The Use of Innovative TechnologyBasedInterventions for Children with ASD;

focus on video modelling

Dr Christos Nikopoulos
BCBA-D, MBPsS, CSci, FHEA
Autism Consultancy Services, UK

ABA 2015 - BUCHAREST INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE

Nikopoulos, C.K., & Keenan, M. (2006).

Nikopoulos, C.K., & Tsakanikos, E.
Video modelling and behaviour analysis: A (2013). Innovative technology-based
guide for teaching social skills to children withinterventions for people with autism
autism. London: Jessica Kingsley
spectrum disorders. In Chaplin , E., et al.,
Publishers.
(Eds.) Autism spectrum conditions. A

Introduction
Autism Spectrum Disorder has a range of impacts on the health,
economic wellbeing, social integration, and quality of life of
individuals with the disorder, and also affects families, healthcare
professionals, teachers, and, potentially, the rest of the society.
From an economic perspective, recent estimates in the UK have
shown that the aggregate annual costs in treatment, lost earnings,
care and support for children and adults with ASD is32 billion
per year!!! That makes ASD the most costly medical condition in
the UK!
More specifically, most of these costs are accounted for the
provision of effective treatments! Thus, consistent reports
within the literature have identified the critical need for further
research that aims to expand and/or improve the currently
available interventions.

One way of addressing the demand for effective supports has

been through the design and development of innovative
interventions based on assistive technology.
During the last decade, there has been a shift in emphasis
from language-based instruction to more visual
instructional supports as a catalyst for learning in
individuals with multiple disabilities and ASD.
Advances in ICT have led to a number of innovative
applications, in which many of the visual supports have been
integrated, forming the design of technology-based
interventions.

Recent studies have attributed the extensive use of these interventions

to a number of factors:

Technology-based applications are - widely used for leisure and

educational purposes - social interaction interventions;

Enable participation in a meaningful way in the wider community

life by facilitating new communication, socialising, learning,
leisure and employment opportunities;

Serve as efficient and cost-effective tools as they remove, for

example, the requirement to create and re-produce paper-based
training aids;

It is common for people with ASD to respond to a restricted set of

cues within an environment (i.e., over-selectivity). Technologybased interventions can be utilised to bring relevant cues closer
together which can help people with ASD to follow respective cues
and to discriminate between them;

Usually, interventions based on technology do not

require high levels of social skills;
Individuals with ASD exhibit difficulties in
situations involving environmental change.
Technology-based interventions can serve as an
efficient medium to present adaptive learning
contexts while supporting the option to slowly and
systematically increase the levels of complexity;
Finally, the use of technology-based interventions
can strengthen internal consistency and reliability
since behavioural measurement can be easily
standardized.

Technology-BasedInterventions Applications
Computer-based training
The design of any computer-based device and programme
would involve a task analysis, whereby the complex sequence
of behaviours (tasks) are broken down into its elements to
tailor the demands of the task to the individuals needs.
Computer-based programmes can further allow a
presentation of a simplified social environment and then
gradually increase the complexity of social interactions.

Computer-based programs specifically for people with ASD

are sparse... they should meet the following - at least requirements:

provide multiple opportunities to imitate modelled behaviours;

should not demand advanced technical skills from the
carers/treatment providers;
facilitate multisensory interactions (auditory and visual
information) in controlled and structured environments;
has to be conceived of as a set of rules that build on learning
experiences;
are divided in small logical steps progressing at a rate tailored to
the needs of each child; and
permit integral data collection and is essential for assessing and
monitoring childs progress.

Virtual Reality (VR) / Virtual Environments

(VE)
An area of application still in its infancy is the use of VR
environments, mainly, in facilitating the development of social skills
training in individuals with ASD.
The controlled nature of the learning environment has been one
of the reasons behind the creation of VE. People with ASD have
little aptitude for pretence so cannot role play, but VE can
provide an opportunity to learn rules and basic skills which can
be repeatedly practiced before entering the real setting in which
they are required.

Literature has identified a series of VE characteristics that

justify its use:

VE can isolate children with ASD from their surroundings to

help them focus on a specific situation.
The complexity of a VE scene can be controlled.
VE technology allows for the successive and controlled
adjustment of an environment with the aim of generalizing
activities at different but similar settings.
VE can be realistic, easily comprehensible, and at the same
time less hazardous and more forgiving than a real
environment.
The present state of VR technology focuses on visual and
auditory stimuli; in autism, vision and hearing have proven
to be very effective in the development of abstract concepts.

Robotics
Teaching socially relevant behaviour to children with ASD through
robotic tools (anthropomorphic or zoomorphic shape autonomous
robots) has been an area of emerging interest. In most studies,
robots perform simple behaviour with the purpose of provoking
reciprocal human reaction.
Initial Efforts: The AuRoRA project
The majority of the investigations in the area of robots come under
the AuRoRA project (Autonomous Robotic platform as a Remedial
tool for children with Autism), which started in 1998 and led by
Prof Dautenhahn.

Its ultimate goal has been to explore the design of interactive systems and
to develop a socially interactive robotic system as a therapeutic tool for
children with autism.
Main studies within AuRoRA project
a) an autonomous non-humanoid mobile robot (alike a toy truck
with heat sensors that could detect nearby children and
bumper switches that allowed it to reverse upon impact);

The robot would follow and

be chased by children
producing brief utterances
for those children who were
able to respond to the
speech.

b) a small stationary humanoid doll robot, an off-the-shelf doll

with added motors, sensors, and a simple processor that
allowed the doll to move, sense movement, and even
recognise the gestures and respond to them;

The idea has been based on the assumption that bodily interaction in
imitative interaction games is indeed an important factor in any child's
development of social skills.

Collectively and across a number of trials, main findings of the

AuRoRa project showed that:

the robot was safe for the children to use and most children
were not afraid of the robot;
children interacted with the robot over a continuous period
of five to ten minutes or even longer;
children generally showed an interest in the robot (in terms
of gaze, touch, physical proximity etc.) and were more
engaged in interactions with the robot than with another
non-robotic toy;
children played some imitation games with the robot (i.e.,
the robot imitating childrens body movements);
in some cases, the children used the robot as a mediator or
an object of shared attention in their interaction with their
teachers;

the embodied nature of the robot allowed for the

displays of body orientation and movements in ways
that a two-dimensional display on a computer screen
may be unlikely to evoke;

children might lose interest in interacting with the robot

over time if it was exhibiting the same behaviour; and

children were notably more social and pro-active when

interacting with simple robots with few features.

Since 2008, there have been many efforts within this area. Possibly, the
most interesting case has been a child-sized humanoid robot called
KASPAR (Kinesics And Synchronisation in Personal Assistant Robotics).
The goal of this 3.22 million European IROMEC project has been to
develop a reliable robot that can empower children with disabilities to
discover the range of play styles from solitary to social and co-operative
play.

Additional Efforts
In 2005, Okada and Goan developed a creature-like robot, Muu, to
observe how and whether children with ASD can spontaneously
collaborate with the robot in shared activities, such as arranging
coloured blocks together.
A couple of years later, Liu and colleagues (Liu et al., 2007)
proposed a framework for a robot that might be capable of
detecting and responding to affective cues with the view of helping
children with autism to explore the social interaction dynamics in
a gradual and adaptive manner.
In another study (Kozima et al., 2007), longitudinal observations
of children with autism interacting with a creature-like robot,
capable of expressing attention by orienting its gaze and
expressing emotions by rocking and/or bobbing up and down.

In 2009, Kozima et al. developed a simple robot, Keepon, which was

shown capable of facilitating triadic interactions between itself, an
infant with autism, and another individual.
In the same year, Costa and her colleagues investigated the use of
a non human-like shape robot - LEGO MindStorms NTX - a
robot which was able to execute a predefined simple
choreography only when either its touch sensor was pressed or
when a certain sound (music, clapping, among others) was higher
than a predefined value.
Giannopulu and Pradel (2010) analysed the interactions of young
children with ASD with a home made mobile toy robot that
provoked the child to engage in free spontaneous game play.
Results were consistent with those from previous studies, in which
narrative description of robot-child interaction has mainly been
utilised.

Parents and healthcare professionals regularly

report that individuals with ASD are drawn to
technological devices. The suggestion that
children with ASD are mainly attracted to systems
of low or minimal variance or even predictable
comes in accordance with the nature of robots
that can allow properties of repeatability and
stability as well as predictability of repetitive and
even monotonous behaviour.

Video modelling
Towards a definition of modelling

Although, observational learning, modelling, and imitation are

three terms that in common language are used interchangeably,
imitation cannot be used synonymously with observational
learning because it does not imply that the observer has learnt
something about contingencies Two main theories of
observational learning have been developed based on the social
cognitive theory of Bandura and the reinforcement theory of
Miller and Dollard.

Modelling can be defined as a procedure whereby a

sample of a given behaviour is presented to an individual
and then the behaviour of that individual is assessed to
determine if he/she engages in a similar behaviour. In
more technical words, modelling takes place when one
person, the model, performs a behaviour and this
performance cues another person, the observer, to imitate
that behaviour and it can be considered as an antecedent
strategy in terms that the behaviour of the model exerts
stimulus control over the observers imitation of the
modelled response.

Advantages of modelling

A correct behaviour is demonstrated for the learner, the

learner observes and imitates the models behaviour which
eventually replaces his/her previous incorrect behaviour.
It can produce rapid gains as it may take only one
modelled instance for an observer to learn a new behaviour.

It is a natural method of teaching that occurs regularly in our

everyday lives.

It represents a constructional approach to behaviour

change in that it specifies desirable behaviours to be
emulated.

Disadvantages of modelling

People often forget how influential their behaviour can be

on others and they underestimate the effects that their
behaviours may have when they behave in undesirable ways.
Thus, the powerful characteristics of modelling that are
advantageous also present some disadvantages. For example,
the effects of modelled aggression and violence that the visual
mass media usually show to viewers.

Types of modelling
The most widely used types of modelling which have also been
used as therapeutic techniques include: a) exact and behaviourfeature imitation, b) generalised imitation, c) peer modelling, d) selfmodelling, and e) video modelling.

Exact and behaviour-feature imitation

- When all of the features of the models behaviour are imitated,
then
exact imitation occurs.

- When some of the properties of the models behaviour are

imitated,

Generalised imitation
then this process is called behaviour-feature imitation.
- This process refers to instances wherein an individual imitates a
new
response on the first trial without reinforcement, after having
received reinforcement for imitating a number of behaviours in

Types of modelling (cont.)

Peer modelling
- When a modelling procedure occupies models that are close
enough to the skills, age or status of the observers, instead of an
expert model, then it is referred to as peer modelling.

Video self-modelling (VSM)

- Video self-modelling is defined as the positive behaviour change
that results from watching oneself on videotapes performing
exemplary behaviours.

Video modelling
- Video modelling is defined as the instances of modelling in
which the model is not a live one, but one that is videotaped, in an
effort to change existing behaviours or learn new ones. Initially, an
observer discriminates a models behaviour and, afterwards,
he/she demonstrates that specific behaviour in natural settings.

Video self-modelling (VSM)

o

VSM gives individuals the opportunity to view themselves

performing a task just beyond their present functioning level via
creative editing of videos using VCRs or video software. Thus, the
VSM intervention involves recording the child performing a
prompted behaviour.
Videos for self-modelling are created and edited to show the child
with autism performing the target skill. This can be accomplished by
recording the childs behaviour over time and editing the video so
that only examples of appropriate target behaviours are on the final
tape. Another method of creating the videos is to have the child
imitate or role-play the target behaviour and edit the videos so that
only appropriate target behaviours are on the final video.
During intervention, the child watches a video of him- or herself
performing the target behaviours and then participates in the activity
that was depicted in that video.

VIDEO EXAMPLES
BEFORE

AFTER

Video modelling (VM)

o

VM is a teaching method used to promote desired behaviour and

interactions. This method is also very useful when the child has
mastered individual skills but does not know how to combine them.
For example, a child may know the individual steps required to put
on his coat but not know how to combine them to perform this task
himself. Video modelling can be used across many areas, such as
selfhelp skills, communication skills, social behaviours, or academic
behaviours.
Possible skills to improve via VM include:
Social initiation:
Can I sit with you?
Look at this/that.
Lets play etc.

Video modelling (VM) (cont.)

o

Possible skills (cont.):

Greetings:
Giving greetings
Responding to/greetings
Appropriate non-verbal communication:
Showing interest in what someone is saying (eye-contact, nodding)
Smiling
Identifying others' non-verbal cues
Play:
Initiating game play
Statements appropriate for games
Comments appropriate within the context of specific games
Sports behaviours

Video modelling (VM) (cont.)

o

Possible skills (cont.):

Conversational skills:
Maintaining conversation on-topic
Comments regarding previous activities
Responding to others' comments
Making jokes
Sharing attention or enjoyment with another child or adult
Telling stories
Using manners, appropriate language (please you)
Saying something only once or twice
Appropriate behaviour in the school building:
Cafeteria
Waiting in the hall before school starts

Video modelling (VM) (cont.)

o

Possible skills (cont.):

Making comments
Appropriately demonstrating disagreement/dislike
Complimenting others and reciprocating compliments
Daily living skills [e.g., cooking, cleaning, getting dressed)
Answering/asking informational questions
Making requests:
Asking permission
"I want [food, preferred item, activity]."
Asking for a turn or to borrow something
Expressing sensory needs
Asking/offering to do a new activity
Asking for help

Video modelling (VM) (cont.)

o

Possible skills (cont.):

Community outings:
Purchasing items
Medical/dental visits
Appropriate social behaviour at special events (e.g., weddings,
birthday parties, holidays, family events, funerals)
Haircuts
Travel (plane, car)
Waiting in line
Table manners
Responding appropriately to an adult's requests/demands
Responding to teasing

Main types of video modelling (VM)

1.

Third person perspective:

This is the most widely used type of VM. It involves
making a video of someone completing a task from
beginning to end (i.e., whole task presentation). The child
watches the entire video and is then given the opportunity
to perform the task.
It allows treatment providers to remove irrelevant elements
of the modelled skill or behaviour through video editing.
The removal of irrelevant stimuli allows the individual with
autism to better focus on essential aspects of the targeted
skill or behaviour.

Main types of video modelling (VM) (cont.)

2.

Point-of-view video modelling:

It involves the treatment provider carrying or holding
the video camera at eye level (from the childs perspective)
and without recording models (persons) to show the
environment as a child would see it when he or she was
performing the targeted skills.
One potential advantage of point-of-view video modelling
over the typical is that it further restricts the stimuli to
those that are directly related to the target behaviour,
eliminating the necessity of identifying optimal
characteristics of the model.

Main types of video modelling (VM) (cont.)

3.

4.

5.

Instructional video modelling:

It is basically an instructional teaching method in which videos
show a step-by-step walk-through of each target skill. It requires a
task analysis and also a narrator may be used.
Video prompting:
It consists of showing each individual step of the task and then
giving the participant an opportunity to perform that step before
moving on to view the next step in the videotaped task analysis. In
addition, the video clips are filmed from the perspective of the
performer completing the task (point-of-view video modelling).
Again task analysis is a required component.
Priming video modelling:
"Priming" is a way to manipulate antecedent events, or set up
establishing operations; in priming, a child previews future events so
that they become more predictable.

VIDEO EXAMPLES

FURTHER EXAMPLES
General procedure

Child watches the video before being assessed in spelling

each word.

This viewpoint is preferable when the focus is on the

manipulations being made to the materials, thus controlling the
model characteristics and other irrelevant cues to which the child
may attend. The actions shown in the videos can be identified
through observing the play actions of typical children during
sensory time.

Fading the use of video modelling

Video modelling needs to be faded out. When fading videos one

or more of the following procedures can be used:

a.

b.

c.

Delaying start/premature stop. By delaying the start of the video or

ending it before it is over, less of the video is shown. When the
amount of the video is gradually decreased, the learner sees less of
the video modelling. This procedure is maintained if the learner
continues to use the target behaviour successfully. At a certain
point, the video can be stopped entirely.
Error correction. This procedure can be used if a learner
continues to make mistakes with certain parts of the target
behaviour. Only the particular scene where the mistake has been
occurring is played for the learner to re-watch and practice.
Scene fading. This technique involves gradually removing scenes
or parts of the task from the video that the learner has mastered.

Basic guidelines for designing video modelling

procedures
Below is an overview of the general instructions and guidelines that
are an amalgam of procedures common to match of the previous
research and lessons drawn from the studies as they evolved:
1)

2)
3)

4)

5)

After a task analysis, each component of a specific task should be

videotaped. The number of sequences to be shown needs to be
gauged for a particular child experimentally.
Preferably one model should be used.
Simple behaviours demonstrated by the model should be about 3040 seconds maximum.
At the initial stages, the setting viewed in the videotape should be
the same as the setting in which the child will demonstrate the
imitative behaviour. Thereafter, different settings could be used.
The treatment provider has to be sure that the videotape shows a
close-up of the action he or she wants the child to imitate.

6)

The child should be allowed to watch each video clip at least once.

7)

The child has to be allowed have at least two or three minutes to

demonstrate the modelled behaviour. Occasional reinforcement for
behaving well is essential.

8)

The child should watch the same modelled sequence again if

he/she fails to imitate the behaviours; this should be done at least
three times.

9)

The treatment provider must keep data for every trial and let the
child have at least three successful trials before he or she moves to the
next video clip.

10)

Programming for maintenance and generalisation of the imitative

behaviour must take place across settings, stimuli, people, and time.

If video modelling does not produce direct results

you could also try the following:
1)
2)

3)

4)

Models may perform at a slow, exaggerated pace.

Children may be reminded to pay attention or to respond
whenever necessary during video viewing.
Occasional reinforcement may be used during video viewing and
performing. Preference assessment, which is used to determine
the relative motivating strength of individual reinforcers, may be
used. For example, treatment providers/parents present a choice
of items to the child and then observe the childs reactions. Then
take note of which items are chosen first, how the child reacts
when items are presented and taken away, and what happens
when items are presented again.
Different models can be used for each video to ensure that
specific model characteristics does not influence the performance
of the child.

5)

6)

7)

8)

The videos can be edited to include an opening title and a closing

screen with text, followed by a black screen. Several visual symbols
with text can also be imbedded in the video. The purpose of
including the symbols in the video is to associate them with the
video footage, so that the symbols could be used as prompts after
fading out the video component of the intervention.
With the desire to facilitate initial attending to the training video, a
5-sec animated video segment of the child's favourite cartoon can
be dubbed with the same instruction as in the training tape and
then be inserted at the beginning of the instructional video
displaying the task.
Video feedback in a form of self-modelling in addition to
behavioural rehearsal/discussion/stimulus discrimination and
prompting (least-to-most) may be used, especially when video
modelling does not produce the desired outcome.
Video modelling could be combined with other procedures (e.g.,
Activity Schedules, Social Stories, iPod, iPad etc.)

Concluding

The popularity of technology in the field of psychology is

evidenced by the development of new journals in the area such
as the Journal of Special Education Technology, the Journal of
Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia and the Journal of
Computer Assisted Learning. Furthermore, Autism Speaks, one
of the largest International autism funding bodies, continues to
support an Innovative Technology for Autism Initiative
promoting collaborations amongst healthcare professionals,
computer scientists and designers within the ASD community.
More traditional clinical psychology journals are also
recognising the importance of technology in facilitating service
delivery and as such are devoting special issues to the topic.

Concluding (cont.)

Parents and clinicians regularly report that

individuals with autism are drawn to technological
devices and researchers have noted the importance of
devising treatments that take advantage of this
population who have a tendency to better use and
learn from visual instructions. Thus, the use of
technologies are becoming more mainstream because
they are widely available, cost effective, and easier to
use, which warrants extending and combining them to
address the task of helping people with ASD.

THANK YOU!!!!!
Any Questions?
Christos Nikopoulos
c.nikopoulos@autismconsultancyservices.co.uk