyko, Daniel Case, Bonus Onus, WadeSimMiser, Je3000, Tabletop, Dmol, John Hill,
Tokek, G.W., BD2412, Fermin, Dpr, Mayumashu, Nightscream, Zinoviev, Tawker, Nneonneo, Klassykittychick, Ligulem, Molybdenumblue, Yamamoto Ichiro, Wobble, Winhunter, Changchih228, Bmicomp, Chobot, Hatch68, Jersey Devil, Benlisquare, Adoniscik, RussBot,
Peoplesunionpro, Anonymous editor, Pigman, Stephenb, NawlinWiki, Wiki alf, DJ Bungi, Badagnani, Rjensen, Chooserr, Pylambert,
Syrthiss, Jeargle, Botteville, Maunus, Black Falcon, Pawyilee, Paul Magnussen, Citynoise, Sam@mysite.com.my, Zzuuzz, Mappychris,
Closedmouth, Dark Tichondrias, Shawnc, Fram, Ybbor, Moomoomoo, Elijahmeeks, Hide&Reason, Weiteck, Vulturell, Eog1916, Sardanaphalus, Vanka5, Veinor, SmackBot, Twoheel, Astavrou, Triggtay, KAtremer, Ramdrake, Jagged 85, Big Adamsky, Pfa9, Orser67,
Peter Isotalo, Gilliam, Hmains, Desiphral, Chris the speller, Aucaman, Kurykh, Unint, CKA3KA, Persian Poet Gal, Master of Puppets,
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Ricky@36, Ace ETP, Will Beback, Arnoutf, BrownHairedGirl, Kuru, UberCryxic, Siddharth srinivasan, Tazmaniacs, Ishmaelblues,
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Dr.K., KJS77, Hu12, Alphaman11, Levineps, Wallstreethotrod, Iridescent, Tmangray, Lenoxus, HongQiGong, Gil Gamesh, Courcelles,
Audiosmurf, Tawkerbot2, Ghaly, Belginusanl, DangerousPanda, Ale jrb, Alexey Feldgendler, Bons, Alex Shih, CWY2190, R9tgokunks,
AEF, Pseudo-Richard, Neelix, FilipeS, Vectro, Slazenger, Cydebot, Ntsimp, Gogo Dodo, Borislutskovsky, Red Director, 01011000, B, Energyfreezer, Robertsteadman, Epbr123, Lord Hawk, Peter morrell, 23prootie, Keraunos, Mojo Hand, Louis Waweru, Marek69, John254,
Merbabu, Omegared25, Pcbene, CharlotteWebb, Northumbrian, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, Obiwankenobi, QuiteUnusual, Bull-Doser,
Edokter, AaronY, Jj137, Dunnhaupt, Qwerty Binary, Crissidancer88, JAnDbot, Husond, Skomorokh, Legolost, Rentaferret, PhilKnight,
Mr blobby, SiobhanHansa, Naval Scene, A12n, VoABot II, Tukes, JamesBWatson, Mbc362, Ling.Nut, Sodabottle, Paul111, JPG-GR,
Sasha l~enwiki, Snowded, Fabrictramp, Catgut, Animum, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, DerHexer, Philg88, ponyme, Cricket02, NatureA16,
S3000, Windymilla, PinkCake, MartinBot, Efoden, Lucibi and friends, Bus stop, R'n'B, Pomte, Wiki Raja, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Diego M.C., Adog10909, Rpraskins, Jerdan~enwiki, ZGMF-X666S, Rccola666, Adavidb, OceGirl, Cop 663, AliceJMarkham,
Mjb1981, Afaber012, Astrakan, 97198, NobleHelium, Flatterworld, Remember the dot, JudahBlaze, Guyzero, Ja 62, JavierMC, David
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Macedonian, HelloKevin, Markmark12, QuackGuru, Butseriouslyfolks, Moogwrench, Elfe49, Jonesey67, Qxz, Anna Lincoln, Corvus
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Warer~enwiki, Crispy park, Dark Tea, Cnilep, Master of the Orchalcos, AlleborgoBot, Munci, Dylansmrjones, Educatedlady, M5891,
SieBot, Sebastiancool, Hugh16, LeadSongDog, Radon210, Momo san, AlexWaelde, Oxymoron83, Ddxc, Avnjay, Hobartimus, Belligero,
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Kikos, Versus22, Antalope, Berean Hunter, Hotcrocodile, LeaW, Alexius08, Yuvn86, Minhhanguyen, Addbot, Willking1979, Theleftorium, Ronhjones, Hattar393, Kman543210, CanadianLinuxUser, Leszek Jaczuk, Douglas the Comeback Kid, Duckie for broadway,
Ccacsmss, PranksterTurtle, Buster7, Debresser, Bazaan, Green Squares, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Krano, , Gaybum76, Jessika Folkerts,
Harro101, Ben Ben, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Legobot II, Tempodivalse, Bryan.Wade, AnomieBOT, Killiondude, Jim1138, IRP,
Galoubet, Music+mas, Brilliant trees, Yachtsman1, Kneebn06, Ulric1313, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Neurolysis, LilHelpa, Jack666
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MertyWiki, Fishstones, Koakhtzvigad, FoxBot, TobeBot, D climacus, Vietskoolboi1023, Lotje, AthinaiosPolitis, Danabodnar, Mummykins1961, Lkjhgfdsa 0, Balaram3, Reach Out to the Truth, Heygirlll3, Mindy Dirt, IANVS, Ripchip Bot, Supergiant111, Ionut Cojocaru, SeanJones8191, EmausBot, Narcosis17, John of Reading, Heracles31, SteenvanJ, Sxoa, NotAnonymous0, Lindsaywinn, Sheeana,
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Quinn, Mjbmrbot, Awewe, ClueBot NG, SpikeTorontoRCP, Ezekiel63745, Vishwas reddy, This lousy T-shirt, Chrisminter, Brennand9,
Frietjes, 123Hedgehog456, Castncoot, BigPrittyNipps, Widr, Antiqueight, Helpful Pixie Bot, Bluetime2003, Metroxed, Festermunk, Hopeandreason, Iamsparta1000, Wheatsing, CannotFindAName, Wiki13, Davidiad, Swi521, Gpyork, Wodrow, MisterCake, Assar, Meclee,
ShanePersaud, Glacialfox, Quigley, Iloverussia, Feifei90802, Eduardofeld, 223fxt, AMS351996, JYBot, Kitteagirl, FonsScientiae, Lugia2453, 93, Kevin12xd, Unicorndick, Jonney2000, Schrauwers, Kelvinkasherwithpie, Mohd Rfus, Lovingoni, FiredanceThroughTheNight,
Abrahamic Faiths, LGtan, DavidLeighEllis, Shellystander, Reiftyr, Netjeret, Mooch025, Dut5, Karakatana, Skr15081997, Oxon123,
Tttt, Monkbot, Filedelinkerbot, Trucksmonk24, HMSLavender, Luveha, Ellen.pilsworth, Roxy Goddard, KcBessy, Tryinhero, Nykterinos, AsberryA95, KasparBot, Domnic joerger234567 and Anonymous: 742

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