Pangaea or Pangea (/pndi/[1]) was a supercontinent that existed during the

late Paleozoic and early Mesozoic eras.[2] It assembled from earlier continental
units approximately 300 million years ago, and it began to break apart about 175
million years ago.[3] In contrast to the present Earth and its distribution of
continental mass, much of Pangaea was in the southern hemisphere and
surrounded by a super ocean, Panthalassa. Pangaea was the last supercontinent to
have existed and the first to be reconstructed by geologists.
Origin of the concept[edit]
The name is derived from Ancient Greek pan (, "all, entire, whole") and Gaia
(, "Mother Earth, land").[4][9] The concept was first proposed by Alfred
Wegener, the originator of the theory of continental drift, in his 1912 publication
The Origin of Continents (Die Entstehung der Kontinente).[10] He expanded this
hypothesis into his theory in his book The Origin of Continents and Oceans (Die
Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane), first published in 1915, in which he
postulated that (before breaking up and drifting to their present locations) all the
continents had formed a single supercontinent that he called the "Urkontinent". The
name first occurs in the 1920 edition of Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane,
but only once, when Wegener refers to the ancient supercontinent as "the Pangaea
of the Carboniferous".[11] Wegener used the Germanized form "Panga", but the
term entered German and English scientific literature (in 1922[12] and 1926,
respectively) in the Latinized form "Pangaea" (of the Greek "Pangaia"), especially
due to a symposium of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists in
November 1926.[13]

Formation of Pangaea[edit]

Appalachian orogeny

The forming of supercontinents and their breaking up appears to have been cyclical through Earth's
history. There may have been many others before Pangaea. The fourth-last supercontinent,

called Columbia or Nuna, appears to have assembled in the period 2.01.8 Ga.[14][15] Columbia/Nuna
broke up and the next supercontinent, Rodinia, formed from the accretion and assembly of its
fragments. Rodinia lasted from about 1.1 billion years ago (Ga) until about 750 million years ago, but
its exact configuration and geodynamic history are not nearly as well understood as those of the
later supercontinents, Pannotia and Pangaea.
When Rodinia broke up, it split into three pieces: the supercontinent of Proto-Laurasia, the
supercontinent of Proto-Gondwana, and the smaller Congo craton. Proto-Laurasia and ProtoGondwana were separated by the Proto-Tethys Ocean. Next Proto-Laurasia itself split apart to form
the continents of Laurentia, Siberia and Baltica. Baltica moved to the east of Laurentia, and Siberia
moved northeast of Laurentia. The splitting also created two new oceans, the Iapetus
Ocean andPaleoasian Ocean. Most of the above masses coalesced again to form the relatively
short-lived supercontinent of Pannotia. This supercontinent included large amounts of land near the
poles and, near the equator, only a relatively small strip connecting the polar masses. Pannotia
lasted until 540 Ma, near the beginning of the Cambrian period and then broke up, giving rise to the
continents of Laurentia, Baltica, and the southern supercontinent of Gondwana.
In the Cambrian period, the continent of Laurentia, which would later become North America, sat on
the equator, with three bordering oceans: the Panthalassic Ocean to the north and west, the Iapetus
Ocean to the south and the Khanty Ocean to the east. In the Earliest Ordovician, around 480 Ma,
the microcontinent of Avalonia a landmass incorporating fragments of what would become
easternNewfoundland, the southern British Isles, and parts of Belgium, northern France, Nova
Scotia, New England, Iberia and northwest Africa broke free from Gondwana and began its journey
to Laurentia.[16] Baltica, Laurentia, and Avalonia all came together by the end of the Ordovician to
form a minor supercontinent calledEuramerica or Laurussia, closing the Iapetus Ocean. The collision
also resulted in the formation of the northern Appalachians. Siberia sat near Euramerica, with
theKhanty Ocean between the two continents. While all this was happening, Gondwana drifted
slowly towards the South Pole. This was the first step of the formation of Pangaea. [17]
The second step in the formation of Pangaea was the collision of Gondwana with Euramerica.
By Silurian time, 440 Ma, Baltica had already collided with Laurentia, forming
Euramerica. Avalonia had not yet collided with Laurentia, but as Avalonia inched towards Laurentia,
the seaway between them, a remnant of the Iapetus Ocean, was slowly shrinking.
Meanwhile, southern Europe broke off from Gondwana and began to move towards Euramerica
across the newly formed Rheic Ocean. It collided with southern Baltica in the Devonian, though this
microcontinent was an underwater plate. The Iapetus Ocean's sister ocean, the Khanty Ocean,
shrank as an island arc from Siberia collided with eastern Baltica (now part of Euramerica). Behind
this island arc was a new ocean, the Ural Ocean.
By late Silurian time, North and South China split from Gondwana and started to head northward,
shrinking the Proto-Tethys Ocean in their path and opening the new Paleo-Tethys Ocean to their

south. In the Devonian Period, Gondwana itself headed towards Euramerica, causing the Rheic
Ocean to shrink. In the EarlyCarboniferous, northwest Africa had touched the southeastern coast
of Euramerica, creating the southern portion of the Appalachian Mountains, and the Meseta
Mountains. South America moved northward to southern Euramerica, while the eastern portion of
Gondwana (India, Antarctica and Australia) headed toward the South Pole from the equator. North
and South China were on independent continents. The Kazakhstania microcontinent had collided
with Siberia. (Siberia had been a separate continent for millions of years since the deformation of the
supercontinent Pannotia in the Middle Carboniferous.)
Western Kazakhstania collided with Baltica in the Late Carboniferous, closing the Ural
Ocean between them and the western Proto-Tethys in them (Uralian orogeny), causing the formation
of not only the Ural Mountains but also the supercontinent of Laurasia. This was the last step of the
formation of Pangaea. Meanwhile, South America had collided with southern Laurentia, closing
the Rheic Ocean and forming the southernmost part of the Appalachians and Ouachita Mountains.
By this time, Gondwana was positioned near the South Pole and glaciers were forming in Antarctica,
India, Australia, southern Africa and South America. The North China block collided with Siberia by
Late Carboniferous time, completely closing the Proto-Tethys Ocean.
By Early Permian time, the Cimmerian plate split from Gondwana and headed towards Laurasia,
thus closing the Paleo-Tethys Ocean, but forming a new ocean, theTethys Ocean, in its southern
end. Most of the landmasses were all in one. By the Triassic Period, Pangaea rotated a little and the
Cimmerian plate was still travelling across the shrinking Paleo-Tethys, until the Middle Jurassic time.
The Paleo-Tethys had closed from west to east, creating the Cimmerian Orogeny. Pangaea, which
looked like a C, with the new Tethys Ocean inside the C, had rifted by the Middle Jurassic, and its
deformation is explained below.

Evidence of existence[edit]

The distribution of fossils across the continents is one line of evidence pointing to the existence of Pangaea.

Fossil evidence for Pangaea includes the presence of similar and identical species on continents
that are now great distances apart. For example, fossils of the therapsid Lystrosaurus have been
found in South Africa, India andAustralia, alongside members of the Glossopteris flora, whose
distribution would have ranged from the polar circle to the equator if the continents had been in their
present position; similarly, the freshwater reptile Mesosaurus has been found in only localized
regions of the coasts of Brazil and West Africa.[18]
Additional evidence for Pangaea is found in the geology of adjacent continents, including matching
geological trends between the eastern coast of South America and the western coast of Africa.
The polar ice cap of theCarboniferous Period covered the southern end of Pangaea. Glacial
deposits, specifically till, of the same age and structure are found on many separate continents
which would have been together in the continent of Pangaea. [19]
Paleomagnetic study of apparent polar wandering paths also support the theory of a supercontinent.
Geologists can determine the movement of continental plates by examining the orientation of
magnetic minerals in rocks; when rocks are formed, they take on the magnetic properties of the
Earth and indicate in which direction the poles lie relative to the rock. Since the magnetic
poles drift about the rotational pole with a period of only a few thousand years, measurements from
numerous lavas spanning several thousand years are averaged to give an apparent mean polar
position. Samples of sedimentary rock and intrusive igneous rock have magnetic orientations that
are typically an average of the "secular variation" in the orientation of magnetic north because
their remanent magnetizations are not acquired instantaneously. Magnetic differences between
sample groups whose age varies by millions of years is due to a combination of true polar
wander and the drifting of continents. The true polar wander component is identical for all samples,
and can be removed, leaving geologists with the portion of this motion that shows continental drift
and can be used to help reconstruct earlier continental positions.[20]
The continuity of mountain chains provides further evidence for Pangaea. One example of this is
the Appalachian Mountains chain which extends from the southeastern United States to
the Caledonides of Ireland, Britain, Greenland, and Scandinavia.[21]

Rifting and break-up[edit]

Animation of the rifting of Pangaea

There were three major phases in the break-up of Pangaea. The first phase began in the EarlyMiddle Jurassic (about 175 Ma), when Pangaea began to rift from the Tethys Ocean in the east to
the Pacific in the west, ultimately giving rise to the supercontinents Laurasia and Gondwana. The
rifting that took place between North America and Africa produced multiple failed rifts. One rift
resulted in a new ocean, the North Atlantic Ocean.[22]
The Atlantic Ocean did not open uniformly; rifting began in the north-central Atlantic. The South
Atlantic did not open until theCretaceous when Laurasia started to rotate clockwise and moved
northward with North America to the north, and Eurasia to the south. The clockwise motion of
Laurasia led to the closing of the Tethys Ocean. Meanwhile, on the other side of Africa and along the
adjacent margins of east Africa, Antarctica and Madagascar, new rifts were forming that would not
only lead to the formation of the southwestern Indian Ocean but also open up in the Cretaceous.
The second major phase in the break-up of Pangaea began in the Early Cretaceous (150140 Ma),
when the minor supercontinent of Gondwana separated into multiple continents (Africa, South
America, India, Antarctica, and Australia). About 200 Ma, the continent of Cimmeria, as mentioned
above (see "Formation of Pangaea"), collided with Eurasia. However, a subduction zone was
forming, as soon as Cimmeria collided.[22]
This subduction zone is called the Tethyan Trench. This trench might have subducted what is called
the Tethyan mid-ocean ridge, a ridge responsible for the Tethys Ocean's expansion. It probably
caused Africa, India and Australia to move northward. In the Early Cretaceous, Atlantica, today's
South America and Africa, finally separated from eastern Gondwana (Antarctica, India and Australia),
causing the opening of a "South Indian Ocean". In the Middle Cretaceous, Gondwana fragmented to
open up the South Atlantic Ocean as South America started to move westward away from Africa.
The South Atlantic did not develop uniformly; rather, it rifted from south to north.
Also, at the same time, Madagascar and India began to separate from Antarctica and moved
northward, opening up the Indian Ocean. Madagascar and India separated from each other 100
90 Ma in the Late Cretaceous. India continued to move northward toward Eurasia at 15 centimeters
(6 in) a year (a plate tectonic record), closing the Tethys Ocean, while Madagascar stopped and
became locked to the African Plate. New Zealand, New Caledonia and the rest of Zealandiabegan to
separate from Australia, moving eastward toward the Pacific and opening the Coral Sea and Tasman
Sea.
The third major and final phase of the break-up of Pangaea occurred in the
early Cenozoic (Paleocene to Oligocene). Laurasia split when North America/Greenland (also
called Laurentia) broke free from Eurasia, opening the Norwegian Sea about 6055 Ma. The Atlantic
and Indian Oceans continued to expand, closing the Tethys Ocean.
Meanwhile, Australia split from Antarctica and moved rapidly northward, just as India had done more
than 40 million years before. Australia is currently on a collision course with eastern Asia. Both

Australia and India are currently moving northeast at 56 centimeters (23 in) a year. Antarctica has
been near or at the South Pole since the formation of Pangaea about 280 Ma. India started to collide
with Asia beginning about 35 Ma, forming the Himalayan orogeny, and also finally closing theTethys
Seaway; this collision continues today. The African Plate started to change directions, from west to
northwest toward Europe, and South America began to move in a northward direction, separating it
from Antarctica and allowing complete oceanic circulation around Antarctica for the first time. This
motion, together with decreasing atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations, caused a rapid cooling
of Antarctica and allowed glaciers to form. This glaciation eventually coalesced into the kilometersthick ice sheets seen today.[23] Other major events took place during the Cenozoic, including the
opening of the Gulf of California, the uplift of theAlps, and the opening of the Sea of Japan. The
break-up of Pangaea continues today in the Red Sea Rift and East African Rift.

Pangea, also
spelled Pangaea,

in early geologic
time, a supercontinent that incorporated almost all the landmasses on Earth.

Pangea was surrounded by

a global ocean called Panthalassa, and it was fully assembled by the Early Permian
Period (some 299 million to 272 million years ago). The supercontinent began to break
apart about 200 million years ago, during the Early Jurassic Period (201 million to 174
million years ago), eventually forming the modern continents and the Atlantic and Indian
oceans. Pangeas existence was first proposed in 1912 by German meteorologist Alfred
Wegener as a part of his theory of continental drift. Its name is derived from the
Greek pangaia, meaning all the Earth.
During the Early Permian, the northwestern coastline of the
ancientcontinent Gondwana (a paleocontinent that would eventually fragment to
become South America, India, Africa, Australia, and Antarctica) collided with and joined
the southern part of Euramerica (a paleocontinent made up of North America and
southern Europe). With the fusion of the Angaran craton (the stable interior portion of a
continent) of Siberia to that combined landmass during the middle of the Early Permian,
the assembly of Pangea was complete. Cathaysia, a landmass comprising the former
tectonic plates of North and South China, was not incorporated into Pangea. Rather, it
formed a separate, much smaller, continent within the global ocean Panthalassa.
The mechanism for the breakup of Pangea is now explained in terms of plate
tectonics rather than Wegeners outmoded concept of continental drift, which simply
stated that Earths continents were once joined together into the supercontinent Pangea
that lasted for most of geologic time. Plate tectonics states that Earths outer shell,
or lithosphere, consists of large rigid plates that move apart atoceanic ridges, come
together at subduction zones, or slip past one another along fault lines. The pattern

of seafloor spreading indicates that Pangea did not break apart all at once but rather
fragmented in distinct stages. Plate tectonics also postulates that the continents joined
with one another and broke apart several times in Earths geologic history.
The first oceans formed from the breakup, some 180 million years ago, were the
central Atlantic Ocean between northwestern Africa and North America and the
southwestern Indian Ocean between Africa and Antarctica. The South Atlantic Ocean
opened about 140 million years ago as Africa separated from South America. About the
same time, India separated from Antarctica and Australia, forming the central Indian
Ocean. Finally, about 80 million years ago, North America separated fromEurope,
Australia began to rift away from Antarctica, and India broke away from Madagascar.
India eventually collided with Eurasia approximately 50 million years ago, forming
the Himalayas.
During Earths long history, there probably have been several Pangea-like
supercontinents. The oldest of those supercontinents is called Rodinia and was formed
during Precambrian time some one billion years ago. Another Pangea-like
supercontinent, Pannotia, was assembled 600 million years ago, at the end of the
Precambrian. Present-day plate motions are bringing the continents together once
again. Africa has begun to collide with southern Europe, and the Australian plate is now
colliding withSoutheast Asia. Within the next 50 million years, Africa and Australia will
merge with Eurasia to form a supercontinent that approaches Pangean proportions.
That episodic assembly of the worlds landmasses has been called the supercontinent
cycle, or Wegenerian cycle, in honour of Wegener (see plate tectonics: Supercontinent
cycle).

Plate Tectonics

Is the study of the lithosphere, the outer portion of the earth consisting of the crust and part of the upper mantle. The
lithosphere is divided into about a dozen large plates which move and interact with one another to create
earthquakes, mountain ranges, volcanic activity, ocean trenches and many other features. Continents and ocean
basis are moved and changed in shape as a result of these plate movements.
The sequence of maps at right show how a large supercontinent, known as Pangaea was fragmented into several
pieces, each being part of a mobile plate of the lithosphere. These pieces were to become Earth's current continents.
The time sequence show through the maps traces the paths of the continents to their current positions.
In the early 1900's Alfred Wegener proposed the idea of Continental Drift. His ideas centered around continents

moving across the face of the earth. The idea was not quite correct - compared to the plate tectonics theory of today but his thinking was on the proper track. In addition, a variant spelling of Pangaea is "Pangea". It appears in some
textbooks and glossaries, however, Pangaea is the current preferred spelling.