PROJECT REPORT

COUPLING OF LIGHT THROUGH FIBER

PHY 564
SUBMITTED BY: GAGANDEEP KAUR (952549116)

INTRODUCTION:

An optical fiber (or fiber) is a glass or plastic fiber that carries light along its length. Fiber optics
is the overlap of applied science and engineering concerned with the design and application of
optical fibers. Optical fibers are widely used in fiber-optic communications, which permits
transmission over longer distances and at higher bandwidths (data rates) than other forms of
communications. Fibers are used instead of metal wires because signals travel along them with
less loss, and they are also immune to electromagnetic interference. Fibers are also used for
illumination, and are wrapped in bundles so they can be used to carry images, thus allowing
viewing in tight spaces. Specially designed fibers are used for a variety of other applications,
including sensors and fiber lasers.

Figure 1: A bundle of optical fibers

Light is kept in the core of the optical fiber by total internal reflection. This causes the fiber to act as
a waveguide. Fibers which support many propagation paths or transverse modes are called multimode fibers (MMF), while those which can only support a single mode are called single-mode
fibers (SMF). Multi-mode fibers generally have a larger core diameter, and are used for shortdistance communication links and for applications where high power must be transmitted. Singlemode fibers are used for most communication links longer than 550 meters (1,800 ft).

Figure 2: A TOSLINK fiber optic audio cable being illuminated on one end

Single-mode fiber:
Fiber with a core diameter less than about ten times the wavelength of the propagating light cannot
be modeled using geometric optics. Instead, it must be analyzed as an electromagnetic structure,
by solution of Maxwell's equations as reduced to the electromagnetic wave equation. The
electromagnetic analysis may also be required to understand behaviors such as speckle that occur
when coherent light propagates in multi-mode fiber. As an optical waveguide, the fiber supports
one or more confined transverse modes by which light can propagate along the fiber. Fiber
supporting only one mode is called single-mode or mono-mode fiber. The behavior of larger-core
multi-mode fiber can also be modeled using the wave equation, which shows that such fiber
supports more than one mode of propagation (hence the name). The results of such modeling of
multi-mode fiber approximately agree with the predictions of geometric optics, if the fiber core is
large enough to support more than a few modes.

Figure 3: The structure of a typical single-mode fiber.

1. Core: 8 m diameter
2. Cladding: 125 m dia.
3. Buffer: 250 m dia.
4. Jacket: 400 m dia.

Multi-Mode Fiber:
Multimode fiber has higher "light-gathering" capacity than single-mode optical fiber. In practical
terms, the larger core size simplifies connections and also allows the use of lower-cost electronics
such as light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs) which
operate at the 850 nm wavelength (single-mode fibers used in telecommunications operate at 1310
or 1550 nm and require more expensive laser sources. Single mode fibers exist for nearly all
visible wavelengths of light). However, compared to single-mode fibers, the limit on speed times
distance is lower. Because multi-mode fiber has a larger core-size than single-mode fiber, it
supports more than one propagation mode, hence it is limited by modal dispersion, while single
mode is not. Also, because of their larger core size, multi-mode fibers have higher numerical
apertures which means they are better at collecting light than single-mode fibers. Due to the modal
dispersion in the fiber, multi-mode fiber has higher pulse spreading rates than single mode fiber,
limiting multi-mode fibers information transmission capacity.
Single-mode fibers are most often used in high-precision scientific research because the allowance
of only one propagation mode of the light makes the light easier to focus properly.
Jacket color is sometimes used to distinguish multi-mode cables from single-mode, with the former
being orange and the latter yellow. A wide range of colors are commonly seen, however, so jacket
color cannot always be relied upon to distinguish types of cable.

TYPES of Multi-mode fibers:

Multi-mode fibers are described by their core and cladding diameters. Thus, 62.5/125 m
multimode fiber has a core size of 62.5 micrometres (m) and a cladding diameter of 125 m. In
addition, multi-mode fibers are described using a system of classification determined by the ISO
11801 standard OM1, OM2, and OM3 which is based on the bandwidth of the multi-mode
fiber.

Tasks performed in Dr. La Rosas Lab:

1. Coupling the laser light through a fiber:
a) Mounting the equipment in a proper manner on the optical table:
This was done using the base post holders as shown below:

Figure 4: Pedestal-Base Post Holders

b) The most challenging task while coupling the laser light through the fiber was the
alignment of the laser and the other equipment. One needs to be very patient and critical
about the exact alignment without which it becomes impossible to focus and let pass the
laser through the fiber.

Figure 5: Overview of Setup

Figure 6: Input Fiber Optic Mount

Figure 7: Output Fiber Optic Mount

b) Joining Lengths of Optical Fiber:

Joining lengths of optical fiber is more complex than joining electrical wire or cable. The ends of the
fibers must be carefully cleaved, and then spliced together either mechanically or by fusing them
together with an electric arc. Special connectors are used to make removable connections.

Figure 8: Twisted Fiber Optics Coupler

The coupler works by bringing two fiber cores into interaction distance with each other. Physically,
this means that the fibers are twisted into each other. Light from the core leaks into the cladding of
the fiber. This light then transfers partially into the cladding of the other core due to proximity. This
leaked light can similarly leak into the second core. Thus the light is transferred from one core to
the other over a certain pair length. This process is cyclic, i.e. it is possible for this light to leak back
into the original core.

Applications of couplers:
This coupler is used extensively in the telecommunications industry as a means of transmitting a
reduced noise signal (Common Mode Rejection). This application will become even more
widespread as fiber is used in last mile home broadband communications. Other applications of
this device include high sensitivity inferometers.

ATTENUATION IN OPTICAL FIBERS:

Attenuation in fiber optics, also known as transmission loss, is the reduction in intensity of the light
beam (or signal) with respect to distance travelled through a transmission medium. Attenuation
coefficients in fiber optics usually use units of dB/km through the medium due to the relatively high
quality of transparency of modern optical transmission media. The medium is typically usually a
fiber of silica glass that confines the incident light beam to the inside. Attenuation is an important
factor limiting the transmission of a digital signal across large distances. Thus, much research has
gone into both limiting the attenuation and maximizing the amplification of the optical signal.
Empirical research has shown that attenuation in optical fiber is caused primarily by both scattering
and absorption.

Light scattering:
The propagation of light through the core an optical fiber is based on total internal reflection of the
light wave. Rough and irregular surfaces, even at the molecular level of the glass, can cause light
rays to be reflected in many random directions. We refer to this type of reflection as diffuse
reflection, and it is typically characterized by wide variety of reflection angles. Most of the objects
that you see with the naked eye are visible due to diffuse reflection. Another term commonly used
for this type of reflection is light scattering. Light scattering from the surfaces of objects is our
primary mechanism of physical observation.

Figure 9: Specular Reflection

7

Figure 10: Diffuse Reflection

Light scattering depends on the wavelength of the light being scattered. Thus, limits to spatial
scales of visibility arise, depending on the frequency of the incident light wave and the physical
dimension (or spatial scale) of the scattering center, which is typically in the form of some specific
microstructural feature. Since visible light has a wavelength of the order of one micron (one
millionth of a meter) scattering centers will have dimensions on a similar spatial scale.
Thus, attenuation results from the incoherent scattering of light at internal surfaces and interfaces.
In (poly) crystalline materials such as metals and ceramics, in addition to pores, most of the
internal surfaces or interfaces are in the form of grain boundaries that separate tiny regions of
crystalline order. It has recently been shown that when the size of the scattering center (or grain
boundary) is reduced below the size of the wavelength of the light being scattered, the scattering
no longer occurs to any significant extent. This phenomenon has given rise to the production of
transparent ceramic materials.
Similarly, the scattering of light in optical quality glass fiber is caused by molecular level
irregularities (compositional fluctuations) in the glass structure. Indeed, one emerging school of
thought is that a glass is simply the limiting case of a polycrystalline solid. Within this framework,
"domains" exhibiting various degrees of short-range order become the building blocks of metals
and alloys, as well as glasses and ceramics. Distributed both between and within these domains
are micro structural defects which will provide the most ideal locations for the occurrence of light
scattering. This same phenomenon is seen as one of the limiting factors in the transparency of IR
missile domes.
UV-Vis-IR absorption:
In addition to light scattering, attenuation or signal loss can also occur due to selective absorption
of specific wavelengths, in a manner similar to that responsible for the appearance of color.
Primary material considerations include both electrons and molecules as follows:
1) At the electronic level, it depends on whether the electron orbitals are spaced (or "quantized")
such that they can absorb a quantum of light (or photon) of a specific wavelength or frequency in
the ultraviolet (UV) or visible ranges. This is what gives rise to color.
2) At the atomic or molecular level, it depends on the frequencies of atomic or molecular vibrations
or chemical bonds, how close-packed its atoms or molecules are, and whether or not the atoms or
8

molecules exhibit long-range order. These factors will determine the capacity of the material
transmitting longer wavelengths in the infrared (IR), far IR, radio and microwave ranges.
The design of any optically transparent device requires the selection of materials based upon
knowledge of its properties and limitations. The lattice absorption characteristics observed at the
lower frequency regions (mid IR to far-infrared wavelength range) define the long-wavelength
transparency limit of the material. They are the result of the interactive coupling between the
motions of thermally induced vibrations of the constituent atoms and molecules of the solid lattice
and the incident light wave radiation. Hence, all materials are bounded by limiting regions of
absorption caused by atomic and molecular vibrations (bond-stretching) in the far-infrared
(>10 m).

Figure 11: Normal modes of vibration in a crystalline solid.

Thus, multi-phonon absorption occurs when two or more phonons simultaneously interact to
produce electric dipole moments with which the incident radiation may couple. These dipoles can
absorb energy from the incident radiation, reaching a maximum coupling with the radiation when
the frequency is equal to the fundamental vibrational mode of the molecular dipole (e.g. Si-O bond)
in the far-infrared, or one of its harmonics.
The selective absorption of infrared (IR) light by a particular material occurs because the selected
frequency of the light wave matches the frequency (or an integral multiple of the frequency) at
which the particles of that material vibrate. Since different atoms and molecules have different
natural frequencies of vibration, they will selectively absorb different frequencies (or portions of the
spectrum) of infrared (IR) light.
Reflection and transmission of light waves occur because the frequencies of the light waves do not
match the natural resonant frequencies of vibration of the objects. When IR light of these
frequencies strike an object, the energy is either reflected or transmitted.

EQUIPMENT USED:
COUPLERS:

Figure 12
Figure 13 illustrates the design of a basic fiber optic coupler. A basic fiber optic coupler has N input
ports and M output ports. N and M typically range from 1 to 64. The number of input ports and
output ports vary depending on the intended application for the coupler. Types of fiber optic
couplers include optical splitters, optical combiners, X couplers, star couplers, and tree couplers.

Figure 13: Basic passive fiber optic coupler design

An optical splitter is a passive device that splits the optical power carried by a single input fiber
into two output fibers. Figure 14 illustrates the transfer of optical power in an optical splitter. The
input optical power is normally split evenly between the two output fibers. This type of optical
splitter is known as a Y-coupler.

Figure 14: Optical splitter

10

An optical combiner is a passive device that combines the optical power carried by two input
fibers into a single output fiber. Figure 15 illustrates the transfer of optical power in an optical
combiner.

Figure 15: Optical combiner

Star and tree couplers:

These are multiport couplers that have more than two input or two output ports. A star coupler is a
passive device that distributes optical power from more than two input ports among several output
ports. Figure 16 shows the multiple input and output ports of a star coupler. A tree coupler is a
passive device that splits the optical power from one input fiber to more than two output fibers. A
tree coupler may also be used to combine the optical power from more than two input fibers into a
single output fiber. Figure 17 illustrates each type of tree coupler. Star and tree couplers distribute
the input power uniformly among the output fibers.

Figure 16: Star coupler.

Figure 17: (1 X M) and (N X 1) tree coupler designs.

11

Fiber optic couplers should prevent the transfer of optical power from one input fiber to another
input fiber. Directional couplers are fiber optic couplers that prevent this transfer of power
between input fibers. Many fiber optic couplers are also symmetrical. A symmetrical coupler
transmits the same amount of power through the coupler when the input and output fibers are
reversed.
Passive fiber optic coupler fabrication techniques can be complex and difficult to understand. Some
fiber optic coupler fabrication involves beam splitting using microlenses or graded-refractive-index
(GRIN) rods and beam splitters or optical mixers. These beamsplitter devices divide the optical
beam into two or more separated beams. Fabrication of fiber optic couplers may also involve
twisting, fusing, and tapering together two or more optical fibers. This type of fiber optic coupler is a
fused biconical taper coupler. Fused biconical taper couplers use the radiative coupling of light
from the input fiber to the output fibers in the tapered region to accomplish beam splitting. Figure
18 illustrates the fabrication process of a fused biconical taper coupler.

Figure 18: Fabrication of a fused biconical taper coupler (star coupler).

CLEAVER:
Its very important to cleave the fiber after stripping off the cladding. Cleaving helps remove the
rough edge of the fiber. By making the edge smooth, more light could be coupled in the fiber.

12

Figure 19: The Fitel S315 Single Fiber Field Cleaver is designed for cleaving fiber in the field
quickly and easily.

Figure 20: Sumitomo Fiber Optic Cleavers

Can be used as either a mass or single fiber cleaver.

Utilizes an automatic anvil drop for fewer required steps and better cleave consistency.
Prevents double scoring of the fibers.
Has superior blade height and rotational adjustment.
Is available with automatic fiber scrap collection.
Can be operated with one hand.

13

STRIPPER:
It is used to get rid of the fiber coating (cladding).

Figure 21:TO-S-N175-C- Ripley No-Nik Buffer Stripper

Connector:

Figure 22: FIBER OPTICS CONNECTOR

Lock-in amplifier:
A lock-in amplifier (also known as a phase-sensitive detector) is a type of amplifier that can
extract a signal with a known carrier wave from extremely noisy environment (S/N ratio can be as
low as -60 dB or even less). It is essentially a homodyne with an extremely low pass filter (making
it very narrow band). Lock-in amplifiers use mixing, through a frequency mixer, to convert the
signal's phase and amplitude to a DCactually a time-varying low-frequencyvoltage signal.

14

Figure 23

Figure 24: SR7265 DSP Lock-In Amplifier

15

Conclusion:
It was a great experience of successfully coupling laser light to SMF-28 fiber (same fiber used in
WDM). Learned how to use all the equipment shown above. I wish to apply the same fundamentals
in other commercial applications relating to Electrical Engineering and Optical Communication.
Also, looking forward to attend the Laser Safety Training.

Refrences:
http://www.phy.davidson.edu/StuHome/blreynolds/Laser/theory.htm
http://www.tpub.com/neets/tm/108-11.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lock-in_amplifier

16

17