A Study On The Status of Female Heads of Households and Their Access To Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (Puttalam)

SURVEY ON THE STATUS OF
MUSLIM FEMALE HEADS OF

HOUSEHOLDS AND
THEIR ACCESS TO ECONOMIC,
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL RIGHTS
PUTTALAM DISTRICT
SURVEY ON THE STATUS OF

MUSLIM FEMALE HEADS OF
HOUSEHOLDS AND
THEIR ACCESS TO ECONOMIC,
PUTTALAM DISTRICT
2015
The views and opinions expressed in this publication do not represent the views of FOKUS.
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Printed and bound in Sri Lanka by Wits Originals
iii
FOREWORD
FOKUS WOMEN undertook this research in 2014. The available literature on female heads of
households indicated many gaps and there was a need to clarify the conceptual understanding
of who a female head of the household (FHH) is. This common understanding among
development actors and state institutions is crucial as a first step towards working on the issues
of FHH.
This study focuses on the status of Muslim female heads of households in the Puttalam district.
These Muslim FHH face multiple challenges when they access their economic, social and
cultural rights. The situation is further complicated for these women who have been displaced
due to the war.
The methodology included the administering of a questionnaire to 1000 Muslim FHH, a pre
test pilot study, a focus group discussion, interviews and other research, including internet
based research.
FOKUS WOMEN believes that the findings of this research study will contribute to post war
reconstruction efforts and to a greater understanding of the issues faced by Muslim FHH with
regard to their economic, social and cultural rights, an area hitherto under researched. The
research will also contribute to more targeted interventions with Muslim FHH.
FOKUS WOMEN would like to thank Dr. Fazeeha Azmi, Senior Lecturer, Department of
Geography, University of Peradeniya for undertaking the research for this study and for writing
the report. FOKUS WOMEN would also like to thank Juwairiya Mohideen, Muslim Womens
Development Trust (MWDT) for assisting in the research by carrying out the quantitative and
qualitative research for the study.
Shyamala Gomez
Country Director
FOKUS WOMEN
iv
Survey on the Status of Muslim Female Heads of Households and Their Access to ESCR - Puttalam District
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was carried out for FOKUS WOMEN for the Survey on the Status of Female Heads
of Households including Widows and their Access to Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
(ESCR) in Puttalam District. The project would not have been possible without support from
a number of people to whom I am deeply indebted. First, I would like to express my gratitude
to Shyamala Gomez, Kamaleswary Letchumanan and Thilina Madiwala of FOKUS WOMEN,
who have taken time to initiate the research topic and for being constructive, professional and
consistent.
From the beginning of this research, I have had the privilege of sharing my interests and concerns
about the research topic with Ms. Juwairiya Mohideen from Muslim Womens Development
Trust (MWDT). Being an activist and an experienced woman in Muslim womens issues, the
guidance, knowledge sharing, insightful comments and coordination given by Ms.Juwairiya
Mohideen throughout the project should be appreciated with sincere thanks.
I would like to extend my heartfelt gratitude to all of the dedicated women and men from
Muslim Women Development Trust, who contributed to this research. The generosity they
shared in their work and the possibilities and challenges they faced has greatly contributed
to the understanding of the potential issues associated with accessing ESCR of FHHs in the
future. I thank A.H. Riswan, M. Faheema Behum, Z.F. Hela, A.C. Suraiya Gaphoor, A.K. Siththi
Saleema, R.U.S.E. Vinijini, I.S.Jesmin, M. Mahnas, I.F.Ihshana, H.R.Rilha for their devotion to
a successful field work and data entry work.
I also would like to thank Ms. Suganya Ganesamoorthy and Ms. Juliet Roshani who are attached
to the Department of Geography, University of Peradeniya who have helped me with data
analysis and map. Finally, but most importantly, I would like to thank all those interviewees,
who gave their time and shared their stories with me and the research team for the completion
of this report.
Dr. Fazeeha Azmi
Senior Lecturer
Department of Geography
University of Peradeniya
Sri Lanka
May 2015
FoKUS Women
CONTENTS
Foreword
Acknowledgements
Chapter I
OVERVIEW AND BACKGROUND
1.1.
Introduction
1.2.
What are ESCR?
1.3.
Women and ESCR
1.4.
Conceptual clarification
1.5.
Households
1.6.
The Problem and its importance
1.7.
Objectives
1.8.
Context of the study: War, forced migration in Puttalam
1.9.
Background: Forced Migration
1.10. Post war Puttalam
1.11. Conclusion
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1
1
1
2
3
3
5
5
6
6
7
8
8
Chapter II
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
2.1.
Introduction
2.2.
Methods
2.3.
Selection of the research area
2.4.
Distribution of FHHs according to DS divisions
2.5.
Time period of residence
2.6
Limitation of the study
2.7.
Data Analysis
2.8.
Conclusion
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10
11
12
13
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Chapter iii
BACKGROUND CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPONDENTS
3.1.
Introduction
3.2.
Age
3.3.
Displacement status
3.4.
Reasons for displacement
3.5.
Education
3.6.
Age at marriage
3.7.
Reasons for under age marriage
3.8.
Reasons for becoming FHHs
3.9.
Length of the time responsible for households
3.10 Conclusion
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Chapter IV
BACKGROUND INFORMATION OF HOUSEHOLD MEMBERS
4.1
Introduction
4.2.
Sex and Age
4.3.
Employment of FHHs members
4.4.
Level of Education
4.5.
Civil status of other household members
4.6.
Other household earners
4.7
Conclusion
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Chapter V.
ACCESS AND RIGHT TO ADEQUATE STANDARD OF LIVING
5.1.
Introduction
5.2.
Ownership of house
5.3.
Housing condition: materials of construction
5.4.
Access to electricity
5.5.
Toilet facilities
5.6
Source of energy used for cooking
5.7.
Source of drinking water
5.8
Quality of water
5.9.
Problems related to water
5.10. Access and right to food
5.11. Access to technologies
5.12. Conclusion
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Chapter VI
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ACCESS TO WORK
6.1.
Introduction
6.2.
Reasons for unemployment
6.3.
Type of employment
6.4.
Nature of employment
6.5.
Working hours per day
6.6.
Income satisfaction
6.7
Availability of holidays
6.8
Gendered wage differences
6.9
Reported monthly income
6.10 Work environment
6.11 Membership in labour unions or organization
6.12 Future income security in private or government sector
6.13. Conclusion
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FoKUS Women
Chapter VII
ACCESS TO ECONOMIC RESOURCES
7.1.
Introduction
7.2
Possession of assets
7.3
Land and its use
7.4.
Knowledge about land related institutions
7.5.
Issue of debts
7.6
Conclusion
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Chapter VIII
ACCESS TO SERVICES
8.1.
Introduction
8.2
Available services
8.3.
Access to educational services for children
8.4.
Problems in accessing education
8.5
Access to adult education or vocational training centres
8.6
Access to health services
8.7
Access to financial services to treat health related issues
8.8
Awareness about health related programmes
8.9
Influence of culture on accessing services
8.10 Satisfaction of available services
8.11 Conclusion
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Chapter IX
ACCESS TO SOCIAL, CULTURAL AND POLITICAL RESOURCES
9. 1
Introduction
9.2
Access to social support system
9.3
Social interaction
9.4
Participation in cultural events
9.5
Access to political resources
9.6
Membership in organizations
9.7
Conclusion
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Chapter X
PHYSICAL SECURITY AND VIOLENCE
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Awareness of violence
10.3 Perpetrators of Violence
10.4 Awareness and action about reporting violence
10.5 Conclusion
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Chapter XI
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
11.1 Introduction
11.3 Socio economic background of the informants
11.4 Access to economic resources
11.5 Access to socio cultural and political resources
11.6 Domestic and physical violence
11.7 Recommendations
List of Reference
Questionnaire
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List of Figures
Chapter I
Box 1: Basic List of ESCR
Chapter II
Table: 2.2.1
Map: 1
Figure: 2.4.1
Figure: 2.5.1
Chapter iii
Table: 3.2.1
Figure: 3.3.1
Table: 3.4.1
Table: 3.5.1
Figure: 3.6.1
Figure: 3.7.1
Figure: 3.7.2
Table: 3.8.1
Figure: 3.9.1
Figure: 3.9.2
Chapter IV
Figure: 4.2.1
Figure: 4.2.2
Figure: 4.3.1
Figure: 4.3.2
Table: 4.4.1
Figure: 4.5.1
Figure: 4.6.1
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1
2
Distribution of population
Location of study areas.
Distribution of FHHs according to DS divisions
Time period of residence
9
10
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12
Age distribution of the respondents

Displacement status
Respondents level of education
Age at Marriage
Reasons for early marriage
Correlation between age at marriage and level of education
Reasons for becoming responsible for households
Length of the time responsible for households
Age at present and length of taking household responsibility
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Age distribution of FHHs household members

Age and sex distribution of FHHs members
Status of Employment - FHHs members
Sex and employment status of FHHs household members
Level of education of FHHs family members
Civil status of other household members
Types of jobs done by other household members.
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FoKUS Women
Chapter V.
Figure: 5.2.1 House ownership
Figure: 5.3.1.1 Type of material used for constructing walls
Figure 5.3.2.1 shows the construction materials used for roofs in FHHs.
Figure: 5.3.3.1 Material used for floor
Figure: 5.4.1 Access to electricity
Figure: 5.5.1 Types of toilet facilities
Figure: 5.6.1 Energy used for cooking
Figure: 5.7.1 Main source of drinking water
Figure: 5.8.1. Quality of water
Figure: 5.9.1 Problems related to water
Figure: 5.10.1.1 Monthly food expenditure patterns
Figure: 5.10.1.2 Methods use to manage food expenditures
Figure: 5.10.1.3 Sources of support to solve the problem of high food
expenditure
Chapter VI
Figure: 6.2.
Figure: 6.3.1
Figure: 6.4.1
Figure: 6.5.1
Figure: 6.6.1
Figure: 6.7.1
Figure: 6.8.1
Figure: 6.10.1
Figure: 6.11.
Figure: 6.12
Chapter VII
Table: 7.2.1
Figure: 7.2.1
Figure: 7.2.2.
Figure: 7.2.3
Figure: 7.2.4
Figure: 7.2.5
Figure: 7.2.6
Figure: 7.4.1
Figure: 7.4.2
Figure: 7.5.1
Figure: 7.5.2
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Reasons for unemployment

Types of employment among FHHs
Nature of employment
Distribution of working hours per day
Income satisfaction of FHHs
Availability of holidays
Wage difference
satisfactory work environment
Reasons for not joining
Future income security
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Asset possession of FHHs

Type of ownership of land
Different types of ownership
Title owners of state land
Size of the land
Savings from last one year.
Sources of financial assistance
Institutions approached for land issues
Problems faced by FHHs in offices
Amount of loan to be re-paid.
Different sources FHHs borrowed money
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Chapter VIII
Figure: 8.4.1
Figure: 8.4.2
Table: 8.4.1
Figure: 8.5.1
Monthly expenditure on childrens education

Distance to schools
Mode of transport
Reasons for not following adult education or vocational
training courses
Figure: 8.6.1 Health issues in the household
Figure: 8.6.2 Places access for treatment
Figure: 8.7.1. Reasons for not being able to solve health related financial
needs.
Figure: 8.7.2 Different sources of help for health related issues
Figure: 8.9.1 Reasons identified under cultural barriers
Figure: 8.10.1 Reasons for not complaining
Chapter IX
Figure: 9.2.1
Figure: 9.3.1
Figure: 9.3.2
Figure: 9.3.3
Figure: 9.3.4
Figure: 9.3.5
Figure: 9.4.1
Table: 9.5.1
Figure: 9.5.1
Figure: 9.6.1
Chapter X
Figure: 10.2.1
Figure: 10.2.2
Figure: 10.2.3
Figure: 10.3.1
Figure: 10.4.1
Figure: 10.4.2
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Daily interaction patterns

Frequency of outside interaction of FHHs
Reasons for going out rarely
Reasons for social discrimination
Reasons for interaction with people from other religions
Reasons for not interacting with people from other religions.
Reasons for not participating in cultural events
Political involvement
Political information sources FHHs access
Membership in different organizations
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Awareness level of violence

Type of violence taking place
Places violence/harassment is prevalent
Perpetrators of violence/harassement
Actions taken regarding violence
Reasons for remaining silent
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CHAPTER I
OVERVIEW AND BACKGROUND

1.1. Introduction
Ensuring human rights for all citizens is essential for a dignified life. The 1948 Universal
Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) recognizes the importance of Economic, Social and
Cultural Rights (ESCR) as universal and interdependent body of rights (UN, 2005). ESCR are
specified in the Articles 16 and 22-29 of the UDHR. To further endorse this claim, in 1967
the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) was adopted
by the UN General Assembly to protect economic, social and cultural rights. This has been
ratified by 137 states. In addition to these efforts, the World Conference on Human Rights, held
in Vienna in 1993 provided the platform for a renewed effort to strengthen the human rights
by acknowledging the universal, indivisible, interdependent and inter-related nature of human
rights in a more broader and interconnected way. More than 150 UN member countries have
committed to fulfil their obligation to ensure ESCR through legal and institutional frameworks.
Over the past half a century, ESCR were re-emphasised through various international and
local agreements and declarations. As a result, during the last three decades, there has been an
increasing interest in economic, social and cultural rights, especially in the areas of human rights
and development. The failure of development policies, plans, practices and strategies has created
spatially and socially marginalized, vulnerable groups who are the victims of such development
efforts. As a result new efforts to address development and human rights related issues have
revitalized the interest in ensuring ESCR for everyone. As mentioned in the introduction, the
international and national interests for a re-focus on ESCR are now taken up even by grassroot
community level organizations. However, even the renewed interest in some cases is limited to
discourse on papers alone. Unlike civil and political rights, economic, social and cultural rights
are difficult to implement immediately. These rights should be implemented in a progressive
manner. Meanwhile, during the last couple of decades, in academia, government policy making
and planning, and among NGOs, ESCR has gained prominence in developing countries in an
unprecedented way. Although civil rights and political rights have been identified in the human
rights long before, acknowledgement of economic, social and cultural rights did not receive the
due attention they ought to have. The protection, promotion and the advancement of ESCR of
every individual is important to achieve a decent living and live with dignity in the society.
1.2 What are ESCR?

ECSR includes essential elements of a decent and dignified life. According to UN (2008)
ESCR are:
Economic, social and cultural rights are those human rights relating to the workplace, social
security, family life, participation in cultural life, and access to housing, food, water, health care
and education1
Box 1: Basic List of ESCR

Workers rights, including freedom from forced labour, the rights to decide freely
to accept or choose work, to fair wages and equal pay for equal work, to leisure and
reasonable limitation of working hours, to safe and healthy working conditions, to join
and form trade unions, and to strike;
The right to social security and social protection, including the right not to be denied
social security coverage arbitrarily or unreasonably, and the right to equal enjoyment
of adequate protection in the event of unemployment, sickness, old age or other lack of
livelihood in circumstances beyond ones control;
Protection of and assistance to the family, including the rights to marriage by free
consent, to maternity and paternity protection, and to protection of children from
economic and social exploitation;
The right to an adequate standard of living, including the rights to food and to be
free from hunger, to adequate housing, to water and to clothing
The right to health, including the right to access to health facilities, goods and services,
to healthy occupational and environmental conditions, and protection against epidemic
diseases, and rights relevant to sexual and reproductive health;
The right to education, including the right to free and compulsory primary education
and to available and accessible secondary and higher education progressively made
free of charge; and the liberty of parents to choose schools for their children;
Cultural rights, including the right to participate in cultural life and to share in and
benefit from scientific advancement, and protection of authors moral and material
interests from scientific, literary or artistic production
Source: http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/ESCR/FAQ%20on%20ESCR-en.pdf
Within the above context, various rights are identified and expressed in a very flexible manner
as these rights can overlap when defined within a rigid framework. It is also important to
understand that ESCR can be expressed in different ways (not deviating from the main focus) in
different country contexts2. The research conducted includes context specific to ESCR elements
in its focus without deviating from internationally defined inclusion criteria.
http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/ESCR/FAQ%20on%20ESCR-en.pdf Accessed on 15.10.2014.
http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/ESCR/FAQ%20on%20ESCR-en.pdf Accessed on 15.10.2014.
FoKUS Women
1.3 Women and ESCR

ESCR are an essential part of human rights. The dimensions listed in the above Box (1) in
terms of ESCR are not merely an option, but are essential for security, freedom and happiness
of human beings. As human beings are hierarchically positioned in the society on the basis of
various intersections such as ethnicity, caste, class and gender, a comprehensive approach to
ESCR should acknowledge these intersections too.
Among different intersections gender is an important aspect that needs careful consideration.
Achieving ESCR is defined by gendered nature of societies, which locate women differently in
their social spaces. Ensuring ESCR of women will bring tangible improvements in their lives. Do
all women know about ESCR? Do all women have access to ESCR? Do proper implementation
and monitoring of ESCR take place? How do governments ensure such rights are protected and
ensured? What are the impediments women faces in achieving ESCR? Were there any attempts
to understand the complex nature of ESCR as women are not a homogeneous category? Are
violations of these rights taking place? All these questions posed above reveals that accessing,
implementing, monitoring, achieving and advocating ESCR is complex. However, if neglected,
decreased access to ESCR can result in the rise of socio, economic and cultural inequality.
Women play a significant role in households and communities in bringing socio economic
development. However, their important role is not translated into equality of opportunity
in gaining access to different types of resources. Although men and women share common
constraints in access to various types of resources, opportunities are often curtailed for women
who tend to face additional constraints due to their gender which cuts across social, economic,
cultural and political divides. Such divisions are created and sustained by socio cultural norms.
The resulting differences can push women to more vulnerable and marginalized positions.
Although women are more likely to be in disadvantaged positions in their societies due to
already established gender norms, the position of women who for various reasons have taken
up the family responsibility, may be worse as they might face multiple challenges in accessing
ESCR. The commonly painted picture of these women are as passive victims. They are located
in disadvantaged positions in terms of access to various dimensions of ESCR and affected by
high dependency burdens, burden of poverty, and vulnerability. Apart from these challenges
some women also have to play triple roles in the absence of family or kinship support. Further,
due to their lower social identity, reduced social space, and embedded cultural expectations in
their own societies, these women have to navigate difficult terrains and negotiate their positions
using their active/passive resistance or agency.
1.4 Conceptual clarification

Reference to women in terms of female headed households (FHHs) has raised many problems
associated with practical applications and conceptual clarifications (Buvinic and Gupta 1997;
Chant 1997; Chant 1999; Fuwa 2000; Ruwanpura 2003). As they are diversely represented and
positioned in different societies, there is hardly any agreement as to who constitutes FHHs.
According to UN (1991) FHHs are identified as residential units, where no peer adult males
reside. This identification is problematic as there are residential units, where adult males are
remaining at home without any contribution to the households or they are temporarily out of
the households for a long or short time. Apart from this conceptual confusion, it is important
to consider the problem of universal application of the term. They are viewed and defined
differently in different socio-cultural contexts. In patriarchal societies of South Asia, though
women are responsible for the socio, economic well-being of their households, accepting them
as heads of the households remains a challenge. This is partly due to the fact that the way
household headship is defined by the government in the official documents and projects and
programmes (which always assume men as the head of the households). Gendered ideologies
of the societies, those hardly accept women as heads of the households, though women serve
as the main financial contributor, primary care taker of the family and perform all household
chores is another form of influence which undermines womens single contribution to the
dependent family. Due to the gendered ideologies existing in patriarchal societies, even in the
presence of an adult male, who is not performing any of the afore said responsibilities, women
who are performing all those responsibilities are not treated as heads of the households. They
silently bore the burden of the family in various spheres (Ruwanpura and Humphries 2004). At
the same time in such societies, women too are not openly willing to accept themselves as the
heads of the households due to the notion of power reflected by the terminology. A similar
attitude exists among the respondents of this study.
Further, women who are identified as FHHs do not constitute a homogeneous group from an
intersectionality perspective. They may differ according to their age, education, caste, class,
length of time that they have been heading the households, access to resources, capabilities
and etc. Apart from these differences, a wide range of factors have led women to take over
responsibilities of their families. It is evident that the increasing life expectancy of women,
increasing access to employment and education for women, husbands illness, death or
disappearance, rising separation and divorce rates and demographic aging has been responsible
for, increasing number of women to take responsibilities of their families.
The current study acknowledges FHHs are not a homogeneous category. Within their society
FHHs positions vary according to their marital status, age, education, employment, and reasons
for becoming responsible for households. In this study the categorization of FHHs include,
unmarried women, married with husband remaining in the household without any economic
contribution, widows, grandmothers, divorced, separated/deserted women, women whose
husbands have been absent for more than five years for economic reasons and women whose
husbands have disappeared3. Apart from the aforesaid categories, the reasons women identified
for the question why have you became responsible for your household? give a clear picture on
the determinant of FHHs in the study areas. The study emphasises that the FHHs label includes
much diversity and it is not a unique identity. Further it should be accepted that the label of
FHH is merely a categorization and within this category there are individuals with different
voices. The study also questions their portrayed identities in the society as poor, marginalized
and powerless group as they are not homogeneous.
The definition of female-headed household adopted for this study, is similar to the ILO: Household where either
no adult males are present, owing to divorce, separation, migration, non-marriage or widowhood, or where men,
although present, do not contribute to the household income.http://www.ilo.org/thesaurus/default.asp Accessed
on 12.01.2015.
FoKUS Women
1.5 Households
Similar to female headship, the concept of household is also problematic when it comes to the
context it is applied. Unlike in Western societies, the non-Western societys, application of the
concept of household is difficult as it is defined by social structures in practice. A household
in a non- Western society, especially like in the context of Sri Lanka, can mean kinship unit,
economic unit or simply a housing unit. In Sri Lanka, one often cited definition of the term is
the one given by the Department of Census and Statistics (DCS) in its population and housing
survey. For the official purpose, the DCS defines households as A household may be (i) as a
one-person household or multi-person household. A one person household is one where a
person lives by himself and makes separate provision for the food. A multi-person household is
one in which a group of two or more persons live together and have common arrangements for
provision of food. Household includes not only members of the family such as husband, wife
and children but also others such as relatives, boarders, domestic servants etc. who live with
the family and share common arrangements of cooking and the partaking of food with them.
Lodgers of a household, who have their own separate arrangements for meals, are considered
as a separate household4.
1.6 The Problem and its importance

In Sri Lanka the latest available statistics show that the number of women, responsible for
households has risen. According to DCS (2001, 2011), the percentage of FHHs has increased from
19.2 % in 1990 to 23 % in 2010. This demographic trend has created new areas of policy concerns,
which should understand the needs of this special category of people. The reasons for the increase
in FHHs is in Sri Lanka are associated with war and other factors. Unlike their counterparts (Male
headed households), FHHs face multiple challenges in accessing Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights to live a dignified life. The situation can be worse for women who live in displacement due
to war related forced migration. Further, being FHHs belonging to the Muslim community, the
challenges, vulnerabilities and risks they face in their everyday life may deny their access to ESCR
for their personal wellbeing and the wellbeing of their dependent family members.
At the same time it is also pertinent to note, the heavy research focus given generally to Northern
Muslim IDPs and especially to Muslim women IDPs can easily undermine the problems faced
by the host communities and especially FHHs in that community. It is therefore, important to
acknowledge that the process of migration, whether it is forced or voluntary, creates changes
in both the sending and receiving areas. The changes can have impacts on the socio, economic,
political and cultural fabrics of the displaced and host communities (Azmi 2012; Brun 2000,
2008; Shanmugaratnam 2001). The sudden influx of IDPs from Northern provinces in 1990
considerably altered the everyday life of both the host and IDP communities and had a long
lasting impact. Therefore, this study includes both FHHs from host and IDP communities,
though it doesnt try to look at the differences in terms of the identified objectives, relevant to
both groups which are beyond the scope of this study.
http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/index.php?fileName=ConceptsandDefinitions&gp=StudyMat
erials&tpl=2 Accessed on 02.02.2015
Although forced migration has opened up new spaces for women by forcing them to take up
responsibilities and provided them with the space for public interaction and hence could have
helped them to integrate in the process of empowerment, the extent to which these changes
impact on FHHs is limited. The findings of this research will be important in the context of
post-war reconstructions, as FHHs position regarding ESCR is an under explored element. The
failure to ensure ESCR of FHHs through possible mechanism in accordance with international
standards can undermine the stability of peace and could discourage the ability and interest of
FHHs to participate in post conflict reconstruction activities directly or indirectly.
While the government is paying attention to the physical infrastructural development and
resettlement of IDPs, the issues faced by FHHs, get scant attention in post war development.
Even in the above mentioned areas, womens voices are muted (Azmi, 2012).
1.7 Objectives
The overall objective of this study is to gather systematic information on Muslim women who
are responsible for households in Puttalam, including widows5 with special focus on their access
to Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ESCR) to take effective measures to address the issues
faced by them.
Major objective:
Exploring issues related to FHHs in accessing ESCR and participation in public life.
The secondary objectives of the study are as follows:
Understanding their Land and Housing rights.
Understanding Physical Security and Violence related to FHHs.
Document the Prevalence of Underage Marriage.
1.8 Context of the study: War, forced migration in Puttalam

The District of Puttalam located in North Western Province has sixteen Divisional Secretariat
Divisions consisting of 548 Grama Niladari divisions. According to the Department of Census
and Statics (DCS, 2012), the total population of the district is 759720, in which males accounts
for 39728 and females accounts for 42310. The research was carried out in four DS divisions. The
reason for selecting these DS divisions was influenced by the fact that these areas are considered as
high Muslim concentrated areas in terms of population, which is pertinent to the research topic.
Since 1990, Puttalam has witnessed a massive change in its demographic structure as a result of
the expulsion of Muslims from the Northern districts by the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Elam
(LTTE). The sudden influx of internally displaced persons (IDPs) not only changed the demographic structure of Puttalam, but also created socio, economic, cultural and political problems
Herein after, when referring to FHHs it includes widows too.
FoKUS Women
as it considerably altered its landscape in terms of above aspects. The Muslims who were expelled from their home lands continued to live in Puttalam for more than two decades as they
could not return to their homes as expected. The protracted nature of living in displacement not
only created problems for themselves as IDPs but also to the host community. Such issues have
received wider scholarly attention (Brun 2000, 2008; Hasbullah 2001; Shanmugaratnam 2001;
Human Rights Commission of Sri Lanka 2011; Azmi 2012). However, less attention has been
paid to the issues faced by FHHs in Puttalam both belonging to the IDP and host community.
Any development activities in Puttalam should consider its socio, economic, cultural and demographic contexts carefully as the district attracted large number of IDPs since 1990 that altered
the socio, economic, cultural, demographic and political landscape of the area. It is also pertinent
to note such development programmes should not have the one size fits for all approach due to
the complex socio, economic and cultural and demographic landscape of the district. Among the
population groups in Puttalam, FHHs from host and IDP communities need careful attention.
During the initial pilot visits to Puttalam regarding this project, informal discussions with women
from these categories, activists and voluntary social service individuals, revealed various types of
socio, economic and cultural problems this particular groups encounter in their everyday life.
1.9 Background: Forced Migration

The twenty six years long war between the government of Sri Lanka and the Liberation Tigers
of Tamil Elam (LTTE) have made considerable changes in the socio economic, cultural,
demographic and political landscape of Sri Lanka. One of the severe impacts of war is the
displacement of people. The war displaced thousands of people internally regardless of their
ethnicities, although the nature of impacts and the geography of displacement varies. The
discussion on Sri Lankan IDPs has been reignited by the war related IDPs crisis since 1990s.
However, the problem has a much longer history. The expulsion of nearly 80,000 Muslims
from Northern Province by the LTTE in 1990 is an important event in Sri Lankas internal
displacement history. In 1990 almost all of the Muslims in the North were forced to leave by
the LTTE. They were given about 2 to 48 hours to leave their homes. Muslims who were forced
to leave made their way towards government-controlled areas in Vavuniya and Anuradhapura,
as well as to Puttalam District on the North-Western coast (Brun 2000). The IDPs who arrived
in ad hoc groups to Puttalam were allocated to various welfare centres in, what could best be
described as a random allocation. Those who are living in Puttalam, over the course of two
decades, have continued to live in what are generally called as open camps, which have not been
affected by the conflict.
Statistics are not available regarding the exact number of IDPs at present due to various
complicated problems. However, according to Human Rights Commission of Sri Lanka (2011)
in 2009, there were 74,433 IDPs in 17,302 families in Puttalam district. They were living in
172 relocation centers. Among the displaced 77,965 displaced persons from 18,945 families
returned to their places of origin and 8,466 displaced persons from 2,247 families is still living
in the Puttalam district (Human Rights Commission of Sri Lanka 2011). Among the displaced
people, even though it is difficult to gather information about the number of women, as sex
specific data is not available on an island wide basis, women form a significant number in the
IDP community.
1.10 Post war Puttalam

In 2009, Sri Lankan government militarily defeated the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Elam (LTTE),
and stepped in to a post war period. The war between the two parties considerably altered
the socio, economic and political landscape of the country from 1983-2009. It caught wider
political and academic attention nationally, regionally and globally. End of the war created an
environment for the government to invest in larger infrastructural programmes in the North and
East and rest of the country. While the government was able to invest is massive infrastructural
projects, the attention paid to meaningful recovery in terms of psycho social aspects has been
criticized for its weaknesses and lack of coverage (Herath 2012; Azmi 2012). Another important
negligence by the government is the failure to recognize the intersectionality of the war affected
people. One size fits for all is not the correct approach to recovery as the affected people varies
in terms of ethnicity, religion, marital status, gender, age, IDP status and geographical location.
Besides all the weakness associated with post war reconstruction programmes, moving from a
war to post war situation has created lots of hope among the people who were affected by the
war. Though new hope has been created, since the official end of the war in 2009 May, the year
1990, still remains as a bitter memory in the history of Northern Muslims, who were expelled
from the Northern Province without any logical reason and living in protracted displacement.
The post war situation has already opened opportunities for Muslim IDPs to return. However,
not all of them opted return as a sustainable solution for various reasons. Due to the nature
of the protracted displacement, especially the second generation of IDPs have opted to remain
in the places where most of them were brought up from their childhood. They hardly have any
memories of the places of their former villages. Their decision to remain in the host community
has influenced resettlement decisions of many families. Some IDP families did not accept the
government invitation for resettlement as they did not want to live as an IDP back in their
original villages in the North (Azmi 2012). As a result some families are living a trans- local life
as well. .All these have impacts on various dimensions of individual life including that of FHHs.
1.11 Conclusion
This chapter introduced the context of the study and outlined the research problem, objectives
and concepts relevant to the research. Access to ESCR is important for achieving gender equality,
empowerment and to live a decent life. Although ESCR has been recognized by national and
international institutions, in practice the diversity of women is not acknowledged or hardly
recognized in programmes and policies. FHHs form a special category of women who needs
careful attention in designing programmes and policies related to access to ESCR.
CHAPTER II
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

2.1. Introduction
The study was conducted in the district of Puttalam, from October December 2014. From the
beginning FOKUS WOMEN and Muslim Women Development Trust (MWDT) were consulted
in all steps of the research. A detailed questionnaire was prepared in consultation with FOKUS
WOMEN and MWDT, according to major objectives of the research. After finalizing the
questionnaire, a one day workshop was conducted to discuss the application of questionnaire
in the field and train the research assistants. Through this training, it was expected that the
interviewers will conduct interviews in a uniform manner. The workshop commenced with the
introduction to the survey. Then the questionnaire was discussed in detail. The workshop was
very helpful as the well experienced field research assistants, came up with new ideas and inputs
to improve the field work procedure as the sample population covered 1000 informants.
Next, a pilot study was conducted to pre-test the questionnaire in the field. After the pilot study,
necessary changes were made to questionnaires. The pre testing of the questionnaires provided
more clarity, time management and a deep comprehension of the field. After the pre-testing
few more changes were made. Then the finalized questionnaire was handed over to MWDTs
research team which consisted of 12 members. MWDTs research assistants started to engage
in the field work with a close monitoring by the consultant. The trained field research assistants
who had knowledge of the language of the area, filled the questionnaire by travelling from
door to door in each DS divisions. The enumeration was conducted between November and
December 2014. After the completion of the questionnaires, data were entered using Access
software. During the analytical process, data was transferred into excel for practical reasons.
2.2 Methods
The study used both quantitative and qualitative methodologies though it gave a heavy weightage
to quantitative method. A detailed structured questionnaire was employed to generate data. The
data gathered were analysed quantitatively and qualitatively where necessary.
The research mainly used quantitative methodology. In order to support quantitative data
and supplement data that was not quantifiable, qualitative methods such as a focus group and
10
interviews were conducted. Quantitative and qualitative data was supplemented by secondary
data sources where necessary. A questionnaire survey was conducted with 1000 households.
The questionnaire adopted for the survey was based on the literature on ESCR.
A less rigid focus group discussion was held at MWDT office on issues that needed to be
discussed in a group. The issues discussed concentrated topics like community and social
dimensions as they have a collective dimension. The participants were encouraged to talk to
each other rather than answering only to the moderators question. Discussion lasted for two
hours. It was very useful as it provided range of different responses to one question that led
to greater understanding of attitudes, knowledge, opinions and behaviour. Four individual
telephone interviews were also conducted to obtain information that some group members
in the focus group wanted to discuss confidentially. The research also benefitted largely from,
reports, books, journals and internet sources on the selected topic
2.3 Selection of the research area

The research area was selected using a purposive sampling procedure. Research sites included
four Divisional Secretariat (DS) divisions in the district of Puttalam out of sixteen. The DS
divisions were selected based on the ethnicity of the population. Compared to all other DS
divisions in Puttalam district the selected DS divisions had a relatively high concentration of
Muslims population or close to the number of the major ethnic group. Distribution of IDPs was
also higher in the selected villages. The following table shows the population distribution of the
selected DS divisions according to ethnicity.
Table: 2.2.1 Distribution of population

DS divisions
Sinhalese
Tamils
(Sri Lankan)
11,275
Tamils
(Indian Tamils)
206
Sri Lankan
Moor
46,166
Others
Kalpitiya
26,668
Puttalam
21,800
6,840
893
51,804
704
9,729
1,336
76
6,249
09
25,508
11,929
123
23,656
161
Vanatavilluwa
Mundel
1704
Source: District Statistical Handbook, Puttalam, 2012.

The above table (2.2.1) shows the population distribution of the selected DS divisions highlighting the ethnic composition. The following map (1) shows the geographical location of the study
areas in which the research was conducted.
FoKUS Women
Map: 1 Location of study areas.
Source: GIS Lab, Suganya, G., Department of Geography, University of Peradeniya.
2.4 Distribution of FHHs according to DS divisions

The geographical coverage of the study consisted of four DS divisions. One thousand FHHs
were selected from the selected DS divisions. The selection criteria of respondents were made
in consultation with MWDT, using a purposive sampling technique. While the respondents
covered different types of FHHs, IDP and host status also formed one basic categorization. This
was done, because of the fact that while, IDPs gain considerable attention among NGOs, government and individual researchers, the issues faced by the host populations have not received
due attention. The following figure (2.4.1.) shows their distribution.
11
12
Figure: 2.4.1 Distribution of FHHs according to DS divisions

450
400
389
375
350
300
250
179
200
150
100
57
50
0
Kalpitiya
Puttalam
Mundel
Wanathivillu
Source: Questionnaire survey 2014.

According to the above figure majority of the FHHs belong to the Puttalam DS division, followed
by Kalpitiya, Mundel and Wanathavillu.
2.5 Time period of residence

Time period the respondents lived in the villages was also collected as it had an influence on the
access to Womens ESCR.
Figure: 2.5.1 Time period of residence
1 - 5 years
5 - 10 years
More than 10 years

The above figure (2.5.1) shows the time period of residence of the FHHs in their present villages.
Majority of the respondents are living in the villages for more than 10 years (75%). 13% of the
FHHs are living in their present places for the last 6-10 years and 15% of the FHHs are living
in their villages from 1-5 years.
FoKUS Women
2.6 Limitation of the study

Every study has its own limitations. Inability to obtain detailed information on gender based
violence and abuse, during the questionnaire survey and focus group discussions, due to ethical
consideration of the research. There were potential participants who could have provided
valuable information to the study. They were approached at the beginning to know their
willingness to be included in the study. However, they declined to participate in the study for
various reasons. Due to the limited time and focus on the structured questionnaire survey with
1000 FHHs, adequate attention could not be paid to qualitative data collection. Though in a
large scale study that involved 1000 FHHs, qualitative data collection is practically difficult with
time, by employing such a method more in depth data could have been obtained. The study
included women from both IDP and host communities in Puttalam. These women were directly
or indirectly affected by the war. However, a focus on differences between these two categories
in terms of access to ESCR could form an interesting investigation, though it is beyond the
scope of the study.
Food consumption pattern of the households was addressed through only one question in the
questionnaire. Respondents did not provide answers or expressed difficulties in answering
the question. Access to reliable income related information was a challenge to the field work
assistants. Despite the repeated explanation regarding the study, false expectations of assistance
by the respondents, in some cases were clearly observed. Hence under reporting of income
was evident in responses. It is also the same with the respondents expenditure patterns. It was
difficult to estimate the actual expenditures of FHHs.
2.7 Data Analysis

Data collected through questionnaires were transferred to a Microsoft Access-2007 spread sheet.
After preparing grids to collate the data obtained through the questionnaire data entry was done.
Answers given to open ended questions were read and grouped into meaningful categories
by assigning codes. Analysis for distribution was run for the entire survey questionnaire. This
preliminary analysis was important for two reasons. First it was necessary to check and clean
the data. The second was to check for disparities and/ or consistencies between the entered
data and questionnaires. After completing the scrutiny, tabulated data were presented through,
tables, charts and graphs where necessary. Data analysis and presentation were accomplished in
a way that they allowed to address the objectives of the research properly. Hence the sequence
followed in the question could not be followed in the presentation of the data. Data discussion
and presentation is done according to the main focus of the objective.
Qualitative data obtained through focus group discussion, individual interviews and telephone
interviews were analysed according to themes. This was done according to the themes identified
in the main structured questionnaire. Qualitative methods were used mainly to support the
data collected through the questionnaire.
13
14
2.8 Conclusion
This section provides an introduction to the research area, different data collection methods
used, briefly mentioned how the samples were selected, limitation of the study and data analysis.
15
CHAPTER III
BACKGROUND CHARACTERISTICS OF
RESPONDENTS
3.1 Introduction
The present section sets the scene by using the questionnaire survey data in order to provide a
profile and the background characteristics of the FHHs that were covered.
3.2 Age
Table: 3.2.1. Age distribution of the respondents
Age
< 20
21 - 30
31 - 40
41 - 50
51 - 60
61 - 70
71 - 80
81 - 90
Number of women
2
69
176
206
287
194
60
6
Source: Questionnaire survey, 2014

The women were requested to indicate their age. It was felt that age is an important variable
that could influence FHHs access to ESCR. The table (3.21.1) above shows the age distribution
of 1000 FHHs, included in the survey. The ages of the respondents ranged from below 20 to
81-90 years. However, the majority of the respondents were between the age ranges of 5160 (287). The chances of becoming widows for women peak after the age of 55. This is also
related to the age gap between the spouses at their first marriage. It should be noted that the age
differences between partners can vary within and between societies. Compared to other ethnic
groups in Sri Lanka, the age difference between partners in the Muslim society is relatively
higher. The category 41-50 has 206 women, while the category 31-40 years has 176 women.
16
Sixty nine women are in 21-30 years category, which is a relatively young category in term of
taking household responsibility. Women in younger ages (below 20), and older ages (above 80)
is relatively low in the sample.
3.3 Displacement status

As mentioned in the introductory sections, the study includes FHHs from both displaced and
host communities. Among the respondents, while 65 per cent are displaced and 35 per cent of
the respondents come from the district of Puttalam. The following figure (3.3.1.) shows their
distribution.
Figure: 3.3.1 Displacement status
35%
65%
Yes
No
3.4 Reasons for displacement

Following from the question regarding displacement, among the displaced category, (65%)
FHHs were asked to identify the reasons for displacement. Following table (3.4.1) shows the
reasons for displacement identified by them. Majority of the displaced FHHs belong to war
related displacement category. Marriage and education related displacement show very low
number of cases. These women were selected as they also can be categorised as FHHs directly
or indirectly affected by war.
Table: 3.4.1 Reasons for displacement

Numbers
War
632
Education
Marriage
Any Other
FoKUS Women
3.5 Education
Table (3.5.1.) shows the detail regarding educational levels of the respondents. This variable was
selected because of the crucial importance of education in accessing various types of economic,
social and cultural rights. It is also evident that improved access to education can result in improved, income, health and a better quality of life as schooling helps women to acquire necessary skills which increase their chances of employability.
Table: 3.5.1 Respondents level of education

Level of Education
Never gone to School
Grade 1 - 5
Grade 6 - 10
GCE (O/L)
GCE (A/L)
University Education
Any Other
Numbers
102
470
304
82
31
8
3

In the above figure high number of FHHs has only received primary education only. Four
hundred and seventy women have studied up to grade five. Three hundred and four women
have education up to grades 6-10. Eighty two women have studied up to GCE (O/L) and
thirty one women have studied up to Advanced level. Only 8 women have received university
education. It is also pertinent to note of the 1000 respondents covered, 102 women have never
gone to school. Womens education in the selected study villages are highly influenced by sociocultural traits. Under any other category women also reported they have completed the courses
in religious schools.
Among the older women, who are above the age of 70 years, the socio, economic and cultural
context in which they lived their childhood did not encourage the education of girls. Women
belonging to this group were born between1925-1945. During the colonial period womens
and especially Muslim womens access to education was very limited. Besides, the personal
benefits assign to education may vary according to different cultures, ethnicities and societies.
In Muslim families, especially after attaining puberty girls were once not allowed to continue
their education, though that trend has changed considerably. . In the villages in which the
research was conducted, level of education was generally low among FHHs to compete in a job
market. In a previous study done by the author in Kalpitiya DS division in Puttalam, low level
of education was observed among the first generation IDP women, who were older than 60
years (Azmi, 2012).
17
18
3.6 Age at marriage

Age at marriage, was an important question asked from the respondents as it formed one of the
sub objectives. As the figure (3.6.1) below shows, majority (56 %) of the FHHs have married
between the age category of 18-30 and 42 % have married below the age of 18, which is a notable
feature. It is pertinent to note that only 2% of the respondents have married after thirty years.
Figure: 3.6.1 Age at Marriage

2%
42%
56%
Less Than 18 years

18 - 30 years
More than 30 years

In Sri Lankas legal system there is no provision for customary early marriages (Goonesekere
and Amarasuriya 2013). The marriage registration ordinance of Sri Lanka recognizes 18 as the
minimum age for marriage for both boys and girls. However, regarding marriage parallel to the
formal law, personal and customary laws are followed by different ethnicities are also in practice
where age at marriage is not clearly defined. Muslims are governed by Muslim Personal law
regarding marriage. However, the Muslim marriages and divorce Act (1951) does not mention
the minimum age of marriage for women. In the study areas, it was found that 42 % of the
respondents (who falls under the married category) have married before the age of 18. Most of
these respondents are above 30 years of age at present. The socio economic situation in which
these women lived, nearly three decades before was very different to the conditions in which
they live at present.
3.7 Reasons for under age marriage

Age at marriage for women is an important factor that has direct link to their right to education,
health and personal development. It also has implications for their personal and emotional wellbeing. Although age at marriage in Sri Lanka for females is rising during the last two decades
with the socio economic changes taking place in the country, not all women are affected by such
changes. The situation in the study villages are captured through the following figure (3.7.1.)
FoKUS Women
Figure: 3.7.1 Reasons for early marriage

War
0%
Religious resons
1%
Others
14%
Protection
7%
Economic
reasons
23%
Family
tradition /
customs
55%

The above figure (3.7.1) shows reasons for under age marriage. The reasons identified for
underage marriages were related to family traditions and customs, economic reasons, protection
and security. Religious reason and war have contributed very low to this pattern, while 23 % of
the respondents put forward various other reasons. Among the women who married before the
age of eighteen, 55 % of the marriages have taken place due to family traditions and customs6.
This study includes IDP women, women from Puttalam and a smaller percentage of women
who migrated to Puttalam because of education and marriage. Among the IDPs, early marriages
continued not only because of family tradition but also because of economic reasons and indirect
impacts of war and internal displacement. During the focus group discussions, one woman who
married at the age of 16 told:
My mother decided to make wedding arrangements for me, when I was 14
years. I was going to school and I refused to marry. But I was the eldest in the
family and my father died nearly one year after the expulsion. Considering
my family situation, I said yes. I married in 1993, exactly after two years
living in Puttalam
A widow: from 27.09.2014 Puttalam focus group discussion.
In the case of IDP women, who are presently above the age of 30 and who got married before
the age of 18, the pre-displacement socio-economic contexts were different than the present
contexts. Most of these women lived in isolated, remote villages. Such villages were governed by
It is also important to note, that the Muslim personal law does not specify any minimum age for marriage.
Therefore, in the Muslim community underage marriage is still taking place as it is not forbidden in the religion.
This is especially applicable to rural Muslim communities and in places where Muslim population concentration
is high. In rural Muslim communities, underage marriage for girls continues to be a social norm though a similar
pattern could not be observed among the educated urban Muslim females. In urban areas, opportunities for
education and employment delay the age of marriage for women in all ethnicities, including that of Muslims
19
unwritten socio-cultural rules, in which their gendered position were hierarchical in the society.
As shown by the author in a previous study, opportunities for education and employment were
restricted for these women. Early marriages for girls were common in those societies. Since
their migration to Puttalam, they had to face a new reality and new challenges. While some
of the IDPs followed their tradition of underage marriage customs in the case of girls, others
valued girls education and employment.
The following figure (3.7.2.) shows the link between age at marriage and level of education
among the women included in the survey.
Figure:Figure:
3.7.2.Correlation
between
age at
andand
level
of education
3.7.2 Correlation
between
agemarriage
at marriage
level
of education
350
300
250
200
150
100
Not Married
< 18
19 - 30

Grade 1 - 5
Grade 6 - 10
GCE (O/L)
GCE (A/L)
Any Other

Grade 1 - 5
Grade 6 - 10
GCE (O/L)
GCE (A/L)
Any Other

Grade 1 - 5
Grade 6 - 10
GCE (O/L)
GCE (A/L)
Any Other
50
Grade 1 - 5
Grade 6 - 10
GCE (O/L)
GCE (A/L)
Any Other
20
31 <

Figure (3.7.2) above shows the level of education among FHHs and its link with their age at
Figure
(3.7.2)There
above
the level
of education
among attainment
FHHs and by
its age
linkatwith
their
marriage.
areshows
considerable
disparities
in educational
marriage.
of the
displacement
status, in all
cases, the in
graph
indicates that
the percentage
ageRegardless
at marriage.
There
are considerable
disparities
educational
attainment
by ageof
education of women who got married in the 19-30 years category is higher. The level of education
at marriage.
of at
the
displacement
all cases,
thewho
graph
of this age Regardless
category peaks
primary
level and status,
graduallyindeclines.
Those
wereindicates
below the
18 at the timeofofeducation
marriage could
study mainly
up tomarried
GCE (O/L),
while
a handful
thatage
theof percentage
of women
who got
in the
19-30
yearsof
women could study up to the GCE (A/L). It also important to note that women who got married
category
is higher. The level of education of this age category peaks at primary level
above the age of 30 do not show any considerable educational achievements. Since education
provided free
of charge
in Sri
Lanka,
is important
to see
theatreason
for this
pattern. It
andisgradually
declines.
Those
who
wereit below
the age
of 18
the time
of marriage
is also important to consider that delayed marriage age cannot always be linked with higher
could study mainly up to GCE (O/L), while a handful of women could study up to the
educational achievements or womens labour force participation. In the above figure those who
GCE (A/L). It also important to note that women who got married above the age of
30 do not show any considerable educational achievements. Since education is
provided free of charge in Sri Lanka, it is important to see the reason for this pattern.
Formatted
FoKUS Women
got married after the age of 31 do not have a good educational background. The reason for
their lower level of education can mainly be attributed to economic and cultural factors which
existed in their societies.
3.8 Reasons for becoming FHHs

In studying FHHs access to ESCR, it is crucial to recognize the potentially large heterogeneity
among them. Therefore, the study identified reasons for becoming FHHs as an important
variable. The following table (3.8.1.) displays the distribution of FHHs based on reasons for
taking up the family responsibility.
Table: 3.8.1 Reasons for becoming responsible for households

Reasons
Death of spouse
Spouse missing
Migration of spouse
Divorce/ separation
Spouse unemployed
Spouse sick/old
Others specify
Number of respondents
601
52
4
248
11
56
28

The survey respondents identified six main reasons for taking up the household responsibilities.
Among the respondents, widowhood as the reason for becoming responsible for household
represents a disproportionally large share. This is because of the fact that most FHHs are formed
after the death of the spouse. 601 women have become responsible for their households due to
the death of their husbands. During the focus group discussion when widowed women were
asked for the causes of their husbands death, majority of them mentioned it was due to natural
causes such as old age, chronic illness and sudden deaths caused by disease. At the same time, it
is also pertinent to note the life expectancy of women is greater in Sri Lanka in comparison with
their male counter parts. The other noticeable reason for taking up the household responsibility
is divorce or separation which accounted for 248 cases. During the focus group discussions
the issue of divorce and separation was highly pointed out by the participants as an increasing
challenge in their community. The reasons they identified for this trend was related to personal
to economic along with war which impacted on womens lives in many ways. A separated
woman from Puttalam, during the focus group discussion mentioned:
My husband did not have a job after migrating to Puttalam. He was running
small shop when we were in Mannar. We could not do the same business in
Puttalam as we lost everything after becoming IDPs. After five years of life in
Puttalam, he married another woman as her family gave her a good dowry
A separated woman: 27.09.2014. Puttalam, focus group discussion.
21
22
I am helping foreign employment recruitment agents to recruit poor women

from our community to go to Middle Eastern countries for employment. I
earn a good income out of this business. But my husband did not like my job
and he started to find faults with everything I did. I could not continue this
marriage. I have one child. I decided to get a divorce from him
A separated woman: 27.09.2014 Puttalam focus group discussion.
Women who were divorced or separated included women who were legally and formally divorced;
women who left their husbands on their own free will as they could not get a formal divorce and
women who have been deserted by their partners. During the key informant interview, with a
female activist it was pointed out that divorce and separation is on rise in the villages in which
the research was conducted. During the focus group discussion, the topic of remarriage was also
put forward for discussion. However, the chances of getting remarried are comparatively low
for women despite the fact that Islamic law permits divorces and remarriage. In practice these
laws seem to apply more for men than women. Though allowed for valid reasons remarriage for
widows, divorced or separated women is difficult in the already competitive marriage market
where dowry is a problem.
Fifty six respondents have become responsible for their households due to the sickness or old
age of their husbands or former persons responsible for their households. Among the IDPs
physical and mental health of men or former person responsible for the household have a direct
influence on womens economic provider role. In one of the first studies conducted on mental
health impacts of forced and prolonged internal displacement among the IDPS in Kalpitiya DS
division, Siriwardhana et al. (2013) found that unemployment was significantly associated with
mental disorders. During the focus group discussion held, a women mentioned that physical
disability and mental disorders of men who provided the economic support for the families
forced women to take the responsibility of the households.
52 respondents reported that their spouses were missing. While few of them mentioned that
their husbands went missing during the war (kidnapped/killed) others could not give a clear
answer. It can be assumed, that the women actually do not know where their husbands were or
they do not want to share the information with the interviewer. FHHs who reported that their
spouses disappeared or were missing, did not want to identify themselves as widows as the
term has a socially stigmatized meaning and they themselves do not want to accept it. One per
cent of the women (11 women) had to take the household responsibility due to their husbands
unemployment. Reasons for their husbands unemployment were mainly identified in relation
to unavailability of employment in their villages or unwillingness of their partners to do menial
jobs. Though, not significant few women have become responsible for households due to the
migration of their husbands. In such cases men have gone mainly to Middle Eastern countries
for contract employment. Women falling under this category (only four) have taken up family
responsibilities for more than five years. Four women were identified under this category.
Women whose husbands have migrated temporarily or for a short contract period were not
included in this category. Such cases (28) were reported under the category other. Under the
other category women also mentioned their husbands negligence over family responsibilities
made them to take up the family responsibilities. Unmarried women became responsible for
FoKUS Women
their households after the death of the former responsible person for the households such as
their father, grandfather or a brother.
3.9 Length of the time responsible for households

Length of the time responsible for household varies considerably among the respondents. It is
an important aspect to analyse, as the experience and issues related to accessing ESCR of those
who are responsible for their households for a longer period can vary from a FHH who has a
shorter period of experience. The following figure (3.9.1) shows the percentage distribution of
length of time responsible for households among the surveyed FHHs.
Figure: 3.9.1 Length of the time responsible for households
More than
16 years
33%
Less than 1 year

6%
2 - 5 years
23%
11 - 15 years
15%
6 - 10 years
23%

Majority of them have been FHHs for more than sixteen years (33%). 2- 5 years and 6-10 years
form the next highest categories in the hierarchy. 15 % of the women are responsible for the
households for 11-15 years and only 6% of the women are responsible for their households for
a shorter period which is less than one year.
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Figure: 3.9.2 Age at present and length of taking household responsibility

According to the above figure (3.9.2) older aged women have been responsible for their
households for a longer time than the others.
3.10 Conclusion
This section presented the background characteristics of the respondents which are essential
to evaluate the access to ESCR. The data presented shows the disadvantaged position of the
women in terms education, age at marriage, length of assuming responsibilities for the family.
FoKUS Women
CHAPTER IV
BACKGROUND INFORMATION OF
HOUSEHOLD MEMBERS
4.1 Introduction
This section moves from the background information of surveyed women to characteristics of
FHHs in terms of sex, age, marital status, level of education and employment status. These data
were collected based on other members relationship to the women responsible for household.
Women interviewed should be located within the context of their households. Because, the
households they are responsible for are an important influential factor in their present position
and their access to ESCR. In the study villages, generally FHHs lived in extended families.
The extended families consisted of same and multigenerational households. On average FHHs
covered by the study have 3-6 members. The average number for the total sample of FHHs
covered in the study was found to be 3.1 persons.
4.2. Sex and Age

In terms of sex, 51% of the household members of the FHHs are females while 49% were males.
The following figure (4.2.1) shows the age distribution of the FHHs household members.
Figure: 4.2.1 Age distribution of FHHs household members
Source: Field survey, 2014
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26
The category of 0-10 years and 11-20 years is relatively higher in the age distribution of the
household members of FHHs. This shows the prevalence of higher dependency ratio. Higher
dependency ratios (both children and old age people) will put extra pressure on women who have
to bear the sole responsibility of the family. It is also important to note that higher dependency
ratios can decrease womens opportunities for employment. The figure below (4.2.2) shows the
age and sex distribution of the FHHs.
Figure: 4.2.2 Age and sex distribution of FHHs members

According to the above figure, except in the age category of 0-10 and 21-30 years, in all the
other categories number of females exceeds the number of males, with an exception of the age
category 61-70, in which number of males and females are equal. However, it should be noted
that number of females in the working age category are high.
FoKUS Women
4.3 Employment of FHHs members

Following figure (4.3.1) shows status of employment of both males and females in FHHs
Household members were asked to state their employment status.
Figure: 4.3.1.Status of Employment - FHHs members

Unemployed
32%
Student
44%
Employed
24%

According to the above figure, majority of the dependent members of FHHs families are coming
under the category of students. While 24% of the adult household members are employed, 32%
of the adult household members come under the unemployed category and hence the latter
category forms dependents. It is important to look at the employed and unemployed members
according to sex too. The following figure (4.3.2) shows the distribution of employed and
unemployed family members according to sex.
Figure: 4.3.2 Sex and employment status of FHHs household members

From the above figure, it is clear that among the total employed household members in FHHs,
males are higher than females. Among the dependent/unemployed household members,
students contribute to a larger share followed by women.
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4.4 Level of Education

It is also interesting to note the level of education among the household members have a very
interesting pattern as reflected in the following table (4.4.1)
Table: 4.4.1. Level of education of FHHs family members

Level of Education
Never attended school
1-5 th grade
6th- GCE (O/L)
GCE (A/L)
Degree
Any other
Total
262
475
997
286
43
31
Males
140
223
488
126
21
21
Females
122
252
509
160
22
10

According to the above table, women outnumber men from grade one to GCE (A/L). However,
when it comes to higher education, number of men exceeds women. It is also important to
note that womens educational attainment is comparatively good up to GCE (O/L). However,
it heavily declines after GCE (O/L). This may be due to poor academic achievements in the
exam, economic situation of the families, early marriages and socio-cultural attitudes towards
the education of girls.
4.5 Civil status of other household members

Figure: 4.5.1. Civil status of other household members

According to the above figure (4.5.1) majority of the household members are not married. This
is due to the fact that the majority of the members are children or young people under the age of
FoKUS Women
20 years. FHHs among the other members, married, widowed, divorced, separated and spouse
missing categories of people are also included.
4.6 Other household earners

Figure: 4.6.1. Types of jobs done by other household members.
Private sector employee
14%
Agriculture 4%
Government
servent
4%
Fishing 2%
Business 3%
Construction 4%
Hotels 2%
Self -employed
16%
Others
51%

According to the figure (4.3.1) only 24% of the other household members of Women Responsible
Households (WHRs) are employed. There are adults who are capable of employment living in
the household who are yet unemployed. This shows the economic burden that women who are
responsible for their families have to bear.
Among the employed members in the household, more than half is employed in the category
identified as others (figure: 4.6.1). Under this category, employed household members were
engaged various types of employment activities varying from irregular day labour to marriage
brokers. Self-employment is cited as the second highest type of employment. Self-employment
activities reported varied from preparing spicy snacks to sewing. Self-employment activities
clearly reflected a gendered nature in the selection of jobs. 14 % of the family members living
in the FHHs reported that they work for the private sector. Some of the male members in the
family were working outside the village. Government sector workers, construction workers and
agriculture workers each accounted for 4 %. A relatively lower percentage of the members of
FHHs are engaged in the hotel sector, business and fishing.
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4.7 Conclusion
This section documented information about the other family members of FHHs. Among
the household members, students are large in numbers adding extra financial and social
responsibilities of FHHs. Further, employment status of the other household members, the
types of employment they are engaged in, their level of education and civil status all put extra
pressure on women who have to shoulder the responsibility alone.
FoKUS Women
CHAPTER V.
ACCESS AND RIGHT TO

ADEQUATE STANDARD OF LIVING
5.1 Introduction
Women, generally in many parts of the world, face discrimination and difficulties in access to
adequate standard of living. As a result, for women it is often difficult to achieve an adequate
standard of living. Adequate to a decent standard of living is a pre requisite for ensuring womens
access to other rights. Poor access to housing, an unhealthy living environment and lack of
access to food can undermine womens ability to secure health, education and employment.
Due to improper, laws, policies, customs and traditions women face disadvantages in accessing
an adequate standard of living. In order to understand the standard of living of the respondents,
data regarding house ownership, house construction materials, including access to electricity,
drinking water, fuel used for cooking, types of toilets, methods of waste disposal, environmental
quality and access to food were collected from FHHs.
5.2 Ownership of house

Securing ownership of house for women is a major strategy for womens socio economic
advancement. Secure ownership of house includes the right to own, use and transfer. In the
case of FHHs the possession of a house can contribute to gendered social mobility also.
Figure: 5.2.1 House ownership
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32
In the study majority (490) of the FHHs lived in houses owned by them (figure: 5.2.1.) The other
notable category regarding the house ownership of the house is ownership by other household
members. Other household members included, brothers, sisters, parents or even married
daughters or sons. In the study 53 women are living in houses owned by their husbands, while
56 mentioned different other categories of ownership. 40 women are living in rented houses,
while there are no illegal occupancies reported.
In the focus group conducted, women mentioned about the problem of losing inheritance rights
after marriage breakdowns and death of the spouse. Some women transfer the house ownership
to their husband due to the dowry tradition. One woman in the focus group expressed:
I am living in my parents house now. After my husbands death my in laws
asked me to go to my parents home. I did not know what to do. The house
my husbands sister living now is the house given for me as dowry by my
parents. After our marriage I transferred the ownership of the house to my
husband. He has given that house to his sister as dowry. The house is in her
name now. I do not have the legal title as it was transferred to her from my
husband.
A widow from 27.09.2014 Puttalam focus group discussion.
5.3 Housing condition: materials of construction

Even though nearly all respondents have their own, family or rented house, the quality of
housing varied. Housing conditions such as the type of materials used for the construction of
walls, floor and roof can reflect the standard of living of the households. Households that are in
better socio-economic position tend to live in houses made of more durable materials.
5.3.1 Types of materials used for wall

The type of material used for wall is an indicator of standard of living. Types of materials used
by FHHs in the construction of walls are given in the figure: 5.3.1.1. Overall 496 of all household
in the study live in walls constructed with bricks while 408 walls were constructed with cement
blocks. 68 households had cadjan walls. Walls constructed with wood, mud and tin are relatively
low.
FoKUS Women
Figure: 5.3.1.1 Type of material used for constructing walls
5.3.2 Types of materials used for the construction of roof

Figure: 5.3.2.1 shows the construction materials used for roofs in FHHs.

Overall 803 of all households in the villages live in houses with roof tiles while 68 of the households
use cadjan and 64 households use asbestos. Tin sheets were used by 46 households and only 5
of the households have constructed their roof with concrete and 14 with other materials. The
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number of houses used cadjans for roof shows the level of poverty among the FHHs. At the
same time using cadjans as roof materials is risky as fire accidents are always possible.
5.3.3 Types of materials used for floor

Figure: 5.3.3.1 Material used for floor

The above figure (5.3.3.1) shows the material used for construction of floors in respondents
houses. Majority (917) of the households have cement floors while 56 houses have mud floors.
Only 24 households have tiled floors. Other households (3) have mixed type of construction
materials for floor. For example, some households have cement for the living room and a mud
floor for kitchen.
5.4 Access to electricity

Access to electricity is important for FHHs to improve their socio economic situation. Among
the respondents only 15% of the household do not have access to electricity while 85% of the
household have electricity (figure: 5.4.1). Financial obstacle remains the most important cause
for not having electricity connections.
FoKUS Women
Figure: 5.4.1 Access to electricity

No
15%
Yes
85%
5.5. Toilet facilities

Access to good sanitation facilities are essential pre condition for a healthy life. The above figure
(5.5.1) shows the types of toilets used by the households
Figure: 5.5.1 Types of toilet facilities
Pit Latrine
(Shared)
8%
Flush toilet
5%
Pit Latrine
(Private)
87%
Household members used flush toilets and pit latrines. Pit latrines are used individually and
shared basis. 8 % of the households use shared pit latrines.
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36
5.6 Source of energy used for cooking

Figure: 5.6.1 Energy used for cooking
Electricity
1%
Gas
5%
Kerosene
3%
Wood
91%

The type of cooking fuel used by a household reflects both economic status as well as exposure
to varying types of pollutants. In FHHs, wood remains the main source of energy for cooking
as in the case of many rural areas in Sri Lanka (figure: 5.6.1). 5% of the households use gas and
3% use kerosene. Only 1% of the households use electricity as energy source for cooking. Using
electricity is comparatively expensive that other sources.
5.7 Source of drinking water

Access to safe drinking water is an important dimension in achieving a good standard of living.
Improved access to water can reduce womens work loads, increase productivity and can provide
more time for income generating activities.
Figure: 5.7.1 Main source of drinking water

Others
27%
Public
4%
Tube Well
14%
Well
11%
Piped
44%
FoKUS Women
In the study, a greater number of households (44%) have access to piped water, while 27 % use
multiple sources of water for their daily consumption needs (figure: 5.7.1). 14% of the households
use their own tube wells and 11 % obtain water from wells. Only 4% of the households depend
on public wells to obtain water. Among the households those who have access to piped water,
19% mentioned that the water supply is irregular in the areas in which they live.
5.8 Quality of water

The quality of water is equally important as the access to water. The following figure (5.8.1.)
points out the views of the households on the quality of water they use. 71% of the respondents
mentioned that they have access to safe water. At the same time 14% of the households mentioned
the water they obtain is not safe. 4% of the respondents complained about the salt and chemical
mix in the water. 2% of the households mentioned that they notice colour change in the water
they consume. 5% of the respondents could not tell anything about the water quality as they are
not sure.
Figure: 5.8.1 Quality of water
Colour change
2%
Not sure
5%
Chemical mixed
4%
Salt
4%
Not safe
14%
Safe
71%
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5.9 Problems related to water

Figure: 5.9.1.Problems related to water
Other
8%
Water scarcity
in dry period
19%
Disrupted
water supply
28%
Buy bottle
water (paid)
28%
Financial
problem
14%
Water pollution
3%

Access to adequate and improved water supply is essential for families to maintain a healthy
life. FHHs mentioned the above problems related to water. Disrupted water supply and buying
water bottles were identified as main issues related to water. Being located in the dry zone, the
study areas also face seasonal water scarcity during dry seasons where dug wells dry up. FHHs
also find it difficult to construct any water storage facilities due to the cost involved. The scarcity
of drinking water during the dry season has added to the burdens of the FHHs who are living
in the hardest hit areas.
5.10 Access and right to food

Access to and right to food is a fundamental dimension of human rights. FHHs disadvantaged
position in terms of access to food has caught wider scholarship. FHHs disadvantaged position in
terms of access to food can push them in to food insecurity7. Food security is about, availability
of food, access to food and use of food. All three are essential to ensure a familys food security.
Generally the food consumption pattern of the FHHs reflected that they consume comparatively
large amount of food items with carbohydrate rice being the staple food for many families8. They
consume less amount of food that contains protein. The availability of food containing good
The World Food Summit of 1996 defined food security as existing when all people at all times have access to
sufficient, safe, nutritious food to maintain a healthy and active life. http://www.who.int/trade/glossary/story028/
en/ (Accessed on 04.03.2015)
In the study a section to know about the food consumption pattern (consumption of specific food items over a
months period) of FHHs was included. However, that particular section was poorly answered by the respondents
as they do not know their food expenditure details, based on different items. Hence information collected during
focus group discussion, informal discussions with the field research assistants and key informants are used to
write on food consumption patterns
FoKUS Women
nutritional value is a serious problem that affects the wellbeing of Food with high nutritional
value is expensive for these families. The impacts of reduced dietary diversity can serious harm
the health of children in FHH families reducing their ability to be healthy adults in the future.
5.10.1 Monthly food expenditure

Monthly food expenditure of the FHHs was obtained through the administered questionnaire.
The following figure (5.10.1.1) shows the amount FHHs families spend on food.
Figure: 5.10.1.1 Monthly food expenditure patterns
Source: Questionnaire survey, 2014.

According to the above figure 48% of the FHHs spend 10,000-15,000 SLR on food monthly.
27% mentioned they spend less than 10,000 SLR. This may be either related to small families,
government food assistance, poverty or they grow their food. 16% of the respondents reported
they spend 15,001-20,000 SLR, while 6% of the families reported that they spend 20,001-25,000
SLR monthly on food. Only 3% of FHHs mentioned they spend more than 25,000 SLR on food.
These families could either be large or comparatively well off. It should also be noted that due to
inflation, food prices are rising in Sri Lanka. According to Household Income and Expenditure
Survey report of Sri Lanka (2014)9 expenditure on food has continuously been increasing since
the census year 1981. In the total income Sri Lankans spend 37.6% of their monthly expenditure
on food. Poor families may spend more on food from their total income. Families are affected
differently as a result of increasing food prices. FHHs can be a vulnerable category of people in
terms of increasing food prices. In the absence of any other members to contribute to family
income and lack of access to agricultural land FHH may face the impacts of food price increase
seriously. It is also important to note some FHHs cannot participate in food production due to
the gendered practices in agriculture and personal inability too. The situation can distance them
http://www.cbsl.gov.lk/pics_n_docs/10_pub/_docs/statistics/other/Socio_Econ_Data_2014_e.pdf Accessed on
15.02.2015
39
from benefitting by engaging in food production in order to reduce the impacts of increasing
food prices.
In the study, 19% of the FHHs mentioned that the income they earn is hardly enough to cover
the food expenditures. When they were asked how they manage the shortage, they provided
different methods they use to solve the problem (5.10.1.2).
Figure: 5.10.1.2 Methods use to manage food expenditures

45
42
39
40
35
30
25
20
15
9
10
er
th
O
ea
lt
Cu
im
td
es
ow
fo n
od u
co nne
ns ce
um ss
pt ary
io
n
d
Cu
td
ow
n
fo
o
ng
Gr
ow
i
gf
oo
fo
rl
oa
cr
op
s
Bu
yin
40

42% of the FHHs mentioned that they buy food on loans from neighbouring shops. 39% of
the FHHs mentioned that they reduce un-necessary consumptions. 9% of the women reported
that they reduce the number of meal times per day. 7% of the households use various other
methods to solve the problem. While only 4% grow their own food to manage the increasing
food expenditures. 52% of the women said they did not get any types of assistance to manage
the problem of rising food expenditures. Those who have obtained various forms of assistance
to reduce the food expenditures identified the following sources figure (5.10.1.3).
FoKUS Women
Figure: 5.10.1.3 Sources of support to solve the problem of high food expenditure
Government
1%
NGOs
1%
Religious
organizations
4%
Other
2%
Neighbours
17%
Friends
2%
Relatives
73%

Majority of the women depended on relatives to solve the problem (73%).17% of the women
have got helps from neighbours. It is important to note that only 1 % of the women receive
government assistance. They also identified the type of assistance they get. It included financial
assistance, loans, donations, foods and subsidies.
5.11 Access to technologies

Fifty two per cent of the FHHs are using mobile phones while 48 % said they do not. The work
burden of women could be alleviated through access to improved technologies. Mobile phones
have potential impacts on womens access to information, employment and income generation.
Among the FHHs, 52% of the respondents use mobile phones for various purposes. However,
the use of mobile phones in income generation activities has not been fully realized in the area,
though some women use mobile phones for their self-employment activities successfully. In
self-employment some women are engaged in selling garments imported from India or bought
from Colombo. They conduct this business in their homes. Business transactions are taking
place through mobile phones. One woman said:
My daughter suggested using mobile phone is easy to do business. It reduces
the time I have to travel. She taught me to send SMS and use Viber.
A divorced woman from focus group discussion held in Puttalam,
27.09.2014.
Although gender gap exists in technology penetration of mobile phone in communities is very
high in Sri Lanka. Using mobile phones can help to improve the economic participation of
women whose mobility is socially challenged. The usage of mobile phones can improve their
families productivity and earnings and raise their own status too.
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5.12 Conclusion
This section summarized the situation of FHHs in terms of adequate standard of living. Physical
conditions of their housing were in a satisfactory level. However, it is important to consider
that not all of them own houses. FHHs mentioned the problems they face in accessing water
resources. They also reported environmental problems, though they did not prioritize it. FHHs
face greater difficulties in fighting with the increasing food prices. Although the problem is
common to all middle and low income people, the consequences of increasing food prices is
severe on FHHs as they are hit the hardest. Their income is not enough to cover their food
related expenditures. They spend 60-70% of their income on food consumption. They consume
more cheap carbohydrate concentrated food items than protein food due to high prices. The
alternative ways they employ to overcome the problems by obtaining loans and cutting down
meal times can lead to a crisis situation. In the long run the strategies they use to handle the
problem of increasing food prices can eventually affect their welfare and long term food security.
FoKUS Women
CHAPTER VI
ACCESS TO WORK
6.1. Introduction
Since the adoption of Beijing Platform of Actions in 1995, the need for Gender mainstreaming
became the slogan of development programs of many governments, including that of Sri Lanka.
Though different approaches and efforts have been made to integrate women meaningfully into
the mainstream of development such attempts have not been spatially and socially equal or
successfully in terms of inclusion.
Improvement in the quantity and quality of employment are pre-requisites to have decent work
and a means to provide ones own identity. Full and meaningful economic participation of
women will have a greater impact on fully utilizing the human resources which in turn could
contribute to human wellbeing in the long run. Despite the above expectations, majority of the
women do not have access to productive resources of employment. Besides, the employment
activities they are engaged in at present are not providing them with the expected satisfaction
or safety. Improving womens access to productive resources of employment, income and decent
work are road map to womens economic empowerment. Though not fully recognized by
national or international statistics, womens economic participation is rising all over the world.
This trend was not reflected among the researched women. When asked the question Are you
employed? 56 % said No.
6.2 Reasons for unemployment

When asked for the reasons for not being employed, the FHHs provided various reasons that are
represented through the following figure (6.2.1). A striking fact is that 36% of the unemployed
FHHs mentioned, health as a barrier to be engaged in employment. This includes old age and
physical inability to work too. For 28% of the FHHs, economically viable self-employment was
not within their capacities as they lacked capital to initiate any business. Another striking fact
is 10% of the respondents indicated; they do not like to work, without providing any reasons.
7% of the respondents are not allowed to work by their family due to house work and child care
responsibilities. 5% of the FHHs said, they do not need to work. These families are relatively
well off and had other members contributing to family income. Four per cent of FHHs said they
do not meet the necessary qualifications for jobs. However, it is interesting to note that their
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educational qualifications were better than the males in their families, who are economically
active. Gendered employment choice can also create a similar situation. During informal
discussions, some of these FHHs mentioned that they are looking for government and private
sector jobs. Another four per cent of FHHs mentioned that they received no assistance from
anyone in the family or community to get a job, though they are willing to do a job. During the
focus group discussion, it was highlighted that the problems they faced were related to their
poverty as well. Some of them were willing to obtain a loan to start a self-employment venture.
However, they do not have access to loan facilities as they do not have any assets for surety. 3%
of the respondents pointed out the problem of lack of jobs in their villages, while 2% of the
FHHs do not want to work due to insecure work places. Merely 1 % of the FHHs pointed out
culture as a barrier to work.
Figure: 6.2.1 Reasons for unemployment.

No Jobs in the Village
3%
Cultural barries
1%
No help
4%
Health
barriers
36%
No capital
28%
Insecure
work place
2%
Not qualified
for jobs
4%
No need
5%
Do not like
to work
10%
Family does not allow
7%
Source: Questionnaire survey 2014

The various reasons identified by FHHs for not being employed is giving a broader perspective
on reasons for their unemployment. During informal discussions, it was revealed that FHHs
with young children do not like to work. FHHs whose husbands work outside Sri Lanka were
also of the same opinion.
Further, among the unemployed, 71% of the FHHs said, they do not have any plans to find
employment in the future. Some FHHs have become discouraged and no longer seek to work.
Many do not have the hope that they will be able to find work in the near future though they
have the economic necessity to work. FHHs, who hoped to work in the near future, suggested
a few areas in which they would like to work. These included sewing, poultry, handicrafts and
goat rearing.
FoKUS Women
6.3 Type of employment

The following figure (6.3.1) shows the distribution of employment among the FHHs representing
sectors. In terms of sectoral distribution, the respondents were asked to state whether their
employment can be categorized as government, private or self-employed. Among the employed
a high percentage (212 FHH) was employed in various employment activities which are
categorized under other. This includes seasonal labour work (agriculture), irregular labour
work, seasonal self-employment (sewing jobs during festival seasons, preparing sweets during
festival seasons, or pre-school concerts).
Figure: 6.3.1Types of employment among FHHs

Private
13%
Government
13%
Self
employment
74%

Of those employed, 74% FHHs are supporting their families by engaging in self-employment
activities. During the focus group discussion, FHHs mentioned that FHHs involvement in selfemployment is a significant trend they observe in their villages. Many of the self-employed
FHHs are engaged in micro and small scale enterprises. The self-employment activities included
sewing, making and selling sweets, string hoppers and conducting tuition classes. 13% of the
FHHs each are working in the private and government sector jobs.
Free choice of employment is another dimension of access to work. When asked whether they
had the chance of choosing their employment, among the employed 95% of the respondents
said, yes and only 5%said they did not have the chance to select their employment. Here it is
important to acknowledge that although a higher percentage of FHHs said that they selected
their employment on their own, it doesnt mean that the labor market conditions are favorable for
FHHs and do not discriminate in choosing jobs. The higher percentage of freedom in choosing
the job is because of the fact that these women are either employed in self-employment category
or other employment activities. FHHs chose these categories of jobs as they can better be able to
balance work and family responsibilities.
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6.4 Nature of employment

Figure: 6.4.1 Nature of employment
Seasonal jobs
19%
Permanent
13%
Temporary
67%

The above figure (6.4.1) shows the nature of employment that the WRRHs are engaged in.
Although 56% of total FHHs interviewed were employed, it is important to highlight that
majority of them are employed in temporary and seasonal jobs.
6.5 Working hours per day

Figure: 6.5.1 Distribution of working hours per day
More than
8 hours
31%
Less than
6 hours
35%
6 - 8 hours
34%

Figure 6.5.1 shows the working hours per day of the employed FHHs. Although the categories
of less than 6 hours (35%) and 6-8 hours (34%) dominate the distribution, it is important to
note that 31 % of the FHHs claimed that their work exceeded 8 hours. These FHHs, due to the
FoKUS Women
the absence of helping hands at home, have to do the household chores alone, which makes their
working hours long though the time they spend on unpaid household work are not included in
statistics. As self-employed FHHs have flexible working hours, they work longer hours.
6.6 Income satisfaction

When asked about the income satisfaction, among the 445 employed FHHs 61 %, mentioned
that they are not satisfied with the income they receive, while 39% said they are satisfied their
income (figure: 6.6.1).
Figure: 6.6.1 Income satisfaction of FHHs
Yes
39%
No
61%
6.7 Availability of holidays

Figure: 6.7.1 Availability of holidays
Yes
65%
No
35%

Among the employed FHHs, 7% of the FHHs worked in the private sector. When asked about
the holidays, 35% of the FHHs said, they do not get holidays, while 65% said they get holidays
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(figure: 6.7.1). Those who get holidays are paid. However, when they exceed the permitted days
of holidays, they are not paid for extra days taken as holidays.
6.8 Gendered wage differences

Figure: 6.8.1 Wage difference
Yes
11%
Dont Know
65%
No
24%

Just remuneration is one of the important rights identified under the right to work. However,
there is growing body of evidence that demonstrates gendered wage disparities. Gendered wage
differences are a critical issue that has received considerable attention among the policy makers.
Social norms regarding FHHs work can undermine FHHs potential. As a result FHHs are
frequently discriminated during hiring and performance evaluation, which can lead to gaps in
wages.
Although in the above figure (6.8.1) only 11% of the respondents have said yes to the question
regarding gendered differences in wage, majority of the FHHs said either they do not know
or No. FHHs who are self-employed may not know the answer to this question. Those who
are employed in the government sector do not have the problem of wage disparities. Gendered
wage disparities can be observed in the private sector and other category FHHs identified. This
may be related to the fact that these FHHs are concentrated in unskilled, less productive jobs,
where they do not have any bargaining power. This is especially the case in the research villages,
where available jobs for FHHs are limited. During the informal discussions with the research
assistants it was revealed that wider gendered wage gaps exist in agriculture, especially in onion
cultivation.
FoKUS Women
6.9 Reported monthly income

Figure: 6.9.1 Monthly incomes
Between
15-20,000 SLR
7%
More than
20,000 SLR
3%
Betwen
10-15,000 SLR
61%
Less than
10,000 SLR
29%

The above figure (6.9.1) shows the reported monthly income FHHs who work, earn from their
jobs. Sixty one per cent of the employed FHHs earn an income from 10,000-15,000, SLR, while
29% earn less than 10,000 SLR. FHHs earning between 15,000-20,000 SLR from their jobs are
7%. It is important to note only 3% of the FHHs earn more than 20,000 SLR per month. It is
important to point out here that, income related data are difficult to ascertain. People with
irregular income have problem in giving an accurate amount as their monthly income. The
other point is people may over or under estimate the income earned for various reasons. Next,
people may make mistakes in giving the exact figure about the individual income and household
income. However with the available statistics generated through the questionnaire, as evident
in the above figure, 61% of the FHHs earn an income between 10-15,000 SLR. The dependent
family members who are below the age of 20 years and above the age of 71 years are high
numbers (1224 out of 1951) and they drain a larger share from the income earned. Among the
dependent members as the number of children and youth are high, FHHs have to spend on
their education, health and other needs. Expenditures related to young group are comparatively
higher than the older dependent family members. The situation affects the FHHs as most of
them do not have other sources of income. FHHs also find it difficult to save or have a low level
of saving as their expenditure is high due to their dependents.
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6.10 Work environment

Figure: 6.10.1 satisfactory work environment
Yes
39%
Satisfied to a
lesser extent
55%
No
6%

55% of the FHHs reported that they have a satisfied work environment to a lesser extent, while
39% claimed that they do have a satisfactory working environment. Only 6 % said that they do
not have a satisfactory work environment.
6.11 Membership in labour unions or organization

When asked about the membership in labour organizations, only 10 % of the FHHs mentioned
that they are members of such organization. As majority of the FHHs (90% )were not involved
in any labour unions, they were asked to identify the reasons for not joining labour unions or
other labour welfare related organizations.. Their answers are given in figure 6.11.
Figure: 6.11. Reasons for not joining

Barriers from employers
1%
No organizations
25%
Barriers from
the family
2%
Dont know about

the organization
46%
Dont like to join

26%
FoKUS Women
46% of the FHHs were not aware of any existing unions. 26% mentioned they do not like to
become a member. 25% of FHHs mentioned that no labour unions exist relevant to their jobs in
the village level. While 2% and 1% of the respondents mentioned barriers from the family and
barriers from the employers are reasons for not joining labour unions or organizations.
6.12 Future income security in private or government sector

Future income security is one of the other aspects people look at when they are looking for a
job. However, in the cases of the FHHs surveyed, it was noted that they have less bargaining
power to negotiate for a job, as the jobs require higher educational qualifications and experience
which FHHs do not have. They have ended up in insecure jobs which do not guarantee any
future income security.
Figure: 6.12 Future income security
Yes
22%
No
78%

In the above figure (6.12) 78% of the FHH mentioned that they do not have any future income
security. Due to the lack of availability for jobs and poor educational attainment and lack of skill
training, FHHs cant negotiate with employment providers for highly paid job or any permanent
jobs. They take up any job that comes to them even if they do not guarantee any future income
security. 22% of the FHHs mentioned that they have future income security, in the forms of
pensions and EPF.
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6.13 Conclusion
Access to work is an essential component of ESCR. In the study it was found that majority
of the FHHs are unemployed. Reasons for unemployment were connected to personal, social,
economic and structural aspects. In terms of the nature of employment, most of them are
working in temporary types of jobs. They work long hours though they do not get a sufficient
income. As most of them are self-employed, they do not know the gendered wage differences.
Majority of them do not have a satisfactory work environment. A very high number of FHHs
are not members of any labour unions, due to various barriers at different levels. The jobs they
engaged in do not guarantee any job securities in the future
FoKUS Women
CHAPTER VII
ACCESS TO ECONOMIC RESOURCES

7.1 Introduction
Due to prevailing social differentiations, which might be based on attributes such as economic
status, social status, type of occupation, gender, ethnicity and / or religious differences, not all
people have equal rights to resources. Worldwide, women and girls in particular suffer from
access to various forms of economic rights. Lack of access to economic rights can affect the
ability to access various other resources for a decent life. In the case of women and especially
FHHs, access to economic rights is an essential pre condition for their empowerment and
economic growth. Further, research evidence also proves womens asset ownership not only
improves their personal wellbeing, but also that of the family, community and economy as a
whole (Agarwal 1994). It is also important to acknowledge, access to and control over assets is
key determinants of individual agency. This chapter discusses the present situation of economic
rights of the FHHs with relevant to land, house, livestock, jewelries, means of transport and
savings.
7.2 Possession of assets

Control over assets in all societies is influenced by legal and social norms. In terms of social
norms, socially specific marriage and inheritance rights have a great influence in asset possession
of women in developing countries. Viewing asset possession from a gender perspective
is essential to understand the economic rights of FHHs as assets are assigned for women in
different societies using different systems. In countries where pluralistic legal systems govern
womens property inheritance, women may face some disadvantages in terms of inheritance
rights.
When discussing about asset possession in an Asian context, it is important to view it from a
household context. Within a household some assets are held or used by women, some by men,
and some jointly. During the initial individual and focus group discussion with FHHs, they
reported joint ownership of assets. Respondents emphasised the joint ownership of assets as
they are commonly used/accessed by all household members. FHHs mentioned individual
ownership to assets, when they have bought that asset or when such assets were handed over
to them by their parents in the dowry package. But the ownership claim varied when they have
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more assets through dowry. For example, if a house and a parcel of land are given in the dowry
package, FHHs mentioned they have joint ownership to house and individual ownership to land.
As the husbands family also resided in the dowry house, they did not want to claim individual
ownership to the house given to them. In some cases, title of the dowry house has been changed
to husband or to his family members. In terms of assessing the actual asset possession and
rights of FHHs, similar situation can undermine the FHHs actual asset ownership. However,
research ethics and unwillingness of FHHs to go further into this discussion did not allow the
researchers to look in to this matter more deeply.
In this study FHHs asset possession is viewed mainly within the context of households. When
individual ownerships are reported such cases were also considered. In study villages, where
dowry system is still in practice, for both men and women, marriage is one of the ways to
own and gain assets individually or jointly. Marital status of women is an important factor that
influences the asset rights of women.
The questionnaire survey, intended to look at assets like land, house, livestock, jewelries, vehicles
and savings. The following table (7.2.1) shows the asset distribution of the FHHs.
Table: 7.2.1 Asset possession of FHHs

Type of Assets
Land
House
Livestock
Jewelleries
Vehicles
Savings
Own
408
436
48
114
33
396
Do not own
592
564
952
886
967
604
Total
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
Land
Discussions on womens property rights have given higher priority to land. Gender disparities in
land rights, access and ownership in developing countries have caught wider attention (Agarwal,
1994, 1998, 2003)10. Womens access to land can provide her with security against poverty; make
her economically productive (as it provides access to other facilities like, technology and credit)
and it can empower her as she gains equal access (Agarwal, 1994).
Laws regarding property rights within marriage are key to womens property rights. In the study
area among the Muslims, Muslim customary law is in practice in terms of marriage, divorce
Agarwal (2003) provides an interesting discussion on gendering land question, new possibilities to enhance
womens access to land and challenges associated with womens land access through family and the market.
10
FoKUS Women
and property inheritance11. Although Islam permits Muslim women to inherit her property, it
is not equal to their male counter parts due to religiously justified reasons. The logic behind this
unequal distribution is due to the fact that Islam makes the maintenance of the family as males
responsibility. So he has to take care of his wife and children. At the same time females do not
have any such responsibilities when they are given the property12.
In terms of property inheritance, especially land, some Muslim families treat sons and daughters
equally due to new challenges they have to face as a result of changing socio, economic and
cultural context. In the study villages, though both practices exist, FHHs have lack of access to
land in general. Nearly 41 % of the FHHs have their own land. However, surprisingly 80% of the
FHHs have individual ownership to land13. Following figure (7.2.1) shows the ownership types
of land. According to the statistics, only 18% of the FHHs have joint ownership and 2% of FHHs
have other types of ownership.
Figure: 7.2.1 Type of ownership of land

Other
2%
Individual owner
80%
Joint ownership
18%

Individual ownership of land is fundamental to FHHs income security and their own economic
improvements. Islam has provided women the right to own buy or trade property. The control
women have over properties give her the power to decision making. However, in practice these
rights are not recognized and works negatively for FHHs.
11
This law is not seriously implemented in property inheritance.
Chapter four of Holy Quran which is solely about women explains about the property rights of women. http://
www.aaiil.org/text/hq/trans/ch4.shtml Accessed on 20.02.2015.
12
It is important to consider that land ownership of women is highly related to marital status. Married and widowed
women have higher rates of land ownership in the study areas.
13
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Figure: 7.2.2 Different types of ownership

Other (specify)
11%
Inherited from
husband
9%
Inherited from
parents
38%
Dowry
2%
Gifted
1%
Bought
31%
Government
grant
8%

The above figure (7.2.2) shows different ways how FHHs became entitled to land. It is interesting
note that 38% of the land is inherited from parents. Among the IDP group some FHHs had
inherited land in their former villages in Mannar too. 31% of the FHHs have bought land.
During the informal discussions it became clear that the size of the land bought in Puttalam is
relatively small in size due to the increasing land prices and scarce buildable land. Few FHHs
have bought agricultural land in Mannar. A question was also asked, on if the land is given
by the government, who owns the land? Answers given to the question is presented in the
following figure (7.1.3).
Figure: 7.2.3 Title owners of state land
Respondent
81%
Husband
15%
Daughter
4%
FoKUS Women
It is interesting to note that a vast majority of the respondents (81%) holds the title of the state
lands given. Only 15% and 4% of the land titles are owned by other family members. FHHs who
do not directly own the land had the access to their husbands land. However some FHHs also
reported that they cannot access, their husbands land due to problems in their husbands family,
forced migration and other land related disputes.
Size of the land is also as important similar to access and ownership. The following figure (7.2.4)
shows the, size of the land owned by FHHs.
Figure: 7.2.4 Size of the land

More than 31 perches
20%
Less than 10 perches
42%
21-30 perches
7%
11-20 perches
31%

Majority (42%) of the households own land which are less than 10 perches. 31% of the households
own land which are 11-20 perches in size while 7% own land size between 21-30 perches. Only
20 % of the respondents own land over 31 perches. Among the IDPs when FHHs talked about
the land ownership and size, they referred mainly to the land they own in their present villages.
However, some older FHHs mentioned about the land they owned prior to forced migration.
Most of the young FHHs in the survey expressed that they have given up the hope regarding the
land their parents and grandparents owned in their former villages in Mannar district.
When asked about the legal documentation of the land they own, 80% of the FHHs who own
land said yes. The legal documentation is the only legal source provides the right to land.
FHHs reported various types of legal documentations that proved the ownership rights. Such
documents basically included, swaranbhumi land titles, permits and land deeds. Those who do
not have document legal documents to prove ownership to their lands accounted for 20%. They
pointed out land disputes and loss of deeds during expulsion as reasons for not having proper
legal documents. At the same time, some FHHs mentioned, they have not received the title
documents from the government in the case of land given by government as a consequence,
they cannot access the land.
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House
Ownership of house is also an important dimension of property rights. In the study 436 FHHs
said they own house. Some FHHs have not transferred the titles of their dowry house to husband
or any other members in the husbands family. Unlike in the case of land, FHHs referred only to
the houses in which they live at present when asked about ownership of house. Although some
of them had houses in their former villages before they were expelled, they did not have the
legal documents to prove their ownership. Besides, some of the elderly women mentioned that
they have their undivided ancestral homes back in their villages. However, they have not used
their houses since they were expelled.
Livestock
Livestock is a key productive asset and are much more likely to be owned by men. In the study
only 48 FHHs said they own livestock. They benefitted from the livestock as it provides for their
household needs. Further, those who own livestock were the FHHs from the host communities.
Savings
FHHs also are less likely than men to hold financial savings. At the time of the survey 396 FHHs
reported they have savings as their financial assets. While some FHHs have deposited their
financial assets in banks and legal financial institutions, some FHHs had their money in informal
saving programmes. FHHs with young unmarried FHHs save the money for dowry and wedding
expenses. During the focus group discussions FHHs also mentioned, they save money in order
to use in emergencies. The following figure (7.2.5) shows the amount of money FHHs could save
during the last year.
Figure: 7.2.5 Savings from last one year.
Les than 5,000

81%
5,000 - 10,000
14%
More than 10,000

4%
FoKUS Women
81% of the FHHs said they have a saving of less than 5000 SLR. 14% of the respondents
mentioned they have a saving between 5-10,000 SLR. Only 5% of the FHHs had a saving of
more than 10,000 SLR. It should be pointed out information regarding savings is hard to obtain
from the respondents. Hence the accuracy of the information is questionable.
Jewelries
Only 114 FHHs owned jewelries. IDP women mentioned that they lost and had to leave their
jewelries and other properties, during their expulsion. Ownership of jewelries is individually
claimed by FHHs. However, those who own jewelries mentioned that they have saved jewelries
for dowries of unmarried female household members and to sell or pawn during a financial
crisis in the family.
Vehicles
FHHs have a low ownership of vehicles. Only 33 FHHs reported ownership of vehicles in the
study villages. With the rising transport costs, lack of ownership of vehicles may hinder the
mobility of FHHs. The situation can affect FHHs who are self-employed in terms of marketing
their products. Job accessibility for FHHs are also affected by lack of access to vehicles as the
villages they presently live are very poorly connected with towns in terms of public transport.
FHHs also mentioned the prevailing negative attitude of Muslim males in the society regarding
women driving vehicles. Although some FHHs wanted to use motor cycles in order to avoid
sexual harassments in public transport and independent mobility, they refrain from using such
a mode of transport due to the prevailing negative attitudes in the society regarding this matter.
Although this is a problem experienced by all women, FHHs are affected as they fear they can
easily be caught in gossips.
Financial assistance
For women especially FHHs from IDPs obtained various forms of financial assistance from
different sources. Among the respondents17% of the FHHs reported they obtain financial
assistance. Among those who obtain financial assistance 52% obtain such helps from the
government sources; 30% obtained from relatives and 9% obtained from religious and other
organizations (Figure: 7.2.6)
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Figure: 7.2.6 Sources of financial assistance

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Govenment
Relatives
Religious
Organization
Other
Organizations
7.3 Land and its use

Once the respondents answered the questions related land ownership and size, few additional
questions were asked to know how the land is used and the decision making power FHHs had
over their individually owned or jointly owned land. During the focus group discussion it was
understood that FHHs, even if they own land, frequently do not know what type of ownership
they have and what rights they have over their lands.
Among those who own land, a question was asked about whether their land is suitable for
agriculture. For this question, while 24% of the FHHs said that their land is suitable for agriculture
the balance 76% mentioned that their land is not suitable for agriculture. It is important to note
that among those who said that their land is suitable for agriculture, not all are using their lands
for agriculture. Among the 99 FHHs who own suitable agricultural lands, only 35% of FHHs
cultivate the land. It is also important to note that although they own land they are not directly
involved in agriculture. They employ other male members, or hire others. Some of them are
involved in selected activities in agriculture. For example they participate during the harvesting.
The reasons why majority of the FHHs do not participate are related to their lack of knowledge,
lack of experience and problem in accessing extension services. Among the FHHs 65% do not
use their lands. They pointed out number of reasons pointed out for not using their land. Figure
7.3.1 shows various reasons put forward by FHHs.
Majority of the FHHs (56%) said a variety of reasons for not using their land for agriculture.
Such reasons included for example; 1) lack of male labour to perform the cultivation activities
2) problem in marketing 3) cultural barriers 4) household duties 5) being cheated by males
and middle men 6) no confidence 7) cant attend extension advice meeting .etc. Apart from
this category 21% of the FHHs pointed out lack of capital as the main problem to engage in
agriculture. 14% of the FHHs mentioned lack of water for agriculture as the reason for not
FoKUS Women
using the land. 8% of FHHs claimed that they lack knowledge about agriculture, while 3 %
mentioned that they do not have helps from government. The figure shows that the, available
land owned by FHHs have become an unused asset and did not help the households to increase
their income.
Figure: 7.3.1 Reasons for not using their land

Lack of knowledge
about agriculture
8%
No help from the govenment

3%
No capitol
21%
No water
14%
Others
54%

Among those who own land 4% of FHHs have rented or leased their land. They have rented or
leased their land on various categories.
Figure: 7.3.2 Reason for renting

Other
14%
Yearly rent
14%
Seasonal rent
29%
Long term lease

43%

According to the above figure (7.3.2) majority of the FHHs (43%) have leased their land on a
long term basis. 29% of the FHHs have rented their lands on a seasonal basis, while 14% of the
FHHs have rented their land on yearly rent and other types of arrangements. Among those who
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owned the land only 1% has mortgaged their land. Such arrangements have been made with
government banks, private mortgage companies and with relatives.
Among those who rented out either a shop or a house 71% received a rent below 10,000 SLR per
month, while, 29% earned a rent between 10,000-20,000 SLR.
7.4 Knowledge about land related institutions

Knowledge about land issues related institution is one of the many other dimensions that FHHs
need to know in terms of access and rights related to land. Among the respondents, 53% of
the FHHs knew about the existence of such institutions. However, among the FHHs who have
knowledge of the existence of the institutions, only 10% of the FHHs access the institutions to
report their problems. The land problems they mentioned were mainly related to land titles.
Some of them do not have a legal title to the land they use at present. They cannot sell the land
or legally transfer the land. They approach the following institutions to make complaints or
report their problems (figure: 7.4.1)
Figure: 7.4.1 Institutions approached for land issues

40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Grama Divisional Distric Provincial

Niladari Secretariat Secretariat Council
Police
Others

Majority of the FHHs (39%) reported that they approach District Secretariat to report land
related issues such as title and problem related to land transfer). 26% mentioned they approach
GN offices while 15 % FHHs approach Divisional Secretariat to report their land issues. 14%
of the FHHs have approached police in extreme cases to report their land disputes. 5% of the
FHHs have approached other sources such as mosques, and village level informal organizations.
Only 1% of the FHHs reported that they have approached the Provincial Council to report their
land problems if such problems are not sorted out local levels or by immediately accessible
institutions.
FoKUS Women
Access to these offices may also be problematic for FHHs. When asked, 96% of the FHHs
mentioned that they do not face any problems in accessing the services of the above mentioned
office while 4% mentioned the issues they face in the offices (figure: 7.4.2)
Figure: 7.4.2 Problems faced by FHHs in offices
Others
31%
Bias
26%
Neglected by
the officers
40%
Language
problems
3%

When FHHs go to government offices to discuss their problems 40% of the FHHs mentioned
that they are neglected by the government officers. 31% provided various other reasons, such as
bribery and harassment, while 26% reported the biased behaviour of officers. 3% of the FHHs
identified language barriers they face in the offices. Most of the FHHs do not speak Sinhala
language and they have to be accompanied by a person who speaks Sinhala. FHHs mentioned
due to lack of knowledge of the Sinhala language they face lot of problems in government
offices. As a result in order to get their work done they have to pay bribery mainly to low level
officers in the government offices. They mentioned they are compelled to do so as they do not
know the language and they want to get their work done without delay. Very few FHHs also
mentioned they have to face the problem of bribery in the form of sexual interaction. In such
situation FHHs have stopped visiting those offices though they wanted to seek assistance from
government officers in order to solve their problems. Some FHHs also mentioned they were
verbally abused /discriminated on the basis of their religious identity.
Lack of access to land is one of the problems experienced by FHHs. When asked about the
possibility of approaching the District Secretariat to apply for land, among those who did not
have land 59% of the FHHs said, they cant approach the District Secretariat. The reasons were
related to language problems and no one to accompany them to the office. Most of the FHHs
felt scared to go out without being accompanied by a male relative or an elderly female relative
due to their FHHs status.
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7.5 Issue of debts

Although FHH themselves and other member of FHHs earn incomes through various possible
ways, for many such incomes have to be used to re-pay their loans. Among the interviewed 1000
households, 40 % said they have to repay loans. Their loan amount is given the following figure
(7.5.1).
Figure 7.5.1 Amount of loan to be re-paid.

More than 100,000 SLR
31%
Less than 20,000 SLR

55%
50,000-100,000 SLR
10%
20,000-50,000 SLR
24%

55 % of the FHHs have less than SLR to be paid as loan. 24% have a loan amount of 20,00050,000 SLR, while 10% have a loan amount of 50,000-100,000 SLR. 11% of the FHHs reported
they have a loan of more than 100,000 SLR. Those who have taken large sum of money as loan
mentioned that they borrowed money for the purpose of buying a land, building a house, for
dowries and weddings and to treat a health problem. They have borrowed the money from
different sources. The following figure shows the different sources that they have borrowed
money from. (Figure: 7.5.2)
FoKUS Women
Figure: 7.5.2 Different sources FHHs borrowed money

Others
16%
From a relative
51%
Private lending
companies
6%
Bank
12%
Friend
15%

51% of the FHHs have borrowed money from their relatives, which according to them is an easily
accessible source. 16% of the FHHs have borrowed money from various other sources. 15% of
the FHHs have approached their friends to obtain loans while a 12 % of the FHHs have obtained
loans from banks. 6% of the FHHs have borrowed money from private lending companies.
Lending money from private lending companies or banks is not easy for FHHs. They obtain the
loan through womens organizations. Those who want to obtain loans are formed into groups
each of which consists of five members. If one member obtains a loan all the other members
are considered as guarantors for that loan obtained. The system is not favorable for FHHs as the
women in the group want to align with other women who have the financial capacity to repay
the loan. FHHs that have accessed banks had to pay high interest rates for their loans. Besides
the high interest rates, this facility is only available for FHHs who could provide clear land
title as collateral. As the formal ways to obtain loans are difficult to access, FHHs have sought
informal ways. As most of them have borrowed money from relatives and friends they said they
did not need any collateral. However, those who have borrowed money from formal lenders
required collaterals to obtain loans. Few FHHs who have obtained loans from banks mentioned
they used land, house and jewelries as collateral. The collateral was in conjunction with their
close family members. Again FHHs are in a disadvantaged position if they do not have a male
family member who could serve as collateral.
7.6 Conclusion
FHHs have access to different types of assets including land, house and savings. They face
problems in claiming the assets and using them especially in the case of land. They also reported
about the debts they have to re-pay. According to the findings, access to economic rights is
hindered by cultural barriers, discrimination in government offices, language barriers and their
FHHs status.
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CHAPTER VIII
ACCESS TO SERVICES
8.1 Introduction
Well-designed access to services is essential in any efforts to strengthen FHHs various roles
and empower them in socio, economic and cultural spheres. Access to services is also crucial in
achieving ESCR of FHHs. However, empirical evidence shows mixed results in terms of quality,
constraints and availability of services for women who are FHHs. It is essential to understand
how context specific gender norms, family responsibilities, knowledge, and FHHs access to and
control over other resources shape their access to different services.
8.2 Available services

In the study villages various services essential for successful community life are available.
Such services included, health service centres, educational and training institutes, womens
development centres, child health care centres, legal assistance centres, religious and cultural
centres, counseling centres charity organizations and etc. Among the respondents 98 % are
aware of the services available in their areas. However, only 77 % said either they have used or
presently using services. When asked whether they are excluded from any of the services available
in their area, while, 76% said No; 3% of the respondents said Yes. 21% of the respondents said
they are not sure.
8.3 Access to educational services for children

It is well documented that women, compared to their male counterparts in many parts of
the world, are positioned in a lower hierarchy in their access and right to resources. It is also
assumed that women who are responsible for their households are less able and likely to invest
in their childrens education and health. However, it is pertinent to note the heterogeneity of
women who are responsible for their households. Further, although with many constraints such
women make an extra effort to educate their children to attain a better quality of life.
About 68% of the households have children under 18 years old. In FHHs which have children
less than 18 years of old, 60% are attending school and 40 % are not attending school. Various
reasons were reported by FHHs for this trend. Children who could not complete their GCE
FoKUS Women
(O/L) do not attend school. At the same time, opportunities for other types of education are not
available in the villages for school drop outs. Even if they are available they are not within reach
due to physical distance and financial capacity. Among such children, girls are high in number
and face disadvantages. When girls are excluded from the educational opportunities they can
be forced into early marriages. Due to financial difficulties, distance and safety also children,
especially girls are dropping out from schools in the study area. However, it is interesting to
note the attention FHHs pay to improve girls education. Such FHHs, who comparatively are in
a disadvantaged position in the society, prefer to invest their resources in childrens education.
FHHs, who have taken the responsibilities of the families for various reasons have higher
decision making power in investing in childrens education and especially of girls. One divorced
woman in the focus group mentioned:

I think I can take some strong and better decision than married women, who have
their husbands. I strongly believe educating girls will liberate them from all problems.
Girls should be able to get permanent job. I have problems in terms of money. But I am
working hard to educate my daughters. One day it will be useful for them
A divorced FHH from, 27.09.2014 Focus Group Discussion
Although the research did not focus on the difference in decision making power among various
types of FHHs, it is evident that divorced and widowed woman have more power in terms of
decision making at household level. In the above quote the woman could easily take a decision
to promote and support her daughters education. At the same time it is clear that attitudes in
terms of girls education is undergoing a change in this community. Parents, especially mothers
motivation for educating girls are higher compared to previous generations. Ensuring FHHs
right to education and empowering them to prioritize girls education creates positive outcomes
that could create and educated generation in the future.
8.4 Problems in accessing education

Although FHHs have a higher motivations to educate their children, in their day to day life they
face several problems related to accessing educational services. 75% of FHHs said they have
problems related to their childrens education. Problems they identified are mainly related to
economic hardships they face in spending on their childrens education. The following figure
(8.4.1) shows the monthly expenditure for childrens education.
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Figure: 8.4.1 Monthly expenditure on childrens education

>SLR 3,000
36%
< SLR 1,000

20%
SLR 2,001-3,000
14%
SLR 1,001-2,000
30%

A high number of FHHs (36%) spend more than 3000 SLR monthly for their childrens
education. 30% reported they spend 1000-2000 SLR. 14% of the FHHs spend 2001-3000 SLR
monthly on their childrens education while 20% of the FHHs said they spend less than 1000
SLR for the same purpose. The lower amount spent can be related to number of school going
children, distance to school and poverty.
Some of the families are already poor with high dependency ratios. Although Sri Lankan
government is providing free education up to undergraduate level, admission to higher
education and access to government jobs are extremely competitive. Parents cant rely only
on school education if they want to prepare their children for competitive labor markets and
send their children to universities. They have to spend on tuition classes to make the students
ready for the intense competition. Schools, in which their children study, do not have all the
necessary resources for a good education. They are located in the peripheral areas, in terms
of development and lack necessary physical and human resources to provide a good quality
education. Along with the economic problems, FHHs also mentioned problems related to
admission, transportation, safety and lack of teachers.
The following figure (8.4.2) shows the problem faced by children from FHHs in travelling to
school.
FoKUS Women
Figure: 8.4.2 Distance to schools

70%
60%
60%
50%
Numbers
(%)
40%
30%
27%
20%
10%
7%
6%
4 - 6 km
>6 km
0%
< 1km
1 - 3 km

Majority (60%) resides within one kilometer from school. However, 27% lives within 1-3 kilometers
from school while 7% live within 4-6 kilometer and 6% of the students have to travel more than 6
kilometers to school. Students who have to travel more than five kilometers to school have to do
so either as they do not have schools in their villages or do not have advanced level classes. Even
if they have advanced level classes, particular streams like science, math and commerce are not
available in such schools.
Distance to school can increase school absenteeism and lateness, non-attendance to school.
Further, when the distance travelled is too far, there is a tendency that the child may lose interest
in schooling and dropout completely. Distance to school can particularly reduce the chance of
girls to continue their education. FHHs who could not afford public or private transport for their
daughters or girls in the family are compelled to pull them out of schools.
Children travelling to school, use different modes of transportation. As majority of the children
are located within one kilometer, most of them walk to school. The following table (8.4.1) shows
different modes children use to travel to school.
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70
Table: 8.4.1 Mode of transport

Mode of transport
Numbers
Walk
310
Bicycle
36
Three wheelers
30
School van
16
Bus
12
Private boarding
1
Total
405
According to the above table, (8.4.1) majority of the students walk to school. 36 students use
bicycles. Thirty students use three wheelers to go to school. Sixteen students are using school
van service to go to school. Bus services is used by 12 students. Only one student is living in a
private boarding place as the school due to distance.
8.5 Access to adult education or vocational training centres

FHHs access to adult education or vocational training centres is important as they can provide
them with necessary skills and opportunities for employment. When asked about whether they
have such facilities in their villages, only 11% said they have and majority said they do not have.
It is important to note only 9% of the FHHs have benefitted from the available adult education
and vocational training centres. Those who have followed the training said that they want to
improve their economic situation. Those who could not get any benefits from such services put
forward various reasons which are given in the following figure (8.5.1)
Figure: 8.5.1 Reasons for not following adult education or vocational training courses
Other
26%
No training centres
7%
Not intrested
15%
Economic
problem
7%
Family barrier
4%
Houshold
resposibilities
3%
No time
38%
FoKUS Women
38 % of the FHHs said they do not have time to follow such courses. 26 % of the FHHs reported
multiple reasons that are grouped under the category other. 15% of the FHHs said they are
not interested in engaging in such courses. 7% of the FHHs said they do not participate in
vocational or adult education courses due to economic reasons and due to non-availability of
adult education or vocational training centers in their villages. 4% of the FHHs are constrained
by their family members, especially by males due to fear and protection concerns, while 3%
agreed that they are barred by the household responsibilities.
8.6 Access to health services

Health is an outcome of economic, social, cultural and political contexts in which people
live their lives. As FHHs lack full and equal participation in these spheres, they experience
differential barriers to lead a health life. At the same time, access to health services and facilities
are important to the right to health. Sri Lanka has made impressive progress in the Asian region
in terms of health indicators. Free public health care system has made positive impacts of the
health needs of Sri Lankans. However, accessibility to health services, whether it is public or
private has been problematic for many Sri Lankans influence by physical access to various other
factors.
46 % of the respondents mentioned either they or a family member in their household is
suffering from a health related issue. Following figure (8.6.1) shows the health related issues of
the FHHs members
Figure: 8.6.1 Health issues in the household

Other
6%
Mental
disorders
4%
Non
communicable
diseases
55%
Physical
disorders
1%
Chronical
diseases
34%
Communicable
diseases
3%

According to the above figure (8.6.1) 55% have various types of non- communicable diseases.
34% of the members are suffering from chronic diseases. 4% reported mental disorders while
3% mentioned communicable and other diseases. Only 1 % reported physical disorders.
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The FHHs who have health related problems have sought medical treatment in various places.
The following figure (8.6.2) shows, the places they access to get medical treatments.
Figure: 8.6.2 Institutions accessed for treatment

500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
474
58
Government
hospital
Private health Using traditional

centre
medical centres
Others

According to the above figure a large number of FHHs have access to government hospitals for
their treatments. 58 households mentioned that they access the private health centres. 6 FHHs
visit various other places and 3 FHHs mentioned that they go for traditional medical centres.
Among the 541 FHHs who reported that they or a family member suffer from a health related
issues, 24 FHHs reported that they do not access available health facilities to treat for their
illnesses. They mentioned economic hardships, lack of knowledge about the needed treatment,
fear and lack of support from the family as reasons for not getting treatment. Among the 541
FHHs only 13% of the households needed the assistance of a midwife. 30 % of the people who
need treatment go to the health centres to meet the mid wife, and 70% said that they hardly go.
When asked whether midwives visit their homes 38% said yes.
During the focus group discussion participants were asked to identify reasons for not using
services. One FHH worriedly mentioned about the problem in accessing health services:

Language is a major problem to access hospitals. All the staff are Sinhalese and they do
not speak Tamil. They do not understand what I speak. Recently we have got a Tamil
speaking doctor. Tamil speaking patients will be given a yellow colour token number
and then we can go Tamil speaking doctor. As he is the one speaking Tamil and almost
80% of the patients are Tamil speaking, that particular doctor has to handle a large
number of patients and the patients have to spend a whole day in queue. We cant go to
work. Someone has to look after our children.
A widow: from 27.09.2014 Puttalam focus group discussion
FoKUS Women
Another woman told:

Although we have a Tamil speaking doctor recently, the pharmacist does not speak
Tamil. It is important that we should know how we should take our medicine. He is
trying to speak in Tamil. But we cant understand what he is telling. It is not his fault.
He is trying to help people. But government should do something about this.
A separated woman: from 27.09.2014 Puttalam focus group discussion
FHHs also mentioned lack of female staff members, language, distance to service centers,
household responsibilities14, poor quality of services, discrimination based on religion as
problems in accessing health services. Further, FHHs do not want go out alone when they cant
be accompanied by a male family member.
The MWDT has brought up the language related problems faced by Tamil speaking people
to the higher level authorities. However nothing has been done so far to solve the problem.
They too are worried about the silence of the officers responsible for appointing Tamil speaking
officers in the service sector, especially in health.
8.7 Access to financial services to treat health related issues

Many of the FHHs reported that they lack the necessary financial assets to solve the health
related problems of them or other household members. Financial costs are major barriers to
diagnosis and treatment. As a result, FHHs experience barriers in completing health care.
In the sample 51% of the FHHs said they could not solve the health related problems of either
them or other family members due to various problems. The reasons they identified are
represented in the following figure (8.7.1).
14 For women who are self-employed and handling household responsibilities without any family support, finding
time to go to service providers is difficult.
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Figure: 8.7.1 Reasons for not being able to solve health related financial needs.
Dont have
financial support
31%
Do not know the
sources of support
57%
Difficult to
ask from others
12%

According to the above figure 57% of the FHHs do not know the support sources available and
accessible to them. 31% mentioned about that they do not have any financial support from
others. This included support from the government, relatives or any other organizations. 12%
of the FHHs said they found it difficult to ask for support from others.
Despite the above situation, in the sample, 49% of the FHHs were able to get assistance from
various sources to solve the financial needs related to health issues. This shows that although
FHHs lack the financial ability to treat or diagnose a health related problem, they have managed
to get access to different sources of assistance. It is evident that they can influence and prioritize
the household decision on medical care. The following figure (8.7.2) shows the different sources
they have obtained assistance.
Figure: 8.7.2 Different sources of help for health related issues

Through the loan
7%
Through the
organizations
2%
Through the
relations
89%
Through the
neighbours
1%
Through the
friends
1%
FoKUS Women
FHHs rely mainly on relatives (89%) to access financial assistance. FHHs negotiate with relatives
to obtain financial assistance. They also have tried government loans (7%) to support the health
related financial needs. While some of them have succeeded and getting help from different
organization (2%), friends and neighbours (1%) each.
8.8 Awareness about health related programmes

Similar to access to health services, knowledge about existing health related awareness
programmes is also essential for women to enjoy the full right of health. During the informal
discussion with field research assistants, who are also actively engaged in community development
programmes, it was told participation of women and especially FHHs are relatively low in health
related awareness programmes. When FHHs were asked why they are not participating in such
programmes, 70% of the women said they are not aware of those programmes. Another questions
was asked from FHHs who said yes to the above question whether they have participated in
any such programmes. 55% said they have participated. Among those who did not participate
in the program, majority mentioned that they are not interested in such programmes.
FHHs lack of interest and commitment to participate in health awareness programmes can
lead to high prevalence of diseases and unhealthy living environment in their villages. During a
training workshop with the research assistants and key informants, it was revealed that women
regardless of FHHs, who are not employed or at home spend lot of time in watching large
scale drama series. They pointed out women generally are neglecting other duties (helping
in childrens education) or household responsibilities due to such regular TV programmes.
Although this situation has been identified as a problem in many households at present in Sri
Lanka, it can also be viewed from a different perspective especially in the case of Muslim FHHs.
They hardly have any other entertainment activities outside home, due to cultural reasons. It
is also less likely that FHHs will go in search of such entertainments in public spaces, such
as cinemas, dramas or musical programmes especially if the FHH is a widow or a separated
woman.
Besides being FHHs some women during the focus group discussion mentioned that they have
to take care of the household duties single handedly and they hardly get support from other
family members. Therefore, some FHHs in the study have double days. Some FHHs are not
aware of their rights and continue to have the attitude of household works are womens work.
8.9 Influence of culture on accessing services

FHHs face many problems in accessing available services, which can in turn deny their rights
to different services. The study wanted to find out whether, culture influences the access of
services. 94% of the respondents said, culture is not a barrier to access available services. They
do not face any restrictions from home to access services such as health and education.
The FHHs (6%) who mentioned culture is a barrier to access services, were asked to identify
how culture influences access to services. Figure 8.9.1 shows their answers.
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Figure: 8.9.1 Reasons identified under cultural barriers
Practices
at home
6%
Gender mixed
35%
Religious
barriers
15%
Civil status
44%

It is important to point out majority of the FHHs (44%) have identified their civil status as a
widow, unmarried or separated woman and FHH identity are cultural barrier for accessing
services. The FHHs can become the topics of gossips in villages if they are visiting service centres
without any one to accompany. Some FHHs were also worried even if they get a benefit from
a service centre, villages talk badly about them. An FHH during the focus group mentioned:

I can speak Sinhala though not fluently. I assisted some neighbours and relatives when
they need my help to go to the bank or hospital. The same people gossiped about me.
They have told others, it is because I am a separated woman, men in government offices
come forward and help me. They indirectly tarnished my character. I did a help and it
is because of my status as a separated woman they did this back to me. Now I stopped
going for such offices even if I have any official matters on my own.
A separated woman from Puttalam focus group discussion 27.09.2014.
35% of the FHHs identified gender mix environment in the service centres as a barrier to access
services. FHHs do not want access to service centres, in which men and women are jointly
involved in service delivery. If males are present FHHs do not want to talk about their problems.
They prefer to discuss their problems with a female officer. As a result they do not obtain certain
services (ex: loans from financial service centres). 15 % FHHs identified religious reasons as
barriers for accessing services while 6% mentioned, practices at home is a barrier to access
services. These FHHs are not allowed to go out without a male partner. Their mobility is barred
by other male members in the family.
It is worth noting that majority of the FHHs mentioned civil status as a barrier to access services.
Their present civil status as unmarried women, divorced/separated women and widowed women
advocates for a more private role in society. As such ideologies still prevail in societies, it has
increasing repercussions for the participation of FHHs in the public sphere. For these FHHs the
perception of the society about their civil status is not only a barrier to access health services but
FoKUS Women
also influence access in other areas too. Except the civil status, all other three reasons, identified
by FHHs have links or overlapping, which are all components of culture.
8.10 Satisfaction of available services

FHHs were asked whether they are satisfied with the available services, 57% mentioned that
they are not satisfied with the available services. However, among those who are not satisfied
with the available services only 4% has made complaints. As 96% has not lodged any complaints
regarding their dissatisfaction, a question was asked, why they did not complain. They provided
the following answers (figure: 8.10.1).
Figure: 8.10.1 Reasons for not complaining

Dont know
how /where
to complaint
37%
Other
18%
No need
to complaint
31%
Scared to
complaint
14%

In the above figure (8.10.1), it is important to note that majority of the FHHs did not know how
or where to complaint (37%). 31 % said they dont feel the need to complaint. 18% of the FHHs
mentioned other reasons such as language, lack of time, no one to accompany and etc. 14% of
FHHs mentioned that they are scared to complaint as they fear harassment or discrimination
in the future.
8.11 Conclusion
This section discussed about FHHs access to services. Majority of the FHHs reported access to
various services. Education and health were discussed in detail in the context of other household
members. When FHHs have access to better financial means, they invest it in the education and
health of the family. However, these FHHs face problems in accessing services at various levels.
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CHAPTER IX
ACCESS TO SOCIAL, CULTURAL AND

POLITICAL RESOURCES
9. 1 Introduction
In this chapter FHHs access and rights to social, cultural and political resources are analyzed.
9.2 Access to social support system

FHHs in their day to day life interact with their neighbours, relatives and friends through
informal network systems. FHHs benefit from these informal systems in material and nonmaterial ways. In terms of IDPs, in this study, such networks were fully damaged after their
expulsion. As a result of forced eviction, Muslim community from the North not only lost their
physical infrastructure and livelihoods but also their long established social fabrics too. During
the initial years of living in displacement IDPs suffered a lot in terms of the disturbed social
networks. The impact of the loss was different on different intersections of people. Women
generally suffered from loss of social support system and FHHs suffered seriously from this loss.
During the initial years of living in displacement FHHs from IDP community largely felt the
impact of the disrupted social support system, from which they benefitted a lot in the past. They
were mostly in need of the social support systems after expulsion and after they became FHHs.
They needed the support of other members in their community (neighbours or relatives) to
go out for various purposes. They needed emotional support in times of difficulties. Although
FHHs felt the impact of loss of social support systems during early years of displacement, the
protracted nature of their displacement has provided some of them with re-establishing the
former networks, though not to a great extent15.
This study included both FHHs from IDPs and host population in Puttalam. Although the
study did not aim at looking at the differences in terms of WRRHs access to ESCR, FHHs from
the host community had relatively good position in accessing social networks. IDPs that had
Although Sri Lankan government could carry out massive physical infrastructural development programmes in
the North and East, heavy criticism still continue as the government could not pay enough attention to build the
destroyed social structures.
15
FoKUS Women
the opportunity to have neighbours from their previous villages (or in some cases ancestral
villages) in Mannar, were able to re-establish the broken or disturbed social networks.
In order to shed light on the existing social networks and how FHHs use such networks, a
question was asked on the regular interaction patterns of FHHs. The following figure (9.1.1)
shows the interaction patterns.
Figure: 9.2.1 Daily interaction patterns

80
70
60
74.2%
50
40
30
20
10
13.1%
10.7%
Relatives
Friends
0
Neighbors
Source: Questionnaire Survey 2014.

FHHs interact mainly with neighbours (74.2%). 13.1% said that they interact with relatives and
10% interacts with friends. These interactions are mutually helpful for FHHs in their everyday
life.
Among the FHHs who are originally from Puttalam 62% agreed that they interact with IDPs
as well. The question was reversed to FHHs who are IDPs. 93% said that they interact with the
host population,
9.3 Social interaction

FHHs interaction outside their homes/ villages is also an important mean to access ESCR.
Figure 9.3.1 shows the outside interaction of FHHs.
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80
Figure: 9.3.1 Frequency of outside interaction of FHHs

Everyday
19%
Rarely
36%
Few times
a week
45%

45% FHHs go out from their homes for various purposes few times in a week. 36% of the FHHs
rarely go out from their homes. 19% of the FHHs are away from home on a daily basis. These
FHHs may possibly fall into the category of working women. The FHHs who mentioned they
rarely go out were asked to explain the reasons for not going out (figure 9.3.2).
Figure: 9.3.2 Reasons for going out rarely

Fear
5%
Others
30%
Not allowed
5%
Do not have time

due to work at
workplace
4%
Do not have time
due to
household work
18%
Feeling uneasy
38%

Majority of the FHHs (38%) mentioned that they do not go out as they feel uneasy to move in the
public spaces due to perceived and actual discrimination regarding their FHH status, especially
if they are young. 30% cited various other reasons such as lack of money, no one to accompany,
FoKUS Women
lack of transport, personal illness and etc. 18% of the FHHs admitted they do not have time to go
out as they are busy with the daily household chores. 5 % of the FHHs reported they do not go out
due to fear and another 5% indicated that they do not have permission from the families to go out.
Only 4% of the FHHs reported that they do not have time due to the nature of their work to go out.
The next section explores whether FHHs are socially discriminated based on a given set of
dimensions. Answers are given in figure 9.3.3 which is representing a very complex reality.
Figure: 9.3.3 Reasons for social discrimination

Religion
12%
Others
4%
Ethnicity
27%
FHH status
34%
IDP status
23%

26 % of the FHHs said they are not socially discriminated on any basis, while 74% of the FHHs
mentioned they are socially discriminated based on various reasons. Among those who are
discriminated socially, 34% mentioned that they are discriminated due to their FHHs status.
The situation is basically confined to their villages as most of the villagers know their FHH
status. 27% cited ethnicity as a reason for social discrimination. FHHs experienced such types
of discriminations in accessing services and public spaces. 23% of the FHHs felt discrimination
due to their IDP status. Though the IDP, host binary created tensions among both groups during
the initial years of displacement, it has decreased at present though not fully wiped out. FHHs
felt the impacts of such discrimination even now. 12 % of the FHH mentioned they experienced
religious based discrimination while 4% put forward various other reasons for discrimination.
During a telephone interview a widow woman mentioned:

Although nearly thirty years have gone since we came here, the Puttalam people still
treat us as Akathi {Internally displaced person}. This attitude prevails high in older
people than the young ones. When I went to hospital I heard one woman openly blame
us for taking their share of benefits. Although this problem is experienced by all IDPs, it
is difficult for women like me who cant make a counter arguement as I am a widow.
A widow during a telephone interview.
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Another FHH mentioned how she was discriminated due to her widow and FHH status:

Although widowhood is not a serious problem for Muslim women as the society is
expected not to discriminate a widow, in practice we experience lot of problems due to
our own society. Though, not openly stated, other women do not want us to participate
in weddings or other social events. Islam also provides the right for us to remarry. But
the chances for widows or divorced women to remarry are very limited.
A widow during a telephone interview.
Although a widows position is identified as marginal in Hindu communities due to the social
stigma associated with widowhood, in practice, in Muslim communities too widows or separated
women are marginalized and discriminated by the community itself. Although religion forms
a unique identity among Muslims, certain cultural practices overlap with other communities.
As such, Hindu practices of certain social, cultural and natural events (ex: weddings, puberty,
death) have influenced the Muslim communities too though it has an ethnic geographic
dimension. FHHs face the problem of discrimination based on their FHH status especially if
they are widows or separated as mentioned in the above case.
The following section focuses on FHHs interaction with ethnic and religious others. When
accessing social and cultural resources, interaction with members from other communities
other than the FHHs is unavoidable. In order to understand the nature of such interactions,
FHHs were asked whether they interact with people from other ethnicities or religion. 54% of
the respondents said yes. They put forward the reasons for such interactions (figure: 9.3.4)
Figure: 9.3.4 Reasons for interaction with people from other religions
Others
7%
Neghbours
30%
Villagers
15%
Friends
48%

48% of the FHHs mentioned the interaction is due to friendship. 30% of the FHHs mentioned
it is because they are neighbours. 15% admitted the interaction is taking place as they are their
own villages. 7% of the FHHs identified other reasons.
FoKUS Women
FHHs, which do not interact with people from other religion, were also asked to identify the
reasons. Their answers are given in the following figure (9.3.5).
Figure: 9.3.5 Reasons for not interacting with people from other religions.
Others
2%
Muslim village
35%
Less Opportunities
24%
Hesitate/afraid
to speak
7%
Not necessary
17%
Language barrier
15%

35% of the FHHs mentioned that their villages are mono religious. 24% mentioned that they do
not have the opportunity for interaction. This may be the case of FHHs who are not employed
or who never go out of home. 17% mentioned they dont have the need to maintain interaction
with people from other religions. 15% identified language as a barrier. They like to interact with
people from other religion, especially Buddhists. However, majority of the Muslim FHHs in
the research villages do not speak Sinhala. 7% of the FHHs mentioned that they are afraid or
hesitant to speak. Only 2% mentioned other reasons.
9.4 Participation in cultural events

The ability to participate in cultural events is also an essential pre-condition for FHHs to access
socio, cultural rights. However, not all FHHs have the same opportunity to access the public
space to participate in cultural events. While 50% of the FHHs participate in cultural events,
the others said they do not participate in cultural events. The reasons FHHs identified for nonparticipation are given in the following figure (9.4.1)
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Figure: 9.4.1 Reasons for not participating in cultural events

Civil status
3%
Others
35%
Family
restrictions
3%
Not approved
by society
1%
Personal decision
58%

Participation in cultural events is problematic for women from FHHs. 58% of the FHHs
mentioned they do not take part in cultural events due to personal decisions. 35% reported
various reasons which is presented under the category other. 3% mentioned family and civil
status as barriers for participation. Only 1% mentioned social disapproval. Those who mentioned
their civil status as a problem for participation in cultural events, pointed out participation in
cultural events may give them unnecessary problems.
9.5 Access to political resources

Access to political rights is not clearly spelled out in the general framework of ESCR. However, it
is important to look at the access to political resources of FHHs as it is an important component
in peoples social and cultural lives. Further, access to political resources can enhance FHHs
and other member of the FHHs upward mobility in socio, economic and political spaces. The
following table (9.5.1) summarizes the political involvement of FHHs.
FoKUS Women
Table: 9.5.1 Political involvement

Question
Yes %
No%
Do you support a political party
77
23
Are you supporting the same political party your parents supported?
38
62
If married are you supporting the same political party your husband supported?
36
64
Do you use media to know political news?
83
17
Do you discuss politics with your friends?
45
55
Have you ever attended a protest meeting?
04
96
Have you ever participated in a political campaign
03
97
Did you vote in elections?
96
04

The political involvement of FHHs provides a very interesting picture. In terms of actual political
interest, FHHs are in a very good position. A Majority (77%) of them support a political party.
It is interesting to note FHHs do not necessarily support the political party that either their
husband or parents supported. They discuss politics with their friends. They do care about what
is going on in the countrys political arena. The following figure (9.5.1) presents the different
media FHHs use to get information regarding politics.
Figure: 9.5.1 Political information sources FHHs access

Others (specify)
35%
Radio
49%
Social media
0%
Friends
1%
News papers
1%
TV
48%
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Still 49% of the FHHs use radios to access political information. Though it is considered as
one of the traditional modes of information obtaining source in Sri Lanka, using radios for
information has a gender, geographical and generational dimension. FHHs also use TV (48%)
to get political information. Most of them watch news in TV. Other sources FHHs use to obtain
political related information are very low.
What is striking in the above table (9.5.1) is FHHs political involvement is very limited to
domestic spheres. In terms of open and actual political participation, a very low percentage of
FHHs is present. The only time they participate publicly in politics is, voting during elections.
96% of the FHHs said they have voted in elections. When asked their views on Muslim FHHs
political participation, 67% of the respondents had positive views, 8% had a negative and 25%
of the respondents said that they cannot present any opinion about it.
Participation of FHHs in development activities is also an indicator of how they are accessing
the political space. When asked about participation of FHHs in village level development
planning meetings, only 25% of the respondents said yes. Even among the participants not
all are active participants who can influence decision making or express their views without
fear. Only 26% of the participants said they are active participants. Reasons FHHs pointed out
for not participating in such meetings are related to a lack of time, lack of awareness, lack of
confidence to talk and express their ideas and marginalization / exclusion in such places and
barriers from the family to participate.
9.6 Membership in organizations

Membership in different organizations not only provide FHHs with an improved access to socio,
cultural and political spaces, but also give them an opportunity to actively participate in decision
making processes in the public sphere, which can eventually lead to their empowerment. Among
the respondents only 21% of the FHHs have membership in organizations. When asked about
the type of organization they have membership in, FHHs identified the followings (figure 9.6.1.)
FoKUS Women
Figure: 9.6.1 Membership in different organizations

Others
7%
Religious
organization
13%
Self -help group

4%
Saving or
credit group
19%
Womens
association
56%
Business
organization
1%

They are members of various organizations such as, womens groups, self-help groups, credit or
savings groups, business organizations and religious organizations. It is interesting to note that
majority of the FHHs are members in womens groups (56%) as they found it is a convenient
space to move. 19% of the FHHs have membership in savings or credit organizations while 13%
of the FHHs have membership in religious organizations. 7% of the FHHs claimed membership
in various other organizations, while 4% of the FHHs are members in self- help organizations.
Only 1% of the FHHs claimed membership in business organizations. In all these organization
FHHs did not have an active role. 82% of the FHHs said that they are merely members. While
18 % of the FHHs held positions in the organizations in which they were members.
9.7 Conclusion
The purpose of this section was to understand that FHHs have access to different types of social
cultural and political resources. Social support systems are necessary for FHHs to access their
ESCR. FHHs show greater interest in participating in accessing socio cultural and political
resources. However, FHHs access to social, cultural and political public spaces is controlled by
several factors, which put them in a marginal position.
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CHAPTER X
PHYSICAL SECURITY AND VIOLENCE

10.1 Introduction
Despite Sri Lankas high performance in achieving a good human development rank compared
to other countries in the region, it experiences severe domestic violence and sexual harassments,
which is threating the physical security of women and children. A study conducted on domestic
violence intervention service in Sri Lanka by Kodikara and Piyadasa (2012), highlights how
micro level studies conducted tries to show the prevalence of domestic violence amidst the
unavailability of large scale national statistics on the subject in Sri Lanka. Potential victims
of domestic violence and sexual harassment in private spaces include children, wives, female
household members, domestic aides and neighbours. Women and girls are more prone to sexual
violence in their work places and when they are using public transport16.
10.2 Awareness of violence

The following figure (10.2.1) shows the level of awareness about the violence taking place in
their villages.
Figure: 10.2.1 Awareness level of violence

Not sure
12%
No
33%
Yes
55%
Source: Questionnaire Survey, 2014

For a detail discussion on gender based violence in Sri Lanka refer to :Perera, J., Gunawardane, N. and Jayasuriya, V.
(2011) Review of Research Evidence in Gender Based Violence in Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka Medical Association: Colombo
16
FoKUS Women
Among the FHH, 55 % reported that they are aware of the violence taking place in their villages.
33% informed they were unaware and 12 % reported that they are not sure whether violence is
taking place or not. Another question followed regarding the type of violence taking place. The
following figure (10.2.2) shows the different types of violence taking place as identified by the
FHHs reported that they know about the violence.
Figure: 10.2.2 Type of violence taking place

Any other
3%
Sexual
harassments
9%
Domestic violence
88%

88 % reported domestic violence, 9 % reported sexual harassments taking place in various
places. 3% reported other types of violence. In. the other category it was pertinent to note FHHs
reported about the emotional violence taking place at various places, which has not received
due attention yet in the Sri Lankan scholarship on violence. A young separated woman in the
group mentioned:

When we are talking about violence, we talk only about or mainly about the physical
violence. Women like us are dying daily due to emotional violence. If we go to a public
place, our villages speak bad of us as we are separated. They are teasing our emotions.
We cant tell this to others. Even our children face problems in schools due to our broken
family life. They too are suffering silently.
A separated woman from Puttalam focus group discussion, 27.09.2015
This is an important but rather under focussed dimensions of violence which can be termed as
emotional violence.
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Figure: 10.2.3 Places violence/harassment is prevalent

Others
8%
Public transport
6%
At home
80%
At work
5%
At school
1%

In terms of places identified by FHHs which violence heavily take place, majority of the
respondents mentioned about the domestic space (80%), while 8% identified various other
places. 6% of the informants mentioned that sexual violence mostly take place in public
transport. 5% of the respondents stated it is taking place in work places and only 1% mentioned
that it is taking place in schools. During the focus group discussion mentioned.

Private medical centres are expensive for poor people to approach. We have to go to
the government hospital for treatment. I know some male doctors are harassing the
patients. Not all. It is so very difficult to report these types of problems.
A young widow, Puttalam focus group discussion, 27.09.2015
10.3 Perpetrators of Violence

When addressing the issue of violence and it is important to know the knowldege about the
perpatrators of violence as it has an impact on protection and prevention.
FoKUS Women
Figure: 10.3.1 Perpetrators of violence/harassement

500
450
443
400
350
300
250
200
140
150
100
50
0
Family
Members
Armed
forces
14
Police
Community
members
other

The above figure (10.3.1) shows the perpetrators of violence/harassment. Majority of the
respondents (443) pointed out that family members are the main perpetrators of violence. 140
FHHs mentioned that community members (neighbours) are the perpetrators of violence.
Though not high in numbers, FHHs also mentioned armed forces, police and others are also
identified as perpetrators of violence.
10.4 Awareness and action about reporting violence

Among the respondents majority of the FHHs claimed that they know where to go and report
issues or incidents related to violence. When asked about the actions they have taken if they
have witnessed/suffer/undergone violence, majority of the FHHs (49%) said that they kept
silent. 39% of the FHHs have complained about the problem to mosques, police stations or
womens organizations. 12% of the FHHs said they directly confronted the perpetrator.
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Figure: 10.4.1 Actions taken regarding violence
Complained
39%
Keep silent
49%
Confront directly
12%

As the number of FHHs who have kept silent over this matter is high (49%), the reasons for
their decision to keep silent was asked. Their answers are given in figure 10.4.2.
Figure: 10.4.2 Reasons for remaining silent

Any other
23%
Language barrier
2%
Afraid to
complain
33%
Dont know
where to lodge
complaints
19%
Can not talk
openly about
2%
Civil status
2%
Do not like
to interfere in the
matters of others
19%

In the respondents, majority of the FHHs (33%) mentioned that they were afraid to complain.
23% put forward various other reasons, such as do not have time to make complaints, family
members do not allow them to as it may create other problems and do not have any support from
FoKUS Women
the society. 19% of the respondents said they do not like to be involved in the matters of others.
A similar percentage of FHHs mentioned that they dont know where to lodge complaints. 2%
of the FHHs informed about language barriers they face if they are to make complaints to the
police and the issue of dealing with the matter openly.
Although Sri Lanka has signed CEDAW, in practice, generally Sri Lankan society which has
a strong cultural norm do not speak openly about the issue of sexual or domestic violence.
However, actions and awareness taken with the help of media and activists have already created
an attitude change towards this matter among the FHHs who are the potential victims of sexual
and domestic violence. Still, in certain communities like that of the present study context,
FHHs feel extremely uncomfortable to talk about issues related to sexual harassment. The
information and data provided here is very important in terms of actions that should be taken
with relevance to awareness programmes and mechanisms that should be placed in the system
regarding eliminating or eradicating sexual and domestic violence.
Among the FHHs, who have complained about any types of domestic violence or sexual
harassment, 50% mentioned that no action was taken even after reporting the incidents. 44%
of the FHHs said proper actions were taken to handle the matter and another 6% of the FHHs
said they could not follow the matter to the end. Although 44% of the FHHs mentioned actions
were taken, majority of the FHHs have mentioned that either actions were not taken or they
could not follow up the case. During the focus group discussion, FHHs were worried about the
young generation, especially teenage boys who are using mobile phones for sexual harassment.
10.5 Conclusion
The issues of physical security and violence FHHs observe and face in the society is discussed
in this section. Though FHHs in the society encounter such problems, they are hesitant to talk
about the problems in public. Many FHHs are unaware as to where to report the problems and
remain silent for various reasons. .
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CHAPTER XI
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

11.1 Introduction
This section summarizes the findings of the research and puts forward possible recommendations
to solve problems faced by FHHs.
11.2 Formation of FHHs

FHHs are a growing phenomenon in Sri Lanka. Reasons for the rise of FHHs vary and are
related to socio, economic and demographic factors. They have become de jure (widows,
divorced/separated and unmarried) or de facto (spouse physically absent) FHHS who have to
shoulder the responsibility of the family. In the study areas too all these categories of FHHs
were identified. From the FHHs included in the study, the selected FHHs are the major income
earners and are responsible for the maintenance of the whole family. The study also documented
different routes of the formation of FHHs. Further, it is evident that regardless of the routes of
FHHs, women in the study villages, do not form single independent households. Rather they
come from a dependent household structure in which they are under the surveillance of others
which in some cases supports or hinders their independent lives and decision making power.
The extent to which FHHs are connected to the larger family or living in an extended family
situation was high. The extended family in some cases contained multi-generational members
depending on these FHHs economic situation. One of the interesting things which came out
of this study is that few FHH challenged the conventional understanding of the head of the
household concept in Sri Lanka. They questioned the society for not accepting women as heads
of the households even though women are contributing solely to the wellbeing of the family.
Such attitudinal changes are currently underway among the Muslim FHHs, challenging the
patriarchal structure of the society. Therefore, the official discourse on household headship
should employ a broader and a deeper categorization of women who are responsible for
households.
FoKUS Women
11.3 Socio economic background of the informants

With regard to personal socio economic backgrounds of the informants, the FHHs were in
the age range of 18 to above 80s. However, women over the age of 40 years were the majority.
Moreover, a large number of FHHs had at least received primary education. Level of tertiary
education and beyond was low making them excluded from the formal labor markets. Education
correlated negatively with the increasing age. Under age marriage has been common in the
villages though the trend is changing at present, 42% of the respondents got married before
the age of 18. Those who married before the age of 18 had less opportunities to continue their
education. At present they encounter the impacts of the missed opportunity as many of them
find the difficult to access ESCR. FHHs over 65 years have been responsible for their families for
longer period. Their experiences and challenges of accessing ESCR have been different from the
FHHs who were responsible for the families for a shorter period. FHHs suffer negative social
and economic effects throughout their adult years.
11.4 Access to economic resources

Though the FHHs ability to engage in income earning activities was limited to non-availability
of economic activities suitable for FHHs in the area, among the employed FHHs, majority has
chosen self-employment activities (74%). In the study FHHs have selected nonprofessional selfemployment activities to balance work and family. This keeps their earnings low.
Such activities, which are done at a micro level, do not give the FHHs a good and stable income.
Access to capital, markets, good production techniques and technical know-hows and lack of
transport make the situation worse for FHHs to earn a good income out of their business. The
possibilities of getting a good government sector or private sector jobs for these FHHs were very
low. A low percentage of FHHs were engaged in private or government sector jobs. Majority
of them are employed in temporary types of employment activities, which pose a risk to their
access to economic resources. They are not satisfied with the income they earn as it is hardly
enough to cover their expenditures.
Large numbers of FHHs (56%) are not employed. The reasons FHHs put forward are various,
in which health related issues took a larger share. Though the research did not intend to
focus further on this issue, it needs careful attention in the future. Generally in all villages
employed FHHs have a double day as they have to combine household chores and income
earning activities. FHHs did not report gendered wage gaps as most of them are engaged in
self-employment. However, one can expect a gendered profit disparity as the chances of FHHs
to access a good market remains a challenge for many. They sell their products within their
villages. It is also important to note that majority of the FHHs are not members of any labour
unions. Many of them do not know about such organization or do not know the benefits of
joining such organization. The FHHs social status and the disorganized nature of is a major
barrier to involve in or form labour unions. As labour unions are mainly confined to the formal
sector employment, during a crisis situation FHHs rights and interests cannot be protected. It
is important to create and connect FHHs with labour organizations.
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Land is an important economic asset for FHHs. It is not only a productive resource but also
collateral for accessing loan. Lack of security in land tenure may reduce interest to invest in
using the land. In the study villages, majority of the FHHs do not own land (59%). Even among
those who own land, FHH reported joint or family ownership which makes access complicated.
Further, for majority of FHH, the land they own or have access to is not good for agriculture.
Number of FHHs using the land for agriculture is also comparatively low. But it was interesting
to note more FHHs have the power to decide on what to cultivate. At the same time FHHs who
are engaged in agriculture reported they have problems involving in agriculture though they
want to engage in it. Related problems they identified were: lack of capital, lack of knowledge,
lack of government assistance and lack of water. It is important to note that access to and
ownership of land does not automatically help FHHs to increase their income. The barriers to
utilize the land productively should be paid proper attention. It is also pertinent to note land as
a productive agricultural resource is decreasing in the villages, due to increasing land prices and
to increasing population.
11.5 Access to socio cultural and political resources

Access to socio, cultural and political resources is important for FHHs to achieve their ESCR.
In the study it was found FHHs rely on such networks for various purposes on daily basis. Their
perceived or assigned lower social status sometimes acts as a barrier to access socio cultural
resources. This has restricted their mobility. When FHHs identified reasons for lack of outside
mobility, their answers highlighted their fear about society. They still find it difficult to move
around in the public sphere. However, some FHHs could navigate difficult economic terrains
with the help of social networks.
FHHs interacted mainly with their relatives and friends and neighbours. However, FHHs
social interaction with non-Muslim people is very much limited due to lack of opportunities
for interaction, mono ethnic village structure, language and family barriers. FHHs showed less
interest in participating in cultural events taking place in their villages, reasons varying from
personal to restrictions by the other family members. One of the interesting findings of this
research is the FHHs hidden interest in the political resources. Though they are not actively and
openly participating in the political space, their views on political affairs is interesting.
11. 6 Domestic and physical violence

Although the government of Sri Lanka in 2005 passed the Prevention of Domestic Violence Act
(PDVA), such violence and various forms of harassment are taking place at homes and public
places. They go under and unreported due to the existing socio cultural norms. In the study
villages, among the community such values are very strong. Domestic violence and physical
harassment are taking place largely at homes by male relatives. FHHs are scared and ashamed
to report the incidents to the police or other places. The situation gives an opportunity for the
perpetrators of violence to continue it silently. When the victims cant talk or complain about
the harassments and violence they face, they become depressed and eventually end up with
mental disorders. Apart from victims or witnesses inability to complain about the incidents,
FoKUS Women
non-availability of an accessible help desk in the villages is also a problem. The new trend FHHs
identified in the research areas is the usage of mobile phones by young men to engage in sexual
harassments.
11.7 Recommendations
The findings of this empirical research analysis provides a fairly clear picture about Muslim
FHHs in the district of Puttalam and their access to ESCR. As for assisting FHHs who have
taken the responsibilities of their families, government and other responsible parties should help
them to enhance their access to ESCR in effective ways in order to increase their rights towards
these resources. A proper approach to handle this problem can lead to womens empowerment.
Following recommendations are suggested:
Creating opportunities and suitable spaces for the full economic participation of
Muslim FHH who are available and willing to participate in economic activities,
which would maximize the use of human resources that could contribute to the
access of ECSR and route to their own identity and dignity. As majority of the FHHs
do not have necessary skills for employment opportunities, attentions should be
paid to tailor-made vocational and skills training programme
Interventions that help reduce FHHs access to production and labour markets are
essential.
FHHs expressed and showed tremendous ability to seek livelihood opportunities
on their own. A large number of FHHs who are self-employed expressed a strong
desire to access outside markets. This is especially challenging for FHHs due to
their religious identity. Any future livelihood improvement programme should
take care of their desires.
Access to land was not identified as a serious problem among the FHHs included
in the survey, however proper utilization of land is a problem for FHHs who
are interested in being involved in agriculture. Proper actions should be taken
considering the problems identified by FHHs in order to help them obtain an
income out of the land resources they have.
FHHs often face discrimination and inequalities, with some FHHs experiencing
multiple discrimination and social exclusion due to factors like, ethnicity, caste,
class and marital status. Taking action to reduce discrimination and exclusion
based on FHHs marital status which they find as a barrier to participate in social
and cultural lives is highlighted in this study as an essential step in ensuring their
ESCR. Prevailing socio cultural norms related to FHH should be changed.
Problems related to land should be attended to with a broad perspective involving
all the potential stake holders. FHHs are in a severe disadvantaged position in
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accessing, claiming and controlling property. Their social position should be

considered in handling other related problems.
Access to service is limited by language barriers and discriminatory behaviours of
some government officers seriously impact FHHs compared to other women. To
rectify these issues, a mechanism to report problems in their mother tongue should
be put in to practice in the government offices considering the language/ethnic
composition of the villages.
Awareness programs related to domestic violence and physical harassments are
important in the villages. A confidential place to report such incidents should be
created in the villages, which should include FHHs. There is need to decentralize
the existing reporting mechanisms regarding the matters pertaining to domestic
violence and physical harassments. Accessing special units in police for reporting
such incidents is always a problem for women and especially to FHHs included in
this study.
There should also be new initiatives to support existing womens associations to
enhance the social position of FHHs. These groups have the potential to voice the
discrimination faced by FHHs.
Being Muslim, the FHHs in the study faced considerable problems in accessing
the public space and mobility. The persistence of constraints on FHHs mobility in
public domain explains why many of them are self-employed. Careful attention
should be paid to the cultural aspects FHHs highlighted as problems for their free
mobility and their access to public space. As they do not want to challenge any
religious principles, any future actions to improve their status should keep their
priority in mind. However, certain cultural aspects they want to change (ex; riding
motorcycle than using public transport) should be encouraged in consultation with
the public in order to empower them.
A large role should be played by mosques in the villages to improve the status
of FHHs and the challenges they face in accessing ESCR. Mosques can facilitate
change the patricidal attitudes of the society which hinders FHHs access to ESCRs.
Mosque can mediate through womens organizations in the area.
Being Muslim FHHs, the new roles taken by them is really challenging as they
have to negotiate their new roles in public places, where the male dominant gender
ideologies are strong. Some FHHs do not want to challenge any structures and they
remain silent. However, some FHHs want to challenge the unfavourable gender
norms which inhibit their progress. Womens organizations in the villages can work
for the benefit of FHHs by providing them the platform to carry out their struggles.
FoKUS Women
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Affected Eastern Sri Lanka. ILO Working Paper No. 11. ILO, Geneva.
Ruwanpura, K. N., & Humphries, J. (2004). Mundane heroines: Conflict, ethnicity, gender,
and female headship in Eastern Sri Lanka. Feminist Economics, 10(2), 173-205.
Shanmugaratnam, N. (2001), Forced migration and changing local political economies.
A study from North Western Sri Lanka, Social Scientists Association, Colombo.
Siriwardhana C, Adikari A, Pannala G, Siribaddana S, & Abas M, et al. (2013) Prolonged
Internal Displacement and Common Mental Disorders in Sri Lanka:

The COMRAID Study. PLoS ONE 8(5): e64742. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0064742

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3661540/pdf/pone.0064742.pdf
Accessed on 23.01.2015
UN (2005) Economic Social and Cultural Rights: Handbook for National Human Rights
Institutions, United Nations, New York and Geneva.
United Nations. (1991). The worlds women 1970-1990: Trends and statistics. New York,
NY: United Nations.
FoKUS Women
QUESTIONNAIRE
OFFICE USE No:
1
Name of the interviewer :------------------------------------------------------------------------
Date of interview
Address of the household :----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
AGA and GN Divisions :-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Signature of the interviewer
Type of FHHs:
: DD----------- MM-------------. YY-------------.
:------------------------------------------
Type
Code
Unmarried (single) FHHs
Widow FHHs
Grandmother FHHs
Unmarried cohabiting FHHs
Others (Specify)
_________________________________________________________________________
SECTION ONE:
BASIC INFORMATION ABOUT THE
INFORMANT
1.1
1.2
1.3
Name (optional):
Age
Whether displaced or not: Yes No
1.4
If yes, why?
Answer
War
Education
Marriage
Employment
Other reasons
Code
1
2
3
4
5
Level of Education.
Answer
Never attended school
Grades 1-5
Code
1
2
1.5
Grades 6-10
GCE (O/L)
GCE (A/L)
Any Others
3
4
5
6
7
1.6
If married what was your age when you

married?
1.7
If you were under 18 when you married,

what was/were the reasons for you to get
married?
Answer
Code
Family tradition/customs
1
Economic reasons
2
Protection
3
Religious reasons
4
War
5
Others specify
6
101
102
1.8
After marriage did you move to different

house?
Yes
No
SECTION TWO:
INFORMATION ON EMPLOYMENT
2.1
1.9
1.10
1.11
1.12
How long have you been living in the

current location?
Answer
Code
1-5 yrs.
1
6-10 yrs.
2
More than 10 years.
3
How long is your household headed by a
woman? (year/s)
Answer
Code
Less than one year
1
2-5 years
2
6-10 years
3
11-15 years
4
More than 16 years
5
Why did you become responsible for your
HH?
Answer
Code
Death of spouse
1
Spouse missing
2
Spouse disappeared
3
Migration of spouse
4
Divorce/ separation
5
Spouse unemployed
6
Spouse sick
7
Others specify
8
Do you use hand phone?
Answer
Yes
No
Code
1
2
Do you Work?
Answer
Yes
No
Code
1
2
2.2
If yes, where are / were you employed by?

Answer
Code
Government
1
Private
2
Self-employed (what type)
3
Retired
4
Other (Specify)
5
2.3
If you are/were employed did you have the

opportunity to choose your employment?
Answer
Code
Yes
1
No
2
2.4
If you are employed, is your employment

permanent or temporary?
Answer
Code
Permanent
1
Temporary
2
Seasonal
3
2.5
If you are employed, do you get a good and

satisfactory pay for what you do?
Answer
Code
Yes
1
No
2
2.6.
How long do your work for a day?

Answer
Code
Less than 6 hours
1
6-8 hours
2
More than 8 hours
3
FoKUS Women
2.7
If you are working in the private sector, do

you get any holidays?
Answer
Code
Yes
1
No
2
2.13
If yes please specify the type?

Answer
Code
pension
1
EPF/ETF
2
Others (specify)
3
2.8
Do you see any wage difference between men

and women in the place where you work?
Answer
Code
Yes
1
No
2
Do not Know
3
2.14
2.9
Do you have a good/satisfactory working

environment?
Answer
Code
Yes
1
No
2
What is the monthly income you get from

your job/source of income?
Answer
Code
1
Between 10-15,000 SLR
2
Between 15-20, 000 SLR
3
4
2.10
2.11
2.12
Are you a member of any labour union/

organization?
Answer
Code
Yes
1
No
2
If not, can you please specifyl the reason/s?
If you are employed in the government or

private sector, do you have future income
security?
Answer
Code
Yes
1
No
2
2.15. Do you receive income from any other

source/s?
Answer
Code
Yes
1
No
2
2.16
If yes, please specify?
2.17
Are you a member of any health insurance

programme?
Answer
Code
Yes
1
No
2
2.18
If you are not employed, Can you please

specify the reasons?
2.19
Do you have any plans to seek get an

employment in the future?
Answer
Code
Yes
1
No
2
103
SECTION THREE:
3.5
Education
3.6
3.7
If employed
what is the
job?
3.4
Employment
3.3
Marital
status
3.2
Age
3.1
sex
CODE
Relationship
to FHH
INFORMATION OF CURRENT MEMBERS OF THE HOUSEHOLD
No.
104
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
1.
3.1.
Husband
3.2
Male
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Son
Daughter
Mother
Father
Brother
Female 11-20
21-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
7.
8.
9.
Sister
Grandson
Grand
daughter
10. Others
3.3
0-10
61-70
71-80
3.4
3.5
Never attended
Unmarried
school
1-5th grade
Married
6th- GCE (O/L)
Widowed
GCE (A/L)
Divorced
Degree
Separated
Any other
Whereabouts of
spouse not known/ (specify)
3.6
Employed
3.7
Government
servant
Uunemployed Private sector
Student
Agriculture
Fishing
Business
Construction
disappeared
Hotels
Self-employed
(specify)
Others
(specify
Above
80
3.8.
Do you have any family member married under the age of 18 ?

Yes
1
No
2
3.9.
If yes, specify the number of family members married under the age of 18?
1-2
1
2-3
2
More than 4
FoKUS Women
SECTION FOUR:
HOUSING CONDITIONS
No.
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
Questions
Who owns the house?
Type of material used to construct the walls
Type of material used to construct theroof
Type of material used to constructthe floor
Do you have electricity?
What kind of toilet facilities does your household use?
What is the source of energy used for cooking?
4.1
Self
4.2
Brick
4.3
Tile
4.4
Cement
4.5
Yes
Husband
Cement blocks
Asbestos
Tile
No
Concrete
Mud
4
5
Household Mud
member
Rented
Cadjan
Illegal
Tin
Others
Others
(Specify)
7
4.8
4.9
Code
Wood
4.6
Flush
toilet
Pit latrine
(private)
Pit latrine
(shared)
Tin sheets Others (specify)

Cadjan
Answer
Public
Others (specify)
If you are getting piped water, do you have regular supply?

Answer
Code
Yes
1
No
2
4.10 What do you think about the quality of water you get? (safe?)
4.11 Do you face problem in accessing water? Explain please.
Kerosene
Gas
Electricity
Others
(specify)
Other (specify)
What is your main source of water?

Answer
Code
Piped water (private)
1
Well water (private)
2
Tube well (private)
3
4.7
Wood
Code
4
5
105
106
SECTION FIVE:
ECONOMIC ASSETS BELONGING TO
THE INFORMANT/HOUSEHOLD
No.
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
Type of assets
Land
House
Livestock
Jewelries
Transport
Savings
Any others (specify)
5.8
If you own land, what type of title do you

hold?
Answers
Code
Individual owner
1
Joint ownership
2
Leased
3
Other
3
5.9
Have
Dont have
If you own land, what is the Size of your

land?
Size
Code
Less than 5 perches
1
5-10
2
10-15
3
More than 15
4
5.10 Is your land suitable for agriculture?

Answer
Code
Yes
1
No
2
5.11 If yes do you utilize it for agriculture?
Answer
Code
Yes
1
No
2
5.12 Do you have the autonomy to decide how to
utlise the land ?
Answer
Code
Yes
1
No
2
5.13 Do you have any problems in getting

involving in agricultural activities ?
Answer
Code
Yes
1
No
2
5.14 If yes, can you explain?
5.15 If you have land have you rented your land?

Answer
Code
Yes
1
No
2
5.16 Have you mortgaged your land?
Answer
Code
Yes
1
No
2
5.17 How did you receive the land?
Answers
Code
Inherited from parents
1
Bought
2
Government grant
3
Gifted
4
Dowry
5
Inherited from husband
6
Encroached
7
Others (specify)
8
5.18 If your land was given by the government,
who holds the land title?
Answers
Code
Respondent
1
Husband
2
Son
3
Daughter
4
Others (specify)
5
5.19 What type of documentation do you have to
prove your land ownership?
FoKUS Women
5.20 If your land is under the name of your

husbands, can you access land?
Answer
Code
Yes
1
No
2
5.21 Do you know any institutions that work in
your areas to handle land issues?
Answer
Code
Yes
1
No
2
5.22 If you have problems land related issues do
you report?
Answer
Code
Yes
1
No
2
5.23 Do you face any problems in accessing to
those offices?
Answer
Code
Yes
1
No
2
5.24 Can you please explain what type of
problems you face?
5.25 Can you go to Kachcheri / DS office to apply

or obtain land?
Answer
Code
Yes
1
No
2
5.26 If you have gone, have you faced any
problems there?
Answer
Code
Yes
1
No
2
5.27 Can you please explain what kind of
problems faced?
5.28 Were you able to save any money last year?

Answer
Code
Yes
1
No
2
5.29 How much were you able to save?
Answers
Code
Less than 5,000 SLR
1
5,000-10,000 SLR
2
More than10,000
5.30 Have you rented out a house or shop?

Answer
Code
Yes
1
No
2
5.31 If yes how much did you obtain as rent?
Answers
Code
1
10,000-20,000 SLR
2
More than 20,000
3
5.32 Have you taken any loans?
Answer
Code
Yes
1
No
2
5.33 If yes, what is the amount ?
Answers
20,000-50,000 SLR
50,000-100,000
More than 100,000
Code
1
2
3
4
5.34 From whom did you receive the loan?

Answers
Code
From a relative
1
Friend
2
Bank
3
Private lending companies
4
Others (specify)
5
107
108
5.35 Did the loan/credit require any kind of

collateral?
Answer
Code
Yes
1
No
2
SECTION SIX:
ACCESS TO SERVICES
6.1
What are the type of services are you aware

of in your place of residence?
Service
Code
Mark
Health
1
Education
2
Womens centers
3
Childrens centers
4
Legal aid
5
Religious/ cultural
6
Charities
7
Others (Specify)
8
Do not know any
9
services
6.2
If you are aware of the services, are you

using/have you used them?
Answer
Code
Yes
1
No
2
6.3
In your opinion do you think that you have

ever been deprived of any of the above
mentioned services?
Answer
Code
Yes
1
No
2
Not sure
3
6.4
State the reason why you dont use these

services ?
6.5
If you have children under the age of 18 do

you have problems in accessing educational
services for them?
Answers
Code
Yes
1
No
2
How many school going children do you
have?
Answers
Code
1-3
1
4-6
2
5.36 If yes, from what source ?

Answers
Code
Land
1
House
2
Others (specify)
3
5.37 Do you receive any financial support?
Answer
Code
Yes
1
No
2
5.38 If yes, from whom did you receive this
support ?
Answer
Code
government
1
Relatives
2
Religious organizations
3
Other organizations (specify)
4
5.39 Do you get any remittances from any of your
relatives?
Answer
Code
Yes
1
No
2
6.6
FoKUS Women
6.7
What is the distance between your home and

your childrens school?
Answer
Code
Less than 1 KM
1
1-3 KM
2
4-6 KM
3
More than 6KM
4
6.8
What is the mode of transport they use?

Answer
Code
Walk
1
Bicycles
2
Trishaws
3
Bus
4
School bus
5
6.9
Do your children face any problem in

accessing education?
Answer
Code
Yes
1
No
2
6.14 Do you have any adult education centers or

vocational training centers in your village?
Answers
Code
Yes
1
No
2
6.15 If yes do you use/attend these training
centers?
Answers
Code
Yes
1
No
2
6.16 If yes or no can you explain why?
6.17 Do you or any of your family members have

health related problems?
Answers
Code
Yes
1
No
2
6.10 If yes, what type of problems do you

encounter Please Explain?
6.18 If yes explain?
6.11 Do you have problems in getting your

children enrolled to schools?
Answers
Code
Yes
1
No
2
6.12 How much money you spend on your
childrens education (monthly)?
Answers
Code
Less than 1000 SLR
1
1000-2000 SLR
3
2001-3000 SLR
4
More than 3000 SLR
5
6.13 If you have children under 18years and if
they are not going to school can you please
tell the reason ?
6.19 If yes, where do you get treatments from?

Code
Answer
Government hospital
1
Private health centers
2
Using traditional medicine
3
others
4
6.20 If you are not getting treatments what are the
reasons?
6.21 If you have or had financial problems to treat

any health related problems in your family,
was it solved?
Answers
Code
Yes
1
No
2
109
110
6.22 If no/ yes please explain (how/why)?
6.23 Do you have any health awareness

programmes in your village?
Answers
Code
Yes
1
No
2
6.24 If you have such programmes have you
participated in any of them?
Answers
Code
Yes
1
No
2
6.30 How much money do you spend on food

expenditure monthly?
Amount
Code
1
10000-15000 SLR
2
15001-20,000 SLR
3
20,001- 25,000 SLR
4
6.31
Is your income enough to cover your food

expenditure?
Answers
Code
Yes
1
No
2
6.32 If not, how do you manage?
6.25 If not can you please explain?
6.26 Have you ever felt that your culture is a

barrier to obtain any of the services?
Answers
Code
Yes
1
No
2
6.27 If yes/no can you explain please?
6.28 If you are not satisfied with any of the above

services, have you made any complaints?
6.33 Do you get support to manage your food

related expenditures?
Answers
Code
Yes
1
No
2
6.34 If you get support to manage your food
related expenditures, from whom do you get
the support?
Answers
Code
Answers
Neighbours
Government
Relatives
NGOs
Friends
Others
Religious
organizations
6.35 What type of assistance you receive?

FOOD
6.29 Can you please mention the amount food
your family consume in a month
Amount
Food item Amount Food item
Rice
Flour
Bread
Grains
Coconut
Fruits
Beef/chicken
Dry fish
Milk
Eggs
Sugar
Code
6.36 To what extend does your family face

problem related to rising food prices?
Answers
Code
Not affected
1
Moderately affected
2
Highly affected
3
Extremely affected
4
FoKUS Women
SECTION 7: COMMUNITY/ SOCIAL

PARTICIPATION
7.1
With whom do you interact regularly?

Answer
Code
Family members
1
Neighbors
2
Relatives
3
Friends
4
Womens
5
organizations
Self- help groups
6
Others (specify)
7
7.2
If you are from Puttalam do you interact

with IDP families?
Answer
Code
Yes
1
No
2
7.3
If you are not from Puttalam, do you interact

with Puttalam people?
Answer
Code
Yes
1
No
2
7.4
How often do you go outside?

Answer
Code
Everyday
1
Few times a week
2
Rarely
3
Never
4
If the answer is rare/never, why?
Answer
Code
Fear
1
Not allowed
2
Not feeling comfortable
3
Do not have time due to
4
works at home
Do not have time due to
5
work at workplace
Others (specify)
6
7.5
7.6
Do you face any of the following type of

social discrimination?
Answer
Code
Religion
1
Ethnicity
2
Language
3
IDP status
4
Marital status
5
Female Headed
6
household status
Any other (specify)
7
SECTION EIGHT: CULTURAL

DIMENSIONS
8.1
Do you interact with people from other

religion/ethnicity?
Answers
Code
Yes
1
No
2
8.2
If yes/no can you explain why?
8.3
Do you participate in any cultural events in

your village?
Answer
Code
Yes
1
No
2
If not, can you please explain the reasons?
8.4
8.5
Have you ever felt that your marital status is

problem for participating in cultural events?
Answer
Code
Yes
1
No
2
8.6
If yes or no please explain?
111
112
SECTION NINE: POLITICAL

PARTICIPATION
9.1
9.2
9.3
Are you affiliated with a political party?

Answer
Code
Yes
1
No
2
Is your political party affiliation same as your
parents?
Answer
Code
Yes
No
If married is your political party affiliation
same as your husband?
Answer
Code
Yes
No
9.4
Do you watch, listen or read about politics in

the media?
Answer
Code
Yes
No
9.5
If yes, whats the media?

Answer
Code
Radio
1
TV
2
News papers
3
Friends
4
Social media
4
Others (Specify)
5
9.6
9.7
Do you discuss political issues with your

friends?
Answer
Code
Yes
1
No
2
If yes whats the frequency ?
Answer
Code
Often
1
Incidentally
9.8
Have you ever participated in a protest

meeting or demonstration?
Answer
Code
Yes
1
No
2
9.10 Have you ever worked in a political

campaign?
Answer
Code
Yes
1
No
2
9.11 Have you ever voted in elections?
Answer
Code
Yes
1
No
2
9.12 What is your opinion about Muslim womens
participation in politics?
Answer
Code
Good
1
Bad
2
Cant say anything
3
Others (Specify)
4
9.13 Are you a member of any organization?
Answer
Code
Yes
1
No
2
9.14 If yes specify the organization ?
Answer
Code
Religions organization
1
Savings or credit group
2
Trade organization
3
Womens association
4
Self-help group
5
Others (Specify)
6
9.15 What is your role in nthe above mentioned
organization ?
Answer
Code
member
1
An office bearer
2
Any other (specify)
3
FoKUS Women
9.16 Who can you rely on for support during a

difficult situation (financial/personal)?
Answer
Code
Extended family members
1
neighbors
2
Self-help groups
3
Savings or credit groups
4
Womens groups
5
Others (Specify)
6
9.17 Do you participate at village development /
planning meeting held and GS/AGA offices
or in any other places?
Answer
Code
Yes
1
No
2
9.18 If yes, are you an active participant?
Answer
Code
Yes
1
No
2
9.19 If not, can you please tell the reasons?
SECTION TEN: PHYSICAL SECURITY

AND VIOLENCE
10.1
Do you know /think women in your village

face violence?
Answer
Code
Yes
1
No
2
Not sure
3
10.2
If yes, what are the types of violence

(against women) isprevalent in your area?
Answers
Code
Domestic violence
1
Sexual harassments at workplace
2
Sexual harassments when using
3
public transport
Sexual harassments by male
4
officers
Any other (specify)
5
10.3
What are the locations in which these these

violence is prevalent?
Answer
Code
At home
1
At school
2
At work
3
In the bus
4
Other (specify)
5
10.4
Who are the perpetrators of violence?

Answer
Code
Family members
1
Armed forces
2
Police
3
Community members
4
Others (specify)
5
10.5
Are you aware of any available village level

service in to address this issue?
Answer
Code
Yes
1
No
2
Any other (specify)
3
113
114
10.6
What action have you taken if you have

seen or heard of sexual harassment in your
community?
Answer
Code
Kept silent
1
Confronted directly
2
Complained
3
Any other (specify)
4
10.7
If you have complained, were any actions

taken?
Answer
code
Yes
1
No
2
Any other (specify)
3
10.8
If not whats the you havent complained, ?

Specify the reason?
10.9
Do you know where to complain?

Answer
Code
Yes
1
No
2
Interviewers Notes:
SURVEY ON THE STATUS OF MUSLIM FEMALE HEADS OF

HOUSEHOLDS AND THEIR ACCESS TO ECONOMIC,
PUTTALAM DISTRICT
Sri Lanka has witnessed a rise in the numbers of female-headed households (FHH)
after the war. This includes those FHH in the North and East and also the military
widows in the South. Ad hoc interventions by the state and by civil society have
resulted in their concerns not being addressed meaningfully. A welfarist hand outs,
one size fits all approach to interventions has meant that their basic human rights to
physical security and right to be free from violence, socio economic, civil and political
rights and their psycho social needs have not been addressed.
FHH from different communities face various challenges. The FHH in the former
border villages struggle with young widows who have married at a young age and now
have to provide for their households while FHH in the North face militarization and
threats to their physical safety due to their physical vulnerability in addition to unsafe
housing. Further, FHH in the North are discriminated against by the Tesawalamai law,
which curtails their rights of ownership to land in the absence of a spouse. FHH also
face several obstacles when they access government services such as health facilities.
They also have to bear the brunt of being main provider to the household and to take
on the responsibilities that come with this role. The stigma and cultural ostracism they
face also needs to be tackled. The tracing of missing or disappeared spouses during the
war and those in detention is another concern that needs urgent attention.
The state also needs to address the needs of very young women who have been
widowed at an early age and the high numbers of elderly FHH in the North. In
addition, economic and social security for these FHH, their social welfare are concerns
that need state intervention. These concerns of FHH need to be addressed with their
participation. A platform that provides them with a space to take decisions and gives
them the opportunity to participate in decision-making on their issues needs to be
created.
A lack of clarity on who a FHH is has hampered these interventions at every level. Eg.
single women providing for their household should also be included as FHH but are at
times not included. Human rights organizations and others working in related fields
in Sri Lanka tend to use the term widow to include many types of female heads of
households. This misrepresentation results in many FHH falling through the cracks
and not receiving state and other benefits and being unable to access their rights.
FOKUS WOMEN seeks to bring clarity to the term female head of household and
also to give visibility to the socio economic and other issues faced by FHH through
its research and advocacy with the state. Providing solutions to the problems faced
by FHH will contribute to building peace and ensure that womens voices from the
grassroots are heard at national level.
FOKUS WOMEN
34 A, Sulaiman Avenue
Colombo 5
Sri Lanka
Tel/Fax: +94112055404
Web: http://www.fokuskvinner.no

A Study On The Status of Female Heads of Households and Their Access To Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (Puttalam)

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A Study On The Status of Female Heads of Households and Their Access To Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (Puttalam)

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SURVEY ON THE STATUS OF

MUSLIM FEMALE HEADS OF

SURVEY ON THE STATUS OF

Box 1: Basic List of ESCR

Age distribution of the respondents

Age distribution of FHHs household members

Reasons for unemployment

Asset possession of FHHs

Monthly expenditure on childrens education

Daily interaction patterns

Awareness level of violence

OVERVIEW AND BACKGROUND

1.2 What are ESCR?

Box 1: Basic List of ESCR

http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/ESCR/FAQ%20on%20ESCR-en.pdf Accessed on 15.10.2014.

http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/ESCR/FAQ%20on%20ESCR-en.pdf Accessed on 15.10.2014.

1.3 Women and ESCR

1.4 Conceptual clarification

1.6 The Problem and its importance

1.8 Context of the study: War, forced migration in Puttalam

1.9 Background: Forced Migration

1.10 Post war Puttalam

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

2.3 Selection of the research area

Table: 2.2.1 Distribution of population

Source: District Statistical Handbook, Puttalam, 2012.

Map: 1 Location of study areas.

Source: GIS Lab, Suganya, G., Department of Geography, University of Peradeniya.

2.4 Distribution of FHHs according to DS divisions

Figure: 2.4.1 Distribution of FHHs according to DS divisions

Source: Questionnaire survey 2014.

2.5 Time period of residence

Figure: 2.5.1 Time period of residence

Source: Questionnaire survey 2014.

2.6 Limitation of the study

2.7 Data Analysis

Source: Questionnaire survey, 2014

3.3 Displacement status

Figure: 3.3.1 Displacement status

Source: Questionnaire survey, 2014

3.4 Reasons for displacement

Table: 3.4.1 Reasons for displacement

Source: Questionnaire survey, 2014

Table: 3.5.1 Respondents level of education

Source: Questionnaire survey, 2014

3.6 Age at marriage

Figure: 3.6.1 Age at Marriage

Less Than 18 years

Source: Questionnaire survey, 2014

3.7 Reasons for under age marriage

Figure: 3.7.1 Reasons for early marriage

Source: Questionnaire survey, 2014

Never gone to School

Never gone to School

Never gone to School

Source: Questionnaire survey, 2014

Source: Questionnaire survey, 2014

3.8 Reasons for becoming FHHs

Table: 3.8.1 Reasons for becoming responsible for households

Source: Questionnaire survey, 2014

I am helping foreign employment recruitment agents to recruit poor women

3.9 Length of the time responsible for households

Figure: 3.9.1 Length of the time responsible for households