Passive cooling

techniques

Includes:
a. Through orientation
b. Site layout
c. Solar control device
d. Passive daylight concept
e. Passive cooling by wind and ventilation

PASSIVE COOLING TECHNIQUES:

Passive cooling is a building design
approach that focuses on heat gain
control and heat dissipation in a
building in order to improve the
indoor thermal comfort with low or
nil
energy
consumption.
This
approach
works
either
by
preventing heat from entering the
interior (heat gain prevention) or by
removing heat from the building
(natural cooling). Natural cooling
utilizes on-site energy, available
from the natural environment,
combined with the architectural
design of building components (e.g. building envelope), rather than
mechanical systems to dissipate heat. Therefore, natural cooling depends
not only on the architectural design of the building but how it uses the local
site natural resources as heat sinks (i.e. everything that absorbs or dissipates
heat). Examples of on-site heat sinks are the upper atmosphere (night sky),
the outdoor air (wind), and the earth/soil.
Passive cooling covers all natural processes and techniques of heat
dissipation and modulation without the use of energy.[1] Some authors
consider that minor and simple mechanical systems (e.g. pumps and
economizers) can be integrated in passive cooling techniques, as long they
are used to enhance the effectiveness of the natural cooling process.[4] Such
applications are also called hybrid cooling systems. [1] The techniques for
passive cooling can be grouped in two main categories:

Preventative techniques: that aims to provide protection and/or

prevention of external and internal heat gains.

Modulation and heat dissipation techniques: allow the building to store

and dissipate heat gain through the transfer of heat from heat sinks to
the climate. This technique can be the result of thermal mass or
natural cooling.

Preventative techniques:

Protection from or prevention of heat gains encompasses all the design

techniques that minimizes the impact of solar heat gains through the
buildings envelope and of internal heat gains that is generated inside the
building due occupancy and equipment. It includes the following design
techniques:

Microclimate and site design - By taking into account the local climate
and the site context, specific cooling strategies can be selected to
apply which are the most appropriate for preventing overheating
through the envelope of the building. The microclimate can play a
huge role in determining the most favorable building location by
analyzing the combined availability of sun and wind. The bioclimatic
chart, the solar diagram and the wind rose are relevant analysis tools
in the application of this technique.

Solar control - A properly designed shading system can effectively

contribute to minimizing the solar heat gains. Shading both
transparent and opaque surfaces of the building envelope will minimize
the amount of solar radiation that induces overheating in both indoor
spaces and buildings structure. By shading the building structure, the
heat gain captured through the windows and envelope will be reduced.

Building form and layout - Building orientation and an optimized

distribution of interior spaces can prevent overheating. Rooms can be
zoned within the buildings in order to reject sources of internal heat
gain and/or allocating heat gains where they can be useful, considering
the different activities of the building. For example, creating a flat,
horizontal plan will increase the effectiveness of cross-ventilation
across the plan. Locating the zones vertically can take advantage of
temperature stratification. Typically, building zones in the upper levels
are warmer than the lower zones due to stratification. Vertical zoning
of spaces and activities uses this temperature stratification to
accommodate zone uses according to their temperature requirements.
[5] Form factor (i.e. the ratio between volume and surface) also plays a
major role in the buildings energy and thermal profile. This ratio can
be used to shape the building form to the specific local climate. For
example, more compact forms tend to preserve more heat than less
compact forms because the ratio of the internal loads to envelope area
is significant.
Thermal insulation - Insulation in the buildings envelope will decrease
the amount of heat transferred by radiation through the facades. This

principle applies both to the opaque (walls and roof) and transparent
surfaces (windows) of the envelope. Since roofs could be a larger
contributor to the interior heat load, especially in lighter constructions
(e.g. building and workshops with roof made out of metal structures),
providing thermal insulation can effectively decrease heat transfer
from the roof.

Behavioral and occupancy patterns - Some building management

policies such as limiting the amount of people in a given area of the
building can also contribute effectively to the minimization of heat
gains inside a building. Building occupants can also contribute to
indoor overheating prevention by: shutting off the lights and
equipment of unoccupied spaces, operating shading when necessary
to reduce solar heat gains through windows, or dress lighter in order to
adapt better to the indoor environment by increasing their thermal
comfort tolerance.

Internal gain control - More energy-efficient lighting and electronic

equipment tend to release less energy thus contributing to less internal
heat loads inside the space.

Modulation and heat dissipation techniques :

The modulation and heat dissipation techniques rely on natural heat

sinks to store and remove the internal heat gains. Examples of natural
sinks are night sky, earth soil, and building mass.[8] Therefore passive
cooling techniques that use heat sinks can act to either modulate heat
gain with thermal mass or dissipate heat through natural cooling
strategies.

Thermal mass - Heat gain modulation of an indoor space can be

achieved by the proper use of the buildings thermal mass as a heat
sink. The thermal mass will absorb and store heat during daytime
hours and return it to the space at a later time.[1] Thermal mass can
be coupled with night ventilation natural cooling strategy if the stored
heat that will be delivered to the space during the evening/night is not
desirable.

Natural cooling - Natural cooling refers to the use of ventilation or

natural heat sinks for heat dissipation from indoor spaces. Natural
cooling can be separated into four different categories: cooling and
ventilation, radiative cooling, evaporative cooling, and earth coupling.

Ventilation:

Ventilation as a natural cooling strategy uses the physical properties of air to

remove heat or provide cooling to occupants. In select cases, ventilation can
be used to cool the building structure, which subsequently may serve as a
heat sink.

Cross ventilation - The strategy of cross ventilation relies on wind to

pass through the building for the purpose of cooling the occupants.
Cross ventilation requires openings on two sides of the space, called
the inlet and outlet. The sizing and placement of the ventilation inlets
and outlets will determine the direction and velocity of cross ventilation
through the building. Generally, an equal (or greater) area of outlet
openings must also be provided to provide adequate cross ventilation.

Stack ventilation - Cross ventilation is an effective cooling strategy,

however, wind is an unreliable resource. Stack ventilation is an
alternative design strategy that relies on the buoyancy of warm air to
rise and exit through openings located at ceiling height. Cooler outside
area replaces the rising warm air through carefully designed inlets
placed near the floor.

Night flush cooling The building structure acts as a sink through the
day and absorbs internal heat gains and solar radiation. Heat can be
dissipated from the structure by convective heat loss by allowing
cooler air to pass through the building at night. The flow of outdoor air
can be induced naturally or mechanically. The next day, the building
will perform as a heat sink, maintaining indoor temperatures below the
outdoor temperature. This strategy is most effective in climates with a
large diurnal swing so the typical maximum indoor temperature is
below the outdoor maximum temperature during the hottest months.
Thermal mass is a necessary component to dissipate heat at night.

Radiative cooling:
All objects constantly emit and absorb radiant energy. An object will cool by
radiation if the net flow is outward, which is the case during the night. At
night, the long-wave radiation from the clear sky is less than the long-wave

infrared radiation emitted from a building, thus there is a net flow to the sky.
Since the roof provides the greatest surface visible to the night sky,
designing the roof to act as a radiator is an effective strategy. There are two
types of radiative cooling strategies that utilize the roof surface: direct and
indirect.

Direct radiant cooling - In a building designed to optimize direct

radiation cooling, the building roof acts as a heat sink to absorb the
daily internal loads. The roof acts as the best heat sink because it is
the greatest surface exposed to the night sky. Radiate heat transfer
with the night sky will remove heat from the building roof, thus cooling
the building structure. Roof ponds are an example of this strategy. The
roof pond design became popular with the development of the Sky
thermal system designed by Harold Hay in 1977. There are various
designs and configurations for the roof pond system but the concept is
the same for all designs. The roof uses water, either plastic bags filled
with water or an open pond, as the heat sink while a system of
movable insulation panels regulate the mode of heating or cooling.
During daytime in the summer, the water on the roof is protected from
the solar radiation and ambient air temperature by movable insulation,
which allows it to serve as a heat sink and absorb, though the ceiling,
the heat generated inside. At night, the panels are retracted to allow
nocturnal radiation between the roof pond and the night sky, thus
removing the stored heat from the days internal loads. In winter, the
process is reversed so that the roof pond is allowed to absorb solar
radiation during the day and release it during the night into the space
below.

Indirect radiant cooling - A heat transfer fluid removes heat from the
building structure through radiate heat transfer with the night sky. A
common design for this strategy involves a plenum between the
building roof and the radiator surface. Air is drawn into the building
through the plenum, cooled from the radiator, and cools the mass of
the building structure. During the day, the building mass acts as a heat
sink.

Evaporative cooling:
Evaporative cooling. The design relies on the evaporative process of water to
cool the incoming air while simultaneously increasing the relative humidity. A
saturated filter is placed at the supply inlet so the natural process of
evaporation can cool the supply air. Apart from the energy to drive the fans,

water is the only other resource required to provide conditioning to indoor

spaces. The effectiveness of evaporative cooling is largely dependent on the
humidity of the outside air; dryer air produces more cooling. A study of field
performance results in Kuwait revealed that power requirements for an
evaporative cooler are approximately 75% less than the power requirements
for a conventional packaged unit air-conditioner.[11] As for interior comfort, a
study found that evaporative cooling reduced inside air temperature by
9.6C compared to outdoor temperature.

Earth coupling:
Earth coupling uses the moderate and consistent temperature of the soil to
act as a heat sink to cool a building through conduction. This passive cooling
strategy is most effective when earth temperatures are cooler than ambient
air temperature, such as hot climates.

Direct coupling - Direct coupling, or earth sheltering, occurs when a

building uses earth as a buffer for the walls. The earth is an endless
heat sink and can effectively mitigate temperature extremes. Earth
sheltering improves the performance of building envelope assemblies
by reducing the magnitude of conductive and convective heat loss and
gains by reducing infiltration.

Indirect coupling. A building can be indirectly coupled with the earth by

means of earth ducts. An earth duct is a buried tube that acts as
avenue for supply air to travel through before entering the building.
Supply air is cooled by way of conductive heat transfer between the
concrete tubes and soil. Therefore, earth ducts will not perform well as
a source of cooling unless the soil temperature is lower than the
desired room air temperature.[13] Earth ducts typically require long
tubes to cool the supply air to an appropriate temperature before
entering the building. A fan is required to draw the cool air from the
earth duct into the building. Some of the factors that affect the
performance of an earth duct are: duct length, number of bends,
thickness of duct, depth of duct, diameter of the duct, and air velocity.

Passive Cooling:
A cooling system using a buildings design and construction to maintain a
comfortable temperature within the building.
Passive design is essentially low-energy design achieved by the buildings
particular morphological organization rather than electro-mechanical means.

Passive Cooling Techniques:

1. BUILDING CONFIGURATION, SITE LAYOUT and SITE PLANNING
Example : A building can be protected from direct sunlight by placing it on a
location within the site that utilizes existing features such as trees, terrain
etc.
2. BUILDING ORIENTATION:
Example : In tropical countries such as the Philippines, it is best to place
service areas in the west and east facing sides of the building because these
sides are exposed to direct sunlight.
3. FACADE DESIGN:
Use of Double-layered faade
Use Low-emissivity glass (Low-E glass)
Use of Insulation
4. CROSS VENTILATION:
The circulation of fresh air through open windows, doors or other openings
on opposite sides of a room
STACK EFFECT / CHIMNEY EFFECT:
The tendency of air or gas in a shaft or other vertical space to rise when
heated, creating a draft that draws in cooler air or gas from below
5. SUNSHADING DEVICES:
VERTICAL TYPES
Vertical Sun Shades are generally used on the East-Facing and West- Facing
Sides
of a building
EGGCRATE TYPES
Combination of Horizontal and Vertical Shades
WIND ANALYSIS:
Wind direction: Desirable and undesirable winds in each of the climatic zones
depend largely on local conditions. Any breeze in the lower latitude (tropical
and arid climates) is beneficial for most of the year.

Cross ventilation: Cross ventilation is far more important in the tropics than
in temperate zones. The theoretical strategy for blocking or inducing wind
flow into a building is based on local prevailing wind conditions. Generally,
for the tropical zones as much ventilation as possible is desired.

Influences on Built Form:

1. Zoning for transitional spaces - the traditional spaces used for
lobbies, stairs, utility spaces, circulation, balconies and any other areas
where movement take place. These areas do not require total climatic
control and natural ventilation is sufficient. For the tropical and arid zones,
the transitional spaces are located on the north and south sides of the
building where the sun's penetration is not as great. An atrium can also be
used a transitional space.
2. Use of atrium - In the tropical zone the atrium should be located so as to
provide ventilation within the built form. In the arid zone the atrium should
be located at the centre of the building for cooling and shading purposes.

Influences on Built Form:

1. Form - Optimum building form for each climatic zone. Research has shown
that the preferred length of the sides of the building, where the sides are of
length x:y, are: tropical zone - 1:3. Analysis of these ratios shows that an
elongated form to minimize east and west exposure is needed at the lower
latitudes.
2. Orientation - Orientation as well as directional emphasis changes with
latitude in response to solar angle. Building's main orientation for tropical
countries would have a directional emphasis on an axis 5deg north of east
3. Vertical cores and structure - The arrangement of primary mass can be
used as a factor in climatic design as its position can help to shade or retain
heat within the building form.

P.C.T.
orientation:

Through

Orientation, layout and location on

site will all influence the amount of
sun a building receives and therefore
its year-round temperatures and
comfort.

Other considerations include access to views and cooling breezes.

Orientation and layout will also be influenced by topography, wind speed and
direction, the sites relationship with the street, the location of shade
elements such as trees and neighboring buildings, and vehicle access and
parking.

Orientation for passive heating and cooling :

For maximum solar gain, a building will be located, oriented and designed to
maximize window area facing north (or within 20 degrees of north) for
example, a shallow east-west floor plan. However, this will depend on the
sites shape, orientation and topography. For example, an east-west floor
plan will not be possible on a narrow north-south site.
Orientation for solar gain will also depend on other factors such as proximity
to neighboring buildings and trees that shade the site.
For solar gain, as well as considering location, orientation and window size
and placement, it is also important to consider the thermal performance and
solar heat gain efficiency of the glazing unit itself (see glazing and glazing
units for more information).
While solar gain for passive heating is important, other considerations
include noise, day lighting, protection from prevailing winds, access to
breezes for ventilation, shade to prevent summer overheating and glare,
views, privacy, access, indoor/outdoor flow, owners preferences, and
covenants and planning restrictions.
Where passive cooling is more of a priority than passive heating, the building
should be oriented to take advantage of prevailing breezes.
Orientation, location and layout should be considered from the beginning of
the design process ideally, from the time the site is being selected. Once a
building has been completed, it is impractical and expensive to reorient later.
If optimal orientation can be achieved, it will reduce some of the heating
requirement, reduce energy costs and reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
Effective solar orientation requires a good understanding of sun paths at the
site at different times of the year.

p.c.t. - site layout:

Choosing a site:
Selecting a site is the first and perhaps most important step in the passive
design process. If a site is not suitable for passive design, some elements of
the passive design ethos may not work in favor of efficiency and comfort.
The most important factor is the amount of sun the site receives, as a site
that receives little or no sunlight can be used for passive solar design.
A flat site will generally have good sunlight access anywhere in New Zealand,
but a south-facing slope or a site adjacent to a tall building or substantial
planting on the northern side, will not receive good solar access.

An ideal site for passive solar design will:

be flat or north-sloping

be free of obstructions to the north (and be unlikely to be built out in

future)

be able to accommodate a building with a relatively large north-facing

wall or walls for maximum solar gain (as well as north-facing outdoor
areas if those are wanted).

A site with north-south alignment is likely to receive midday sun and with
minimal overshadowing, but may have limited morning or evening sun. A site
with east-west alignment is more likely to be overshadowed to the north. Be
wary of covenants that may prevent good orientation, shading to the north
from trees or buildings, south-facing slopes or views.

Building location:
For maximum solar gain, a building should in general be located near the
sites southern boundary. In most cases, this is likely to reduce the risk of
shading from neighboring properties, and also provide sunny outdoor space.
However, the best location for solar access will vary from site to site
depending on site shape, orientation and topography; and shading from
trees and neighboring buildings (or future buildings).
As noted above, other factors such as views, wind, topography, and the
location of trees and neighboring buildings will also influence a buildings
location on the site.
In areas where cooling is more of a priority than heating, factors such as
access to breezes might be more important than solar access.

Layout:

Rooms and outdoor spaces should be located to maximize comfort during

use. In general, this means living areas and outdoor spaces facing north, and
service areas such as garages, laundries and bathrooms to the south. See
Room layout for more detail on suitable uses for north, south, west and eastfacing spaces.

Overcoming obstacles:
It is often not possible to obtain the ideal building orientation on a site
(particularly in urban areas) and compromise will be necessary for
example, where the view is to the south, the site has a south-facing slope,
there is a source of noise on the north side, or the view and sun face into
strong prevailing winds.

p.c.t. - solar control devices:

There are many different reasons to want to
control the amount of sunlight that is
admitted into a building. In warm, sunny
climates excess solar gain may result in high
cooling energy consumption; in cold and
temperate climates winter sun entering
south-facing
windows
can
positively
contribute to passive solar heating; and in
nearly all climates controlling and diffusing
natural illumination will improve day lighting.
Well-designed sun control and shading
devices can dramatically reduce building peak heat gain and cooling
requirements and improve the natural lighting quality of building interiors.
Depending on the amount and location of fenestration, reductions in annual
cooling energy consumption of 5% to 15% have been reported. Sun control
and shading devices can also improve user visual comfort by controlling

glare and reducing contrast ratios. This often leads to increased satisfaction
and productivity. Shading devices offer the opportunity of differentiating one
building facade from another. This can provide interest and human scale to
an otherwise undistinguished design.
The use of sun control and shading devices is an important aspect of many
energy-efficient building design strategies. In particular, buildings that
employ passive solar heating or day lighting often depend on well-designed
sun control and shading devices.
During cooling seasons, external window shading is an excellent way to
prevent unwanted solar heat gain from entering a conditioned space.
Shading can be provided by natural landscaping or by building elements
such as awnings, overhangs, and trellises. Some shading devices can also
function as reflectors, called light shelves, which bounce natural light for day
lighting deep into building interiors.
The design of effective shading devices will depend on the solar orientation
of a particular building facade. For example, simple fixed overhangs are very
effective at shading south-facing windows in the summer when sun angles
are high. However, the same horizontal device is ineffective at blocking low
afternoon sun from entering west-facing windows during peak heat gain
periods in the summer.
Exterior shading devices are particularly effective in conjunction with clear
glass facades. However, high-performance glazings are now available that
have very low shading coefficients (SC). When specified, these new glass
products reduce the need for exterior shading devices.
Thus, solar control and shading can be provided by a wide range of building
components including:

Landscape features such as mature trees or hedge rows.

Exterior elements such as overhangs or vertical fins.

Horizontal reflecting surfaces called light shelves Low shading

coefficient (SC) glass and, Interior glare control devices such as
Venetian blinds or adjustable louvers.

Fixed exterior shading devices such as overhangs are generally most

practical for small commercial buildings. The optimal length of an overhang
depends on the size of the window and the relative importance of heating
and cooling in the building.

In the summer, peak sun angles occur at the solstice on June 21, but peak
temperature and humidity are more likely to occur in August. Remember that
an overhang sized to fully shade a south-facing window in August will also
shade the window in April when some solar heat may be desirable.
To properly design shading devices it is necessary to understand the position
of the sun in the sky during the cooling season. The position of the sun is
expressed in terms of altitude and azimuth angles.
The altitude angle is the angle of the sun above the horizon, achieving its
maximum on a given day at solar noon.
The azimuth angle, also known as the bearing angle, is the angle of the sun's
projection onto the ground plane relative to south.
An easily accessed source of information on sun angles and solar path
diagrams is Architectural Graphic Standards, 11th Edition, available from
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Publishers. Shading devices can have a dramatic
impact on building appearance this impact can be for the better or for the
worse. The earlier in the design process that shading devices are considered
they more likely they are to be attractive and well-integrated in the overall
architecture of a project.

Designing Shading Systems:

Given the wide variety of buildings and the range of climates in which they
can be found, it is difficult to make sweeping generalizations about the
design of shading devices. However, the following design recommendations
generally hold true:

Use fixed overhangs on south-facing glass to control direct beam solar

radiation. Indirect (diffuse) radiation should be controlled by other
measures, such as low-e glazing.

To the greatest extent possible, limit the amount of east and west glass
since it is harder to shade than south glass. Consider the use of
landscaping to shade east and west exposures.

Do not worry about shading north-facing glass in the continental

United States latitudes since it receives very little direct solar gain. In
the tropics, disregard this rule-of-thumb since the north side of a
building will receive more direct solar gain. Also, in the tropics consider

shading the roof even if there are no skylights since the roof is a major
source of transmitted solar gain into the building.

Remember that shading effects day lighting; consider both

simultaneously. For example, a light shelf bounces natural light deeply
into a room through high windows while shading lower windows.

Do not expect interior shading devices such as Venetian blinds or

vertical louvers to reduce cooling loads since the solar gain has already
been admitted into the work space. However, these interior devices do
offer glare control and can contribute to visual acuity and visual
comfort in the work place.

Study sun angles. An understanding of sun angles is critical to various

aspects of design including determining basic building orientation,
selecting shading devices, and placing Building Integrated Photovoltaic
(BIPV) panels or solar collectors.

Carefully consider the durability of shading devices. Over time,

operable shading devices can require a considerable amount of
maintenance and repair.
When relying on landscape elements for shading, be sure to consider
the cost of landscape maintenance and upkeep on life-cycle cost.

Shading strategies that work well at one latitude, may be completely

inappropriate for other sites at different latitudes. Be careful when
applying shading ideas from one project to another.

Materials and Methods of

Construction:
In recent years, there has been a
dramatic increase in the variety
of shading devices and glazing
available for use in buildings. A
wide range of adjustable shading
products
is
commercially
available from canvas awnings to
solar screens, roll-down blinds,
shutters, and vertical louvers.

While they often perform well, their practicality is limited by the need for
manual or mechanical manipulation. Durability and maintenance issues are
also a concern.
Require A&E professionals to fully specify all glass. They should be prepared
to specify glass U-value, SC, and Tvis and net window U-value for all
fenestration systems. The shading coefficient (SC) of a glazing indicates the
amount of solar heat gain that is admitted into a building relative to a singleglazed reference glass. Thus, a lower shading coefficient means less solar
heat gain. The visible transmittance (Tvis) of a glazing material indicates the
percentage of the light available in the visible portion of the spectrum
admitted into a building. See also WBDG Windows and Glazing.
When designing shading devices, carefully evaluate all operations and
maintenance (O&M) and safety implications. In some locations, hazards such
as nesting birds or earthquakes may reduce the viability of incorporating
exterior shading devices in the design.

p.c.t. - passive daylight concept:

Day lighting is the use of natural light from the sky as a supplement for
electric lighting in buildings. Traditional day lighting systems differ in one
major respect from passive heating systems: they use the sky as a source of
light and avoid letting direct sunlight into a building. Since light from the sky
is used in lieu of direct sunlight, day lighting systems function quite well on
overcast, partly cloudy, or clear days.
Day lighting:
Day lighting is an instantaneous use of the light from the sky. Therefore, day
lighting systems consist of collection and distribution components and do not
include a storage component like passive heating systems. However, much
like solar thermal strategies, day lighting systems are categorized according
to the type of collection system used. Thus, there are three basic types of
day lighting systems:

Side lighting

Top lighting

core day lighting

Day lighting is the most effective passive solar strategy in almost all
commercial building types because it reduces two major energy uses in
these buildings: electric lighting and cooling.

Day lighting - is the practice of placing windows or other openings and

reflective surfaces so that during the day natural light provides effective
internal lighting.
Particular attention is given to day lighting while designing a building when
the aim is to maximize visual comfort or to reduce energy use. Energy
savings can be achieved from the reduced use of artificial (electric) lighting
or from passive solar heating or cooling.
Artificial lighting energy use can be reduced by simply installing fewer
electric lights because daylight is present, or by dimming/switching electric
lights automatically in response to the presence of daylight, a process known
as daylight harvesting.
Day lighting is a technical term given to a common centuries-old, geography
and culture independent design basic when "rediscovered" by 20th century
architects. The amount of daylight received in an internal space can be
analyzed by undertaking a daylight factor calculation. Today, the use of
computers and proprietary industry software such as Radiance can allow an
Architect or Engineer to quickly undertake complex calculations to review the
benefit of a particular design.
There is no direct sunlight on the polar-side wall of a building from the
autumnal equinox to the spring equinox [citation needed]. Traditionally,

houses were designed with minimal windows on the polar side but more and
larger windows on the equatorial-side. Equatorial-side windows receive at
least some direct sunlight on any sunny day of the year (except in tropical
latitudes in summertime) so they are effective at day lighting areas of the
house adjacent to the windows.
Even so, during mid-winter, light incidence is highly directional and casts
deep shadows. This may be partially ameliorated through light diffusion, light
pipes or tubes, and through somewhat reflective internal surfaces. In fairly
low latitudes in summertime, windows that face east and west and
sometimes those that face toward the pole receive more sunlight than
windows facing toward the equator.

Windows - are the most common way to admit daylight into a space. Their
vertical orientation means that they selectively admit sunlight and diffuse
daylight at different times of the day and year. Therefore windows on
multiple orientations must usually be combined to produce the right mix of
light for the building, depending on the climate and latitude. There are three
ways to improve the amount of light available from a window:

Placing the window close to a light colored wall.

Slanting the sides of window openings so the inner

opening is larger than the outer opening.

Using a large light colored window-sill to project light into the room.

Different types and grades of glass and different window treatments

can also affect the amount of light transmission through the windows.

Roof-angle glass / Skylights:

Skylights admit harsh direct overhead sunlight and glare[25] either
horizontally (a flat roof) or pitched at the same angle as the roof slope. In
some cases, horizontal skylights are used with reflectors to increase the
intensity of solar radiation (and harsh glare), depending on the roof angle of
incidence. When the winter sun is low on the horizon, most solar radiation
reflects off of roof angled glass ( the angle of incidence is nearly parallel to
roof-angled glass morning and afternoon ). When the summer sun is high, it
is nearly perpendicular to roof-angled glass, which maximizes solar gain at
the wrong time of year, and acts like a solar furnace. Skylights should be
covered and well-insulated to reduce natural convection ( warm air rising )
heat loss on cold winter nights, and intense solar heat gain during hot
spring/summer/fall days.
The equator-facing side of a building is south in the northern hemisphere,
and north in the southern hemisphere. Skylights on roofs that face away from
the equator provide mostly indirect illumination, except for summer days
when the sun rises on the non-equator side of the building (depending on
latitude). Skylights on east-facing roofs provide maximum direct light and
solar heat gain in the summer morning. West-facing skylights provide
afternoon sunlight and heat gain during the hottest part of the day.
Some skylights have expensive glazing that partially reduces summer solar
heat gain, while still allowing some visible light transmission. However, if

visible light can pass through it, so can some radiant heat gain (they are
both electromagnetic radiation waves).
You can partially reduce some of the unwanted roof-angled-glazing summer
solar heat gain by installing a skylight in the shade of deciduous (leafshedding) trees, or by adding a movable insulated opaque window covering
on the inside or outside of the skylight. This would eliminate the daylight
benefit in the summer. If tree limbs hang over a roof, they will increase
problems with leaves in rain gutters, possibly cause roof-damaging ice dams,
shorten roof life, and provide an easier path for pests to enter your attic.
Leaves and twigs on skylights are unappealing, difficult to clean, and can
increase the glazing breakage risk in wind storms.
Skylights provide daylight. The only view they provide is essentially straight
up in most applications. Well-insulated light tubes can bring daylight into
northern rooms, without using a skylight. A passive-solar greenhouse
provides abundant daylight for the equator-side of the building.
"Sawtooth roof glazing" with vertical-glass-only can bring some of the
passive solar building design benefits into the core of a commercial or
industrial building, without the need for any roof-angled glass or skylights.

p.c.t. - wind and ventilation:

Wind ventilation is a kind of passive
ventilation that uses the force of the wind
to pull air through the building. Wind
ventilation is the easiest, most common,

and often least expensive form of passive cooling and ventilation. Successful
wind ventilation is determined by having high thermal comfort and adequate
fresh air for the ventilated spaces, while having little or no energy use for
active HVAC cooling and ventilation. Strategies for wind ventilation include
operable windows, ventilation louvers, and rooftop vents, as well as
structures to aim or funnel breezes.
Windows are the most common tool. Advanced systems can have automated
windows or louvers actuated by thermostats. If air moves through openings
that are intentional as a result of wind ventilation, then the building has
natural ventilation.
If air moves through openings that are not intentional as a result of wind
ventilation, then the building has infiltration, or unwanted ventilation (air
leaking in).
The greatest pressure on the windward side of the building is generated
when the elevation is at right angles to the wind direction, so it seems to be
obvious that the greatest indoor air velocity will be achieved in this case.
A wind incidence of 45 would reduce pressure by 50% Thus the designer
must ascertain the prevailing wind direction from wind frequency charts of
wind roses and must orientate the building in such a way that the largest
openings are facings the wind direction It has, however, been found by
Givoni that a wind incidence at 45 would increase the average indoor air
velocity and would provide a better distribution of indoor air movement.

Tall buildings improve natural

ventilation, and in lower latitudes
reduce sun exposure.
While thin and tall buildings can
improve
the
effectiveness
of
natural ventilation to cool buildings,
they also increase the exposed
area for heat transfer through the
building envelope. When planning
urban
centers,
specifically
in
heating dominated climates, having
the buildings gradually increase in
height will minimize high speed
winds at the pedestrian level which
can influence thermal comfort.

The height difference between neighboring buildings should not exceed

100%
Orientation for maximum passive ventilation
The effectiveness of this strategy and aperture placement can be estimated.
Here are some rules of thumb for two scenarios in which windows are facing
the direction of the prevailing wind:

For spaces with windows on only one side, natural ventilation will not
reach farther than two times the floor to ceiling height into the
building.

For spaces with windows on opposite sides, the natural ventilation

effectiveness limit will be less than five times the floor to ceiling height
into the building.

However, buildings do not have to face directly into the wind to achieve good
cross-ventilation. Internal spaces and structural elements can be designed to
channel air through the building in different directions. In addition, the
prevailing wind directions listed by weather data may not be the actual
prevailing wind directions, depending on local site obstructions, such as trees
or other buildings. For buildings that feature a courtyard and are located in
climates where cooling is desired, orienting the courtyard 45 degrees from
the prevailing wind maximizes wind in the courtyard and cross ventilation
through the building.
Natural ventilation is the process of supplying and removing air through
an indoor space without using mechanical systems. It refers to the flow of
external air to an indoor space as a result of pressure or temperature
differences. There are two types of natural ventilation occurring in buildings:
wind driven ventilation and buoyancy-driven ventilation. While wind is the
main mechanism of wind driven ventilation, buoyancy-driven ventilation
occurs as a result of the directional buoyancy force that results from
temperature differences between the interior and exterior.
The impact of wind on the building form creates areas of positive pressure on
the windward side of a building and negative pressure on the leeward and
sides of the building. Thus building shape and local wind patterns are crucial
in creating the wind pressures that will drive air flow through its apertures. In
practical terms wind pressure will vary considerably creating complex air
flows and turbulence by its interaction with elements of the natural
environment (trees, hills) and urban context (buildings, structures).
Vernacular and traditional buildings in different climatic regions rely heavily

on natural ventilation for maintaining thermal comfort conditions in the

enclosed spaces.
Natural ventilation, also called passive ventilation, uses natural outside air
movement and pressure differences to both passively cool and ventilate a
building. It can include design strategies like wind ventilation, the stack
effect, and night purge ventilation.

Active
concepts/cooling
techniques

Includes:
a. Day lighting sensors
b. automatic blinds
c. rain sensors
d. motion detectors
e.

integrated lighting control system

COOLING TECHNIQUES:
As the cooling demand is always a
result of the climatic conditions on
the building site, cooling strategies
have to be adapted to regional
climate characteristics. Nevertheless
measures and strategies for the
reduction
of
cooling
energy
mentioned in this document are
unique principles to be applied to
almost all European climate zones. In
general there are two strategies to
reduce the cooling demand in
buildings:

Passive cooling strategies (on which will be the main focus of this
report)

Active cooling strategies (like solar cooling)

Passive cooling strategies

The first step towards the reduction of energy consumption has to be done
on the demand side.
A comprehensive reduction of the cooling load can be realized by following
measures:

Building design

Reduction of solar gains Size and orientation of transparent building

elements (applicable mainly for new buildings)

Orientation and size of transparent building elements (windows) have an

important influence on the cooling demand. North orientation of offices will
generate best results for the cooling energy demand, but worst results for
the heating energy demand, so in the Middle European climate pure south
orientation is the best orientation for the reduction of the heating and the
cooling energy demand, whereby east and west orientation lead to worst
results for the cooling energy demand.

Daylighting sensors:
Daylight sensors in conjunction with
well-designed lighting systems can
maximize the qualities of daylight. The
highest efficiency can be reached in
environments with ample daylight
coming
through
windows.
The
intensity of artificial lighting is
constantly adjusted to reflect the
incoming natural luminous flux. At
noon all or most of the illumination
can be provided by sun while early or
late in the day this function is taken
over by the artificial lighting system.

Saves energy:
Reduces energy consumption by dimming or turning off electric lights
based on the natural daylight entering the space
Can deliver up to 60% lighting energy savings in some areas Provides
comfort and convenience
Helps maintain the proper light level for a space, so a space is never too
dark or too bright
Continuously adjusts lights automatically so occupants dont have to
manually adjust them as daylight levels change.

Meets codes and standards:

Meets the mandatory requirements set for building construction and
renovation

Automatic blinds:
Automatic blind is a type of window
covering. There are many different
kinds of window blinds which use a
variety of control systems. A typical
window blind is made up of several
long horizontal or vertical slats of
various types of fabric, wood,
plastic or metal which are held
together by cords that run through
the blind slats. Window blinds can
be adjusted by rotating them from
an open position to a closed
position with either a manual or
remote control which allows the

slats to overlap and block out most of the light. There are also several types
of window blinds that use a single piece of material instead of slats.
A window blind is also known as a window shade.
The term window blinds is also sometimes used to describe window
coverings genericallyin this context window blinds include almost every
type of window covering, i.e. shutters, roller blinds, honeycomb shades,
wood blinds, roman blinds and of course, standard vertical and horizontal
blinds. In the United Kingdom awnings are sometimes called blinds or
shades.
Blinds can be made in a variety of materials, some expensive, and some less
so. Cheaper blinds are usually made in vinyl, polyester, aluminum, or PVC.
These are inexpensive materials that are all easily accessible and durable at
the same time.

Roller blinds:

These are usually stiffened polyester, mounted on a metal pole and

operated with a side chain or spring mechanism. Lower cost and readymade blinds often come with a PVC pole.

Rain sensor:
A rain sensor or rain switch is a

switching device activated by rainfall.

There are two main applications for
rain sensors. The first is a water
conservation device connected to an
automatic
irrigation
system
that
causes the system to shut down in the
event of rainfall. The second is a
device used to protect the interior of
an automobile from rain and to support
the automatic mode of windscreen
wipers.
An additional application in professional satellite communications antennas
is to trigger a rain blower on the aperture of the antenna feed, to remove
water droplets from the mylar cover that keeps pressurized and dry air inside
the wave-guides.

Irrigation sensors:

Rain sensors for irrigation systems are available in both wireless and
hard-wired versions, most employing hygroscopic disks that swell in
the presence of rain and shrink back down again as they dry out an
electrical switch is in turn depressed or released by the hygroscopic
disk stack, and the rate of drying is typically adjusted by controlling the
ventilation reaching the stack.

However, some electrical type sensors are also marketed that use
tipping bucket or conductance type probes to measure rainfall.
Wireless and wired versions both use similar mechanisms to
temporarily suspend watering by the irrigation controller specifically
they are connected to the irrigation controller's sensor terminals, or are
installed in series with the solenoid valve common circuit such that
they prevent the opening of any valves when rain has been sensed.

Motion detectors:
A motion detector is a device that
detects moving objects, particularly
people. A motion detector is often
integrated as a component of a
system that automatically performs
a task or alerts a user of motion in
an area. Motion detectors form a
vital
component
of
security,
automated lighting control, home
control, energy efficiency, and other
useful systems.

An
electronic
motion
detector
contains an optical, microwave, or acoustic sensor, and in many cases a
transmitter for illumination. However a passive sensor only senses a signal
emitted by the moving object itself.

Changes in the optical, microwave, or acoustic field in the device's proximity

are interpreted by the electronics based on one of the technologies listed
below.
Most inexpensive motion detectors can detect up to distances of at least 15
feet (5 meters). Specialized systems are more expensive but have much
longer ranges.

Tomographic motion detection systems can cover much larger areas

because the radio waves are at frequencies which penetrate most walls and
obstructions, and are detected in multiple locations, not just at the location
of the transmitter.

Tomographic motion detector:

Tomographic motion detection systems sense disturbances to radio

waves as they pass from node to node of a mesh network. They have
the ability to detect over complete areas because they can sense
through walls and obstructions.

Integrated lighting control system:

Integrated lighting control systems
is are intelligent network based
lighting
control
solution
that
incorporates
communication
between various system inputs and
outputs related to lighting control
with the use of one or more central
computing devices. Lighting control
systems are widely used on both
indoor and outdoor lighting of
commercial,
industrial,
and
residential spaces. Lighting control
systems serve to provide the right
amount of light where and when it is
needed.
Lighting control systems are employed to maximize the energy savings from
the lighting system, satisfy building codes, or comply with green building and

energy conservation programs. Lighting control systems are often referred to

under the term Smart Lighting.

Advantage:

The major advantage of a lighting control system over stand-alone

lighting controls or conventional manual switching is the ability to
control individual lights or groups of lights from a single user interface
device. This ability to control multiple light sources from a user device
allows complex lighting scenes to be created. A room may have
multiple scenes pre-set, each one created for different activities in the
room. A major benefit of lighting control systems is reduced energy
consumption. Longer lamp life is also gained when dimming and
switching off lights when not in use.

Wireless lighting control systems provide additional benefits including

reduced installation costs and increased flexibility over where switches
and sensors may be placed.