COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

- its primary purpose is to transfer information from one place to another

> TRANSMISSION, RECEPTION & PROCESSING of INFORMATION between two
or more locations using electronic circuits
BLOCK DIAGRAM:

TRANSMITTER

TRANSMISSION MEDIUM
or
COMMUNICATION CHANNEL

RECEIVER

NOISE

TRANSMITTER - is a collection of one or more electronic devices or more electronic

devices or circuits that converts the original source information to a form more suitable
for transmission over a particular transmission medium
TRANSMISSION MEDIUM - provide a means of transporting signals between a
transmitter and receiver
RECEIVER - is a collection of electronic devices and circuits that accepts the
transmitted signals from the transmission medium and then converts those signals back to
their original form
SYSTEM NOISE - is any unwanted electrical signals that interfere with the information
signal

TYPES OF ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATIONS

1. One - way or two way transmissions
2. Analog versus digital signals
3. Baseband or modulated signals
1. Classification of Communication Systems
A.) SIMPLEX , SX
- communication travels in one direction only
- receive-only , transmit only , one way only
E.g. Radio & TV broadcasting , telemetry
WIRE

WIRELESS

B.) HALF DUFLEX , HDX

- two way communication but the direction alternates
- two way alternative , either way line
E.G. Radio communication in military,fire, police , fax machine , intercom

C.) FULL DUPLEX , FDX

- can send and receive simultaneously
- two -way simultaneous , both way lines
E. G.

D.)FULL/ FULL DUPLEX , F/FDX

- transmission of signals of many points
E.G. Networking, multipoint cellphone

2. Types of intelligence
A.) ANALOG SIGNAL
- continuously varying voltage or current
B.) DIGITAL SIGNAL
- earliest forms of both wire and radio communication uses on/off digital code

3. BASEBAND TRANSMISSION
- putting the original voice , video or digital signals directly into the medium
Info can be transmitted by themselves over the medium or may be used to modulate a
carrier
Eg.
Telephone and Intercom communication system
Voice place on wires and transmitted same distance to the receiver
Computer networks - digital signals are applied directly to coaxial cable for
transmission to another computer

BUT........ Incompatibility problems.........

BASIC PRINCIPLES
BASIC PRINCIPLES AND CONCEPTS:
1. FREQUENCY (f)- the number of times a particular phenomenon occurs in a given
period of time
- may be a number of voltage polarity alternations or electromagnetic
field oscillations that takes place in a span of time
- measured in cycle per second(cps) or Hertz(Hz)
* CYCLE - each alternation or oscillation

2. WAVELENGTH(

) - is the distance between two points of similar cycles of a

periodic wave
- distance traveled by an electromagnetic wave during the time of
one cycle

C
f

3. BANDWIDTH(BW) - is the range of frequencies over which the operation of a

system is guaranteed satisfactory
- it is a portion of the electromagnetic spectrum occupied by a
certain signal

BW

f
1

Where: f2 = upper cut-off frequency

f1 = lower cut-off frequency
fr = resonant frequency
Q = quality factor
4. POWER (P) and DECIBELS (dB)
POWER - its the fundamental quantity representing the rate at which energy is used
- readily measurable since it can be converted to heat
DECIBEL - literally means one-tenth of a bel

Everything here on earth is analog in nature

CHARACTERSITIC of A SINE WAVE

1. AMPLITUDE - how high or low the signal varies
- called in sound energy as the LOUDNESS and SOFTNESS
PERFECT SINE WAVE - same peak to peak
- symmetrical
2. FREQUENCY - is the number of and
- numbers of repetition
- low and high
Alto - lowest female vocal voice
Bass - lowest male voice
Tenor - higest male voice
Soprano - highest singing voice

per second

3. PHASE - phase angle of the signal

in phase
Out of phse

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
WAVES - form of energy that travels from one vibrating particle to the next vibrating
particle of the medium
EMW - form of energy that travels in free space with the speed of light
Antenna - most important for communication system
- it depends on the physical length or electrical length
RADIO-FREQUENCY WAVE PROPAGATION
once a radio signal has been radiated by the antenna , it will travel or propagate
through space and ultimately reach the receiving antenna
FACTORS:
Frequency of the signal
Atmospheric conditions
Time of the day

3 BASIC PATH
1. ) GROUND
Leaves the antenna and remains close to the earth
Will follow the curvature of the earth
Strongest at low and medium frequency
Amplitude modulation , broadcast signals
At frequency beyond 3 MHz earth begins to attenuate with in several miles of
the antenna

2. ) SKYWAVE SIGNALS
Radiated by the antenna into the uper atmosphere where it is bent or reflected back to
earth
3. ) DIRECT or SPACE WAVES
Travels in a straight line directly from the transmitting antenna to the receiving
antenna
LINE-OF-SIGHT COMMUNICATIONS
not refracted nor follow the curvature of the earth
block due to the curvature of the earth
Antenna must be high enough
Limited to short distances and height of antennas
Radio above 30 MHz
FM and TV broadcast are limited
Antennas on top of the building for good reception
PURPOSE OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Is to communicate information between two or more locations

Accomplished by converting the original info into electromagnetic energy and
transmitting to one or more stations and coverted back to original form

EM energy can propagate as a voltage or current along metallic wires , emitted radio
waves through space , or as light waves down to an optical fiber

is distributed throughout an almost infinite range of frequencies

are signals that oscillate
Field intensities fluctuate up and down a given number of times/second
The oscillations may occur at a very low or at an extremely high frequency

RADIO FREQUENCY SPECTRUM

BAND NUMBER
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19

FREQUENCY

DESIGNATIONS

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
1. EXTREMELY LOW FREQUENCIES (ELFs)
> 30 - 300 Hz
> Power line frequencies (50 and 60 Hz) and low end human hearing range
2. VOICE FREQUENCIES(VFs)
> 300 - 3000 Hz
> normal rang of human speech
> hearing ( 20-20,000 Hz)
3. VERY LOW FREQUENCIES (VLFs)
> higher end of the human range (15 - 20 KHz)
> musical instruments
> government and military communications

4. LOW FREQUENCIES (LFs)

> 30 300 kHz
> used in aeronautical and marine navigation
> used in subcarriers
5. MEDIUM FREQUENCIES (MFs)
> 300 - 3000 kHz
> AM broadcasting (535 - 1605 kHz)
> marine and aeronautical communication applications
6. HIGH FREQUENCIES (HFs)
> generally know as the short waves
> all kinds of two-way radio communications and shortwave radio broadcasting
> government and military services
> amateur radio and CB communications
7. VERY HIGH FREQUENCIES (VHFs)
> 30 - 300 MHz range
> used by many services ( mobile radio, marine and aeronautical communications)
> FM radio broadcasting (88 - 108 MHz)
> TV channels 2-13
> radio amateurs
8. ULTRAHIGH FREQUENCIES (UHFs)
> 300 - 3000 MHz
> extremely widely used portion
> UHF TV channels 14- 83
> widely used for land mobile communications and services
> military services
> radar and navigational services
> microwaves ( above 1000-MHz) 1GHz

9. SUPERHIGH FREQUENCIES (SHFs)

> 3 - 30 GHz
> microwave frequencies used in satellite communications and radar
> specialized two-way radio communications
10. EXTREMELY HIGH FREQUENCIES ( EHFs)
> 30 - 300 GHz
>equipment in this range is extremely complex and expensive
> signals above this range are referred as millimeter waves
> satellite communications and specialized radar

RADIO

WAVE

INFRARED

VISIBLE

ULTAVIOLET

X-RAY

GAMMA RAY

INFRARED - sandwiched between the highest frequency and visible portion

-often given in microns
1 micron = i millionth of a meter
- two areas the long and the short infrared
A. Long infrared
B. Short infrared

0.01mm-1000nm
1000-700 nm

- refers to the radiation that is generally associated with heat

Light bulbs , our bodies , physical equipment that generates heat

USES:
1. Astronomy
2. Guidance in weapons systems
3. TV remote controls
-uses optical devices to process and manipulate signals
VISIBLE SPECTRUM
- above the infrared region and as referred to LIGHT
- express in angstroms
1 = 1 ten thousandth of a micron
- 800 (red) - 400 (violet)
- can be modulated and transmitted thru glass fibers
*Fiber optics - fastest growing specialties of communications electronics
- high frequency to handle tremendous amount of information
-can be transmitted through free space
* Laser - can easily be modulated with voice,video and data information

POWER AND DECIBEL

- fundamental quantity representing the RATE at which ENERGY is used
- readily measurable since it can be converted to HEAT
- indicates relation between two powers
- ratio that indicates the relationship between 3 parameters
DECIBEL COMPUTATION
dBW =
dBm =
dBu =
dBn =

dBm dB
dBn dB
dBu dB
dBm dBm
dBm dBm
DECIBEL - logarithmic unit
E.g.

it measures magnitude of earthquake

Richter scale - measures intensity of an earthquake relative to a reference intensity

- measures the acoustical signals dB - SPL
0 dB - SPL - threshold of hearing
120 dB - SPL - threshold of pain
120 - 140 - engine
Electronic communication - power ratios are enormous range , excessively large or
extremely small numbers

1/6.) Convert the absolute value power ratio of 200 to a power gain in dB
2/6.) Convert a power gain Ap = 23 dB to an absolute power ratio
3/7.) Convert a power level of 200 mW to dBm
1 NEPER = 8.686 dB
20 / ln 10 = 8.686
GTx = 3 dBm
Po = 4 dB
Po = 4 dBm
SEATWORK and HOMEWORK:
1/8.) Convert a power of 23 dBm to an absolute power
2. A communication cable is installed and the signal level in volts increased by 1/2 or
50% . What is the increased in dB?
3. A signal is amplified 100 times in power , the dB gain is
4. A signal is attenuated from 5V - 0.1 V?
2/8.) A three stage system comprised of two amplifiers and one filter . The input power
Pin = 0.1 mW . Absolute power gains are Ap1 = 100 , Ap2 = 40 , Ap3 = 0.25
Determine
A. Input power in dBm
B. Output power in watts and dBm
C. dB gain of each three stages
D. Overall gain

BANDWIDTH AND INFORMATION CAPACITY

1. All practical communication channel - BANDLIMITED
It pass frequency from dc to some upper limit
It has both lower and upper cut-off frequencies
2. All channel are noisy
General rule: Communication channel propagate a signal that contains a frequency that
is changing at a rate greater than the bandwidth of the channel
Information theory - is highly a theoretical study of the efficient use of bandwidth to
propagate information through electronic communications systems
- can be used to determine the information capacity of a data communication
system
Information capacity - is a measure of how much information can be propagated through
a communications system and is a function of bandwidth and a transmission
time
Binary digit or bit - most basic digital symbol used to represent an information
Bit rate - the number of bits transmitted during 1 s and is expressed in bits per second
(bps)
HARTLEYs LAW

I B t
Where: I = information capacity (bits per second)
B = bandwidth (hertz)
T = transmission time (seconds)

I kTB
I = amount of information to be sent
k = constant
T = time available
B = channel bandwidth

MAXIMUM THEORITICAL DATA RATE

SHANNON-HARTLEY THEOREM

C 2 B log

Where:
C = information capacity , bits/s
B = channel bandwidth , Hz
M = number of levels transmitted
- for a given noise level a maximum data rate cannot be exceeded without errors
Binary Information
C= 2B
SHANNON limit for information capacit

IB

log 1 N
S

I 3.32 B log 1
10
N

Where: I = information capacity (bps)

B = bandwidth (hertz)
S
= signal-to-noise power ratio (unitless)
N
= as power ratio not in decibel
Homework:
1-9/21) For a standard telephone circuit with a signal-to-noise power ratio of
1000 (30 dB) and a bandwidth of 2.7 kHz, determine the Shannon limit
information capacity
2.) A telephone line has a bandwidth of 3.2 kHz and a signal-to-noise ratio of 35
dB. A signal is transmitted down this line using a four-level code. What is the
maximum theoretical data rate.

ELECTRICAL NOISE
> as any undesirable electrical energy that falls within the passband of the signal
> random and unpredictable electrical signals produced by natural processes both internal
and external to the system
* message may be partially corrupted or totally obliterated
Classification:
1. Correlated
2. Uncorrelated
* Uncorrelated Noise - is present regardless of whether there is a signal present or not
A. External noise
B. Internal noise
C. Man-made noise
A. External noise - noise that is generated outside the device or circuit
Primary Sources:
1. Atmospheric noise - also called Static electricity
- naturally occurring electrical disturbances that originate
within Earths atmosphere
- caused by LIGHTNING discharges in thunderstorms
- sputtering ,crackling
- form of impulses that spread energy throughout a wide range
of frequencies
- relatively insignificant at frequencies above 30 MHz
2. Extraterrestrial noise - consist of electrical signals that originate from outside
Earths atmosphere
- deep space noise
-originates from the Milky way and other galaxies, and the
sun
A. Solar noise - directly from the suns heat
* quite condition - a relatively constant radiation intensity exist
* high intensity or sporadic disturbances caused by sunspot activity
and solar flare-ups
Solar cycle repeats every 11 years

SOLAR CYCLE - sunspot solar flares

- influences weather on earth
Solar flares - magnetic energy associated with sunspots
Suns spots - magnetic storm on the surface of the Sun
IT AFFECTS
Damage 21st satellites and other hi-tech systems
Radiation hazards for astronauts and satellites caused by quite sun
Weather on Earth
CO2 level volcanic eruptions
Suns activity
El Nino
Global climate change

Solar flares 2014

B. Cosmic noise - continuously distributed throughout galaxies

- black body noise

what they lack in nearness, they nearly makeup in numbers

- RF noise radiated by DISTANT STARS
3. Man- made noise - noise that is produced by mankind
- most intense in a more densely populated metropolitan and
industrial areas
- INDUSTRIAL NOISE

Spark-producing mechanism
Commutators in electric motors
Auto mobile ignition systems
Ac power generating
Switching equipment
Fluorescent lights
- impulsive in nature and contains wide range of frequencies that
are propagated through space in the same manner as radio waves

B. Internal Noise - is electrical interference generated within a device or circuit

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Shot noise
Partition noise
Excess noise
Transit time noise
Thermal noise

Shot noise - is caused by the random arrival of carriers at the output element of
an electronic device
- randomly varying and is superimposed onto any signal present
- transistor noise
- first observed in the anode current of a vacuum tube amplifier
(W. Schottky)
- when amplified sounds like metal pellets falling in a thin roof
- additive to thermal noise

2 qI B n

Where:

q = electron charge 1.60210 C

I = direct diode current , A
= equivalent noise bandwidth , Hz
n
19

Transit time noise - any modification to a stream of carrier as they pass from the
input to the output of the device
- produces irregular, random variation and is determine by
carrier mobility, bias voltage, and transistor construction
-significant @ high frequency
Thermal noise (temperature dependent)
- is associated with the rapid and random movement of electrons
within a conductor due to thermal agitation
- Brownian noise, Johnson noise, White noise,random noise

Brownian noise (discoverer)

- first observed by Robert Brown in a particle nature of matter in pollen grain same
phenomenon with the smoke particle
Johnson noise (related to Brownian particle- Kinetic Theory)
- J.B. Johnson of Bell laboratory first recognize the random movement of electrons
Each flight of electrons between collisions with molecules constitutes a short pulse of
current and develops a small voltage

Random noise - due to its random movement at all direction

- produces an AC component
White noise - analogous to the color
- containing all colors or frequency of light
- prism test
Other noise:
Partition noise - similar to shot noise but occurs only in dives of single current
separate into two or more path
Excess noise ( flicker noise , 1/f noise , pink noise )
- more energy at lower frequency
- insignificant at 1 kHz

 Thermal noise sets the upper bound on the performance of a communication system
> is the random motion of free electrons within a conductor caused by thermal agitation

NOISE POWER
N = KTB
Where:

N = noise power (watts)

B = bandwidth (hertz)

K 1.3810

23

J
K

T = absolute temperature (Kelvin)

Noise Power, dBm

N ( dBm) 10 log

KTB
0.001

KT

10
log
10logB
N(dBm)
0.001

( dBm)

174dBm10logB

NOISE VOLTAGE

4KTBR

Example:
For an electronic device operating at a temperature of 17C with a bandwidth of 10 kHz,
determine
A. Thermal noise power in watts and in dBm
B. rms noise voltage for a 100- internal resistance and a 100- load resistance

NOISE DUE TO SEVERAL SOURCES

For Series Sources:

Vn

total

Where:

4 KTBRTotal

Total

R1 R2 R3 ...... Rn

For Parallel Sources:

Vn

4KTBRTotal

Total

Where:

total

R R R
1

........
3

Noise Due To Several Amplifiers in Cascade:

R eq

R
A

2
2

R
A A
3

H.W. 1 whole long bondpaper,copy and answer...Organize well your solution.

1. The first stage of a two stage amplifier has a voltage gain of 10, a 600 input
resistance (R1), a 1600 equivalent noise resistance and 27 k output resistance. For the
second stage these values are 25, 81k, 10k, 1M respectively. Calculate the Req input
noise resistance of 2 stage amplifier. Calculate the noise figure of the amplifier if it is
driven by a generator whose output impedance is 50, bandwidth of 5 kHz.Calculate the
equivalent noise temperature. Calculate the total noise voltage.
Research and do study noise temperature,noise factor,noise figure

 CORRELATED NOISE
- is a form on int rnal noise that is correlated to the signal and cannot be present in a
e
circuit unless there is a signal
- NO SIGNAL, NO NOISE
- produce by a non-linear amplification and includes harmonic and intermodulation
distortion
* nonlinear distortion - creates unwanted frequencies that interfere with the signal
and degrade performance
* harmonic distortion - occurs when unwanted harmonics of a signal are produced
through nonlinear amplification
- amplitude distortion
Harmonics - integers multiples of the original signal
Example:
Determine 2nd , 3rd

and 12th harmonic for a 1-kHz repetitive wave

*intermodulation distortion - is the generation of unwanted sum and difference

frequencies produced when two or more signals mix in a non-linear device
Cross products - sum and difference of frequencies
- are produce when harmonics as well as fundamental frequencies
mix in a non-linear device
Cross product =

mf nf
1

Where: f1 and f2 = fundamental frequencies

m and n = positive integers between 1 and
f f
1

Example:
2.For a non-linear amplifier with two input frequencies, 3 kHz and
8kHz,determine
A.) First three harmonics present in the output for each input frequency
B.) Cross- product frequencies produced for values of m and n of 1 and 2

IMPULSE NOISE - is characterized by a high amplitude peaks of short duration in the

total noise spectrum
- consist of sudden burst of irregularly shaped pulses that are
generally last between a few microseconds and several milliseconds,
depending on their amplitude and origin

Sources:
1. Transients from electromechanical switches
2. Electric motors
3. Appliances
4. Electric lights and power lines
5. Automotive ignition systems
6. Poor -quality solder joints and lightning
ELECTRICAL NOISE SOURCE SUMMARY:
Correlated noise ( internal)
Nonlinear distortion
Harmonic distortion
Intermodulation distortion
Uncorrelated noise
External
Atmospheric
Extraterrestrial
Solar
Cosmic
Man-made
Impulse
Interference
Internal
Thermal
Shot
Transient time

ELECTRICAL INTERFERENCE - occurs when information signals from one source

produce frequencies that fall outside their allocated bandwidth and interfere with
information signals from another source
- contamination by extraneous signals from sources and
other transmitters, power lines and machinery and switching
circuits
-occurs most often in radio systems whose receiving
antennas usually intercept general signals at the same time
RFI ( Radio Frequency Interference) -appears in cable systems
- occurs in the radio-frequency spectrum

Signal-to-Noise Power Ratio

- is the ratio of the signal power level to the noise power level
Mathematically,

S PS

N PN
Where: Ps = signal power (watts)
Pn = noise power ( watts)
> is often expressed as a logarithmic function with the decibel unit

S
(dB) 10log PS
N
PN
Example:
1. For an amplifier with an output signal power of 10 W and output noise power of
0.01 W,determine the signal-to-noise power ratio and in decibels
> can also be expressed in terms of voltages and resistances

V 2

S
( dB) 10 log 2 Rin
N
V n

Rout

Where: S/N = signal-to-noise power ratio (decibels)

Rin = input resistance (ohms)
Rout = output resistance (ohms)
Vs = signal voltage ( volts)

S
(dB) 20logV S
N
VN
Example:
For an amplifier with an output signal voltage of 4 V an output noise voltage 0.005 V, and
an input and output resistance of 50 , determine the signal-to-noise power ratio

NOISE FACTOR and NOISE FIGURE

Noise factor (F) and Noise figure (NF) - are figures of merits used to indicate how much
the signal-to-noise ratio deteriorates as a signal passes through a circuit or series of
circuits
Noise factor (F)- is simply a ratio of input signal-to-noise power ratio to output
signal-to-noise power ratio

input signal to noise power ratio

(unitless )
output signal to noise power ratio

Noise figure (NF) - is simply the noise factor stated in dB

- a parameter used to indicate the quality of a receiver

NF ( dB) 10 log

input signal to noise power ratio

output signal to noise power ratio

NF(dB) 10 log F
- indicates how much the signal-to-noise ratio deteriorates as a waveform
propagates from the input to the output of a circuit
For a perfect, noiseless circuit
F=1

NF = 0 dB

HOMEWORK:
For a nonideal amplifier and the following parameters, determine
A. ) input S/N ratio (dB)
B. ) output S/N ratio (dB)
C. ) Noise factor and noise figure
10
Input signal power = 210 W
Input noise power =

210

18

Power gain = 1,000,000

12
Internal noise (Nd) = 610 W
FRISS FORMULA - is used to calculate the total noise factor of several cascaded
amplifiers

F1

F 1 F 1 F 1
A A A A A .... A
3

Note: In Friss formula , the noise figure must be converted to noise factors

NF (dB) 10log F
T

Example:
For three cascaded amplifier stages, each with noise figure of 3dB and a power gains of
10 dB, determine the total noise figure

EQUIVALENT NOISE TEMPEARTURE (Te)

- is a hypothetical value that cannot be directly measured
- a convenient parameter often used in VHF, UHF,microwave and satellite radio receivers

N
KB

where: T = environmental temperature (kelvin)

N = noise power (watts)
K = Boltzmanns constant (J/K)
B = bandwidth (Hz)

T ( F 1)

Where: Te = equivalent noise temperature (kelvin)

T = environmental temperature ( 290 K)
F = noise factor (unitless)

F 1

T
T

e
a

Determine
A. Noise figure for an equivalent noise temperature of 75 K
B. Equivalent noise temperature for a noise figure of 6 dB

AMPLITUDE MODULATION TRANSMISSION

MODULATION - The process of impressing low-frequency information signals onto a
high- frequency carrier signal
- one of the principal technique used in electronic communication
TYPES OF MODULATION
ANALOG

DIGITAL

AMPLITUDE ANGULAR
AM
FM PM

DIGITAL MODULATION
FSK PSK
QAM

PULSE MODULATION
PAM
PWM
PCM

3 PRINCIPAL TYPES
Amplitude modulation
Frequency modulation
Phase modulation
- process of modifying the characteristics of one signal in accordance with some
characteristics of another signal

Voice signals
Video signals
Binary data
CABLE ARE SOMETIMES IMPRACTICAL

it is desirable to translate the information signal to a point higher in the

electromagnetic frequency spectrum
MODULATING SIGNAL
- can be of any shape that permits both the analog and digital
MODULATED WAVE
- usually a sine wave
- considered to be higher than the highest information frequency to be transmitted

A.) CARRIER

RF range : 20 kHz - 300 Ghz

- frequency annd amplitude are constant
- no information

e E sin t
E sin 2 f
c

B. MODULATING SIGNAL

Audio frequency : 20 Hz - 220 kHz

Em sin m t

Em sin 2

AMPLITUDE MODULATION
- a system of modulation in which the amplitude of the carrier is made proportional to
the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating voltage
BASIC AM CIRCUIT

 THRE HISTORY OF AM IS ALSO THE HSTORY OF EARLY RADIO BROADCASTING

SINCE AM WAS THE FIRST RADIO SIGNAL
1895 - GUGLIELMO MARCONI - invented radio - telegraph code
Joseph Henry

Michael Faraday

James Clark Maxwell

Heinrich Hertz

1 mile - 1st radio broadcast tranmission

1901 - Marconi send telegraph signals across the Atlantic
15 years - AM radio transmitted only telegraph code
TECHNOLOGICAL NOVELTY
1909 - ist practical use
- ships began to carry wireless radio telegraph
1906 - transmit voice and sound
1915 - 1921

- unlicensed stations

PROCESS OF MODULATION

AN AM WAVE

NOTE: carrier frequency remains constant during the process but that its amplitude varies
in accordance with the modulating signal
ENVELOPE - imaginary line of the carrier waveform which is the same as the
modulating signal

MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTATION

E E c em
WHERE:
E = peak amplitude of the AM wave
e = instantaneous modulating voltage

Instantaneous amplitude of the resulting AM wave:

e E sin(ct )
e

E c sin c t

m Ec
2

cos( )t m 2E cos( )t
c

FREQUENCY SPECTRUM with regarding BANDWIDTH

3 FREQUENCIES PRESENT in AM wave
1. Carrier frequency - fc
2. Lower sideband frequency - LSB (fc-fm)
3. Upper sideband frequency - USB (fc+fm)
SPECTRUM ANALYZER
V

carrier
LSB(mE/2)

USB(mE/2)
* the voltage of either of the sideband will not
exceed half of the voltage of the CARRIER
F

fc-fm

fc
BW

BW 2 fm

fc+fm

Standard AM in Time Domain

- modulating voltage is ALWAYS LESS than the CARRIER VOLTAGE
* signal distortion
OVERMODULATION
* interference from adjacent channel
MODULATION INDEX (m)
- coefficient of modulation;depth of modulation
- describe the amount of amplitude change in an AM waveform
m

E
E

m
c

E
E

max
max

E min

E min

max

E min

max

E min

OSCILLOSCOPE : peak or max voltage

RMS VOLTAGE : effective or DC voltage =

= 0.707 Vp
2
AVERAGE VOLTAGE: Vave = 0.636 Vp = 0.318 Vp

HOMEWORK:
Show or derive the power formula, current formula , voltage formula , modulation
index and research the formula of percent modulation and total power involving Pc,
Plsb and Pusb...
CURRENT,VOLTAGE,POWER RELATIONSHIP