WATER CYCLE

The water cycle, also known as the hydrologic cycle or the H2O cycle, describes the continuous
movement of water on, above and below the surface of the Earth. The mass of water on Earth remains
fairly constant over time but the partitioning of the water into the major reservoirs of ice, fresh water,
saline water and atmospheric water is variable depending on a wide range of climatic variables. The
water moves from one reservoir to another, such as from river to ocean, or from the ocean to the
atmosphere, by the physical processes ofevaporation, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, runoff, and
subsurface flow. In so doing, the water goes through different phases: liquid, solid (ice), and gas (vapor).
The water cycle involves the exchange of energy, which leads to temperature changes. For instance,
when water evaporates, it takes up energy from its surroundings and cools the environment. When it
condenses, it releases energy and warms the environment. These heat exchanges influence climate.
The evaporative phase of the cycle purifies water which then replenishes the land with freshwater. The
flow of liquid water and ice transports minerals across the globe. It is also involved in reshaping the
geological features of the Earth, through processes including erosion and sedimentation. The water cycle
is also essential for the maintenance of most life and ecosystems on the planet.
The Sun, which drives the water cycle, heats water in oceans and seas. Water evaporates as water
vapour into the air. Ice,rain and snow can sublimate directly into water vapour. Evapotranspiration is
water transpired from plants and evaporated from the soil. Rising air currents take the vapour up into the
atmosphere where cooler temperatures cause it to condense into clouds. Air currents move water vapour

around the globe, cloud particles collide, grow, and fall out of the upper atmospheric layers
as precipitation. Some precipitation falls as snow or hail, sleet, and can accumulate as ice caps and
glaciers, which can store frozen water for thousands of years. Most water falls back into the oceans or
onto land as rain, where the water flows over the ground as surface runoff. A portion of runoff enters rivers
in valleys in the landscape, with streamflow moving water towards the oceans. Runoff and water
emerging from the ground (groundwater) may be stored as freshwater in lakes. Not all runoff flows into
rivers, much of it soaks into the ground as infiltration. Some water infiltrates deep into the ground and
replenishes aquifers, which can store freshwater for long periods of time. Some infiltration stays close to
the land surface and can seep back into surface-water bodies (and the ocean) as groundwater discharge.
Some groundwater finds openings in the land surface and comes out as freshwater springs. In river
valleys and flood-plains there is often continuous water exchange between surface water and ground
water in the hyporheic zone. Over time, the water returns to the ocean, to continue the water cycle.

Processe
Many different processes lead to movements and phase changes in water

Precipitation
Condensed water vapor that falls to the Earth's surface . Most precipitation occurs as rain,
but also includes snow, hail, fog drip, graupel, and sleet.[1] Approximately
505,000 km3(121,000 cu mi) of water falls as precipitation each year,
398,000 km3 (95,000 cu mi) of it over the oceans.[2] The rain on land contains
107,000 km3 (26,000 cu mi) of water per year and a snowing only 1,000 km3 (240 cu mi).
[3]
78% of global precipitation occurs over the ocean.[4]
Canopy interception
The precipitation that is intercepted by plant foliage, eventually evaporates back to the
atmosphere rather than falling to the ground.
Snowmelt
The runoff produced by melting snow.
Runoff
The variety of ways by which water moves across the land. This includes both surface runoff
and channel runoff. As it flows, the water may seep into the ground, evaporate into the air,
become stored in lakes or reservoirs, or be extracted for agricultural or other human uses.
Infiltration
The flow of water from the ground surface into the ground. Once infiltrated, the water
becomes soil moisture or groundwater.[5]
Subsurface flow
The flow of water underground, in the vadose zone and aquifers. Subsurface water may
return to the surface (e.g. as a spring or by being pumped) or eventually seep into the
oceans. Water returns to the land surface at lower elevation than where it infiltrated, under
the force of gravity or gravity induced pressures. Groundwater tends to move slowly, and is
replenished slowly, so it can remain in aquifers for thousands of years.
Evaporation
The transformation of water from liquid to gas phases as it moves from the ground or bodies
of water into the overlying atmosphere.[6] The source of energy for evaporation is
primarily solar radiation. Evaporation often implicitly includes transpiration from plants,
though together they are specifically referred to asevapotranspiration. Total annual
evapotranspiration amounts to approximately 505,000 km3 (121,000 cu mi) of water,

434,000 km3 (104,000 cu mi) of which evaporates from the oceans.[2] 86% of global
evaporation occurs over the ocean.[4]
SublimationThe state change directly from solid water (snow or ice) to water vapor.[7]
DepositionThis refers to changing of water vapor directly to ice.
AdvectionThe movement of water in solid, liquid, or vapor states through the atmosphere.
Without advection, water that evaporated over the oceans could not precipitate over land. [8]
CondensationThe transformation of water vapor to liquid water droplets in the air,
creating clouds and fog.[9]
TranspirationThe release of water vapor from plants and soil into the air. Water vapor is a gas that
cannot be seen.
PercolationWater flows vertically through the soil and rocks under the influence of gravity
Plate tectonicsWater enters the mantle via subduction of oceanic crust. Water returns to the surface
via volcanism.

CARBON CYCLE
The carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged among
the biosphere, pedosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere of the Earth. Along with the nitrogen cycle and
the water cycle, the carbon cycle comprises a sequence of events that are key to making the Earth capable of
sustaining life; it describes the movement of carbon as it is recycled and reused throughout thebiosphere.The global
carbon budget is the balance of the exchanges (incomes and losses) of carbon between the carbon reservoirs or
between one specific loop (e.g., atmosphere biosphere) of the carbon cycle. An examination of the carbon budget
of a pool or reservoir can provide information about whether the pool or reservoir is functioning as a source or sink for
carbon dioxide.The carbon cycle was initially discovered by Joseph Priestley and Antoine Lavoisier, and popularized
by Humphry Davy.[1]

Relevance for the global climate[edit]

Carbon-based molecules are crucial for life on earth, because it is the main component of biological
compounds. Carbon is also a major component of many minerals. Carbon also exists in various
forms in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is partly responsible for the greenhouse effect and is
the most important human-contributed greenhouse gas.[2]
In the past two centuries, human activities have seriously altered the global carbon cycle, most
significantly in the atmosphere. Although carbon dioxide levels have changed naturally over the past
several thousand years, human emissions of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere exceed natural
fluctuations.[2] Changes in the amount of atmospheric CO2 are considerably altering weather patterns
and indirectly influencing oceanic chemistry. Records from ice cores have shown that, although
global temperatures can change without changes in atmospheric CO 2 levels, CO2 levels cannot
change significantly without affecting global temperatures. Current carbon dioxide levels in the
atmosphere exceed measurements from the last 420,000 years and levels are rising faster than ever
recorded,[3] making it of critical importance to better understand how the carbon cycle works and
what its effects are on the global climate.[2]

Main components[edit]
The global carbon cycle is now usually divided into the following major reservoirs of carbon
interconnected by pathways of exchange:

The atmosphere

The terrestrial biosphere

The oceans, including dissolved inorganic carbon and living and non-living marine biota

The sediments, including fossil fuels, fresh water systems and non-living organic material,
such as soil carbon

The Earth's interior, carbon from the Earth's mantle and crust. These carbon stores interact
with the other components through geological processes

The carbon exchanges between reservoirs occur as the result of various chemical, physical,
geological, and biological processes. The ocean contains the largest active pool of carbon near the
surface of the Earth.[2] The natural flows of carbon between the atmosphere, ocean, and sediments is
fairly balanced, so that carbon levels would be roughly stable without human influence. [4]

Atmosphere[edit]
Main article: Atmospheric carbon cycle
Carbon in the earth's atmosphere exists in two main forms: carbon dioxide and methane. Both of
these gases absorb and retain heat in the atmosphere and are partially responsible for
the greenhouse effect. Methane produces a large greenhouse effect per volume as compared to
carbon dioxide, but it exists in much lower concentrations and is more short-lived than carbon
dioxide, making carbon dioxide the more important greenhouse gas of the two. [5]
Carbon dioxide leaves the atmosphere through photosynthesis, thus entering the terrestrial and
oceanic biospheres. Carbon dioxide also dissolves directly from the atmosphere into bodies of water
(oceans, lakes, etc.), as well as dissolving in precipitation as raindrops fall through the atmosphere.
When dissolved in water, carbon dioxide reacts with water molecules and forms carbonic acid, which
contributes to ocean acidity. It can then be absorbed by rocks through weathering. It also can acidify
other surfaces it touches or be washed into the ocean.[6]
Human activity over the past two centuries has significantly increased the amount of carbon in the
atmosphere, mainly in the form of carbon dioxide, both by modifying ecosystems' ability to extract
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and by emitting it directly, e.g. by burning fossil fuels and
manufacturing concrete.[2]

Terrestrial biosphere[edit]

Main article: Terrestrial biological carbon cycle

The terrestrial biosphere includes the organic carbon in all land-living organisms, both alive and
dead, as well as carbon stored in soils. About 500 gigatons of carbon are stored above ground in
plants and other living organisms,[4] while soil holds approximately 1,500 gigatons of carbon. [7] Most
carbon in the terrestrial biosphere is organic carbon, while about a third of soil carbon is stored in
inorganic forms, such as calcium carbonate.[8] Organic carbon is a major component of all organisms
living on earth. Autotrophs extract it from the air in the form of carbon dioxide, converting it into
organic carbon, while heterotrophs receive carbon by consuming other organisms.
Because carbon uptake in the terrestrial biosphere is dependent on biotic factors, it follows a diurnal
and seasonal cycle. In CO2 measurements, this cycle is often called a Keeling curve[citation needed]. It is
strongest in the northern hemisphere, because this hemisphere has more land mass than the
southern hemisphere and thus more room for ecosystems to absorb and emit carbon.
Carbon leaves the terrestrial biosphere in several ways and on different time scales.
The combustion or respiration of organic carbon releases it rapidly into the atmosphere. It can also
be exported into the oceans through rivers or remain sequestered in soils in the form of inert carbon.
Carbon stored in soil can remain there for up to thousands of years before being washed into rivers
by erosion or released into the atmosphere through soil respiration. Between 1989 and 2008 soil
respiration increased by about 0.1% per year.[9] In 2008, the global total of CO2 released from the soil
reached roughly 98 billion tonnes, about 10 times more carbon than humans are now putting into the
atmosphere each year. There are a few plausible explanations for this trend, but the most likely
explanation is that increasing temperatures have increased rates of decomposition of soil organic
matter, which has increased the flow of CO2. The length of carbon sequestering in soil is dependent
on local climatic conditions and thus changes in the course of climate change. From pre-industrial
era to 2010, the terrestrial biosphere represented a net source of atmospheric CO
2 prior to 1940, switching subsequently to a net sink.[10]

Oceans[edit]
Main article: Oceanic carbon cycle
Oceans contain the greatest quantity of actively cycled carbon in this world and are second only to
the lithosphere in the amount of carbon they store.[2] The oceans' surface layer holds large amounts
of dissolved organic carbon that is exchanged rapidly with the atmosphere. The deep layer's
concentration of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) is about 15% higher than that of the surface layer.
[11]

DIC is stored in the deep layer for much longer periods of time.[4] Thermohaline

circulationexchanges carbon between these two layers.[2]

Carbon enters the ocean mainly through the dissolution of atmospheric carbon dioxide, which is
converted into carbonate. It can also enter the oceans through rivers as dissolved organic carbon. It
is converted by organisms into organic carbon through photosynthesis and can either be exchanged
throughout the food chain or precipitated into the ocean's deeper, more carbon rich layers as dead
soft tissue or in shells as calcium carbonate. It circulates in this layer for long periods of time before
either being deposited as sediment or, eventually, returned to the surface waters through
thermohaline circulation.[4]
Oceanic absorption of CO2 is one of the most important forms of carbon sequestering limiting the
human-caused rise of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. However, this process is limited by a
number of factors. Because the rate of CO2 dissolution in the ocean is dependent on the weathering
of rocks and this process takes place slower than current rates of human greenhouse gas
emissions, ocean CO2 uptake will decrease in the future.[2] CO2 absorption also makes water more
acidic, which affects ocean biosystems. The projected rate of increasing oceanic acidity could slow
the biological precipitation of calcium carbonates, thus decreasing the ocean's capacity to absorb
carbon dioxide.[12][13]

Geological carbon cycle[edit]

The geologic component of the carbon cycle operates slowly in comparison to the other parts of the
global carbon cycle. It is one of the most important determinants of the amount of carbon in the
atmosphere, and thus of global temperatures.[14]
Most of the earth's carbon is stored inertly in the earth's lithosphere.[2] Much of the carbon stored in
the earth's mantle was stored there when the earth formed. [15]Some of it was deposited in the form of
organic carbon from the biosphere.[16] Of the carbon stored in the geosphere, about 80%
is limestone and its derivatives, which form from the sedimentation of calcium carbonate stored in
the shells of marine organisms. The remaining 20% is stored as kerogens formed through the
sedimentation and burial of terrestrial organisms under high heat and pressure. Organic carbon
stored in the geosphere can remain there for millions of years.[14]
Carbon can leave the geosphere in several ways. Carbon dioxide is released during
the metamorphosis of carbonate rocks when they are subducted into the earth's mantle. This carbon
dioxide can be released into the atmosphere and ocean through volcanoes and hotspots.[15] It can
also be removed by humans through the direct extraction of kerogens in the form of fossil fuels. After
extraction, fossil fuels are burned to release energy, thus emitting the carbon they store into the
atmosphere.

Human influence[edit]

Human activity since the industrial era has changed the balance in the natural carbon cycle. Units are in gigatons.[4]

Since the industrial revolution, human activity has modified the carbon cycle by changing its
component's functions and directly adding carbon to the atmosphere. [2]
The largest and most direct human influence on the carbon cycle is through direct emissions from
burning fossil fuels, which transfers carbon from the geosphere into the atmosphere. Humans also
influence the carbon cycle indirectly by changing the terrestrial and oceanic biosphere.
Over the past several centuries, human-caused land use and land cover change (LUCC) has led to
the loss of biodiversity, which lowers ecosystems' resilience to environmental stresses and
decreases their ability to remove carbon from the atmosphere. More directly, it often leads to the
release of carbon from terrestrial ecosystems into the atmosphere.Deforestation for agricultural
purposes removes forests, which hold large amounts of carbon, and replaces them, generally with
agricultural or urban areas. Both of these replacement land cover types store comparatively small
amounts of carbon, so that the net product of the process is that more carbon stays in the
atmosphere.
Other human-caused changes to the environment change ecosystems' productivity and their ability
to remove carbon from the atmosphere. Air pollution, for example, damages plants and soils, while
many agricultural and land use practices lead to higher erosion rates, washing carbon out of soils
and decreasing plant productivity.
Higher temperatures and CO2 levels in the atmosphere increase decomposition rates in soil, thus
returning CO2 stored in plant material more quickly to the atmosphere.
However, increased levels of CO2 in the atmosphere can also lead to higher gross primary
production. It increases photosynthesis rates by allowing plants to more efficiently use water,
because they no longer need to leave their stomata open for such long periods of time in order to
absorb the same amount of carbon dioxide. This type of carbon dioxide fertilization affects mainly C3
plants, because C4 plants can already concentrate CO2 effectively.

Humans also affect the oceanic carbon cycle. Current trends in climate change lead to higher ocean
temperatures, thus modifying ecosystems. Also, acid rain and polluted runoff from agriculture and
industry change the ocean's chemical composition. Such changes can have dramatic effects on
highly sensitive ecosystems such as coral reefs, thus limiting the ocean's ability to absorb carbon
from the atmosphere on a regional scale and reducing oceanic biodiversity globally.

NITROGEN CYCLE
The nitrogen cycle is the process by which nitrogen is converted between its various chemical
forms. This transformation can be carried out through both biological and physical processes.
Important processes in the nitrogen cycle include fixation, ammonification, nitrification,
anddenitrification. The majority of Earth's atmosphere (78%) is nitrogen,[1] making it the largest pool
of nitrogen. However, atmospheric nitrogen has limited availability for biological use, leading to a
scarcity of usable nitrogen in many types of ecosystems. The nitrogen cycle is of particular interest
to ecologists because nitrogen availability can affect the rate of key ecosystem processes,
including primary production and decomposition. Human activities such as fossil fuel combustion,
use of artificial nitroge fertilizers, and release of nitrogen in wastewater have dramatically altered the
global nitrogen cycle.[2]

Ecological function[edit]
Nitrogen is necessary for all known forms of life on Earth. It is a component in all amino acids, as
incorporated into proteins, and is present in the bases that make up nucleic acids such
asRNA and DNA. In plants, much of the nitrogen is used in chlorophyll molecules, which are
essential forphotosynthesis and further growth.[3] Nitrogen gas (N2) is the largest constituent of
the Earth's atmosphere,[4] but this form is relatively nonreactive and unusable by plants.[5] Chemical
processing or natural fixation (through processes such as bacterial conversionsee rhizobium) are
necessary to convert gaseous nitrogen into compounds such as nitrate or ammonia which can be
used by plants. The abundance or scarcity of this "fixed" nitrogen (also known as reactive nitrogen)
frequently limits plant growth in both managed and wild environments. The nitrogen cycle, like the
carbon cycle, is an important part of every ecosystem.

The processes of the nitrogen cycle[edit]

Nitrogen is present in the environment in a wide variety of chemical forms including organic
nitrogen,ammonium (NH4+), nitrite (NO2-), nitrate (NO3-), nitrous oxide (N2O), nitric oxide (NO) or
inorganic nitrogen gas (N2). Organic nitrogen may be in the form of a living organism, humus or in
the intermediate products of organic matter decomposition. The processes of the nitrogen cycle
transform nitrogen from one form to another. Many of those processes are carried out by microbes,

either in their effort to harvest energy or to accumulate nitrogen in a form needed for their growth.
The diagram above shows how these processes fit together to form the nitrogen cycle.

Nitrogen fixation[edit]
Main article: Nitrogen fixation
Atmospheric nitrogen must be processed, or "fixed", to be used by plants. Some fixation occurs
in lightning strikes, but most fixation is done by free-living orsymbiotic bacteria known
as diazotrophs. These bacteria have the nitrogenase enzyme that combines gaseous nitrogen
with hydrogen to produce ammonia, which is converted by the bacteria into other organic
compounds. Most biological nitrogen fixation occurs by the activity of Mo-nitrogenase, found in a
wide variety of bacteria and some Archaea. Mo-nitrogenase is a complex two
component enzyme that has multiple metal-containing prosthetic groups.[6] An example of the freeliving bacteria is Azotobacter. Symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria such as Rhizobium usually live in
the root nodules of legumes (such as peas, alfalfa, and locust trees). Here they form
a mutualistic relationship with the plant, producing ammonia in exchange for carbohydrates.
Because of this relationship, legumes will often increase the nitrogen content of nitrogen-poor soils.
A few non-legumes can also form such symbioses. Today, about 30% of the total fixed nitrogen is
produced industrially using the Haber-Bosch process,[7] which uses high temperatures and pressures
to convert nitrogen gas and a hydrogen source ( natural gas or petroleum) into ammonia. [3]

Assimilation[edit]
Main articles: Assimilation (biology) and Nitrogen assimilation
Plants take nitrogen from the soil by absorption through their roots in the form of
either nitrate ions or ammonium ions. Most nitrogen obtained by terrestrial animals can be traced
back to the eating of plants at some stage of the food chain.
Plants can absorb nitrate or ammonium ions from the soil via their root hairs. If nitrate is absorbed, it
is first reduced to nitrite ions and then ammonium ions for incorporation into amino acids, nucleic
acids, and chlorophyll.[3] In plants that have a symbiotic relationship with rhizobia, some nitrogen is
assimilated in the form of ammonium ions directly from the nodules. It is now known that there is a
more complex cycling of amino acids between Rhizobia bacteroids and plants. The plant provides
amino acids to the bacteroids so ammonia assimilation is not required and the bacteroids pass
amino acids (with the newly fixed nitrogen) back to the plant, thus forming an interdependent
relationship.[8] While many animals, fungi, and other heterotrophic organisms obtain nitrogen by
ingestion of amino acids,nucleotides and other small organic molecules, other heterotrophs

(including many bacteria) are able to utilize inorganic compounds, such as ammonium as sole N
sources. Utilization of various N sources is carefully regulated in all organisms.

Ammonification[edit]
When a plant or animal dies or an animal expels waste, the initial form of nitrogen is organic.
Bacteria or fungi convert the organic nitrogen within the remains back into ammonium (NH4+), a
process called ammonification or mineralization. Enzymes involved are:

GS: Gln Synthetase (Cytosolic & PLastid)

GOGAT: Glu 2-oxoglutarate aminotransferase (Ferredoxin & NADH dependent)

GDH: Glu Dehydrogenase:

Minor Role in ammonium assimilation.

Important in amino acid catabolism.

Nitrification[edit]
Main article: Nitrification
The conversion of ammonia to nitrate is performed primarily by soil-living bacteria and other nitrifying
bacteria. In the primary stage of nitrification, the oxidation of ammonium (NH 4+) is performed by
bacteria such as the Nitrosomonas species, which converts ammonia to nitrites (NO2-). Other
bacterial species such asNitrobacter, are responsible for the oxidation of the nitrites into nitrates
(NO3-).[3] It is important for the ammonia to be converted to nitrates because accumulated nitrites are
toxic to plant life.
Due to their very high solubility and because soils are largely unable to retain anions, nitrates can
enter groundwater. Elevated nitrate in groundwater is a concern for drinking water use because
nitrate can interfere with blood-oxygen levels in infants and cause methemoglobinemia or blue-baby
syndrome.[9][10] Where groundwater recharges stream flow, nitrate-enriched groundwater can
contribute to eutrophication, a process that leads to high algal population and growth, especially
blue-green algal populations. While not directly toxic to fish life, like ammonia, nitrate can have
indirect effects on fish if it contributes to this eutrophication. Nitrogen has contributed to severe
eutrophication problems in some water bodies. Since 2006, the application of nitrogen fertilizer has
been increasingly controlled in Britain and the United States. This is occurring along the same lines

as control of phosphorus fertilizer, restriction of which is normally considered essential to the

recovery of eutrophied waterbodies.

Denitrification[edit]
Main article: Denitrification
Denitrification is the reduction of nitrates back into the largely inert nitrogen gas (N 2), completing the
nitrogen cycle. This process is performed by bacterial species such
as Pseudomonas and Clostridium in anaerobic conditions.[3] They use the nitrate as an electron
acceptor in the place of oxygen during respiration. These facultatively anaerobic bacteria can also
live in aerobic conditions. Denitrification happens in anaerobic conditions e.g. waterlogged soils. The
denitrifying bacteria use nitrates in the soil to carry out respiration and consequently produce
nitrogen gas, which is inert and unavailable to plants.

Anaerobic ammonia oxidation[edit]

Main article: Ammonia
In this biological process, nitrite and ammonia are converted directly into molecular nitrogen (N2)
gas. This process makes up a major proportion of nitrogen conversion in the oceans.

Other processes[edit]
Though nitrogen fixation is the primary source of plant-available nitrogen in most ecosystems, in
areas with nitrogen-rich bedrock, the breakdown of this rock also serves as a nitrogen source. [11][12][13]

Marine nitrogen cycle[edit]

A schematic representing the Marine Nitrogen Cycle

The nitrogen cycle is an important process in the ocean as well. While the overall cycle is similar,
there are different players and modes of transfer for nitrogen in the ocean. Nitrogen enters the water
through precipitation, runoff, or as N2 from the atmosphere. Nitrogen cannot be utilized
by phytoplankton as N2 so it must undergo nitrogen fixation which is performed predominately

by cyanobacteria.[14] Without supplies of fixed nitrogen entering the marine cycle the fixed nitrogen
would be used up in about 2000 years.[15] Phytoplankton need nitrogen in biologically available forms
for the initial synthesis of organic matter. Ammonia and urea are released into the water by excretion
from plankton. Nitrogen sources are removed from theeuphotic zone by the downward movement of
the organic matter. This can occur from sinking of phytoplankton, vertical mixing, or sinking of waste
of vertical migrators. The sinking results in ammonia being introduced at lower depths below the
euphotic zone. Bacteria are able to convert ammonia to nitrite and nitrate but they are inhibited by
light so this must occur below the euphotic zone.[16] Ammonification or Mineralization is performed by
bacteria to convert the ammonia to ammonium. Nitrification can then occur to convert the ammonium
to nitrite and nitrate.[17] Nitrate can be returned to the euphotic zone by vertical mixing and upwelling
where it can be taken up by phytoplankton to continue the cycle. N 2 can be returned to the
atmosphere through denitrification.
Ammonium is thought to be the preferred source of fixed nitrogen for phytoplankton because its
assimilation does not involve a redox reaction and therefore requires little energy. Nitrate requires a
redox reaction for assimilation, but is more abundant so most phytoplankton have adapted to have
the enzymes necessary to undertake this reduction (nitrate reductase). There are a few notable and
well-known exceptions that include Prochlorococcus and some Synechococcus.[15]These species can
only take up nitrogen as ammonium.
The nutrients in the ocean are not uniformly distributed. Areas of upwelling provide supplies of
nitrogen from below the euphotic zone. Coastal zones provide nitrogen from runoff and upwelling
occurs readily along the coast. However, the rate at which nitrogen can be taken up by
phytoplankton is decreased in oligotrophicwaters year-round and temperate water in the summer
resulting in lower primary production.[18] The distribution of the different forms of nitrogen varies
throughout the oceans as well.
Nitrate is depleted in near-surface water except in upwelling regions. Coastal upwelling regions
usually have high nitrate and chlorophyll levels as a result of the increased production. However,
there are regions of high surface nitrate but low chlorophyll that are referred to as HNLC (high
nitrogen, low chlorophyll) regions. The best explanation for HNLC regions relates to iron scarcity in
the ocean, which may play an important part in ocean dynamics and nutrient cycles. The input of
iron varies by region and is delivered to the ocean by dust (from dust storms) and leached out of
rocks. Iron is under consideration as the true limiting element to ecosystem productivity in the ocean.
Ammonium and nitrite show a maximum concentration at 5080 m (lower end of the euphotic zone)
with decreasing concentration below that depth. This distribution can be accounted for by the fact
that nitrite and ammonium are intermediate species. They are both rapidly produced and consumed
through the water column.[15] The amount of ammonium in the ocean is about 3 orders of magnitude

less than nitrate.[15] Between ammonium, nitrite, and nitrate, nitrite has the fastest turnover rate. It can
be produced during nitrate assimilation, nitrification, and denitrification; however, it is immediately
consumed again.

PHOSPHORUS CYCLE
The phosphorus cycle is the biogeochemical cycle that describes the movement
of phosphorus through the lithosphere,hydrosphere, and biosphere. Unlike many other
biogeochemical cycles, the atmosphere does not play a significant role in the movement of
phosphorus, because phosphorus and phosphorus-based compounds are usually solids at the
typical ranges of temperature and pressure found on Earth. The production of phosphine gas occurs
only in specialized, local conditions.
On the land, phosphorus (chemical symbol, P) gradually becomes less available to plants over
thousands of years, because it is slowly lost in runoff. Low concentration of P in soils reduces plant
growth, and slows soil microbial growth - as shown in studies of soil microbial biomass. Soil
microorganisms act as both sinks and sources of available P in the biogeochemical cycle. [1] Locally,
transformations of P are chemical, biological and microbiological: the major long-term transfers in
the global cycle, however, are driven by tectonic movements in geologic time.[2]
Humans have caused major changes to the global P cycle through shipping of P minerals, and use
of P fertilizer, and also the shipping of food from farms to cities, where it is lost as effluent.

Phosphorus in the environment[edit]

The aquatic phosphorus cycle

Ecological function[edit]
Phosphorus is an essential nutrient for plants and animals. Phosphorus is a limiting nutrient for
aquatic organisms. Phosphorus forms parts of important life-sustaining molecules that are very
common in the biosphere. Phosphorus does not enter the atmosphere, remaining mostly on land
and in rock and soil minerals. Eighty percent of the mined phosphorus is used to make fertilizers.
Phosphates from fertilizers, sewage and detergents can cause pollution in lakes and streams. Over
enrichment of phosphate in both fresh and inshore marine waters can lead to massive algae blooms
which, when they die and decay, leads to eutrophication of fresh waters only. An example of this is
the Canadian Experimental Lakes Area. These freshwater algal blooms should not be confused with
those in saltwater environments. Recent research suggests that the predominant pollutant
responsible for algal blooms in salt water estuaries and coastal marine habitats is Nitrogen. [3]
Phosphorus normally occurs in nature as part of a phosphate ion (PO4)3-, consisting of a P atom and
4 oxygen atoms, the most abundant form is orthophosphate. On land most phosphorus is found in
rocks and minerals. Phosphorus rich deposits have generally formed in the ocean or from guano,
and over time, geologic processes bring ocean sediments to land. Weathering of rocks and minerals
release phosphorus in a soluble form where it is taken up by plants, and it is transformed into
organic compounds. The plants may then be consumed by herbivores and the phosphorus is either
incorporated into their tissues or excreted. After death, the animal or plant decays, and phosphorus
is returned to the soil where a large part of the phosphorus is transformed into insoluble
compounds.Runoff may carry a small part of the phosphorus back to the ocean. Generally with time
(thousands of years) soils become deficient in phosphorus leading to ecosystem retrogression. [4]

Biological function[edit]
The primary biological importance of phosphates is as a component of nucleotides, which serve as
energy storage within cells (ATP) or when linked together, form the nucleic acids DNA and RNA.The

double helix of our DNA is only possible because of the phosphate ester bridge that binds the helix.
Besides making biomolecules, phosphorus is also found in bone and the enamel of mammalian
teeth, whose strength is derived from calcium phosphate in the form ofHydroxylapatite. It is also
found in the exoskeleton of insects, and phospholipids (found in all biological membranes).[5] It also
functions as a buffering agent in maintaining acid base homeostasis in the human body.[6]

Process of the cycle[edit]

Phosphates move quickly through plants and animals; however, the processes that move them
through the soil or ocean are very slow, making the phosphorus cycle overall one of the slowest
biogeochemical cycles.
Initially, phosphate weathers from rocks and minerals, the most common mineral being apatite.
Overall small losses occur in terrestrial environments by leaching and erosion, through the action of
rain. In soil, phosphate is absorbed on iron oxides, aluminium hydroxides, clay surfaces, and organic
matter particles, and becomes incorporated (immobilized or fixed). Plants and fungi can also be
active in making P soluble.
Unlike other cycles, P cannot be found in the air as a gas; it only occurs under highly reducing
conditions as the gas phosphine PH3.

Phosphatic minerals[edit]
The availability of phosphorus in an ecosystem is restricted by the rate of release of this element
during weathering. The release of phosphorus from apatitedissolution is a key control on ecosystem
productivity. The primary mineral with significant phosphorus content, apatite [Ca 5(PO4)3OH]
undergoes carbonation.[2][7]
Little of this released phosphorus is taken up by biota (organic form), whereas a larger proportion
reacts with other soil minerals. This leads to precipitation into unavailable forms in the later stage of
weathering and soil development. Available phosphorus is found in a biogeochemical cycle in the
upper soil profile, while phosphorus found at lower depths is primarily involved in geochemical
reactions with secondary minerals. Plant growth depends on the rapid root uptake of phosphorus
released from dead organic matter in the biochemical cycle. Phosphorus is limited in supply for plant
growth. Phosphates move quickly through plants and animals; however, the processes that move
them through the soil or ocean are very slow, making the phosphorus cycle overall one of the
slowest biogeochemical cycles.[2][8]

Low-molecular-weight (LMW) organic acids are found in soils. They originate from the activities of
various microorganisms in soils or may be exuded from the roots of living plants. Several of those
organic acids are capable of forming stable organo-metal complexes with various metal ions found in
soil solutions. As a result, these processes may lead to the release of inorganic phosphorus
associated with aluminium, iron, and calcium in soil minerals. The production and release of oxalic
acid by mycorrhizal fungi explain their importance in maintaining and supplying phosphorus to plant.
[2][9]

The availability of organic phosphorus to support microbial, plant and animal growth depends on the
rate of their degradation to generate free phosphate. There are various enzymes such
as phosphatases, nucleases and phytase involved for the degradation. Some of
the abiotic pathways in the environment studied are hydrolytic reactions and photolytic reactions.
Enzymatic hydrolysis of organic phosphorus is an essential step in the biogeochemical phosphorus
cycle, including the phosphorus nutrition of plants and microorganisms and the transfer of organic
phosphorus from soil to bodies of water.[1] Many organisms rely on the soil derived phosphorus for
their phosphorus nutrition.

Human influences[edit]
Nutrients are important to the growth and survival of living organisms, and hence, are essential for
development and maintenance of healthy ecosystems. Humans have greatly influenced the
phosphorus cycle by mining phosphorus, converting it to fertilizer, and by shipping fertilizer and
products around the globe. Transporting phosphorus in food from farms to cities has made a major
change in the global Phosphorus cycle. However, excessive amounts of nutrients, particularly
phosphorus and nitrogen, are detrimental to aquatic ecosystems. Waters are enriched in phosphorus
from farms run off, and from effluent that is inadequately treated before it is discharged to waters.
Natural eutrophication is a process by which lakes gradually age and become more productive and
may take thousands of years to progress. Cultural or anthropogenic eutrophication, however, is
water pollution caused by excessive plant nutrients, which results in excessive growth in algae
population. Surface and subsurface runoff and erosion from high-phosphorus soils may be major
contributing factors to fresh water eutrophication. The processes controlling soil Phosphorus release
to surface runoff and to subsurface flow are a complex interaction between the type of phosphorus
input, soil type and management, and transport processes depending on hydrological conditions. [10][11]
Repeated application of liquid hog manure in excess to crop needs can have detrimental effects on
soil phosphorus status. In poorly drained soils or in areas where snowmelt can cause periodic
waterlogging, Fe-reducing conditions can be attained in 710 days. This causes a sharp increase in
phosphorus concentration in solution and phosphorus can be leached. In addition, reduction of the
soil causes a shift in phosphorus from resilient to more labile forms. This could eventually increase

the potential for phosphorus loss. This is of particular concern for the environmentally sound
management of such areas, where disposal of agricultural wastes has already become a problem. It
is suggested that the water regime of soils that are to be used for organic wastes disposal is taken
into account in the preparation of waste management regulations.[12]
Human interference in the phosphorus cycle occurs by overuse or careless use of phosphorus
fertilizers. This results in increased amounts of phosphorus as pollutants in bodies of water resulting
in eutrophication. Eutrophication devastates water ecosystems.

SULFUR CYCLE
The sulfur cycle is the collection of processes by which sulfur moves to and from minerals
(including the waterways) and living systems. Such biogeochemical cycles are important
in geology because they affect many minerals. Biogeochemical cycles are also important for life
because sulfur is an essential element, being a constituent of many proteins and cofactors.[1]

The Sulfur cycle (in general)

Steps of the sulfur cycle are:

Mineralization of organic sulfur into inorganic forms, such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S),
elemental sulfur, as well as sulfide minerals.

Oxidation of hydrogen sulfide, sulfide, and elemental sulfur (S) to sulfate (SO42).

Reduction of sulfate to sulfide.

Incorporation of sulfide into organic compounds (including metal-containing derivatives).

Structure of 3'-phosphoadenosine-5'-phosphosulfate, a key intermediate in the sulfur cycle.

These are often termed as follows:

Assimilative sulfate reduction (see also sulfur assimilation) in which sulfate (SO42) is reduced
by plants, fungi and various prokaryotes. The oxidation states of sulfur are +6 in sulfate and
2 in RSH.
Desulfurization in which organic molecules containing sulfur can be desulfurized, producing
hydrogen sulfide gas (H2S, oxidation state = 2). An analogous process for organic nitrogen
compounds is deamination.

Oxidation of hydrogen sulfide produces elemental sulfur (S8), oxidation state = 0. This
reaction occurs in the photosynthetic green and purple sulfur bacteria and
some chemolithotrophs. Often the elemental sulfur is stored as polysulfides.
Oxidation of elemental sulfur by sulfur oxidizers produces sulfate.
Dissimilative sulfur reduction in which elemental sulfur can be reduced to hydrogen sulfide.
Dissimilative sulfate reduction in which sulfate reducers generate hydrogen sulfide from
sulfate.

Sulfur sources and sinks[edit]

Sulfur is found in oxidation states ranging from +6 in SO42 to -2 in sulfides. Thus elemental sulfur can
either give or receive electrons depending on its environment. Minerals such as pyrite (FeS2)
comprise the original pool of sulfur on earth. Owing to the sulfur cycle, the amount of mobile sulfur
has been continuously increasing through volcanic activity as well as weathering of thecrust in an
oxygenated atmosphere.[1] Earth's main sulfur sink is the oceans as SO2, where it is the
major oxidizing agent.[2]
When SO42 is assimilated by organisms, it is reduced and converted to organic sulfur, which is an
essential component ofproteins. However, the biosphere does not act as a major sink for sulfur,
instead the majority of sulfur is found in seawater or sedimentary rocks especially pyrite
rich shales and evaporite rocks (anhydrite and baryte). The amount of sulfate in the oceans is
controlled by three major processes:[3]
1. input from rivers
2. sulfate reduction and sulfide reoxidation on continental shelves and slopes
3. burial of anhydrite and pyrite in the oceanic crust.
There is no significant amount of sulfur held in the atmosphere with all of it coming from
either sea spray or windblown sulfur rich dust,[4] neither of which is long lived in the
atmosphere. In recent times the large annual input of sulfur from the burning of coal and
other fossil fuels adds a substantial amount SO2 which acts as an air pollutant. In the
geologic past, igneous intrusions into coal measures have caused large scale burning of
these measures, and consequential release of sulfur to the atmosphere. This has led to
substantial disruption to the climate system, and is one of the proposed causes of
the great dying.
Dimethylsulfide [(CH3)2S or DMS] is produced by the decomposition
of dimethylsulfoniopropionate DMSP) from dying phytoplankton cells in the shallow
levels of the ocean, and is the major biogenic gas emitted from the sea, where it is
responsible for the distinctive smell of the sea along coastlines.[1] DMS is the largest
natural source of sulfur gas, but still only has a residence time of about one day in the
atmosphere and a majority of it is redeposited in the oceans rather than making it to

land. However, it is a significant factor in the climate system, as it is involved in the

formation of clouds.