SUMMARY: Municipal solid waste (MSW) management in Greece lags behind the practices
adopted by most of the EU-17 countries. The predominant method for managing MSW remains
land disposal, with 92% of the total being disposed without prior treatment in both controlled
landfills and open dumps, and only approximately 8% recycled at source. Thessaloniki is the
second largest city in Greece, with a population that exceeds one million inhabitands (in the
greater metropolitan area) and it can be considered as a typical, large Mediterranean city. The
average rate of solid waste generation rate per capita per day has been estimated at 1.5 kg/cap.d,
based on records of populations and weight of refuse accepted. It should be noted that the MSW
produced in the prefecture, correspond to approximately 9% of the total MSW produced in
Greece. The present study investigates the difference that the implementation of Directive
1999/31/EC will have on LFG production and the possible energy exploitation of Thessalonikis
landfill sites.
1. INTRODUCTION
The Sixth Environmental Action Programme (2002-2012) sets out key environmental objectives
to be attained. One of the overall aims is to decouple the use of resources and the generation of
waste from the rate of economic growth (Article 2). The Thematic Strategy on Prevention and
Recycling of Waste stated that The long-term goal is for the EU to become a recycling society
that seeks to avoid waste and uses waste as a resource. With high environmental reference
standards in place the internal market will facilitate recycling and recovery activities. (European
Commission, 2005a; 2005b). The amended Waste Framework Directive (2008/98/EC) includes
new recycling targets on waste from households and construction and demolition waste and says
Proceedings Sardinia 2013, Fourteenth International Waste Management and Landfill Symposium
S. Margherita di Pula, Cagliari, Italy; 30 September 4 October 2013
2013 by CISA Publisher, Italy
in its preamble 28 that the Directive should help move the EU closer to a recycling society,
seeking to avoid waste generation and to use waste as a resource. Before 2008, the Packaging
and Packaging Waste Directive of 1994 and 2004 created incentives for recycling MSW as well
since a great part of packaging waste can be found in the municipal waste stream. Further, the
Landfill Directive (99/31/EC) has set targets for the level of biodegradable MSW that is allowed
to be landfilled according to a specific timetable.
Landfill of municipal solid waste has been the predominant option in the EU-27 + Norway
and Switzerland on aggregated level for several years but this is changing. In 1995 the average
landfill rate was 68% but in 2007 this had fallen to 40%. The diversion of MSW away from
landfill is expected to continue, so that only 28% of MSW would be landfilled in 2020.
Recycling of municipal waste is assumed to reach a level of 49% and incineration of waste with
energy recovery 23% in 2020. This future distribution of landfill, incineration with energy
recovery and recycling represents a business-as-usual scenario that is based on an assessment
taking into account previous developments in municipal waste management and the implementation of planned policy measures. Still, the projection shows that due to the considerable
increase in waste amounts, a slight increase in the absolute amount of landfilled waste is seen
from 2017 (ETC/SCP working paper 4/2011).
Electricity generation from landfill gas is a well established and proven technology in the EU.
In most schemes the gas is burned in a reciprocating engine which turns a generating set,
although a dual fuel or gas turbine can be used. Reciprocating engines tend to have a lower cost
and are available in smaller unit sizes; they suffer from corrosion caused by acidic species in the
landfill gas, although the lubricating oils used in spark-ignited engines do provide some
protection against acidic combustion products. Gas turbines have less corrosion problems, but
are more expensive and need a consistent gas quality; they also need a much higher gas delivery
pressure, so that installation and operation of the gas compressors is also more expensive. There
is generally no use for the power generated on the landfill site itself so that a connection to the
electricity distribution network is necessary. Electricity generation plant for landfill gas is
available in modular units that are installed as turnkey packages (Bates et al, 2001)
Landfill gas has too low a calorific value to enable it to be fed directly into the natural gas
network, but it is possible to produce a synthetic natural gas from it. A number of techniques are
available that can achieve this by removing non-combustible components such as carbon
dioxide, and trace gases such as hydrogen sulphide. The main cleaning techniques include: (i)
water scrubbing, (ii) solvent extraction, (iii) membrane separation, (iv) pressure swing
absorption, (v) iron oxide beds, (vi) activated carbon adsorption. The gas must then be
pressurised before being fed into the gas distribution network. This option is only feasible if
there is an extensive natural gas distribution system, so that the gas does not have to be
transported long distances from the landfill site. Thus while this option is relatively costeffective in terms of methane abatement and would be profitable for a landfill owner, it is only
feasible at landfill sites located close to a gas pipeline. This limits the applicability of this option.
The GHG direct emissions from municipal waste management consist mainly of methane
emissions from landfill and energy-related GHG emissions from the collection and management
of waste. There are also avoided GHG emissions from energy consumption due to recycling of
secondary materials compared to the production of virgin materials, incineration or the use of
collected landfill gas for energy recovery. Life-cycle information allows a calculation to be made
of these avoided emissions that represent the benefit of recycling for manufacturing materials
and for incineration or landfilling producing energy instead of using fossil fuels and virgin
materials. At least 50 to 60 % of MSW consists of materials of biogenic origin (like food and
garden waste, wood, paper and cardboard and partly textiles). Because of the assumption that
biogenic CO2 emissions are climate neutral, CO2 emissions from waste incineration plants,
measured per produced energy unit, are much lower than from a fossil fuel-fired power plant
(ETC/SCP working paper 4/2011).
Municipal solid waste (MSW) management in Greece lags behind the practices adopted by
most of the EU-17 countries. The predominant method for managing MSW remains land
disposal, with 92% of the total being disposed without prior treatment in both controlled landfills
and open dumps, and only approximately 8% recycled at source. Thessaloniki is the second
largest city in Greece, with a population that exceeds one million inhabitands (in the greater
metropolitan area) and it can be considered as a typical, large Mediterranean city. The average
rate of solid waste generation rate per capita per day has been estimated at 1.5 kg/cap.d, based on
records of populations and weight of refuse accepted. It should be noted that the MSW produced
in the prefecture, correspond to approximately 9% of the total MSW produced in Greece. The
present study investigates the difference that the implementation of Directive 1999/31/EC will
have on LFG production and the possible energy exploitation of Thessalonikis landfill sites.
landfilling.
2.2 Composition of MSW
Several composition studies have been conducted in Greece in the past years. Unfortunately,
they were not carried out using the same methodology or under organized regional solid waste
management planning (Alexaki and Agapitidis, 1995). Studies on MSW composition results,
referring to the urban area of the Prefecture of Thessaloniki, are shown in Table 1.
According to the figures presented in table 1, the OFMSW fraction was found to be over at
approximately 30% (Poulios and Papachristou, 2005). It should also be noted that the quantities
of paper send for landfilling equals to 37%, despite the recycling efforts of the local and regional
authorities. Therefore, biodegradables (organics and paper) account for over 50% of the total
MSW, according to the latest available studies.
Table 1: MSW composition (%)
Year
2005-2006 (1)
2007 (2)
Organic
s
28.8
30.0
Paper
23.2
37.0
Plastic
Glass
19.2
19.0
Metals
3.6
2.0
3.5
3.0
Inert
7.1
2.0
Other
5.8
4.5
L.W.T.R.
8.8
2.5
LWTR, leather-wood-textile-rubber
Adapted from Association of Local Municipal Authorities on Thessaloniki
(2)
Adapted from Hellenic Ministry for the Environment, Physical Planning and public Work
(1)
It would be safe enough to assume that the percentage of digestives in MSW will continue to
increase in the future, despite the intensification of recycling efforts. For the purposes of the
present study, the authors have used 54% as the maximum biodegradable percentage in MSW for
the time period 2008-2037. Thus, the maximum biodegradable generation rate per capita per day
for the Thessaloniki Prefecture and for the time period 2008-37 is estimated at 1.15 kg/cap.d
while the total quantity of biodegradables for this 30 year period will expected to be 15.5 Mtn
Atomic Weight
12.0
1.01
16.0
Nitrogen
(1)
14.0
2.06
20.6
1.47
1.00
700.000
w ithout diversion
600.000
500.000
400.000
after diversion
300.000
200.000
100.000
25%
25%
15%
0
2005
2010
2015
2020
2025
2030
2035
2040
Year
Figure1 Estimation of OFMSW disposed of in landfills with and without diversion (2008 2037)
QCH 4
i 1
M i kti , j
kL
j 0,1 o 10 e
where QCH4 = annual methane emission rate (m3/year); n = the number of years of waste
placement; i =1 year time increment; j = 0.1 year time increment; k = methane generation rate
constant, (year-1); Lo = methane generation potential; (m3/Mg), Mi = mass of solid waste placed in
year, (Mg); ti,j = the age of the jth section of waste mass Mi in the ith year
The mean, annual rainfall for the area where the landfill of Mavrorahi site (western sector) is
located is 619 mm, according to the Association of Local Municipal Authorities in Thessaloniki,
Main Planning Study - Total Management of Western-Eastern Sector (2000), so it should be
considered as semi arid. The values of the parameters that have been used in order to calculate
the biogas production are K = 0.03 year-1, Lo = 102.3 m3/Mg, CH4 = 53 %
7,0E+07
6,0E+07
w ithout
dive rs ion
5,0E+07
4,0E+07
3,0E+07
2,0E+07
1,0E+07
0,0E+00
2000
2050
2100
2150
2200
Year
Figure 2. Estimation of the rate for methane produced with and without diversion (2008 2037)
Total CH
4 production(m
Several practical factors influence the possibility of capturing the total volume of LFG
generated. The most important are: a) LFG losses to the atmosphere through the surface, b)
losses through lateral gas migration, c) pre-closure loss due to the decomposition of organic
material under aerobic conditions, d) internally stored in the landfill volume and e) other losses
such as wash out of organic carbon via leachate (Spokas and Bogner, 1993; Johanessen, 1999).
Even with well-designed cover, few landfills are thought to recover more than 60% of the
available LFG. Normally recovery rates are considered to be in the range of 40-50% by volume
(Johanessen, 1999). Gas recovery efficiencies have been estimated to be in the range of 50-75%,
based on measured gas extraction rates divided by modelled gas generation rates (IPCC
Guidelines, 2006). There have been various attempts to measure efficiencies at gas recovery
projects. However, the results vary enormously as the efficiencies reported range between 10 and
85%. A more conservative approach is to estimate total recovery at 35% of the installed
capacities. Based on Dutch and US studies recovered amounts varied from 35 to 70 percent of
capacity rates (IPCC Guidelines, 2006). Experience suggests that these values are closer to
Greek practice and therefore have been adopted in this study. Figure 3 presents the estimated
volume of methane to be captured with and without diversion.
Even though the present study is concerned with the development of biogas production for a
period of 20 years, it should be mentioned that biogas generation will continue beyond this time
period. It can be proven that if the landfill was to be operational from 2008 to 2037 the optimum
3,5E+09
period for biogas production
would be from 2030 to 2049. In the case that the use of biogas
began at the beginning
3,0E+09of the landfill's operation, lasting for a period
100% of 20 years (2010-2029,
project 1), then the 2,5E+09
total biogas to be utilised would be 55.12% less, in comparison with the best
20 year period (2030-2049).
70%
2,0E+09
1,5E+09
35%
70%
1,0E+09
5,0E+08
35%
0,0E+00
1970
2000
2030
2060
2090
YEAR
2120
2150
2180
Capture efficiency
Energy content 1st twenty-year
period (GWh x 10-3/20y)
Energy content 2nd twentyyear period (GWh x 10-3/20y)
Without diversion
Worst case
Best case
After diversion
Worst case
Best case
11.8
23.5
5.17
10.3
67.0
134
55.4
55.4
gas (m3/s) that is captured by the collection system, processed, and delivered to the power
generation equipment, ECbiogas is the biogas energy content which is approximately 18 MJ/m 3 and
nef is the system electrical efficiency (%), which for reciprocating IC engines the typically value
is 35%. Generally, electrical efficiency increases as engine size becomes larger.
The Net Power Generation Potential (NPGP) is the Gross Power Generation Potential less the
parasitic loads from compressors and other auxiliary equipment. Parasitic loads are estimated at
about 2% for reciprocating IC engines, which are the most widely used technology for
generating electricity at landfills. More than two-thirds of the operational landfills where
electricity is generated, use this type of equipment (IPCC Guidelines, 2006).
Annual Capacity Factor (ACF) is the share of hours in a year that the power generating
equipment is producing electricity at its rated capacity. Typical, ACFs for landfill gas projects
range between 80% and 95% and are based upon generator outage rates (4% to 10% of annual
hours), landfill gas availability, and plant design. For the purposes of this study it is assumed that
the ACF is 90%.
The Annual Electricity Generated (AEG) is the amount of potential electricity generated per
year, measured in MWh taking into account likely energy recovery equipment downtime and is
calculated using the following formula :
AEG(MWh) = NPGP(MW) x 24 hr/day x 365 days/yr x ACF
The yearly variation of GPGP is presented at figure 4. In the case where OFMSW is diverted
the maximum gross power value (for 70% recovery) can reach 6.52 MW, while if diversion does
not occur, it can reach 16.07 MW. As biogas production increases over time, it becomes possible
to install additional electricity generating turbines in order to achieve optimal system efficiency.
25
(1)
20
(1a)
15
(1b)
(2a)
10
(2b)
5
0
2000
2050
2100
2150
Ye ars
Figure 4: Variation of gross power generation potential by year. ( 1) All wastes are disposed of at
Mavrorahi without diversion, LFG recovery rate is 100%; (1a, 1b) All wastes are disposed of at
Mavrorahi without diversion, LFG recovery rate is at 70% and 35 % respectively; (2a, 2b) All wastes are
disposed of at Mavrorahi, with OFMSW diversion, LFG recovery rate is at 70% and 35 % respectively
For 90% annual factor capacity and 2% parasitic loads about, the total electrical energy
produced that is uploaded to the grid for the scenarios under investigation is presented in table 4.
The possible mean electricity production increases by 14.2% when the landfill of the western
sector is the only one in operation, regardless of whether diversion takes place or not and
regardless of LFG recovery rate.
Capture efficiency
Electricity generated 1st twentyyear period (MWh x 10-6/20y)
Electricity generated 2nd twentyyear period (MWh x 10-6/20y)
Total Electricity generated
(MWh x 10-6/40y)
After diversion
Worst case
Best case
0.47
0.95
0.20
0.40
1.07
2.12
0.43
0.86
1.53
3.06
0.63
1.26
60.000
Potential
Project 2 required
50.000
Project 1 required
40.000
30.000
20.000
10.000
0
2000
2020
2040
2060
2080
2100
2120
2140
2160
Years
Figure 5: Annual electricity production based on optimum scenario and annual electricity needed
by the turbines (both projects).
For the second project, the mean annual electricity production for the 20 year period 2030 to
2049 that can be delivered to the grid is 37x10 3 MWh, while for the first project is 19.5x10 3
MWh. It should be pointed out that for the latter project and according to the best case scenario
the utilisation of the energy potential of LFG is 53%, while for the former project the figure is
86%, as shown on table 5. In total, the authors believe that it is possible to utilise 75% of the
LFG energy potential for the first 40 years while the remaining 25% would have to be burned.
Table 5: Total energy potential for the best case scenarios
Operating years Reciprocating ICE
LFG fuel potential (x 10-6)
Electricity exported to grid (MWh x 10-6)
LFG flared (MWh x 10-6)
Maximum utilisation of the LFG energy potential
Reciprocating ICE sizing / power capacity
Project 1
11
0.402
0.214
0.187
53%
2 x 1.3MW
= 2.6 MW
Project 2
20
0.856
0.734
0.122
86%
4 x 1.3MW
Total
31
1.258
0.949
0.309
75%
= 5.2 MW
The reciprocating internal combustion engine represents the most commonly used technology
for electric energy generation from LFG. The reason is mainly due to the compatibility of the
power with the economic feasibility of the system. In fact, a suitable system size for acceptable
economic revenue is between one to three MW, and the investment cost of the ICE for that size
is generally reasonable. Moreover, ICEs are a consolidated technology, and the related economic
risks are very low compared to the other technologies. (Bove and Lunghi, 2006).
The study for the best case scenario showed that two engines of 1,300 kW each would be
viable in 1st project and four engines of 1,300 kW each would be viable in the 2 nd project. These
engines have a lifetime between 25 and 50 years when properly managed. Therefore, for a period
of 31 years (which stretches over both projects) it is feasible to use four reciprocating engines
with an installed capacity of 1.3MW each and a further two for the rest of the time period (20
years), as shown at table 5.
5. CONCLUSIONS
The gradual diversion of the organic fraction in MSW from landfill disposal that Directive
1999/31/EC provides for, will undoubtedly have an impact on the biogas energy potential of
such sites. This study has investigated these impacts for an urban landfill site located in
Thessaloniki Prefecture that has yet to begin operating. After quantitative and qualitative
analysis of the organic fraction of MSW for the aforementioned area, it has been calculated that
the biogas to be produced will contain 53% of methane and 47% of carbon dioxide, while the
rate of methane generation has been calculated at about 102.3 m 3 per Mg of MSW landfilled.
The landfill gas to be produced has been calculated with the use of the theoretical design model
LandGEM (version 3.02), which has been developed by EPA, of the USA government. It has
been found that compliance with the Directive would lead to a total reduction of 59.16% in
biogas production. This percentage is not affected by the different scenarios that have been under
investigation. It has been calculated that for the first 42 years of the landfill's operation, the total
electrical energy that will be uploaded on to the grid could reach 950x103 Mwh.
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