THE PliINCIPIA

OR

THE FIRST PRINCIPLES OF NATURAL THINGS

1'0 WHICH ARE ADDED

rrHE MINüR PRINCIPIA

AND SUMMARY OF THE PRINCIPIA

DY

EMANUEL SWEDENBORG

TRANSLATED FROM THE LATIN DY

JAMES R. RENDELL, B.A., AND

ISAIAH TANSLEY, B.A.

WITH AN INTRODUCTION DY

ISAIAH TANSLEY, B.A.

AND A FOREWORD DY

PROFESSOR SIR WILLIAM F. BARREir, F.R.S.

VOLUME I.

THE SWEDENBORG SOCIETY

(INSTITUTED 1810)
! BLOOMSBURY STREET, LONDON
1912
 THE PRINCIPIA

OR

THE FIRST PRINCIPLES OF NATURAL THINGS

TO WHICH ARE ADDED

rrHE MINÜR PRINCIPIA

AND SUMMARY OF THE PRINCIPIA

DY

El\1ANUEL SvVEDENBORG

TRANSLATED FROM THE LATIN BY

JAMES R. RENDELL, B.A., AND

ISAIAH TANSLEY, B.A.

WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY

rSAIAH TANSLEY, B.A.

AND A FOREWORD BY

l'ROFESSOR SIR 'WILLIAM F. BARRETT, F.R.S.

VOLUME I.

THE SWEDENBORG SOCIETY

(INSTITUTED 1810)
! BLOOMSBURY STREET, LONDON
1912
 FüREWüRD.
BY PROFESSOR SIR W. F. BAERETT, F.R.S.

SWEDENBORG the seer has largely obscured the fame of

Swedenborg the savant. And yet two-thirds of his life were
devoted to the service of science and the publication of
numerous works, ranging over every department of natural
knowledge. The neglect of Swedenborg's scientific writings is
now being removed by the publication, under the able editorial
supervision of Ml' A. li. Stroh, of Swedenborg's chief contribu­
tions to science, with Introductions written by eminent living
savants. The sumptuous Latin edition of Swedenborg's
Principia, issued under the auspices of the Swedish Royal
Academy of Sciences, is prefaced by an Introduction from the
pen of that distinguished man Professor Svante Arrhenius,
to whom in 1903 was awarded the Nobel prize for
chemical physics.
The present admirable English translation of the Principia
we owe to the arduous and loving labour of Ml' J. R.
Rendell and Ml' 1. Tansley. The Introduction, written
by the latter, was carefully read in proof both by myself and
my friend Professor Silvanus P. Thompson, D.Sc., F.R.S., and
1 wish to acknowledge the courtesy with which the author
adopted most of the numerous suggestions and criticisms we
made; though the responsibility for the opinions expressed
rests, of course, solely with the author.
Those who may read this translation of the Principia must
remember that Swedenborg lived at a time when many of the
now recognized branches of science had no existence, and the
whole of experimental science was then an almost untrodden
field. Swedenborg's Principia, wit.h its archaic expressions and
v
VI FOREWORD.

obsolete farms of thought, its deductive and often erroneous

reasoning, marks the transition from the old to the new.
Swedenborg, thollgh profoundly influenced by the then new
school of Cartesian philosophy, which liberated the mind from
the fetters imposed by. theologians, was nevertheless in many
respects in advance of Descartes. This is strikingly shown in
his adumbrution of the nebular hypothesis which Laplace gave
to the world a century later.
As l have said elsewhere 1 Descartes' philosophy, moreover,
led to dualism-to an unbridgeable gulf between mind and
matter, between Nature and Spirit, between the finite and
the Infinite. Swedenborg saw this, as Leibnitz did fifty years
earlier. Leibnitz del'ived aB matter from infinitely minute
points or 11wnads, each of which mirrored a phase of the
universe, of the mind of God, between whom and the sum of
created 1nonads, which made up nature, Leibnitz held there
existed a pre-established harmony.
In some respects Swedenborg's conception of the physical
universe resembles that of Leibnitz, whose writings he had
studied, though he did not adopt the theory of pre-established
harmony. But Swedenborg's view of the origin of matter
though overlaid with complexities and faBacious ideas~ is more
like that to which science is tenàing at the present day. He
conceived aB matter as ultimately derived from what he tel'ms
" natural points "-which are, as it were, intermediate between
the finite and the infinite. From the varied aggregation and
motion of these points and their derivatives, he believed the
physicia.l universe \Vas built up according to mechanical and
geometrical laws. In his P1'incipia he points out how the
rapid motion of a minute, corpuscle can generate a line, and
the line an area, and the area a solid, and he goes on to say
"a corpusclè thus moving can represent by its celerity and
direction something which previously had no existence, and
which is quite different from the corpuscle itself: and it is
every \Vay a figure, so far as our senses are concel'l1ed, although
l ContC7npO'I'Ctr!/ Review, July 1912.
 F.OREWORD. Vit"

it is merèly motion which produces the effect, or by means of

motion form is fixed."
In the physical point Swedenborg, like Leibnitz, asserts
that aH fini te things are latent; the macrocosm is bidden in the
microcosm. In fact, some years later in his ATccma Cœlestia
he says: "The Deity is in each single thing, and this even
to such an extent that there is in it a representation of
the Eternal and Infinite. From this influx arises effort,
from effort force, and from force the effect." This may corne
to be the orthodox view of science-for nature is the unfold­
ing and indweHing of the inscrutable creative thought of
God.
Swedenborg, in fact, considers the origin of matter to be
infinitely minute centres of fune which fill aH space, and thus
he approaches the views advanced sorne thirty years later by
the Italian philosopher Boscovich. The great name of
Faraday is associated \Vith much the same opinion, for he
remarks: "Matter must fill aH space, or at least all space to
which gravitation ex tends, for gravitation is a property of
màtter dependent on a certain force, and it is this force which
constitutes matter." Science at the present day is tending
to the same view, for the once universal belief in eternal
immutable atoms, scattered in various states of aggregation
through empty space, has been replaced by conge ries of
infinitely minute swiftly moving electrons; which appear
again to be reducible to physical points, or centres of electric
force filling aH space, from the motion of which the funda­
mental properties of matter may eventually be deduced.
Ml' F. \V. Very remarks in his able papel', given in
Appendix A, that Swedenborg conceived of the existence of
a vortex-atom, which we have been accustomed ta associate
with modern ideas; but as Ml' Very points out, "while the
first conception of elementary particles, formed by vortical
motion of a sort, is attributable to Swedenborg, he has failed
to hit upon the most probable form of this motion, as far as
we are able to judge from present information."
viii FOREWORD.

The first part of the PrincipiCl with its elaborate discussion

of the author'a theory of the sub-division and modes of motion
of material entities, and the strange terms he employs­
Finites, Actives, and Elementaries-together with the series
of Elements he derives from his fivefold series of finites and
actives-the first or Universal Element, the second or
Magnetic Element, the third or Ethereal Element and the
Êourth or Aërial Element-aU this will repel, or excite a
smile, in the scientific reader. Swedenborg himself appeared
to realize this as seen in the first paragraph of the Preface
to his work. But in spite of much that we may dismiss in
the light of modern knowledge, there runs throughout the
whole work not only the true scientific spirit of an earnest
seeker after truth, but a conception of the constitution of
matter and of the structure of the universe, which may be
regarded, as Mr Very remarks, "as a first daring venture into
the unknown and as the pointing out of a new road which is
now being travelled in chemistry and physics with increasing
surety that the goal is in sight."
Swedenborg unfortunately does not appear to have studied
Bacon's NOVUrl1 OrgClnon, published more than a century before
he wrote his Principia; had he done so, and freed his mind
from the errors of the Aristotelian and deductive philosophy
which fettered scientific inquiry in his day, there can be
little doubt that his learning and industry would have given
him a high place in the history of science. As it is, his name
does not even appear in the admirable chronology of physical
and mathematical science compiled by Baden Powell in his
History of Natuml Philosophy.
The error which led ancient philosophers to argue that the
circle is the most perfect of figures, that the heavenly bodies
are perf8ct, and therefol'C their movements must ail be performed
in exact circles and with uniform motions, we find vitiating
Swedenborg's reasonings. Even when the observation of the
motions of the planets demonstrated that their orbits were not
circular, instead of doubting the principle, as Sir John
 FOREWORD. IX

Herschel remarks, "they saw no better way of getting out of

the cli ffi culty than by having recourse to endless combinations
of circular motions to preserve their ideal of perfection."
In like manner we find Swedenborg saying in his Principia,
vol. i. p. 115, that from a pTiori principles the figure of the
motion of the simple will be admitted to be absolutely perfect,
" and the only figure which has this degree of perfection is
the circular; and if the figure of motion is conceived as being
in space then no other can be conceived than the absolutely
perfect spiral." Hence he becomes almost obsessed with the
idea of spiral motion. This is well discussecl by Mr Very in
Appendix A, who, in reference to Swedenborg's Cosmology,
remarks on p. 626, that "it is evident that Swedenborg is
still following Descartes, and though improving on the latter's
corpuscular theories, Swedenborg has failed to grasp the
snpreme significance of Kepler's first law. The ellipticity of
the planetary orbits, with the sun at one focus, instead of at the
centre, was the great fact of nature whichoverthrew theCartesian
doctrine," and with it much of Swedenborg's reasoning.
Nevertheless, Swedenborg does accept Kepler's first law,
i.e., that the orbit of a planet is an ellipse of which the sun
is in one focus, for when speaking of "magnetic spheres," he
says: "This is observable in the large vortex of the sun,
where the plauets describe ellipses round their centre or sun,
in one focus of which the sun is situated." - Principia,
vol. i. p. 256.
The second part of the Principict deals with magnetism,
and is chiefly occupied with a transcript of Muschenbroek's
experiments on magnetism. Whilst we may dismiss Sweden­
borg's idea of a magnetic element and magnetic spheres, we
find a remarkable prevision of the molecular structure of a
magnet. "Magnetism," Swedenborg remarks, "consists only
in the regular arrangement of the minutest parts of the
magnet ; ­
"Indeed, what proof could be plainer than the one derived from iron
filings sprinkled round a magnet, which in a continuous !ine follow the
x FOREWORD.

course of the magnetism and dispose themselves into the same situation
and path as the smallest parts of the iron; and if we eould see the latter
with the help of lenses or with the naked eye, they would be seen tn be
arranged in a similar manner. In filings, therefore, we see the effigy of
the parts in the iron which are bought into a regular arder at the will of
the magnet. If we could artificially combine steel dusl inta a solid lllass
and move the magnet over it, we shollld have oeular proof that every atolll
took up that position, which the smallest parts of the iron assume when
rubbed ; that is ta say, a reglllar arrangemen t. If this arrangement of the
parts of the iron be disturbed either by too freqnent bendings or by tao
hard blows, or by fire, then the iron immediately divests itself of its
magnetism and assumes its original character."

All this might have been written by a student of the

present day and is perfectly correct.
In chapter i. of the second part of the P1'incipia Sweden­
borg admirably depicts the molecular arrangement of iron
before and after magnetization, and also the lines of force
around a magnet, or between magnets with similar or opposite
poles juxtaposed. These ll\ImerOUs drawings show that he
must carefully have studied the curves formed by fine iron
filings sprinkled on a surface placed above the magnets. Though
electro-magnetism was unknown until long after, his repre­
sentation of right and left handed spires round a magnet look
very like electro-magnetic solenoids.
Again, Swedenborg regarded heat and also light as produced
by the" tremulation" of the minute parts of bodies and he
adopted the undulatory theory of light in a continuous
medium-the ether. This was the theory propounded by
Huygens a little prior to Swedenborg, although the authority
of Newton and his corpuscular hypothesis long delayed the
general acceptance of the wave theOl'y of the propagation of
light.
It is not necessary to dwell on Swedenborg's system of
Cosmology contained in the third part of his Pl'incipùt, as this
has been discussed and some of Swedenborg's remarkable
anticipations of modern views set forth by Prof. Arrhenius in
his introduction to the Principict, already referred to. In part
II. Swedenborg gives a painstaking calculation and forecast
 FOREWORD. XI

of the magnetic declillation in Paris-that is the angle

enclosed between the geographical and magnetic meridian­
for 200 years in advance of his time. Unfortlll1ately the
data upon which he based his calculations were then too few
to enable such a forecast to be made, and accordingly, instead
0
of the declination being 36 east in the present year, as
Swedenborg calculates, it is less than half this to the west.
Swedenborg was, however, correct in his assumption of the
rotation of the N. magnetic pole around the N. geographical
pole, but the rate of this secular change was incorrectly cal­
culated, although his theory and observation agreed up to the
time when he wrote.
One of the most interestilJg and striking chapters in the
Principia is that entitled "The Diversity of Worlds," vol. ii.
p. 162 et seq. Here it will be seen how complctely Sweden­
borg has emancipated himself hom the narrow and iutolerant
theology of his own day (and long after) that regarded the
Bible as the only recognized authority on science, and
denounced as hel'etical any theory of the cosmos which did
not agree with the literaI interpretation of the Biblicai story
of creation. So far from conforming to any restricted and
geocentric conception of the universe, he l'evels in the thollght
of the immensity and the mystery of creation, and exclaims,
" How many myriads of heavens, therefore, may thel'e not be,
how many myriads of world systems." W orlds, indeed, may
wax and wane, "the coming into existence of infant heavens
and earths is possible, when others are beginning to become
old and fall into decay." Then he contemplates the vast
succession of changes throllgh which the world has passed
before arri ving at its present state; nevertheless, he says,
" in each elementary particle we see the whole process of its
creation evident and manifest, resembling the worlel, both as
it exists anel sllbsists." The law of continuity, he insists,
l'uns throughout the universe, whether in the mole cules of
matter or in stellal' systems, whether in the present life or in
the life beyond the grave.
XII FOREWORD.

But although the universe is based upon a common plan,

yet he remarks, "how great is the extent of our ignorance.
Everyone measures his wisdom by his understanding of those
things with which he is acquainted. The limit of his own
information he considers to be the limit of aIl that is attain­
able, for he is ignorant of aIl else. The bounds of his know­
ledge are the bounds of his wisdom." But, he continues,
there is no limit to the extent of our ignorance, "There is not
a particle in our globe with the thousandth part of whose
nature we are acquainted. In the mineraI, vegetable, and
animal kingdoms, what we know is nothing compared to what
we have yet to learn; for the soul [the intellect] knows nothing
of those things which the senses do not perceive." And
yet the spirit of arrogance and self-sufficiency is not unknowll
among scientific men of the present day.
In his Conclusion to the Pl'incipia, p. 289 et seq., Sweden­
borg gives a summary of his philosophy of nature, and he adds
noble words tbat were characteristic of his whole life, viz.,
that it was a matter of indifference to him whether he won
praise or censure, for he desired neither renown nor popularity,
but was actuated solely by the love of truth. He has no wish,
he tells us, to oppose those who impugn his statements, but if
he sbould perchance win the assent or approbation of others
he will receive it as an indication that he has pursued the truth.
The future, he adds, will show whether hill system of philos­
ophy is in agreement with the phenomena of nature and, if
so, assent in due time will follow.
This is the true spirit of science, and illustrates what
Sir John Herschel so weIl said, that" humility of pretension,
no less than confidence of hope, is what best becomes the
character of the true philosopher."
 INTRODUCTION ,1
EMANUEL SWEDENBORG, the author of the present work, was
born at Stockholm, on the 29th of January 1688, his father
being Bishop of Skara, of West Gothland. Swedenborg was
little, if at all, influenced by the narrow dogmatic theology
of the period; the bent of his mind was scientific; and very
early in his life he gave evidences of quite an unusual
love of experiment and observation in the natural and
physical sciences; a fact clearly sho\vn in his correspondence;
dating from 1709 to 1726. The fact that he invented a
new form of air pump, which Professor Silvanus P. Thompson
says was the first mercurial air pump, and an effective
instrument, gave suggestions for a submarine, and drew a
rough plan of a flying machine, showed the activity of his
mind, and promised well for the future work of this restless
young genius.
On the conclusion of his University career at Upsala he
travelled abroad. In England he met with Flamsteed, the
distinguished astronomer, made the acquaintance of Halley,
and picked up all the knowledge of men and things that he
couId. Although there is no evidence that he ever met
~ewton, yet he \Vas a diligent and appreciative student of
his Principia. He edited at Upsala, 1716 and 171 7, the
Daedalus Hyperboreus,2 the earliest scientific magazine published
in Sweden. As assessor of the College of Mines he made an
extensive collection of observations on metals and smelting

1 The writer has to thank Professor Sir IV. F. Barrctt, F. R.S., and Professor
Silvanus P. Thompson, D.Sc., l".R.S., for their kindness in reading the proofs
of this Introduction and for tbeir valuahle snRgestions and criticisms.
2 Recently reprodnced in facsimi\e by Upsala University.
xiii
xiv INTRODUCTION.

processes, during a prolonged visit to Germany, and published

the results of his observations at Dresden and Leipsic (1734)
in three folio volumes, entitled, Opera Philosophica et
J.11ineralic~, which are elaborately and profusely illustrated;
the present worle being the first of these three volumes. This
costly publication was printed at the expense of the Duke of
Brunswick-Lüneburg. Although geology as a distinct science
had not taken shape in Swedenborg's day, yet he worked in
this field with considerable industry and care, and wrote
much on the subject. Professor Nathorst remarks "that Lhe
contributions of Swedenborg and Linnœus in the geological
field have been less valued than they deserve is without
doubt due to this, that their fame in other fields was so
great, that what they produced in geology in comparison
therewith seems relatively unimportant, and has therefore been
much overlooked." 1 His correspondence shows how closel)'
and widely he had investigated and taken note of the natural
formation and structure of Sweden, his native country.
But there \Vas a speculative tendency in his nature which
instinctively led him to enter another field of thought,
whither he was probably urged by an important controversy
which agitated his own University. The celebrated Descartes
was invited to Sweden in the early months of 1649 by
Queen Christina. The University was then under the sway
of the prevalent theology and scholastic philosophy; these
were regularly taught, and without question. Aristotle's
writings formed the text-book of the school~, al ways studied
with the direct intent of confirming the dogmatic and
prejudiced teachings of the church. But the coming of René
Descartes introduced a contentious clement; for the priests
in session at Stockholm complained that Cartesianism had
entered the University. "But the discussion which arose,"
says a writer, "was not so much concerning the limitations to
be imposed upon the leaders of the dawning natural sciences,
1 See Emanuel Swedenborg, Geologica et Epistolae. Introduction by Prof.
Alfred G. Nathorst, Supcrintendent, State i\ruseum:for Fossil Plants, Stockholm.
 IN TRODUCTION. xv

who, basing themselves upon experiments and the principles

of Descartes, were demonstrating the laws of nature from its
own phenomena, thus destroying the structures of Aristotelian
Scholasticism not only in the field of the natural sciences, but
even in that of theology itself, thus endangering religion." 1
This controversy was at its height about the time of
Swedenborg's birth; but Cartesianism triurnphed over the
ecclesiastical forces ranged against it, one of the results being
greater freedom of thought, and the consequent awakening
of a llew scientific spirit. In 1710 the first scientific
society in Sweden was established, which included Swedenborg
among its members. Into thls clearer and scientific atmo-
sphere, then, this remarkable genius was born. But great as
was the influence of Cartesianism, Swedenborg's mind was
not one to be seriously affected by opinion; he was an
original thinker. It ii) certain, from his early correspondence
that he was particularly interested in practical astronorny;
and there is evidence that his mind soon began to dwell on
cosmological questions. There are no details clearly indicating
how his speculations came to assume their final form as con-
tained in The P?'incipin; but it is certain that he was
.acquainted with the cosll1ology of Descartes and the philo-
sophy of Leibnitz; beyond that there is little to guide us in
our investigations. That he had made extensive preparation
before finally publishing his thoughts is clear from the
existence in MS. of an earlier work} in which he entered into
a careful and elaborate study of the problems of which he
attempted an ultimate solution in the later treatise.
And we wonld remark here tbat aIl the evidence goes to
show that Swedenborg possessed a remarkable power of
generalization, and that with this there \Vas allied an active
scientific imagination, an essential attribute of an investigator,
as Professor Tyndall long ago felicitously remarked. In the

1 See The Cartesian Controversy at [lpsala, 1663-1689, by Alfred H.

Stroh, ~I.A.
2 See The iJlinor Principùt at the end of vol. ii. of the present work.
XVI INTRODUCTION.

exercise of this facnlty in cosmological speculation he

endeavonred to work out a theory of origins both daring and
unique. Ris reasoning proceeds along lines never before
attempted, we believe, by any writer, his main purpose being
to pro pound a theory of the evolution of our planetary system.
The detaif:; of the arguments which he uses in leading
up to this ultimate issue are often invol ved in considerablé
obscurity ; but while mathematical analysis may find many
weak links in his chain of reasoning, showing that he is some­
times lost in the maze of his own the ory, yet it will be shown
hereafter that sorne of his anticipations of modern ideas are, at
least, remarkable. But no theory is ever given to the world
so complete as to be invulnerable. Darwin's great generaliza­
tions have presented many weak points; and have been con·
siderably modified by subsequent investigations. The theory
of matter which held the scientific field up till recently, and
.appeared to be supported by aIl the resources of chemical and
mathematical analysis, has been relegated to the domain of
scientific history, while the theory of an all-pervading ether,
involves almost insuperable difficulties in framing a concep­
tion of its nature. But, nevertheless, it still holds that great
generalizations form epochs in the ad vance of scientific ideas.
As a writer says, "Science lives on facts, but it has always
been great generalizations which have given them birth." 1
In the case of Swedenborg's theory, the facts which he had
to work upon were necessarily few. Exact experimental pro­
cedure was little known in his day; but a mere collection of
facts without the genius for seeing their connection could never
advance science in any way. It is men like Kepler, Newton
and Faraday, with little material to their hands, but with
the power to see the correlation of phenomena, who have
given great and permanent generalizations to the world.
Several instances might be adduced to prove that
Swede~borg had the scientific spirit for interpreting facts
brought together by himself and other investigators. It
l Dr Gustave Le Bon, The Bvolution of il/alter, p. 318.
 INTRODUCTION. XVII

may be sufficieut to refer to his theory of the functions

of the brain, aud his explanatiou of the functions of the
ductless glands. Professor N euburger, 1 in a paper dealing
with Swedenborg and Modern Physiologists, says: "It would
lead me too far were l to show in detail how early
Swedenborg iu these questions approached the present ideas,
and how advancing science is beginning just now to verify
many of his theses in a snrprising manner." "He was the
first," he continues, "to assign definitively the higher
psychical fnnctions and the perception of the senses to the
grey substance of the brain; he taught in harmany with
modern science that the varions motor functiolls have each
their special localization in the cortex eerebri, and so farth." Z
And D. Goyder, M.D., of the Bradforà Infirmery, in a paper,
read before the International Swedenborg Congress, on the
Ductless Glands, says: "Swedenborg by his wonderful de­
ductions anticipated many of the pre-eminent offices of these
ductless glands which the medical profession of to-day are
only beginning to discover."
Our purpose in calling attention to these points is tü
prepare the reader to follow Swedenborg when he takes
him iuto a region of thonght which seems to have been
peculiarly his own. His speculations lead him to consider the
question of origins. Whatever may have been the influence
of Oartesianism upon Swedenborg's thought he certainly
goes beyond Descartes, and, in a measure, appears to be
moving in the atmosphere of ancient philosophers a For this
question of the origin of things, the" whence ? " and" why ? "
engaged the attention and absorbed the thOllght of early
Greek thinkers. These men endeavoured to solve the
problem of the mystery of matter. The earliest Greek
philosopher of whom we have record who tried to read the
inner history of phenomena was l'hales (640-550 B.e.). He

l Professor of the History of Medicine, Vienna University.

2 See l'he Tmnsadions of the Intc'l'1wtional Swedenborg Congnss, pp. 123,124.
3 Sec his Econmny of the Animal Kingdom, vol. ii. n. 591,605.
b
xviii INTRODUCTION.

saw in water the origin of the life and change manifested in

the visible wodd. The Pythagoreans thought that the ex­
planation of the wOl'ld must be based, not on qualitative, but
quantitative grounds. The Eleatics, who had al1l0ng them
sorne very keen reasoners, were practically monists; they
endeavoured " to rednce the manifold of existp,nce to a simple
ultimate principle." 1 They sought an ultimate ground of
ongllls. Melissus of Samos (cina 400 R.e.) reasoned in a
way which shows very elear/y how keenly men were inter­
esting themflelvefl ill the eternal questions "\V hence ?" and
"why?" "If anything is," he says, "then it has either become
or is eternal. In the former cafle, it must have arisen either
from heing or from non-being. But nothing can come from
non-being; and being cannot have arisell [rom being, for then
there mllst have been being, before being came to be. Hence
being did not become, it hence also is eternal." 2 Anaxagoras
(b. 500 Re.) saw that to postulate an eternal ground of things,
àpX~, as Anaxirnander did, withont a principle of explanation,
\V hy, ont of this àpX~, the phenomena of the \Vorld arose, was
philosophically unsatisfactory. He, therefore, assumed a
spiritual force which he called vouç, which set up movement
in the inert maSfl of things in the form of a vortex. This
was a distinct advance ; and the notion of a vortex or whirling
movement was destined to be perpetuated long aftel' the time
of its originator. It is interesting to observe hel'e the genesis
of the idea of motion as acconnting for change and becoming,
which has oeen so elaborated in the course and process of
thinking that it now forms the basis of modern molecnlar
physics.
Democritus the atomist carried the method of interpreting
the universe farther than Anaxagoras, and introdnced the
principle of differentiation. He couflidered primaI matter to
consist of atoms. Mendeléef puts his position as f01l0ws:
" The atOllS, which are infinite in Humber and form, constitut\l

l Sehwegler, History of Phûosophy, p. 15.

2 Ueberweg, Histm'y of Philosophy, vol. i. p. 59.
 INTRODUCTION. XIX

the visible uuiverse by their motion, impact, and consequent

revolving motion. The variety of objects depends only on a
·difference in the number, form, and order of the atoms of
which they are formed, and not upon a qualitative difference
of thcil' atoms." 1 These remarkable propositions were pmcly
intuitive conc.:eptions; experimental science being unknown in
the fifth celltnry B.e. wheu Demoeritus wrote; but they are
an extraordinary anticipation of the general prineiples on
whieh rnoleeular physics was based, until reeently. No
single philosopher has ever enuneiated a prillciple so
fundamental, and so far reaehing in its effect upon the
thinking consideration of things. It was lcft to Lucretius,
who lived iu the days of Cicero and Cœsar, to elaborate,
amplify and extenc1 the prineiples of Demoeritus. He saw
that matter was in constant movernent. "He actuaUy
anticipated," Bays a writer, "the modem seientifie and
philosophie theory wllich reduces aU material phenomcna to
motion, or to mass and motion." 2 'We have then, so far, two
fundamen tal points established hy these gl'eat thinkers,
matter and motion. Practieally no advanee heyond this
position had been made except in the elaboratiou of these
concepts by the resources of modern experimental science and
mathcmatics, until the coming of what has been termed the
" new knowledge," which, while retaining the idea of motion,
has reconstructed the concept of mattcr.
We have gone at some length into this subject beeause it
seems nccessary to understand this early phase of iuteUectual
development and its bearing upon modern thought; for
practicaUy the position is still this, that two things are
definitely postulated-a primai matter, and motion or energy
intimately assoeiated with it.
We would, then, in this eonneetion, remark that' while
Swedenborg was undoubtedly aequainted with Cartesian
eosmological physies, he was, douhtless, perfeetly familial' with

l Qllotcd by Ronald Co.mpbell Macfic, M.A., i1l8cience, Matter and Imnwrlality,

p. 13. 2 Ibid. p. 24.
xx INTRODUCTION.

the views of the Greek philosophers and the atomic theories

of Lucretius. 1 In Descartes he would find ancient ground
worked over and some new conceptions imported into the same.
But what René Descartes meant by matter it is not easy to see.
U eberweg says that "he attributes to matter nothing but
extension and modes of extension, no internaI states, no forces;
pressure and impulsion must suffice for the explanation of a11
material phenomena." 2 But the fo11owing words seem to take
us no fartlter in thought than the Greek notion of a mnte?,ia;
p?'ima. "Let us suppose, then, if you will," says Descartes,
"that God divided at the beginning a11 the matter of which he
has formec1 the visible world into parts as equal as possible." 3'
He fnrther supposed that these material particles knocked
their corners off by striking one against another, so that they
became perfectly round and transparent; these were ca11ed'
" particles of the second kind." Out of the knocked-off corners
there was formed a fine dust of "particles of the first kind,"
which formed the fixed stars, and so on. Professor Arrhenius,4
who condenses Descartes' views as above, and says that he
without doubt exercised the greatest influence upon Sweden­
borg's views, seems to us to be quite mistaken when he
remarks that in Swedenborg's work no other change is made
in these conditions than that the number of particles is
increased and an attempt made to derive a11 of them from the
mathernatical point. 5 However, we are not sorry that Professor
Arrhenius has stated his view of Descartes' theory, as it will
enable the reader to see that, whatever the influence of this
philosopher upon Swedenborg's thought, he nevertheless cut
out a course for himself.
But even if this " matter " is to be taken as gi ven in concep­
tion, the question of origins still remains where it was. Having

1 See The Jj}cono1nY of thc Anim.al Kingd01n, "01. ii. n. 605.

2 His/m'Y of Philosophy, vol. iL p. 52. J. B. Stallo, Oonccpts of JlIoclcrn Physics,.

p. 228.

3 Principlcs of Phitosophy, part iii. p. 143.

4 Principal of the Nobel Institnte for Physical Chemistry, Stockholm.

• Sec Latin reprints, vii. CosmologicCi, Introduction by Svante Arrhenius, p. xxv.

 INTRODUCTION. XXI

practically taken over one principle of ancient philosophy­

primal matter, modified in idea by its association with the
Infinite, Descartes also took over the complementary idea of
motion, and enunciates the fundamental physical principle
that "all variations of matter, or all diversity of its forms,
depend on motion." 1 But in this he did not advance much
beyond Lucretius. Subsequent thinkers also, Thomas Hobbes,
the philosopher, Leibnitz, Huygens, and Newton, all argued
for a mechanical intel'pretation of the universe; on the
principle of movement alone could nature be explained. And
the same principle characterizes the latest phase of modern
molecular physics. Swedenborg, then, was quite familial' with
this doctrine, made it the basis of his own theory of
origins, and worked it out minutely in application to his own
system. He found the principle stated by :Musschenbroek, a
Dutch scientist, who was the first to publish a comprehensive
treatise on physics, and who said, "no change is induced in
bodies whose cause is not motion." It may be interesting
to guote the exact words of this writer in order to show,
by subsequent comparison, that Swedenborg must have care­
fully studied this ,vode. His words are: "Nulla autem
corporibus inducitur mutatio, cujus causa non fuerit motus,
sive excitatus, sive minutus, aut suffocatus; omne enim
incrementum vel decrementum, generatio, corruptio, vel
qualis cumque alteratio, qUΠin corporibus contingit, a motu
pendet." 2
A quotation from Swedenborg will show that his view of
the fundamental importance of motion was practically
identical with that of Musschenbroek. "Rational philosophy,"
he says, "will Ilot admit that anything can be, or exist without
ft mode; and since a mode in limited, finite, or in physical

things consists solely in the variation of limits, it therefore

follows that nothing can exist without motion. Whatever is

) Descartes, P1'inâples ~f Philosophy, ii. 23.

2 P. v. J\Iusschenbroek, IlltI'od. ad Philos. naturalern, vol. i. cap. l, § 18 (puù­
lished li26). See note on Musschenbroek in Appendix B.
XXII INTRODUCTION.

c1evoid of motion, re11lains sueh as it is; whatevel' is at l'est,

produces nothing. If ûnything is to be produced, it must be
produced by ft mode or by motioll ; if anything is to be changec1,
it must be changed bya mode or by motion; whatever comes
to pass does so by a mode that is, in physics, by motion.
'Nithout motion or change of place, or more generally, with­
out a change of statc, no new existence, no product, no coming
to pass can be conceivec1, that is, nothing is capable of existence
or change, except by motion." 1
Swedenborg, then, worked ove1' the idea of motion 1111nded
down by his predecessors and applied it, as we shall see, in his
own way to his own theory; indeed, the C[notation jUBt given
might almost stand as a setting forth of the func1amental
position of modern physics. Dut while aùopting this
principle, as he was bonnd to do, he took np an entirely
new attitude in regard 1.0 the qnestion of a 17uttel"ia
prima, the undifferentiatecl, from which has come by
various proccsses of division and composition the cOlllplex
material of nature.
'1'0 solve the mystery of the primai substance has always
been a faseinating and attractive study. And so the efforts of
chernists are directec1 towarcls the simplification of concep­
tions and the tracking clown of what seems highly complex 1.0
sorne simple non-complex material from which ail things are
componnded. Ml'. W. C. D. vVhctham, in a historieal refercnce
to the evolution of matter, says, "Ntvertheless, throughout these
years, on the whole sa unfavourable ta its existence, there
persistecl the idea of a eommon origin of the distinct kinds of
matter known 1.0 cbemists. l ndeed, this idea of unity in
substance in nature seems to accord with s011le innate clesire
or intimate structure of the human mind." And he continues:
"As Ml' Arthur Balfour weil puts it, 'there is no a prioTi
reason that l know of for expecting that thc material world
should be a modification of a single medium, rather than a
composite structure built out of sixtYor seventy elemental'Y sub­
l 1'h e Principia, vol. i. p. 55.
 fNTRODUCTI01V. XXlll

stances eternal and eternally different. ",Vhy, then, should we

feel content with the first hypothesis and not with the second?'
Yet so it is. Men of science have al ways been l'estive under
the Illultiplication of entities. They have eagerly watched for
any sign that the different chemical elements own a COIlllllon
origin, and are aIl compounded out of some primordial su b­
stance." l Scientific men acting on the belief expressed
in the above words have been enc!eavonring to prove by
research and experiment what they believed à priori to be
the case.
N ow Swedenborg, anticipating ",Volff in his work, Oos­
molo,Cjù( Genel'alis, hac1 a clear perception of the question oE
a materùi p1'1:ma, although he was Ilot, of course, able to prove
its existence, or even approximately do so, by experiment.
But philosophical insight may have a prevision of results that
are afterwards substantiated. The following words from The
Economy of the An~irnal Kinr;clom, a worIe published later than
The PT1:ne~ipia, shows, at least, a remarka ble forecast of what
is now in course of being full Y estab1ished by experimenta1
science. "The primary substance of the world," he says, " is
the on1y one which does Hot cOIlle within the understanding as
differentiated. From this, as from the tlrst determining sub­
stance, or the substantia prima, proceed aIl the l'est as series
or discretions. Thus, whithersoever we turn our attention,
a11 things we become acquainted with are on1y discretions
originating in the primary substance." 2 Consequent1y this
su-estantici prima, he says, "This primarT substance of the
mundane system is the most universal of substances, because
the on1y one in compound substances." 3 vVe shall have
occ41sion to refer to this proposition later in fo11owing out the
deve10pmen t of his theory.
U p to recent tirnes the conception of Democritus,
although gi ven to the world many centuries ago, were

1 Paper on the Evolution of Matter, by W. C. D. Whelham, M.A., F.R.S., in

DaTwin and llfodeTn Science, p. 566. Cambridge University Press.

2 Vol. ii. p. s. 3 Ibid. p. 25.
xxiv INTRODUCTION.

eurrent in the scientific world; although the main idea has

been, of course, subject to variation in the course of philosophie
speculation. Descartes, although introducing certain modifica­
tions, held that "the matter which exists in the world is
everywhere one and the same." 1 Newton does not appear to
have held precisely this view, but the following words show
that he did not attempt to go behind an original substance.
" It seems probable," hesays, "that God in the beginning formed
matter in solid, massy, hard, impenetrable movable particles
of such sizes and figmes, and with such other pl'operties and
in such proportion to space as most conduced to the end for
which he formed them." 2 Herbert Spencer held the view
that properties of bodies result from the variety in arrange­
ment of an original discreted material. " The properties of the
different elements," he says, "result from differences of arrange­
ment by the compounding and recompounding of ultimate
homogeneous units." 3 'l'hese, out of numerous opinions, suffi­
ciently prove our contention expressed above, that up to the
time of those writers little change had taken place since the
views of Democritus were given to the world. But the mystery
of the origin of matter still remains where it was. 'l'hat
there is a desire to fathom this mystery is clear to anyone
acquainted with the strivings of philosophy to get behind
matter. Even the title of an article indicates the trend of
thought in this direction, such as " The Evolution of Matter,"
by Ml'. W. C. D. Whetham, M.A., F.R.S., in the series of
monographs forming the Cambridge centenary volume, DanDin
and Modern Science. For the human mind will not l'est
satisfied with efï'ects; it desires to find out causes. Seeing
quite clearly that particular phenomena can be traced to some
definite cause, the mind wants to know what is the cause of
the collective whole. "If a cause is needed for a finite series,"
it feels that the cause is " equally needed for an infinite series." 4
1 "Materia itaque in toto nnivcrso una et cadem existit," Prin. Phil. ii. 23.

2 Opticks, fourth cd., p. 375.

3 Contemporary Review, June 1872.

"' H. M. Gwatkin, r.-I.A., The Knau:ledge af Gad, vol. i. p. 17.

 INTRODUCTION. xxv

The scientist may profess that he is not concerned with

ultimate origins ut aU; but if he is endeavouring to trace the
evolution of matter he is unmistakably trying to get behind
the ?ncdeTia pTimCl to find out how it has come to be what it now
is. Already there are evidences that the new spirit in science
is leading men away from the old inconsistent and illogical
materialism and inducing the best millds in the scientific
world to seek for a more intelligent interpretation of the
universe. Science and philosophy are not 1l0W so antagonistic
as formerly. Philosophy makes use of the new material
provided by science, and science is breathing a more
philosophical atmosphere. Science, which is mainly con­
cerned with the perceptual, enters into the domain of the
conceptual when formulating and discussing its theories.
This fact is too frequently overlooked by scientists. They
may not be concerned about it; but they are logically
involved in its toils. Professor Karl Pearson has dealt very
cleverly with this point. "Ether," he says, " is a conception
rather than a perception. Hertz' experiments, for example, do
not seem to me to have specially demonstrated the perceptual
existence of the ether, but to have immensely increased the
validity of the scientific concept' ether' by showing that a
wiàer range of perceptual expel'ience may be descl'ibed in
terms of it> than had hitherto been demonstrated by
experiment." 1
lnto this conceptnal region the reader of The PTincipia
will find then that Swedenborg fearlessly takes him. But he
will also find that he is by no means unmindful of the
importance of the perceptual; for in the first chapter, writing
on "The means leading to true philosophy," he regards
experience, mathematics, and reasoning as of the first import­
ance. And in developing his theory of the magnet he
adduces a vast body of evidence from the experiments of
Musschenbroek. Swedenborg here, however, entel'S a specu­
lative region in which hypothesis could hardly be followed up
1 The Gramma1' of Science, p. 214. Contemporary Science Series.
XXVI INTRODUCTION.

by experiment; but his hypothesis was to lead up to ail

issue, which we hope to show later, has been confirmed by
modem research. His initial purpose, as we have said, is
to trace the evolution of matter, to get behind the materia
pri1na and find how it originated. A daring philosophical
atternpt, indeed, but, on that account, the more worthy of
commendation. His mode of procedure is to postulate a
c1efinite starting point without theological prejudice-the
Infinite, the primary cause. « ""\iVhat can be more self-con­

tradictory," says a writer, "than the hypothesis of a chain of

canses and effects, each link of which hangs on a preceding
link, wbile yet the whole chain hangs on nothing. Reason,
therefore, itself points ns to the need of a first cause of the
universe, who is at the same time a self-existing, necessary,
Infinite Deing." 1 If the mind wishes to avoid the conception
of an absolute origin it is landed in the dilemma of an eternal,
self-existent, non-caused, materia pTùna from which the
universe has been evolvec1. But this takes us into the
regioll of the unknowable, cuts the ground frorn under many
scientific theories, and would stifte ail desire to pass beyond
the domain of the perceptual into tbe region of the conceptual.
Swedenborg postula,tes the Infinite, not with any theological
end in view, not influenced by dogmatic prejudice, but with
the freedom of a philosopher seeking to establish certain
principles, and endeavouring ta reach a certain end. '1'0
quote his OWIl words," nothing tbat is finite can exist from
itself, that is, without purpose and a cause. :For there must
also be a reawn why it was finited in this way, and in
no other; or why it has reaehed this limit, and no other.
In other words, nothing ean exist without a cause save the
Infinite . . . what is fini te, therefore, takes its origin frorn
wbat is intinite, as an effect from a cause, and as a thing
limited from what is in itself unlimited, yet having the
power to limit aU other things." 2 And this Infinite is

l Pl'ofessor James Orr, J'he Christian View of God, p. 96.

2 17~e Pri71cipia·, vol. i. p. 51.
 INTROD UCTION. xx\·ii

totally inclusive, and also the absolllte and primary cause. The (C

Infinite itself is the cause and origin of the whole finite

worle! and universe ; this Infinite is a unity in which greater
or less can have no existence, and in which there are
simllltaneolisly aU things that ever can be." 1 The Infinite, then,
instead of being absolllte, apart from, and having no relation
to the uni verse, is intimately related thereto. But the
difficlllty encountered is the representation of this relation,
the formation of a concept which, at the same time, embraces
the idea of transcene!ence ane! immanence; for the Infinite
relatively to the finite III ust be consie!ered negati vel.)' and
non-quanLitavely, and as a higher order of being in which
there are no limits or macles. The Infinite 1ll1lSt be conceivecl
as imposing quantitative condit.ions upon the finite, itself
rcmaining eternally llnconditionccl. This conception is fUl1l1a­
mental ta Swedcnborg's position, and he expresses himself as
follows: "Everything finite acknowlcdgcs a certain mode,
by which it is what. it is and nothing else; a mode by which
it is of su ch a form and no other; a mode by which
it occllpies sucl! a space anù no oUler. Ina word aH
finite things are modified; allll thercfore they aCklll1\vledge
a mode prior to this modification, and accol"Cling to which
it takes place; they acknowledge also a time in which
they are so moe!ified. Rence nothing il:; at once what
it can become except the Infinite. AIl finite things
must necessarily undergo different states successively; but
not so the Infinite. And thus we perceive that al! things
exccpt the Infinite have their modification, but that in the
Infinite there is no such thing as development, si11l1'ly because
Re is the first aud t.he original cause of aU moe!i fication." Z
Having stated this conception of the Infinite, Swedenborg
has before him the problem of showing how the finite
conld arise from it, how matter subject to modification conld
originate frOll1 that which is negative in this regard. Al­
though tbis would seem to be an insn1'erable 1'roblem, yet Oll
1 l'he Principia, vol. ii. p. 151. 2 Ibid. vol. i. p. 53.
xxviii INTRODUCTION.

the principle of relativity the finite implies the Infinite; the

limited theunlimited; the conditioned the unconditioned.
But what is the nexus? How does the limited, the modi­
fiable, arise from the non-llmited and the unmodifiable ? vVe
are confronted with a similar problem in the antithesis
between thought and brain substance. How does a material
impression on nerve substance become a mental picture which
is capable at any moment of being represented, and yet has
none of the qualities of matter? Yet there must be a
nexus bet\veen thought and matter, between the sequent
and the antecedent. Though t corresponds so precisely
in its active relation to matter that a connection must
be inferred unless the undemonstrable monistic position
be assumed again. Now if Swedenborg fails, as it must be
confessed he does, to provic1e the material for the formation of
a definite concept, yet he makes a bold attempt to account
for the derivation of the finite from the Infinite in a way
attempted by no other writer or philosopher. Ab initia
the Infinite is absolute and non-relative, for as yet there
is nothing to which it can come into relation. In it as the
antecedent aU sequents are in potentin. "The Infinite," he
says, "is the cause and origin of the whole finite woriel and
nniverse; this Infinite is a nnity in which there are simul­
taneously aU things that ever can be." 1 Either this condition,
certainly profonndly difficnlt, must be granted or the quest
must be abandoned. But he dic1 not abandon it; he foUows
up sequents to the Infinite itself and finds in it the origin
of motion, an internaI state or effort towards motion. "vVhen
we lay down the position," he says, "that the first motion
exists in the Infinite, it is absolutely necessary that such
motion should be considered as pure and total." 2 Absolute
motion then is the primary antecedent of aU sequents.
vVhatever opinions may be held on the moot question of
origins, there can be no doubt in the minds of those
acquainted with modern results that all phenomena are
1 The PTincipict, vol. ii. p. 151. 2 Ibid. vol. i. p. 61.
 INTRODUCTION. XXIX

regarded as due to motion. And to such refinement has

thought upon the relation of motion to phenomena been
carried, that a concept of motion in relation to the constitu-
tion of matter implies enormous velocities, and highly
complex movements. The tendency of modern physics, as
long ago stated by Professor Huxley, is to reduce a11
scientific problems to the motions of ultimate particles
of matter, and if a11 phenomella could be mathematically
expressed in terms of motion we should have a complete
interpretation of the universe. Swedenborg practica11y
says that motion is a synonym for nature. Keeping to his
position of Infinite origins he says, "Nature is onl)' a word
which expresses ail the motive forces proceeding from the
first motion of the Infinite till the world was completed." 1
In the primary, infinite, absolute motion then a11 things
were in potentict, as, analogously, a universe is potentially in
a nebula. Fo11owing out bis postulate Swedenborg endeavours
to explain what is to be understood by ausolllte motion.
" How then," he asks, "are we to conceive of this purity and
totality in motion? Certainly in no other way, if geometrically
and rationa11y understood, than as an in ternal state or effort
toward motion. For if in the whole motion there are no steps
in space, no moments in time, and thus no velocity, and if
again there is nothing substantial as before observed, what
else, according to human notions or idea, can result thence but
effort. vVhen we understand space simply as it is, and consider
motion as pure and apart from time, in such case the motion
must be instantaneously present in every part of its own
space: and thus it will he like effort itself: for in effort not
only is motion everywhere present, but also its force and
direction." 2 The reference which the author makes to effort
makes his definition of absolute motion equivalent to state.
Effort, as a matter of our experience, implies persistent motion
in potentia. In effort we have no conception of velocity, but
l The P1"inciJYia. The ~1cans leading to true Philosophy.
2 The P?'inâpia, vol. i. p. 63.
xxx INTRODUCTION.

that of a state capable of becoming kinetic in some self­

representatiye, self-realizillg act. The concept of motion is
commonly associated with velocity, or of passing from place ta
place; but potential motion as state" is the source of ail
Il

self-realization as seen in the countless things made by human

hands. vVe are glad ta find sa distinguished a philosopher as
Hm'mann Lotze takillg a sil1lilar view. Discussing motion he
says, " Still l feel that these doctrines [in rp,garcl ta l1lovement]
are inadeqnate, as strongly as l am persuaded that they are
eonect; they leave in obscurity a pal'ticuJar point on which l
will not pretend to see more clearly than others. l t concerns
that transition of e, from one inner state ta another, which in
acting on us produces for us the sel1lblance of a motion in c. It
must of course be conceived as going on at times when it does
Hot flct on us, or before it begins ta act on us; and at those
times it can be llothing but an innc?' unspatial OCC'U1TCiwe which
has a ca7JClCity of appearing at sOIne late?' time as motion in space
by means oE that action upon us which it is fol' the moment
\Vithout," and again, It is certain!y my belief, though l wilillOt
il

attempt a more definite proof, that mental life \Vould present

instances oE such a self-pel'petuating process, whic11 \Vou Id cone­
spond in their own \Vay to the idea, extraordinary as it is thongh
not foreign to mechanics, oE a state of motion." 1 This lllight
be taken, \Ve thillk, as a pretty fair expression of Swedel1bol'g's
position in l'eference to alJsolute motion in the Infinite.
But our anthor's conception seClllS to be still further en­
forceJ if we take effort as equivalent to will. For while it may
be contended that the Infinite is unknowable as not being com­
mensurate with anything finite, yet agreeing with Schopenhauer
that in the uni verse there is " Will," we are bound to admit
that the finite will is anfllogous to the Infinite "Will as an effort
towards self-realization. But as the se1f·realization of finite
will in act implies end or purpose, so it is legitimute to infer
from the evidences Eurnished on eye!'y hand by science that

1 Hermann Lotze, System, of l'hilosophy, J1letaphysics, n. 170. The italics

are ours.
 INTRODUCTION. XXXI

the Infinite Will would realize itself in end or pm'pose, in the

generation of a uni verse, in which it would find itself realized,
and self-reflected. It is true enough that the mechanical or
necessital'ian evolutionist pretends to see neither method nor
purpose in the process by which wc are assured an amœba,
through countless ages, c1evelopcd into homo sapiens. But,
assuming that this was the case, such pl'ocess must bave taken
place along definite lines terminating in a definite organism.
If this does not imply end or pllI'P0se, then language must
have another meaning and the laws of logic must be a delusion.
Either the universe in al! its details is merely fortuitous, or a
controlling, directi ve factor III ust he ackno\vledged to enter
into the calculation. On this point Sir Oliver Lodge has the
following: "Take the ol'igin of species by the pel'sistence of
favoul'able variations," he says; "how is the appearance of
these same favourable variations accounted for? Except by
artificial selection not at aIl. Given their appearance, their
development by struggle and inheritance, and survival can be
explained; but that they arase spontaneously, by random
change without pur pose, is an assertion which cannot be
justihed. Does anyonü think that the skill of the beaver, the
instinct of the bee, the genius of a man, arose by chance, and
that its presence is accounted for by handing down and by
survival ? vVhat struggle for existence will explain the advent
of Beethoven? vVbat pitiflll necessity for earning a living as
.a drarnatist will cduce for us a Shakespeare? Tbese things
are beyond science of the orthodox type: then let it !Je silent
_and den)' nothing in the uni verse till it has at least made an
honest effort ta comprehenc1 the whole." 1 This is a rebuke
which c10gmatic scientists might take ta heart; for if chance
has no place in the cosmos then we must assnme that there
is a rational order in it, that it is a unity, that thcre is
an adjustment of means to ends, that, on all the evidence,
thought is behind phenomena and is indeed the necessary P1'Ù1S
·of all else, as put by the late ProfessaI' T. H. Green, of Oxford.
1 11lun und the Unive7'se, p. 39.
XXXII INTRODUCTION.

Motion reslllting in a universe and the subsequent cause of

aIl its phenomena implies this p1'ius, or we should be brought
to the unthinkable position that aIl sueh motion is fortuitous,
uneolltrolled, and undireeted. It is highly interesting to be
able to quote Professor G. F. Fitzgerald, who very signifieantly
uses words which completely support the above remarks.
"What," he says, "is the inner aspect of motion? In the
only places where \ve can hope to answer that question, in our
brains, the internaI aspect of motion is thought. Is it not
reasonable to hold with the great and good Bishop Berkeley
that thought underlies all motion." 1 We welcome these words
because they state a principle a pTioTi, based on no positive
experimental evidence, and yet expressiug an undoubted truth.
We are glad to quote them, more especially because Professor
Fitzgerald, in a report on Swedenborg's PTincipia, drawn up
by request of the Swedenborg Society, condemns Swedenborg
because he bases his system on à, P?'iOTi principles! As a
matter of fact the words above quoted might be Swedenborg's.
For "the internaI aspect" of Infinite "motion is thought."
Effort or conatus in the Infinite seeking for realization could
do so only because thought was the p1'ius of such realization.
We ha'le wri tten as above in order to take the reader another
step with Swedenborg in the working out of his principles.
In an earlier work he developed his idea of motion in
considerable detai!. This was a laborious preparation for
The PTincipia; this work he left in MS.; it has now been
translated, and will be found under the title The .1}fin01'
P1'ineipia, forming a part of volume II. of the present worle
In this essay he expresses himself perhaps a little more fully
on the primary question than in the later treatise; but he
takes over his main ideas with him in writing the pub­
lished '.York. Geometry or mathematics he regards as having
a similar origin. "Those who desire to sem'ch out the
matter," he says, "will find that natural philosophy and
geometry ha\'e the saille origin. If according to our thesis,
1 Helmholtz jJ[emoi'icû Leetui'e.
 INTRODUCTION. xxxiii

there is nothing in nature that is not geometrical, then

the origin of nature and geometry must be acknowledgecl
to be the same." l Argning, therefore, that from the llon­
perceptual geometrical point, thc line, the area, and the solid
are pl'Oduced, he concludes that the primal'Y result of innnite
motion, effort or conntns realizing itself was a point. "We,
therefore," he says, " carry our reasoning through these infinities
up to a certain primarily existing entity or point. For we can
only define this point as having originated from iofinite motion
in an infinitely small space; conseqnently from such infinity
something definite existed, that is, the first natural point from
wh ich aIl other things derive their origin; and together wi th
this very point geometry, or nature bounded by geometrical
laws, was born. This point seems to be something between the
Infinite and the finite." 2
In J'he P1'ineipia, the later work, he remarks: "Thus does
rational philosophy first acknow ledge something produced from
the Infinite, and some simple as the ol'igin of entities not
simple. This first entity, or this simple, we call the natural
point." 3 This point is the medium between the Infinite and
the finite; it is llndifferentiated; it is pure and perfect motion,
or effort toward motion, a centre of potential motion; energy
in potentia. This is the primaIT result of the Infinite
realizing itself.
But it may be objected that this renders the origill of
things no less incomprehensible than bef0re. But let it be
born in mincI that Swedenborg, while endeavouring to trace
matter to its origin, makes use of the principle of motion
which, as we have previously pointed out, is the basis of
modern conceptions in physics. And it may be further
objected that the author takes us into the region of the
unsubstantial. vVe would reply that in this he has distinctly
anticipated modern ideas. Fol' modern physical science takes
us completely into the unsubstantial, non-perceptual regiotl
1 The Ninor P1'incipict, vol. ii. of PrincipiCt, p. 298.
2 Ibid. p. 300. 3 Vol. i. pp. 53, 54.
XXXIV INTRODUCTION.

of motion; and althollgh refnsing to take us up to the

primary source, it deals with motion absolutely as a working
principle. "Matter," says Dr Gnstave Le Bon, "may be con­
sidered as a particnlar form of energy." 1 He remarks further :
" I have shown that one of the most constant products of the
dissociation of matter was the so-called pal'ticle of electricity,
deprived, according to the latest researches, of ail mate rial
support." 2 And let the reader consider carefnlly the foHowing
words by another scientific writer: "It often happens that in
inverting a problem the truth ùrops out. Copernicus, instead
of assuming that the snn moveù ronnd the worlJ, succeeded
better by assuming that the world moved ronnd the snn.
Kant, also, instead of assnllling that Imowledge mnst conform
to objects, inverted the idea br assnming that objects lllnst
conforrn to onr lmow ledge. In a similar fashion it is now
proposed to invert the conception of matter and electricity
that we have so far gained. Insteat! of assuming that cor­
puscles are particles of matter possessillg the properties of
negative electricity, we shall assume, i\lstead, that corpllscles
are particles of negative electricity possessing the properties
of matter. It will be seen that tilis new way of 100 king at
things will lead to new knowledge. lt is proposed in this
chapter to show by argnments addnced from facts that J.1attel'
is meule 1/p of Eleetrieity and notMng z,ut Eleetricity." 3 And
Sir Oliver Lodge says: "1. The theOl')' that an electric charge
must possess the eq ni valent of inertia was clearly estaLlished by
J. ,r. Thomson in the Philosophical Magazine for April 1881.
"2. The discovery of masses ",maller than atoms was made
experimentally by J. J. Thomson, and communicated to
section A of the British Association at Dover in 1899.
"3. The thesis that the corpuscles so discovered consisted
wllOlly of electrical charges was sustained by many people,
and was clinched by the experiments of Kauffmann in 1902." 4
1 The Evolution of FOI'CCS, p. 80. 2 Ibid. p. 29.
3 Robert Kennedy Duucau, Proressor or Chemistry in Washington and
Jefferson College, The New Rnowlcdgc, p. 179.
• The Ethel' of "'paer, pp. 95, 96.
 INTRODUCTION. xxxv

Matter, then, is now intel'preted in terms of electricity and

is no longer a substantial entity, but is resolved into motion,
or electric charges which are considered to be a form of
motion.! ,Vhen, therefore, Swedenborg saw in motion the
ol'igin and completion of things he had a wonderful prevision
of the truth.
The point ol'iginating from potential motion in the Infinite is
kinetic, and, as we shall see, gives rise to a universe. Infinite
,Vill has now realized itself, and has become kinetic in an entity.
If matter is electricity and nothing more, and electricity be a
form of motion, then the universe in its complex details is
electricity, or a form of motion. If this be the case, and at
presen t the1'8 seems no reason to dou bt the tru th of it, th en
we owe it to modern science that we are in a positiou to
apprehencl conceptnally what Swedenborg means by infinite,
absolute motion in potentia realizing itself in a point and in
a universe that is consequently and necessarily interpreted in
terms of motion. The nexus between the finite and the
Infinite becomes now a possible concept.
Although this may be met with a direct uegative, we
nevertheless can bring forward a philosopher who in certain
ultimate ('ol!cln~ions is faidy il! line with Swedenborg.
Herbert Spencer, after a profound and profuse analysis of the
human faculties and the il' capacities, and after blockillg ont
a vast region in the snpposecl world of knowledge as actnally
unknowable, finds himself bound to make au admission. He
states, aud states in no uncertain tenns, that there is a Power
behind ail phenomena. "'l'bus," he says, "the consciousness
of an Inscrutable Power manifested to uS in ail phenolllclla,
has been growing ever clearer; and must be eveutually freecl
from its imperfections," 2 Oonsciousness of a thing illlplies
the formation of a concept; and Spencer's statement
amounts to the formation of a concept of an Inscrutal)le
Power. This Power tben is a manifestecl Power, a Power
1 TIt;s j, not regardeù hy Prof'. Silvanns P. Thomson as proved.
2 Fi1'st P";j/('ipic." p, lOS,
X:(XVI INTRODUCTION.

realizing itself in al! the phenomena of the Uni verse. " Hs

lmiversal presence," he says, "is the absolute fact without
which there can be 110 relative facts." 1 Let us take this
Power as equivalent to the Infinite with which Swedenborg
sets out. Further, let us see what Spencer has to say in
regard to this Power now designated an "Inscrutable Exist­
ence." "But one trutli," he says, " must grow ever clearer
-the truth that there is an Inscrutable Existence everywhere
lilanifested, to which he can neither fiud nor conceive beginning
or end. Amid the mysteries which become the more mysterious
the more they are thought about, there still remains the one
absolute certainty that he is evel' in presence of an Infinite
al1d Eternal energy from which aU things proceed." 2 From
these words it is legitimate to illfer that the Power or Inscrutable
Existence postulated is the source of " the Infinite and Eternal
:Euergy from which all things proceed," that this energy or
motion in potentin in this Inscrutable Existence becomes
tinetic, or motion in action, in giving rise to the universe.
There is, then, a remarkable paraUel between Spencer and
Swedenborg here. Swedenborg postnlates an Infinite which
he says is "ntterly incomprehensible," 3 Spencer assumes an
'Inscrutable Existence." Swedenborg says that in the point,
which is the primary result of motion in the Infinite, or in its
motion, is the very quality or actual power of producing other
finites, and indeed in succession al! those which collectively
iorm the \Vorld" ; 4 "in the primitive force of which al! things
are latent." 5 Spencer says that al! things proceed from ., au
Infinite and Eternal Energy." In both cases the nniverse has
come into existence from motion. Spencer evidently does Hot
1uestion the reasonableness of assuming a nexus; neither do
we, with snch a critical philosopher as an illustrions example
before liS. Spencer having c1eliberately committed himself to
this position, which we think both a reasonable and necesstlry

1 rS!Jcholo{J1J, vol. ii. cap. xix. cnd.

2 Ecclesiastùxû lnstitutioils, p. 843. 3 l'he Pi'incipia, vol. i. p. 63.

·1 The rl'i,wipia, vol. i. p. 79. 5 [bitl. vol. ii. p. 164.

 INTRODUCTION. XXXVll

one, it seems to us to be a legitimate inference from his

premisses that there was a reason why the "Infinite and
Eternal Energy" proceeded in such a way from the" Inscrut­
able Existence" as to produce a universe in which science
finds a rational order.
Swedenborg differs hOll! the ordinary scientist in fearlessly
slating what his opinion is in regard to end or pnrpose ; and the
following words are worth careful consideration and though:,.
" If then it be admitted," he says, " that the first simple was
produced by motion hom the Infinite, we are at the same
time bound to suppose, that in the producillg cause there was
something of will that it should be produced; something of
an active quality, which procluced it; and something intelligent
producing it thus and not otherwise, or in this particular
manner and in no other; in a word, something inflnitely
intelligent, provident, powerful, and productive. Rence this
first point could not come into being by chauce, nor by itself,
but by something which exists by itself; in which sOlnething
there must also be a kind of will, an agency, and an under­
standing that the production takes place thus and not otller­
wise. There must likewise be sOllle provident design, that
the effect produced be successi vely 11l0dified in a particular
way and no other; and that by this series, certain particular
contingellcies and no others should arise. AlI this 111uSt of
necessity have been in some way present in this first mode
and motion: for in this particular and first motion of the
In fini te, things future and coming ta pass can be considered
in nu other way thall as if they were present and already in
existence." 1
This is a clear and lucid statement of a position from which
there seelllS ta us to be no escape except by a direct negation.
'Vithout recnrring to our previous argument on this poillt \ye
will, as a conclusiolI, quote words by a modern writer who, in
discussing the design argnment, consic1ers that particular piece
of reasoning as too narrow. "It is uot the marks of purpose
l The P;'incipia, p. 55.
XXXVlll iNTRODUCTION.

alone," he says, "wbich necessitate the illference that the

universe has a wise and intelligent author, but everything
wbich bespeaks order, plan, arrangement, barmony, beauty;
rationality in the connection and system of thillgS. It is the
proof of the presence of th01(r;ht in tbe world-w batever shape
that may take. The assumption on whicb the whole of
science proceeds-and cannot but proceed-in its investiga­
tions is, tbat the system it is studying is intelligible-tbat
there is an intelligible unit y of things. It acJmits of being
reduced to terms of thOllght. Thel'e is a settled and
established order on which the investigator can depend." 1
Thefirst natural point which Swedenborg discusses is
indivisible; to divide it would be to annihilate it. This
necessarily follows from the fact tbat it is pure motion. :Follow­
ing out Swedenborg's tbeOl'y we find that a simple fil1lte
rcsults from the point or points. Motion becomes embodied
in a finited entity, which "derives its existence from tbe
motion of tbe points among themselves; and is thus the first
substantial." 2 From this sllbstantial ail other finites are
derived; it therefore entel'S into and permeates all existences;
and he l'emarks, "if ail fil'st substances of which compounds
consist, were resolvec1, there would remain in the universe
only simples or points." 3 The conception of motion
still follows up tbis finite. It is motion which finites
and limits. "An aggregate of points cannot be finited or
terrninated except by motion." 4 Motion dominates every­
where in Swedenborg's principles. It is motion which gives
rise ta a second finite from the first. And here he makes the
significant remark that, "it is motion which gives both figure
and space." 5 Referring back to his treatment of the first
natural point we find that this idea is more fully enlarged
upon in a way that calls to mind certain modern conceptions.
"Motion itself," he says, "which is merelya quality and a

1 ProfessaI' James Orr, The C'1U'istian View of Gad an,/' the TVorld, p. 102.

2 'l'he P;'incipia, vol. i. p. 80.

3 Ibid. p. 82. • Iuid. p. 84. 5 Ibid. l'. 107.

 INTRODUCTION. XXXIX

moch\ anù nothing substantial, may yet exhibit something

substantial, or the resemblance of what is so, provided there
is anything substantial put in motion. If some small body
is moved in the direction of a line or circle, there is im­
mediately produced by the motion the sem blance of a line or
a circle; although there is nothing substantial ln it, except
that small body in the place which it occupies. If now the
motion be very rapid, so that in a moment the body is
pl'esent in innumerable places, during that moment it makes
all that space, wherever it is present, substantial. By motion
alone, therefore, something resembling what is substantial cau
be produced." 1 Elsewhere 2 he puts the matter in full el'
detail. "Let us imagine," he says, "some small corpuscle, or
aggregate of small parts, to be moved very rapidly, either in
a circle or otherwise. This motion will give rise immediately
to a figure or form different from the original one. A very
rapid motion proceeding from one point to another will give
rise to a line; the lllovement of the line laterally describes
an area; and the motion of the area from one position to a
lower marks out a solid, although merely the very rapid and
reciprocal fluxion of a corpuscle, lille or elrea is involveù.
Sa, too, if the same corpuscle revolves round a centre with a
very rapid circular motion, a circle will be described; if a
semicircular line rota tes on a diameter, a complete surface will
be represented; and so on, as is weil known. A corpuscle
th us moving can represent fonn by its celerity and direction,
or something which previollsly had no existence, and which is
quite different from the corpuscle itself; and :it is in every
way a figure so far as our senses and touch are concerned,
although it is mcrely motion which produces the effect; or by
means of motion form is fixed." 2
He returns to this later when, in the development of his
theory, he shows that the fil'st finite becomes an active force by

l The Principia, vol. i. [J. ;5.

2 GCf'tœin Points bcaring on the Fil'st Pi'incipies of Natumi Things at the end of
vol. ii. of the present issue, l'. 5:35.
xl INTRODUCTION.

passing into local motion. This entity is most perfectly active

and endowed \Vith a considerable power of acting upon the
nearest finites. In this acti \le there is nothing su bstantial
with the exception of that one which alone is in a state of
motion. On the ba.sis of this assumption he says " A surface
may be represented by motion just as if it consistecl of
substantia]s only." 1
N ow we want to connect this up with some eonsidcrations
which show that Swedenborg in the above statements is in line
with modern conceptions. If, as Sir Oliver Lodge says," elec­
tricity is the fundamental substance out of which atoms of all
sorts are built up "2 ; and if e]ectricity is a form of motion then
what we are accustomed to regard as line, surface or solid are
motion and nothing more, and Swedenborg's contention that
by motion a surface or solid can be fonned, is definitely proved;
for bis first finite or substantial 1s thc aggregate of points which
themsel ves are pure motion. We think the pat'allel we have
drawn above is fairly complete.
A. surface, says Swedenborg, can be rcpresented by motion,
and it is pl'etty weil establisbed that motion imparts rigidity.
A circulaI' flexible chail! becomes a rigid wheel by motion. It
is saie! that a jet of \Vatel' moving with a high velocity cannot be
cut thl'ough with a sword. It !lIay a]so be assumed that watel'
falling over a barri el' in an extl'emely thin sheet, moving with the
velocity of light, would be impenetrable even by a shell hom
a Dreae!nought. A circulaI' disc of tissue paper, if its tension
coule! be maintained, and caused to makc a hundred thousand
revolutions pel' second, \vould eut through steel as though it
\Vere butter. Motion imparts l'igidity.3 Mertz 4 says: "Two of
the most suggesti ve ideas by which physical science bas benefited
in the nineteenth century are the successful explauation of the
dead pressure of gases by a rapid transitional, and of the rigidity
of solid bodies by a rapid rotati onal motion of matter."

l l'he Prineipia, vol. i. p. 139. 2 ilfodem Vie-les of Eleetrieity.

3 See furthcr, Spinning Top_~, by Prof~ssor J. Pel'1'Y, F.R.S.

4 Histo'i"y ~f Seientijic l'lwught, vol. ii. p. 6.

 INTRODUCTION. xli

It is not our purpose to follow the author throllghout all

the complex details of his finites and actives; we l'efer the
reader to Appendix A, where the subject is carefully dis­
cussed with certain cletails, in which it is shown that
Swedenborg was not always clear and accurate in his cal­
culation of the spiral and other motions of his actives. But
we would remark, here, that the first finites or substantials by
effort towards axillary and local motion become confluent and
form a second finite.
A further advance is now made, and v"'e find that by the
first t1nite passing into local motion we have an Active, desig­
nated the Active of the first Finite. An active and a passive
are the fundamentals by which a1l subsequent results are
workecl out. By thus compounding and recompounding of
finites we arrive at a series of elements. 1
vVe have, then, actives origillating out of first substantials
and passives, which are fil'st substantials not rllnllillg into
local motion, but acted upon. There results from this what
the author designates a first element. "Before anything
elementary can exist," he says, "it is necessary that in
the world there should be two things, one active and the
othel' passive; one which is perpetllally in local motion,
another which is Ilot in Jocal motion. . . . These twin-born
entities, which are so averse to each other, coalesce into one
figure The particle thus pl'oJuced l call the first element­
ary lt is composed of second finities and of actives of the
fil'st finite." 2 This elementary particle has a vortical motion;
it is a compendium of the whoJe world-system. Tt c1el'ives its
inherent motion from the points which in a final analysis
l'eally compose it. It might perhaps be cornpared to a vortex
ring. SuhsequentJy, there arises a second elementary particle,
designatecl the magnetic element. This consists of third
finites on the surface and actives of the second and third
finites in the internai space. These elementary pUl'ticles arp,
1 See allthor's preface, vol. i.
2 l'he P"incipia, vol. i. pp. 156, 15i, 158.
xlii INTRODUCTION.

subject to a vortical or spiral motion. "These spiral

gyrations," lie says, "which arise from a certain active centre,
~ may, in what fo11ows, call vorticles, and every gyration
round its own proper centre, a single vorticle," 1 and he
fnrther compares this to the motion of our planetary system.
"The motion of one large system is latent in a least system." 2
He also says fllrther that: "In every vorticle round the
magnet there are probably minute particles moving about the
centre and revolving round an axis; such as is the case in
every vortex in the heavens." 3
As we have previously endeavoured to show that Sweden­
borg anticipated certain modern ideas, so we will draw the
reader's attention to a singular resemblance, in the furthel'
development of his theory, to the modern conception of matter.
}3ut we would remark in passing that it should be now quite
evidellt that there is hardly any resemblance between the
particles of Descartes and the finites, actives and elementaries
of Swec1en borg. Let HS give a summary of Descartes' position
as put by George I~ewes : "The suustance which fi11s an space,"
he says, "according to Descartes must be assumed as divided
into equal angular parts. This substance being set in motion
the parts arc gJ'ouncZ into a SphcTical jOT1n, and the COT1W7'S thns
1'ubbed off like jilings, 01' saWd1tst, fonu a second and more
subtle kind of substance. There is beside a third kind of
snbstance, coarser and less fitted for motion. The first kind
makes IllminoHs bodies, sucll as the sun and the fixed stars;
the second makes the transparent substance of the skies, etc."
The only resemulance that we can trace in the partieles of
Descartes to the finites of Svvedenborg is that they are subject
to whirling movements or vonices.
vVe now cOllle to consider more specifically Swedenborg's
conception of the nature of matter-points, primat')' sub­
stant,ial. Ol' tirst finite, t'rom this derivative finites and actives
resulting from free motion amongst these, and then the prùnw'Y
clement fOrlned of second tlnites aud aeti\'e~. This he defines
1 Tite PTillcipia, vol. i. l'. 2n. , Ihid. p. 22:3. 3 Ib'id. vol. ii. p. 15:3.
 INTRODUCTION. xliii

in the following terms: "This element is the most aLtenll­

ated, the first and most Ilniversal of onr mundane system and
of the universe in general. It consists of the smallest elemen­
tar)' parts. In every system, both the greatest and the least
spaces are occupied by this element. All thing» in the starry
s)'stem appear, as it were, present by means of il. Tt is by
virtue of this element, therefore, that lI"e can contemplate
the remotest stars and also the plunets by their reflected
light." l Tt will be seen that this cOl'l'esponds to what
is now termed the luminiferous and all pervasive ethe1'.
Again: "That it is the most llniversal element may be COll­
cluded Ù, ]Ji'i01"i, becallse it is the origin of all subsequent
elements; because, also, it consists of the smallest constitllent
parts, can occupy the smallest spaces, and be present where
no other element can." 2 And earlier he says: "Recause this
first element is the most universal, passing through all the
vortices, and is a con tiguous medium between the eye and the
sun as well as all the stars of the hea Yens, it follows that
it is the 1l10st universal element of our own solar vortex." 3
Swedenborg, in addition to this primary element, endeavours to
account for three other", a magne tic element, a third which he
designates ether, and a fourth the air element. All these
elements result from finites, alld are dimensionally clifferent.
To the two latter he assigns different functions. The
magnetic element is the cause of magnetic phenomena, and
the other the medium for the propagation of light and heat.
Although, withont prejudice, we desire to give Swedenborg
a very high place as a speculative scientist, still we do not
regard his statements as sacrosallct; fol' while some of his
deductions touch modern science at lIH\llY points, others are
questionable in the light of rigid scieutific proof. J3ut if his
third element is open to qnestioll as the medium of light, t,here
is a remarkable resemblance between his first element and
the ether of modern them'y, known as the Illlniniferolls ether.
The unclulatory theory of light, wllich ascrihes the phenomenon
1 The Prinl.'ipia. vol. i. 1'1'.187,188. 2 l/Jid. pp. 187. 3 [birl. pp. 181, 182.
xliv /iVTRODUCTION.

of light to an all pel'vading medium, was doubtless known

to Swedenborg 1 through the writings of Huygens- who
died when the former \Vas seven years old-a theory taken
up by Euler and established on a sound basis by Young. 2
When he published his J11iscellaneous Observations connectecl
VJith the Physiwl Sciences, he seems to have been feeling his
way toward his tbeories. He then appeared to have the
idea that light \Vas a particle that cou Id run between ether
particles. 3 Later, however, in the same work, he says that
"according to the corpuscular hypothesis it follows that light
is nothing more than undulation of the rays, or than vibration
of the ether." 4 And in reference to light and sensation he
puts the matter in quite a modern form : " As, therefore, sensa­
tion must be tbe reslllt of sorne kind of motion, and as every
minute motion is ulldlllatory and vibratory, l therefore think
that we may properly assume that vision is due to the un­
dulation of rays in the membranes of the eye." 5 Seven years
later he wrote the l1fino1' P1'incipia, where he speaks of un­
d111atory pressure as the cause of the sensation of light, while
in 174 9 he conceives a third element as the ligh t medium.
But the tendeney of modern speculation is to trace all
phellomena to the ether. Whether it is the source of gravita­
tion is not yet detennined. Light, as Clerk Maxwell showed, is
an electromagnetic disturbance of the ether. Ether is not
gross matter; and it answers to none of the tests of matter.
Sir Oliver Lodge says : "1 should prefer to say that ether is
not matter at aIl. Tt may be the subtance or substratum
or mate rial of which nwtter is composed, but it would be

l From the very beginning Swedenborg taught that light is proctuccd by thc

ullctnlatory motion of an elastic ether, and that colours are produccd by thc
modification of this motion in the material objects receivinl; it. He devclopcd
and modified the theory frolll tilllC to time, but that it was originally derivcd
from the older workcrs, from Descartes, Huyghens or Hooke, is clear from
Swedenborg's eadier works.-Alfred H. Stroh in a preface to Swedenborg's
111isccllcmea de Rebus ncttuml'ibus, p. xxxiv.
2 Thomas Yonng \"as born in Somersetshire in 1773. His "Course of
Lectures on National Philosophy" \Vas publishect in 1807.
3 Jlùcellanemls ObsCi'vatioi/s, p. 86. • Ibid. pp. 104, 105. 5 P, 105.
 INTRODUCTION. xlv

confusing and inconvenient not to be able to discriminate

between matter on the one hand and ether on the other." 1
Although we would strongly object to ascribe to Swedenborg
more than his cluc, yet we venture to say that, as in other
departments of science already indicated, so in this he had a
remarkable power of drawing deductions and arriving at con­
clusions since established by the observations and experiments
of modern scientific men, and in the light of our remarks
above, and quotations from authorities, we concluc1e that what
Swedenborg designates the first clement is the equivalent of
what science caUs ether. It is ail pervading, extends through
aU space, and is the medium by which light from the remotest
stars reaches us. His mind seems to have continued to dwell
upon this subject ; for seven years after the publication of The
P1'incipia we find him again writing on the question of the
substanIia p1'i1n(~ and discussing the question of series and
degrees in accounting for the derivation of this primal sub­
stance. He would seem to have been influenced in this ne\"
line of though t by the writings of W 01ff,2 his cqntell1porary.
At the time of writing his P1'incipia he had not met with
the works of this distinguished thinker, for he remarks at the
close of this treatise: "The principles laid down in the present
work had been formulated and committed to paper two years
before I had an opportunity of consulting his works." 3 In
1741 he published his Econo111Y of the Animal Kingdmn,
and it 1S in this work that the influence of vVolff becomes
evident. Indeed, he makes specific references to the
Coslnologia Generalis. And we must assume that this change
of attitude towards, or perhaps his mental advance in physical
questions, was due to the study of this book, and the fresh
domain of thought opened up before him by his anatomical
studies in his search for the nature of the soul. However that
may be, we now find him discussing the nature of an1'Cts, a term

l The Ether of Space, p. 108.

2 Born at Breslau, 16i9 ; died nt Halle, li54.

3 'J'he P1'iaâpia, vol. ii., Conclusion.

xlvi iNTRODUCTION.

not found in The Pj'incipia. But almost incidentally he makes

a remark in the Ecol101ny of the Animal Kingdom which seems
ta us of the greatest importance in arriving at the fundamental
connotation of the phrase "First Element" nsed in The
Pi'inci)n:a. Speaking of the first aura he remarks as follows :
"No impression upon it is los t, but passes unimpaired into the
whole atmosphere, showing that there is a perfect agreement
of all its parts and that each part corresponds in its character
to the whole uni verse, not ta mention other characteristics of
which l have spoken in lnY Principia, part i. chap, vi., where
l have called this aura the jiTst clement of the woT!cl.1 Now
the quotations hotn the later work which we shall give show
that this aura or, first element of the world, has acquired in
the developrnent of his mind characteristics with w hich he had
not endowed it in the earlier treatise.
"The first aura of the \l'orld is not matter for neither
weight nor lightness can be predicated of it; but on the contrary
active jorce, the origin of weight and lightness in terrestrial
bodies. "2 Again," The first aura of the world has no inertia,
no materiality, sa far as materiality involves inertness and
gravity.3 And a fm'ther significant remark is the following:
"This aura is the very and most perfect force of nature and
form ... it knows nothing of resistance or of weight." 4 The
characlel'istics of ether as shawn above could hardI,)' be ex­
pressed more succinctly. Swedenborg, then, by a killd of
intuition had a prevision of what modern science by exten­
si ve research if' estabk:hing on a very firm basis. For
it is now agreed "that ether is a substance ycry different
from malter, that it has no weight, is immaterial in the USIHll
acceptation of that word, and fonlls the imponderable world." 5
Notice no\V the following remark of Swedenborg. " The first
aura is the matter from which other t!rings are derived. 6 Js

1 The Economy of the A" ilnal Kingdmn, part ii. JI. 312.

2 ibid. l'art ii. n. 3D. 3 Ibid. parI: ii. II. 11)6.

• Ibid. palot i. n. 638. 5 Dr Gustave Le Bou, 'J'he EvoluNou of 11fattcr, p. 91.

6 The E,;onoJnY '1tilo Aiiilllal Khlg,/oln, part i. n. 636.
 INTRODUCTION. xlvii

it not remarkable, then, how fully he is in line \Vith modern

results? As we have seen he regards the first aura, the first
element, the universal all-pervading substance, as the origin
of the material universe. And Sir Oliver Lodge says: "AH
mass is lllaSi'> of the ether, ail momentum, momentulll of the
ether; and ail kinetic energy, kinetic energy of the ether." 1
Passing from the apparent iden ti ty of Sweden borg's first
element or aura with the ether we have now ta considcr
our author's ideas of motion in relation ta the modern con­
ception of the atam. We would beg the readcr ta dismiss
from his mind the supposition that we hold a bl'icf for
Swedenborg; we simply desire ta make it evident, that, as
in the case of Democritus, Lucretius, Dalton, Faraday, and
others, we find the anticipation of modern ideas, sa also in
Swedenborg do we find a prevision of certain modern con­
ceptions. Amid much that is entirely out of date in his
scientific works there are ta he found great ideas which sa far
resemble presellt scientific beliefs that we might almost suppose
them ta have beeu worked over in the course of modern in­
vestigation, did we not know that his \\'orks are pl'actically
ullknown ta t.he \Vorld of science.
'J'he history of the utOlll goes back ta the time of Dell1Gcritus,
who held that the plennm of space, in contrast ta the void,
consists of indi visible, primitive particles or atoms which are
distinguished from one another, not by their intrinsic
qualities, but only geometrically, by their form, position and
arrangement. These atoms are ail subject ta motion.
Centuries sa\\' litt.le change in fUlldamental ideas of the atom ;
and it \Vas reserved for Dalton ta place it in, what was
supposed to be, an assurecl position. Human thought,
however, is not a fixed quantity, old ideas form a suggestive
region out of which the mind evolves new conceptions. The
desire ta trace back the eighty or sa elementary substances ta
an original simple undifferentiated matter caused thillkers ta
!Je seeptical about atoms as simple, un changeable, indivisible
1 Ethe;' ~f Space, p. lOï.
xlviii INTRODUCTION.

and indestructible. In 1872 Herbert Spencer held that

"The proportion of the different elements result from
differences of arrangement, arising by the componnding and
recompounding of ultimate homogeneous units." 1 In the
comse of the eyol ution of ideas on this question Sir William
Crookes brought forward evidence of the existence of radiant
matter. In 1895 came the discovery of the X-rays. Then
followed the experiments of Henri Becquerel, who discovered
the power of salts of uranium to ernit radiations which affect
the photographic plate, to pass through metals and other opaque
substances, and discharge electrified bodies. 'l'hen iu 1898
came the epoch-making discoveries of Monsieur and Madame
Curie, which resulted iu making known radium to the
world. A new era had dawned in the story of the atom,
and the old conceptions of its indivisibility and inelestruc­
tibility became a matter of history. On August 16, 1905,
Professor G. H. Darwin, in the course of his address before
the British Association at Cape Town, said: "Within the last
fe\V years the electrical researches of Lenard, Rontgen,
Becquerel, the Curies, and of their own colleagues Larmor and
Thomson, and a host of othe l'S, had shown that the atom \Vas
not indivisible, and a flood of light had thereby been throwll
on the ultimate constitution of matter. By yarious
convergent lines of experiment it had been proveù that the
simplest of all atoms-that of hydrogeu-consisted of abont
800 separate parts, while the number of parts of the atom of
the denser metals must be counted by thousanùs. These
separate parts of the atom had bee11 called corpuscles or
electrons, and might be described as particles of negative
electricity. The mechanism \Vas as yet obscure whereby the
mutual repulsion of the negative corpuscles was restrained
from breaking up the atom, but a positive electrical charge,
or some equivalent, must exist in the atom, to prevent
disruption." Here, then, we have a complete revollltion iu
scientific ideas on the nature of the atom. The ancient utom
1 The Contempo1'Ct'ry RevielO, June 1872.
 INTRODUCTION. xlix

no\V becomes a kind of centre of positive electricity \Vith a

sphere of negative electricity. Instead of the atom being an
eternal, stable, indivisible solid m,ini7n7{'?n, it turns out to be
capable of breaking up and of liberating electrons. In a historie
debate at the British Association at Leicester, August 1907,
Professor Rutherford said " that Kauffman had shown that the
mass of the electron varied \Vith its speed, and that the whole
mass of the atom could be explained in terms of electricity, which
meant that the electron \Vas electricity in motion." Mattel'
is, then, to be interpreted as motion,-motion of electricity,
a conception completely subversive of the common idea of that.
matter which appeals ta the senses every moment of our
lives. The same authority said also that "as regarcled the
atom, Professor J. J. Thomson defined it as a sphere of
positive electrification, containing a number of negative
particles, commonly calleel electrons." Startling as these new
ideas are, they are far in advance of the old conception of the
nature of the atom, because they invol~e motion as the
funclamental basis of the nniverse. This we have alreaely
seen is Swedenborg's conception, who states that the universe
has been evolveel from motion. When The P1'incipia was
published his views wonld necessarily be regarcled as
chimerical and hardIy worth consideration; but now we see
that, \Vith certain modifications, his position is actually that
of the scientific mind to-day.
Vve will here aclduce further opinions on the nature of the
atom in order to still further elucidate the position. Sir Oliver
Lodge remarks that " Our conception of matter, if it is to be
composed of electrons, is necessarily rather like the conception
of a solar system" ; 1 and Carl Synder says : "The atom might
be conceived, therefore, as a great swarm or cluster of corpuscles
revolving about a mutual centre much as planets whirl about
the sun 2; and a writer sums up the position as follows:
lJ

" According to this new conception of the atom, it is a miniature

solar system, with a certai.n number of negative corpuscles
1 The Ether of Space, p. 84. 2 New Cmwcptions of Science, p. 160.
cl
 INTRODUCTION.

rotating and gyrating likc planets round a nucleus, or within

a sphere of positive electricity. The negativc corpuscles move
in definite or bits round the central nucleus or within the sphere
aneZ alsa spin VJith tremendous velacity TonneZ thei?' mun axes; 1
and the stability of the atom depends on an eguilibrium of
forces." 2
N ow Swedenborg's elementary particle consists of an outer
sphere of passive finites and an interior of actives. There
certainly seems to be a resemblance here to the outer sphere
of positive electricity of the atom and the centre of negative
corpuscles. Indeed, on turning to his illustration of the first
elementary particle, vol. i. p. 158, the reader will see that
it might almost stand for a pictnre of an atom with the
exception that the rotation round a centre is not shown. But
according to our autllOr the very essence of the elementary
particle is motion. He says: "The first elcmentary particle
and also the second, ha \'e the most perfect aptness and
susceptibility to n~otion." 3 They resemble a bubble in form.
They have a gyratory motion. "They are perfectly apt for,
and prone to motion," he says, "and the}' spontaneously en­
deavour to enter into a vortical motion, provided there is an
active centre round which they can gyrate." 4 Theil' motion
is vortical or gyratory round a centre, and is spiral, and every
gyration round its own centre he designates a simple vorticle.
While not following Swedenborg in all the complicated details
of his theory, wc have stated sufficient, we think, to show that
he had a conception which is fairly parallel to modern ideas of
the atom. :Modern experiment and investigation have led to
a result almost iden tical wi th Sweden borg's à priori idea.
The scientist may say that even if Swedenborg's conception
is fundamentally true, it has had no influence upon the
progress of thought; but had a study by competent thinkers
been made of the work with which we are dealing, his
1 The statement in italics, which arc our own, is doubted hy some scientific

authorities.
• R. O. Macfie, M.A., M.B., C.M., Science, AJat/cr and Irmnoi'lality.

3 Principia, vol. i. p. 234. ' Ibid. p. 235.

 INTRODUCTION. li

conception of the atom might have long ago revolutionized

the ideas of the nature of matter and the structure of the
atom. It is certainly a rnost remarkable thillg that
Swedenborg's interpretation of matter in terms of motion
should resem ble the modern view. And further, it is an extra­
ordinary coincidence that Swedenborg should contend that,
in the final analysis, matter is motion, and that" pure motion
does not necessarily require anything substantial as the
basis of its existence" ; 1 and that the following words could
be written in the twentieth century: "vVe are led, therefore,
to regard the corpuscle from one aspect as a disembodiecl
charge of electricity. Thus, on this theory, matter and
electricity are identified; and a great simplification of our
conception of the physical structure of nature is reached." 2
Whether his scientific works will be studied in future or
no t, those who admire his genills feel that justice should
be done to his name, and, to use words of my co-translator,
J. R. Rendell, B.A., "It is very desirable that his precise
place in the lineage of science should be determined." 3
Before we leave the subject of the relation of Swedenborg's
idea of matter to that of modern conceptions, there is
another point intrinsically associated with it, upon which
we would desire to write briefly.
Previous to the discoveries which led to changed views
of matter, the scientific world was dominated by tbe belief
that energy is associated with matter, that they are two
things not one. A body has potential energy when in a
position to do work, and that energy becomes kinetic when
work is actually being done by the body. "According to
the most fundamental principles of mechanism," says Dr
Gustave Le Bon, "when we comlllunicate to a material
body a deterrnined quantity of energy this energy may be
transfol'med, but the body will never give back a quantity

l The Princiyia, vol. i. p. 58.

• W. C. D. Whetham, ~LA., F.R.S., in DM'win and },foclern Soiencc, p. 569.
3 Letter to Prof. Fitzgerald.
Iii INTRODUCTION.

111 excess of that received by it." l But if the new atomic

theory he true then the atoUt must itself be intrinsically
a reservoir of energy; lt crrn produce energy. Scientists,
on the basis of the enormous speeds attained by corpuscles,
have calculated the kinetic energy, or, as designated, their
intra-atomic energy. Dr Gustave Le Bon, on the calculation
that the kinetic enèrgy of a body in motion equals the
products of its mass by the sqnare of its speed, estimates
that, if the atoms contained in one gramme of coppel' moving
with nearly the speed of light were stopped in a second,
the kinetic energy would be represented by about six
thonsand eight hundred million horse-power, snfficient
to work a goods train on a horizontal line eqnal in length
to a little over four times and a quarter the circumference
of the earth." 2 "VVe need hardly explain to the reader that
when a body in motion is stopped by a body at l'est it
is said to do work upon that object. A shell from a
gun stopped by an ironclad does work in penetrating
the armour. The energy possessed by the shell, as to
penetrating power, is equal to half its mass multiplied
by the square of its speed. The kinetic energy of a
corpuscle exceedingly small rnoving with the speed, say,
of light, one hundred and eighty thousand miles in a
second, wonId therefore he enormous. Suppose a disc the
size of a pin's head to revolve with the speed of light its
mechanical power would be equal to several thousands
of locomotives. The speed of the corpuscles is so enonnous
that though exceedingly minute they are able to develop
enormous energy. Professor J. J. Thomson estimates that
a few grains weight of hydrogen has within it sufficient
force to rai se a million tons to a height of more than tl1Tee
hundred feet, and Max Abraham calculates that one gramme
weight of corpuscles contains energy eqllal to 80,000,000
hOl'se-power. 3 Speed then, or motion of the elements of the
1 The Evolution of F01'Ces, p. 14.
2 Dr Gustave Le Bon, Evolut{on of jl:[atte,', p. 40.
3 See Mac/ie, Science, Natte,' and Iimnortality, pp. 85, 86.
 INTRODUCTION. liii

atom constitutes their energy; velocity involves energy. The

atom then is the seat of energy, and it is capable of
developing it to a very limited extent in certain phenomena,
and the potentiality is enormous. Raùio-activity is due to
an enormous store of energy within the atom itself. The
energy of radio-acti vitY is intra-atomic. 1 This in tm-atomic
energy then is motion. This is a remarkable scientific
deduction and marks an epoch in thought npon the nature
and potentialities of matter.
The old view of matter and energy \Vas that they were
two things. Energy, we now see, is intra-atomic. This is
Sweden borg's view. He traces matter to its origin, and
finds it in motion. Every del'ivative from the points
has motion necessarily and in trinsically in it. The fil'st
elementary particle, as we have seen, is an atomic system, and
Jineally derived from the point, which is absolllte motion.
The active which forms the interior of the elementary particle
consists of nothing but motion. It is a perfectly active force.
vVe quote the author's own words here. "If in a moving
body the velocity is the greatest possible, then its energy of
acting will be the greatest possible. If the entity, which is
acted upon and which thus acts, possesses any weight, then
its energy is allgmented in proportion to its weight; although
the degree of velocity is cnableù to supply \\'hat is deficient
in mass." 2 This most perfectly active force, then, is the
centre of the atomic system, or elernentary pal'tic1e, and,
thel'efore, we think we are completely justified in asserting
that in Swedenborg we tind the principle of intra-atomic
energy implicitly, although not explicitly stated.
A further significant fact in the philosophy of Swedenborg
is the way in which he deals with the question of magnetism.
He assigns a distinct element to the phenomena displayed by
the magnet. ln his previous investigations he confesses that
he depended on Ü ]JTioTi considerations; but here he enters a
domain "vhere actual experiment and observation are available.
1 See Duncan, J'he "VelO Knowledgc, p. 174. 2 Principia, vol. i. p. 140.
liv INTROD UCTION.

And he adopted what was practically a wise course; he dl'ew

his deductions from the extensive experiments of Musschenbroek
contained in that writer's work, entitled, Physiccœ Experi­
mentales et Geornetricae. 1 "There are no experiments with the
magnet," he says, "more convenient for our purposes than
those which have been lately given to the world by the very
learned and sagacious Pieter Van Musschenbroek, who has
been so ingenious in the mode of conducting his experiments.
In examining, therefore, the phenomena of the magnet, and
comparing them with the principles we have already laid
clown, l shall quote the words of th is highly experienced
author." 2 His quotations cover more than a hundred and
fifty of the physicist's experiments.
Considerable attention had been given to the magnet and
its phenomcna for more than a hnndred years before this
period, Dr Gilbert, of Colchester, having pu blished ft work
entitled De Jlfagnete as early as the year 1600. Although
the su bject has been extensively handled by scientists,
the magnet still seems to be involved in considerable
rnystery.
Every magnet is surrounded with a magnetic field. This
field is constituted by lines of force. Faraday attributed to
these lines of force a real existence; for they were to h im
mure than a mere question of mathematics; and he gave as
evidence of the existence of these lines of force the classic
experiment of iron ftlings spread on a card placed above a
magnet. A good deal of attention has been given to these
lines of force by physicists. They indicate in the first place
the direction in which magnetic forces are acting; but this does
not take us very far. Experiment shows that these magnetic
lines of force have a very definite position in regard tu the
magnet, and that they can be very accurately mapped out.
By the cutting of thèse lines of force, electric currents
are produced. Theil' relation to the magnet must be an
intrinsic one; but ",hat is their constitution or structure?
1 Fnblished in 1729. 2 The P1'ineipia, vol. i. p. 275.
 INTRODUCTION. Iv

Maxwell regarded them as axes of rotation in the ether.

This seems ta be about as far as physicists have arrived
in their conception of the meaning of iines of forces around
the magnet; but nothing in physics is more demonstrable
than the existence of this attribute of the magnet.
Now Swedenborg was perfectly aware of this interesting
and beautiful phenomenon; and in l'he Principia he has an
accurate series of finely executed diagrams of magnets and
their lines of force. Such a philosopher was not likely to
allow this feature of magnetic phenomena ta pass without
inventing a theory. In working out his principles he had
conceived the existence of a distinct element caned the
magnetic element, wherein lie the causes of the wonders of
the magnet. His conception is that in the magnetic sphere,
what are now designated lines of force, are actually axes
around which vorticles, or what we venture ta term atom-
systems, move with great velocity, the connection and union
of these vorticles, atoms or electrons by their pales giving
rise ta the phenomena of magnetism. The phenomena of
attraction or repulsion of pales of opposite or sirnilar
llailles he explains by the coincidence or non-coincidence
of the vorticles gyrating in spiral paths round their
centres. The similarity of this theory ta modern views is
very remarkable indeed, and is perhaps the most striking of
all the views he has advanced in its agreement with recent
science.
But we will enable the reader ta judge from Swedenborg's
own words. "For magnetism itself," he says, "consists in
the union of the vorticles within and without the mass, and
in the confines between the two. The more reguJar the
arrangement, within limits, of the mass the more regular is the
arrangement and conjunction of the vorticles within the mass.
Thus one is connected with another in a continuous series;
and an are disposed together more conveniently into one
sphere; a contiguous extense is formed round about frorü one
pole ta the other, and vorticles in connection with one another
Ivi INTRODUCTION.

everywhere enclose the mass, bracing it round, as it were." 1

The following words are supplementary to the above. " In
the sphere of the magnet," he says, " there are spiral gyrations
or vorticles. In every vorticle round the magnet there is an
active centre. In every vorticle there are probably minute
paTticles mo'Ving ab01d the centTe and Tevolving 1'o'and a.n a:JJis." 2

These axes of revolving vorticles, we take it,' are the lin es of

force to which we have referred ahove. The chairman of the
science section at the Swedenborg International Congress,
referring to the molecular constitution of the magnet or cL
magnetized body, saicl, "With respect to the molecular
constitution of th~ magnet, Swedenborg was clearly the
anticipator of the theory attributed to vVeber. In this case
his diagrams and explanation are very clear and might have
been written for a text-book to-day." " The modern theOl'y,"
he continues, " as expounded by Professor Ewing of Cambridge,
is that every molecule of a piece of iron is by nature a
magnet, but that in an unmagnetized l'OÙ the particles have
their poles turned in every direction so that they neutralize
one another, and, in consequence, they do not procluce any
external field of force." 3
Let us now quote what Swedenborg says in order to show
the striking coincidence of his opinion with the above. " By
the application of the magnet and iron," he says, " we observe
that in the structure of the iron aH the effiuvia which are
perfectly or partiaily free are disposed into a regular arrange­
ment and that the iron is thus rendered magnetic. It is for
this reason that from a regular arrangement of the parts
within the iron magnetism exists." 4 " No increase of weight
is produced in iron by rubbing it against a magnet; but the
smallest parts of the iron are driHed into a straight line,5
and being partly loosened by rubbing against the magnet,
are only turned round and bl'ought into a definite order."
The PTineipia. vol. i.
l p. 250. 2 Ibid. vol. ii. p. 153.
J. R. Rendell, B.A.,
a in his addl'ess, Tmilsaetions of the International
Swedenborg Cong1'ess, 1910, p. 49.
• The Principia, vol. i. p. 205. 5 Ibid, 350.
 INTRODUCTION. Ivii

ln this connection Swedenborg gives two diagrams which, as

lVIr Rendell says, " might do dutY to-day in Professor Ewing's
work entitled j}Iagnetic Induction in Iron and ot1wr Metals."
vVe hrwe now followed Swedenborg throughout his corpus­
cular philosophy, and we shall presently see the reason why he
has taken us through a long and invol ved discussion of finites
and elementaries. From the very beginning his intention has
been to show how our world-system has been evolved. As we
have seen, he labonrs to explain his theOl'y of the origin of
matter as a preliminary to placing before us his conception
of how matter became realized in stars and planets, and
the phenomena with which we are familiar. Others had
already worked upon the subject, but Swedenborg stands
alone in the way he attacked it. If he has not given
I\S scientific theories capable of a measure of proof by

ex periment, at least brilliant flashes of genius irradiate

his pages in his forecast of many modern ideas. He, in
fact, deals with the pre-nebular state of matter in a way
both original and suggestive. Dr Hastie was apparently
unaware of the nature of Swedenborg's speculations when he
wrote the following: "It was l'eserved for the nineteenth
<.:cntury to take up the ultimate problem of the pre-nebular
condition of matter. . . . This ultimate problel1l, indeecl, has
only been taken up of late years, and we are just beginning
to reach some tentative solution of it. lt evidently
involves the fundamental question of the genesis of the
chemical elements, the formation of material particles, the
constitl\tion of aH matter, and the mode of its primaI distribu­
tion and arrangement in space." 1 On the contra!'y, Swedenborg,
cutting out a way for himself in an obscure and speculative
region, endeavours to account for the genesis of matter as
necessary to his nebular hypothesis, his aim being to explain
the origin of suns and worlds. As we shall elldeavour to
prove, when we come to his ultimate issue, he \Vas the fil'st
1 Professor P. 'V. Hastie, D.D., Kanl's Cosmogony, translator's preface,
p.89.
Iviii INTRODUCTION.

in the field with a bold and remarkable nebular hypothesis.

But before we proceed to state his case it is necessary to re­
view some of the main hypotheses that have been given to the
world from time to time. Leaving ont of account sorne of the
crude but, brilliant theories of certain Greek philosophers we
find that Descartes was the first tü deal with the cosmological
problem. He held a vortical hypothesis by which he tried to
show that whirling movements arose in the primordial nebu­
lous matter. By this means the great bodies of the visible
uni verse came iuto existence. To quote Professor Svante
Arrhenius' desé~'iption of Descartes' hypothesis: "God has
created matter and its movement. There are tluee elements
in the universe: out of the first, the luminous element, the sun
and the fixed stars have been made; out of the second, the
transparent, consists the Heaven; and out of the third, the
dark, opaque and reflecting, consist the planets and the comets.
The first element is composed of the smallest particles, the
third of the coarsest particles. In the beginning matter was
distributed as uniformly as possible. Movement induced closed
orbits about centres in which the luminous matter was col­
lected, whilst the second and the third matter was whirling
round. Of the dark bodies some possessed sopowerful a
movement, they were of so great mass and had drifted so far
away from the centre of the vortex that no force could retain
them. These bodies have passed from vortex to vortex, and
such a.re the cornets. Bodies of smaller mass and of smaller
velocity with the particles of the second element were endowed
with the same centrifugai force; these are planets." 1 Allowing
for the obscurity which may be induced by condensing so COlll­
plicated a subject, the hypothesis of Descartes is crude and
fanciful. It lacks the element of reasoned consistency, and
that ultimate rounding off which grips and convinces the. mind.
His theOl'y contains no prevision of future developments, no
anticipations of discoveries to come. Yet his views for a

1 The Life ofthe Universe, vol. i. p. 104. The reader should consult Descartes'
Principia Philosophicac.
 INTRODUCTION. lix

long time held sway over his contemporaries and philosophical

sltccessors. Of course his contributions to physics aud the
cosmological problem had theü' place in the history of thought,
and as Professor Rastie remarks with sorne truth, "The first
form of the Nebular Rypothesis is to be found in Descartes'
principles of philosophy published in 1644. 1 « The vogue
of Cartesianism," says a writer, « contributed notably to the
overthrow of the authority of Aristotle, already broken by
thinkers like Galilei and Bacon, and thus rendered men's
minds more ready to receive new ideas; in this indirect
way, as weil as by his mathematical discoveries, Descartes
probably contributed something to astronomical progress." 2
After Descartes came Swedenborg, whose views will be
discussed presently, and following Swedenborg, the next
name in the history of cosmology is that of Georges
Louis Le Clerc Buffon,3 author of the celebrated HistoiTe
NcduTelle, published in 1745. Re supposed that the
planets of our system originated from collisions between
the sun and comets. From the nature of the impact he
accounted for the movements being ail in the same direction.
Tremendous heat resulted from the impact; and he deter­
mined from incandescent iron balls what would be the
probable rate of the cooling of the planets respectively.
The sun wou Id ultimately cool down. His theory met
with criticism from Laplace. Professor Arrhenius thinks that
"Buffon's exposition weil deserves El place next to that of
Laplace." 4 But while Laplace's theory deserves the name of a
Nebular Hypothesis, Buflon's assumes the existence of the sun
and a comet ; and he further 8ssumed an impact between the sun
and a comet, which has never yet been proved to have occurred.
vVe now come to Immanuel Kant. This distinguished
thinker and philosopher was born at Konigsberg in
Prussia, April 22, 1724, tl1fee years before Newton's
1 Kant's Cosm.ogony, Intl'oànction, p. 64.

2 ArthlU' Berry, ~LA., A Short History of Ast?'onomy, p. 209.

3 Born in Burgundy, 170ï ; died ut Paris, 1ï88.

• The Lije of the UniveTse, vol. ii. p. 136.

lx INTRODUCTION.

death. He early applied himself to the study of theology,

but turned by inclination to the study of philosophy,
mathematics and physics. His Geneml Histo?'y of Nat1we
and TheoTY of the Heavens, 01' an Essay on the Gonstit1dion and
l.fechanical Origin of the Whole Un'iverse tTeated accoTCling to
lVewtonian principles,l was pnblished in 1755 at Konigsberg
and Leipsic. The reader will be good enough to make a note
of this date as we shall have a particular reason to refer to it
later. Kan~ is bes~ known by his pUl'ely philosophical works,
which have somewhat overshadowed his earlier treatise. He
entered upon this field with a success that indicated at once
a remarkable genius for speculative problems. vVhether his
cosmology, which has attained such notoriety, was original to
him in its fundamental ideas we shall have to examine when
we come to deal with Swedenborg's point of view. The
estimation in which his cosmological speculations are held we
shall show by quotation from some allthorities of note.
Professor Hastie has translated Kant's Allgemcinc Natu1'­
geschichtc und Thco1'ie des Himmels, and written a learned
and exhaustive introduction. This writer has the highest
opinion of Kant's work and theory. He could hardly have
expressed himself in terrns more eulogistic than the follow­
ing: "Kant's scientific achievements are original, great, anJ
end uring in all their relations. He was, in this connection,
the historical snccessor of Copernicus, Kepler, and Newton;
the true founder of physical astronomy in its widest range,
and the interpreter of its highest spiritual significance. "\Ve
are but beginning to understand the greatness of his conceptions
as he shines upon us again, full orbed, in all his lustre,
after long eclipse; and all the science of our age may still
gather ne\V strength and confidence from his bold thoughts
and fruitful suggestion. There can be no doubt that he \Vas
specially endowed with the peculiar giÎt of the scientific
mind, and that he used it to the noblest pUl·pose." 2

1 AZlge'll~eine
Naturgeschichte 1tncl Theorie des Him.mels.
2 Kant's Cosmogony, Introduction, p. 98.
 INTRODUCTION. lxi'

While fully endorsing the above words we would remark

that they would have been som~what modified as regards
Kant's cosmological views had the author of them been more
fully informed upon the true history of the nebl1lar hypothesis.
Kant, then, is highly praised by Professor Hastie and others for
his cosmological theory. What is that theory ? He postulates
a pre-nebular matter. In his own words, "1 assume that in
the beginning of all things, all the matter composing the sun
the planets and comets, must have filled the whole space in
which these bodies now move." 1 By some means the particles
of \vhich this matter seems to have been composed \Vere
attracted towards a centre, which is now the sun. TIy the
collision, these particles would be driven into closed paths.
Further collisions wou Id take place, and finally, by succes­
sive aggregation, the planets were formed and revolved
about the sun. 2 " Kant's assumption," says J. B. Stallo,2 "is
common to ail l'ecent forms of the nebular hypothesis that
have fallen under my notice-they all postulate a diffusion of
the en tire mass of the sun, planets, comets, and satellites
constituting our planetary system throughout the planetary
space." 3
One defect in Kant's theory seems to us to be the assurnp­
tion of particles primal'ily existing without any principle of
motion and without any definition of the nature of the particles.
Further, how ultimate vortical motion of particles COll Id
arise by the gravitation of these primordial particles towards
a centre it is not easy ta concei ve. \Vhatever difficulties of
conception are invol ved in Kant's cosmogony, his theory seems
not to have lost its influence, if we are to believe Dr Hastie's
;,vards. Writing in 1900 he says: "Kant's Cosmogony Hever

1 10h nehme an, dass ail Materie, daraus die Kugeln die zu unsercr Sonnenwelt
gehoerell, aile Planetcn und Korncten bestùhen, im Anfang aller Dinge in ihren
elementarischell Grundstolf a.ufgeloes't, den gallzen Raum des \V cltgcbaendes
erfuellt haben, darin jetzt diese gebildeten Koerper herumlaufen."-Natm·,
geschichte des Hinnneis.
2 Sec Professor Svante Arrhenius, The Life of the Universe, vol. ii. p. 138.
3 Ooncepts of j]Joclern Scienee, p. 281.
lxii INTRODUCTION.

stood so high in the estimation of the scientific world as it

does to-clay." 1
But Kant's name seems to have been destined to be over­
shadowed by that oE the distinguished astronomer and mathe­
matician, Pierre Simon Laplace; 2 for the nebular hypothesis
is now associated with his name. " Kant," says Sir Robert
Ball,3 " outlined with a firmness inspired by genius that nebular
theory to which Laplace subseq uently and independently gave
a more definite form, and which now bears his name." Laplace
supposed that the material now forming the sun and planets
existed in a nebulous condition and extended to the limits of
our solar system. The planets were formed at successive
limits by condensations of this nebulous matter. Arrhenius
says: "Laplace starts from the assnmption of a glowing mass
of gas which from the very first was in vortex motion frorn
right to left about an axis passing through its centre of
gravity." 4 Dr Hastie contrasts Kant and Laplace's systems
as follows: "Kant starts from the primitive nebula in the
universe ; Laplace from the nebular dise of our solar system
already in rotation. Kant makes sun and planets arise out of
certain regions of space through gravitation; Laplace makes
masses and rings detach themselves from the central body,
through centrifugaI force." 5 Another writer puts it in this
way: "In 1796 Pierre Simon Laplace brought forward his
famous nebular hypothesis of a fire-mist which once stretched
from the centre of the sun to at least as far as the outermost
planet of our system, and which as it cooled and contracted
threw off planets as nebulous equatorial rings, which rings
again eventually cooled into globular masses and formed
planets." 6 We will give the reader the opportunity
of reading Laplace's words by quoting them in full. He

1 Kant's Cosmogony, Introduction, p. 1.

2 Son of a small farmer, born at Beaumont in Normandy, in 1749.

3 The Earth's Begi:nnings, p. 6.

• The Life of the Universe, vol. ii. p. 144.

5 Kant's Cosmogony, pp. 7S, SO, quotation from A. J. von Œttinger.

6 R. C. ::Ifacfie, ::11.11.., M.B., C.M., Science, 11Iat/er and InLmortality, p. 117.

 INTRODUCTION. lxiii

remarks: "From a consideration of the planetary motion,

we are brought to the conclusion that, in consequence of
the excessive heat, the solar atmosphere originaUy extended
beyond the orbits of aU the planets, and that it has necessarily
contracted itself within its present limits. In the primitive
state in which we have supposed the sun to be, it resembles
those substances which are termed nebulœ, which, when seen
through telescopes, appear to be composed of a nucleus more
or less briUiant, surrounded by a nebulosity which, by con­
densing on its surface, transforms it into a star. If aU the
stars are conceived to be si11lilarly formed we can suppose
their anterior state of nebulosity to be preceded by other
states in which the nebulous matter was more or less diffuse,
the nucleus being at the same time more brilliant. By going
thus far back in this manner, we shaU arrive at a state of
nebulosity so diffuse that its existence can with difficulty be
conceived. We may therefore suppose that the planets were
formed at its successive limits, by the condensation of zones
of vapours which it must, while it was cooling, have abandoned
in the plane of the equator." 1
Laplace is supposed, according to J. B. StaUo,2 to have been
unaware that the hypothesis had been advancBd by Kant.
There is no evidence to the contrary, but he may, for aU that,
have been aware of a previous view; for he had a fine conceit
of himself. In spite of the difficulties which modern scientists
suppose to be involved in Laplace's theory considered in detail,
there is a refinement about his suggestion which renders it
more plausible than Kant's. The materia prima of our solar
system in a highly attenuated form extending throughout the
lirnits of our planetary system, cooled and contracted, forming
at successive limits the various planetary bodies. This seems
to differ from Kant's theory fundamentally in this: (1) That
the diffused nebulous matter is limited to our planetary system,
while Kant's appears to be extended throughout space. (2) The

l Note vii. at end. Tl'anslated by Dr Hastie.

2 Concepts of i}Iodern Physics, p. 280.
Ixiv INTRODUCTION.

planets and sun are formed by the cooling and conclensing of

attenuated hot nebular matter; Kant's assumes a kind of
cosmic dust from which bodies grew by successive collisions.
A more ùetailed examination of either view would be beyond
our purpose; but we have placed the theorics of these two
distillguished thinkers befol'e om readers for reasons that will
shortly appear.
The nebular theory, then, is generally supposed to have taken
its form from these two great men; but before we examine
this point, it may be weil to state that the nebnlar hypothesis,
as generally accepted to-day, may be put as follows: The
matter now constituting the ulliverse formed into stellar, solar
and planetary systems \-vas uniformly diffused t.hrough space.
By the action of forces this diffl1sed matter became divided
into large attenuated spheres which began to rotate. As these
spheres cooled they slowly contracted, and this contraction led
to an increase in velocity in conformity with the mechanical
la\\' known as the law of "the conservation of areas of
momentum." Sir Robert Bali says : " That a fire-mist such as
the solar system required did once exist. must sUl'el)' be
regarded as not at ail improbable so long as we can point
to the analogons nebulœ or fire-mists which exist at the
present moment." 1 Modern opinion is, therefore, still in
agreement with the underlying idea of Laplace's theory. 'l'he
same authority writes upon the importance of the nebular
theory as follows : " That three different men of science, Kant,
Laplace and Herschel, approaching the study of perhaps the
greatest problem which nature offers to us from points of
view so fundamentally different, should have been led substan­
tially to the same result is a relllal'kable incident in the
history of knowledge. Sm'ely the theOl'y introduced nnder such
auspices and sustained by such a weight of testimony has the
strongest claim on our attention and respect." 2 In this high
eulogy of a theory and its origination Sir Robert Bail has
omitted to give the credit to its real propounder; this
1 The Ea1·th's Beginnings, p. 269. 2 lbid. p. 12.
 INTRODUCTiON. lxv

omiSSIOn, however, we shall shortly proceed to rnake good;

but in the meantime it is highly interesting to find the nebular
theory receiving the support of so high an authority as the one
we have just quoted.
Other theories have been mooted to explain the evolution
of solar systems, notably the meteoric theory advocated by
Sir Norman Lockyer. The latest and most novel of theories
yet advanced is the impact or grazing theory of Professor
Bickerton, for many years professor of physics and chemistry
in Oanterbury Oollege, University of New Zealand. This
theory is based on the appearance and disappearance (If
new stars and the phenomena associated with variable stars.
He thinks that his them'y accounts for both of these, and he
extends it to explain how the solar system ûl'iginated in a
deep grazing impact of two suns largely gaseous. If this
theory could even be verified by evidence, the existence of
grazing suns would req uire to be accounted for. Professor
Bickerton is so fascinated with his theory that he makes
statements with the assurance of one who has full evidential
proofat hand. For example: "The two most noted novae of
late years were NO'CCi A7wigae and NOVCi Persei. The new star
in Auriga indicated a velocity of about a third of that indicated
by the new star of Pel'seus, this later new star being both more
brilliant and more transitoIT Hence we conclude that the
Auriga collision was a deep graze of small suns, and the
Perseus collision was a slight graze of very massive suns." 1
Professor Anhenius also favours a collision theory.
Now Swedenborg, contemplating the solar system, and
endeavouring ta account for it, assumes that this can be done
by starting with the origin of matter, as we have endeavoul'ed
to explain at some length above. The basis of his conception
is motion. Motion results in the coming into existence of an
undifferentiated substCintin priTf/;(i. By the differentiation of this
we have finites, and arising hom these, actives; and he brings
us successively to a vast plenum of what he designates as
1 Seo his Birth of Wo·r/cls.
e
lxvi INTRODUCTION.

actives of the first finite; that is, of the substantia lJTi1na.

This plenum he calls the solar space, and it consists of
extremèly attel1uated matter. 1 " Originally," he says, " there
was a universal chaotic condition common to the ~lUn and
the planets, in which the origin of aIl things was latent." 2
This chaotic condition of this diffused attennated substance we
should now call nebular matter. ,Vhatever view may be
taken of the original state of things, whether meteoric or no t,
the final analysis brings us to ft nebnlar state as preceding
the evolution of a solar system. Indeed, the enormous
Humber or nebuhB now known to exist, whether spiral, ring
shaped, or in a more extended condition, gives (L pretty strong
proof of the nebular origin of suns and worlels. "The nebulm
which show only the spectra of permanent gases, like
hydrogen, or produets derived from carbon, must constitute,
according to several astronomers, the first phase of the evolu­
tion of celestial bodies. Hy condensing they must form new
stages of matter which end in the formation of stars." The
same ,vriter remarks again: "If the view set forth in this
work be correct, matter must have successfully passed through
very different stages of existence. The first of these calTies
us back to the very origin of worlels, and escapes al! the data
of experimeut. It is the chaos of ancient legends. What
was to be one day the universe was then constituted of only
shapeless clouds of ether." 4 " Here in the nebnlm," says Sir
Robert Ball, "we find, as it \Vere, substance in its most
elementary shape of widest possible diffusion from which
worlds and systems, it may be, are yet to be evolveel." 5
The chaotic or neblliar condition having been evolved we must
now su ppose that the motion, passing on in every stage of this
evolution, sets up movement in the vastly extended nebular
matter, giving rise to a gyration round a centre forming a
vortex which carries round with it ail the surrounding material.
l See The Jl1~inol' Pi'incip'ia, p. 63, 2 The P1'incipia, vol. ii. p, 178.
3 Dl' Gustave Le Bon, 'l'he Evolution of 11fcrttci', p. 30S.
• Dl' Gustave Le Bon, 'l'he Evolution of Natter, p. 314.

5 'j'he Earth's Beginnings, p. 50.

 INTRODUCTION. lxvii

This vortex Swedenborg designates the" solar space." This

is the stage to which l'le are brought in his theory, and
we shaU now see the reason why he treats at such length
of actives and finites evol ved from points and carryil'lg
motion with them as an inherent and original quality. "The
solar ocean," he says, "seems to consist of the actives of the
first and second finite. For it is these actives that are the
causes and origin of aU the ulterior changes and compositions
which occur in our nascent world.! These actives l'lere in a
constant state of motion at the centre of the vortex." StiU
aUowing Swedenborg to explain himself we quote as follows:
"That the solar ocean existing in the middle of its vortex is
the fountain of aU the motions which take place between the
parts constituent of its world is, l imagine, quite clear,
as also that it is, as it \Vere, a perfectly active centre around
which the smaUer and larger parts are whirled in a perpetuai
cUITent." 2 In the earlier treatise entitled The .Mino?'
P1'incipia, formil1g part of the second volume of the work
of which we are specially writing, Swedenborg, five years
before, wrote as foUows upon this point: "The solar ocean
originated among particles in a most perfcct state of l'est.
In taking its rise it increased and became a kind of vast sea.
The particles first uccumulatcd in one place incited motion
amollg the surrounding particles and set up a gyration of a
vortical nature." 3 This gyration of an active centre com­
pressing the snrrollnding material caused, what he designates
actives, to become passive finites. These at length formed a
compact sphere around the central gyrating body. These
finites, he sap;, "formed an immense volume and crowded
round and enclosed the sun in such a manner as to fOl'm an
incrustation." 4 This sun wou Id seem to correspond to the
central part of a spiral nebllla, of which the photographic
plate has given us countless examples. Upon this point he
further remarks : " vVe can therefol'e concei ve of no solar space
l The Principù" vol. i. p. 206. 2 ibid. p. 224.
3 The jl:[inor P,'incipia, p. 382. • The Pl'incipia, vol. ii. p. 180.
[xviii INTRODUCTION.

without surrounding finites or elementaries. If, therefore,

th8re is a solar space, and in its middle the most perfect
activity, then, according to our principles, 1t could not, in the
primordial state of things, be surrounded with any other than
the finites of the first active, compressee! al! round inta a
narrow compass by the action of the space." 1 At this stage
in Swedenborg's theory of the evolution of world-systems an
impartial student will see a remarkable resemblance to the
modern development of the nebular hypothesis. The evidence
of the photographie plate rnakes it quite clear that a vortex
movement at sometime arises in the \Videly diffused nebular
material impartillg ultimately a gyration to the whole mass
resulting in a central body and offshoots therefrom. A
careful study of photographs of spiral nebulœ will, we think,
bear out our contention. We gladly acknowledge that
in his work, TfTorlds in the }'la7cing, Professor Arrhenius
has given a fair and succinct statement of his conception of
our author's theory when he says, " Swedenborg assumed that
our planetary system has been evolved under the formation of
vortices from a kind of chaos solm'e, which had acquired a
more and more circulating motion under the influence of
internaI forces, possibly akin to magnetic forces." 2 But while
there are undoubted difficulties in Swedenborg's theOl'y, as
there are in al! others, it seems to us, that a comparison
between this view and the cosmogonies we have pm'posely
sketched above, is distinctly in fa vour of Swedenborg's, not
only because of its relative simplicity, but because it is the
result of antecedent considerations which take us back to a
definite origin, that origin being motion, on the basis of which
nature is now being illterpreted by scientific men.
But now let us notice a further stage in the evolution of a
world system according to Swedenborg. The solar incrusta­
tion by virtue of expansion under the influence of the gyration
of the central portion final!y undergoes disruption, collapses,
forms an equatorial ring around what is now the sun, and at
l The Ptincipùt, vol. i. p. 225. 2 Page 205.
 INTRODUCTION. lxix

length difierentiates into planetary bodies. His own words

are: "This incrusting matter being endowed with a continuaI
circular motion round the sun, in the course of time removed
itself fnrther and further from the active space; and, in so
removing itself, occupied a larger space, and conseqnentIy
became gradually attenuated till it could no longer cohere
throughout, but bnrst, in sorne part or other. . .. The
zodiacal beit formed around the sun burst and formed planets
of spherical form." 1 The stuùent will be able to snbstantiate
this by the study of nebulœ in the photographie plate. Some of
the spiral nebulœ actually show masses which have been broken
off from the body and present the appearance of worlds in the
making. It wOllld seem then that modern observation pretty
weIl confirms Swedenborg's theory. The photographic plate
has the advantage of presenting a nebula for leisurely study,
and such a record pronounces in favour of Swedenborg's
theory rather than those of Kant, Laplace, Lockyer, Arrhenius,
or Bickerton. The following words of Sir Robert BaU seem to
us to bear precisely on Swedenborg's theory and to substantiate
it in a remarkable manner: "The great spiral nebula-near
the Great Bear-may be considered to exhibit at this moment
a system in actual cvolution, the central body of which is
certainly thollsands of times, anù not improbably millions of
times, greater than the sun. It is manifest that the evolution
has reached an advanced stage. In the great spiral many
portions of the nebula have already become outlined into
masses which, though still far from resembling the planets in
the solar system, have, at least, made some approach thereto." 2
And another astronomer in speaking of the wonderful nebula
Andromeda, says : "The rifts seen in the photograph mark the
separation between the central nebula and a ring thrown off
from it, seen in perspective; and we sec actnally in the sky
the state of things which Laplace suggested in his famous
nebular hypothesis-a central nebula, which in rotation
1
Th~ Principia, vol. ii. p. 183.

2 The Ea'l'th's Beg~Îmings, p. 195.

!xx INTRODUCTION.

throws off a series of rings, sorne of which break up ta form

satellites." 1 vVe could quote much more from different writers
to the same purpose; but there is no need to do this in the
face of the facts we have placed before the reader.
But now let us follow Swedenborg still further in our investi­
gations. 1'aking the earth as an example of the l'est of the
planets, he tells us that wh en, in the breaking up of the belt
round the sun, the earth had been sent spinning on its way,
it began to describe a spiral path, marking out an ever
increasing ol'bit, and continually withdrawing itself from the
central body. He perhaps falls into error in relation to the
period during which the earth reached its orbi t, bnt he
undoubtedly states the matter approximately. "From what
we have already stated," he says, in the chapter on the
progression of the earth, "It is evident that the earth had
already travelled a considerable distance from the sun; that as
soon as it began its course freely through the vortical region, it
hegan to rotate on its axis, and revolve round the sun; that at
first it describecl only small circles, then gradually larger ones,
according as it reached a greater distance from the sun. At
first the years were only of short duration. In the course of
time the cl uration of its years was gradually extended un til
they finally reached their present limits." 2 He says again :
"1'here was a time when the earth in completing its year
occupied only a few of our present days." 3 This is Et necessary
outcome of his theory; and here again we are glad to be able
to quote Sir Robert Bali on this very point. After arguing
the question at some length he says, "l'hus we look back ta
a time at the beginning of the present arder of things when
the day was only SOlUe three or four hours long." 4 And our
author says in a later work re-echoing his eadier view:
"1'here was a time when the earth moved over the disc of
the sun like a spot." 5 But before we leave this point we

1 Prof. Herber·t Hall Turner, Model'n Asti'onomy, p. 236.

2 Tite P"incipia, vol. ii. p. 268. 3 Ibid. p. 284.

• Time and Tiele, p. 76. 5 De CllU~l et Amorc Dei.

 INTRODUCTION. Ixxi

desire to call the reader's attention to the interesting fact that

Swedenborg vizualized his theOl'y; he drew a series of remark­
able and interesting sketches to illustrate it, a task accomplished
neither by Kant nor Laplace, we believe. The representations
are ingenions, and give the reader a general, if rough idea, of
what he meant to convey.
vVe now come to another interesting poin t in Sweden borg's
Oosmology. The planets themsel ves threw off satellites jnst
as the sun had cast off the paren t bodies, and the moon like
the earth must have taken a spiral path in attaining its orbi t,
and been originally much nearer the earth than it is at the
present time. Swedenborg's theory benring on tlle planets is,
then, consistent also in its application to the satellites. Here
again we are able to adduce the opinion of modern
astronomers, arrived at quite independently of Swedenborg's
view. Sir Robert Ball says: "It has been snpposed, and
there are some grounds for the supposition, that at this initial
stage of earth-moon history the 1110011 materials did not form
a globe, but \Vere disposed in a ring which sllrrounded the
earth, the ri11g being in a condition of rapid rotation. It \Vas
at a subsequent period aceordingly that the substances in the
ring gradually grew together, and then by their rl'lutual
attraction formecl a globe which ultimately consolidated down
. into the compact moon as we now see it." 1 The l'eacler will
see a striking analogy between this feature of a moon-ring
round the earth and the great radial belt round the sun in
Swedenborg's theory. The same author says again: "lt is
now known, mainly by the researches of Prof. G. H. Darwin,
that in all probability the moon was originally a part of the
earth, and that a partition having occnrred while the
materials of the earth and the moon were still in a plastic
state, a small portion broke away to form the moon, leaving
behind the gl'8ater mass to form the earth. Then nnder the
influence of the tides, which ruay agitate a mass of rock, as
the moon once \Vas, just as they agitate an ocean, the moon
1 Time and Tide, p. 96.
lxxii INTRODUCTION.

was forced away and was ultimately conducteà to its present

orbit." 1 The point is more fully elaborated by the same
authority as follows: "Let us uow look at the moon and
examine where it must have been during these pn,st ages.
As the moon is gradually getting farther and farther from us
at present, so looking back into the past, we find that the
moon was nearer and neal'er to the earth the further back our
view extends. In fact, concen trating our attention solely on
essential features, we may say tbat the path of the moon is a
sort of spiral which winds round the earth gradually getting
larger though with extrcme slowness. There was a time
many millions of years ago when the moon was only
100,000 miles away. Nor can we stop our retrospect; we
must look further and further back, and follow the moon's
spiral path as it creeps in and in toward::; the earth, until at
last it appears actually in contact with that great globe of
ours." " Surely," he continues, "the tides have then led us
to the knowledge of an astounding epoch in our earth's past
history, when the earth is spinning round in a few hours, and
when the moon is, practically speaking, in contact with it. 2
Nothing more conclusively in agreement with Swedenborg's
general principles, and particularly as shown in the diagrams
illustrating it, could be imagined than the statements containcd
in the above quotations, we therefore take it that our author's
anticipations of modern resnlts are hereby pretty well vindi­
cated.
We have brought the reader thus far in the study of our
subject; but before we pass to one or t\VO other points
of interest in Swedenborg's deductions, we wish to examine
the claim to priority in regard to the three chief cosmologicftl
systems that we have had under discussion.
We have already shown by quotation from authorities
that a nebular hypothesis in sorne form or other is considered
as thoroughly established. To Kaut is almost unanimously

l The EMth's Beginnings, p. 254.

2 Ti1np, and Tide, p. 77.
 INTRODUCTION. lxxiii

ascribed the origin of the theory. "Kant," says Sir Robert

Bali, "outlined with a tirmness inspired by genius that
nebular theory 1,0 which Laplace subsequently and inde­
pendently gave a more definite form, and which now bears
his name." 1 J. B. Stallo, comparing the claims of Kant and
Laplace, says, "But the truth is that the nebular hypothesis
in the form in which il, is now generally held is due 1,0
Kant." 2 Neither of the above writers mentions Sweden­
borg in this connection. .Either they ignore his views, or
have no knowledge of them. And Professor Hastie, who
published in 19 °°
an important work specially devoted 1,0
Kant's cosmology, mentions Swedenborg in passing, and
with evident want of know ledge of his system. In fact,
Swedenborg has been generally left out of account by
astrollomers who have written on cosmology. vVe have,
however, recently noticed some interesting exceptions.
Professor Arrhenius, the celebrated Swedish Physicist, in
his Introduction to the Latin reprint of Swedenborg's
Cosmologica, has given him his right place and aisa
in his recent work The Life of the Uni'L'eTse. Professor
Sollas, in Harmsworth's Histm'y of the World, says, "lt
was Ilot until the middle of the eighteenth century thal,
the reign of evolution began, and attempts were made 1,0
trace the history of a planetary system from its source
as a primeval nebula on mechanical grounds. Swedenborg
was the pioneer in this direction." 3 Another writer,
J. Morrison, the astronomical editor of The JVm'lcl Almanac1c,
1910, in an article on Earthquakes, properly gives Sweden­
borg the credit. "The cosmogony of our salaI' system
rests on the nebular hypothesis orst profounded by Sweden­
borg, but not generally accepted in his time; it was,
however, subsequently revived and partially contirmed by
the researches of Sir William Herschel. At a still later
date il, was examined by the celebrated Laplace, and il,

1 The Earth's Beginnings, p. 6.

2 Concepts of Modern Physics, p. 280. , P. 12.
lxxiv INTRODUCTION.

is erroneously known as the nebular hypothesis of Laplace.

It should, however, in aIl justice, be called the nebular
hypothesis of Swedenborg." And Iastly, an astronomer
writing lately on the priority of Swedenborg, says, "1
imagine that very few among us realize the position held
by Swedellborg in connection with this matter." 1
It is evident from the above references that scientific
mell are becoming better informed on the point at issue,
and that Swedenborg is likely in time to come into his
own. It is only fair ancl just that a great thinker and
philosopher shouid have that place assigned to him in
the history of though t which is properly his due. We
will now bring to a focus the lines of evidence bem-ing
on Swedenborg's priority which give conclusive proof of
the fact which we bave set out to establish. The testimony
of incontrovertible dates will put the matter beyond
eavi!.

1729. Swedenborg writes a work, now called the ilfin01'

Principia, in which the main points of his
cosmological theory are outlined. This important
document remained in MS. until reeently.
1734. Swedenborg publishes his PTincipia in which
his theory is definitely stated and illustrated with
diagrams.
1745. Buffon publishes his Histoire nrlt1/relle.

1755. Kant publishes his Natuml Ilisto1'V of the Heavens.

1796. Laplace issues his Système du, il1oncZe. Kant was

ten years old when the Principia was published,

and therefore when the German philosopher
wrote his Histm'v of the Hecwens, Swedenborg was
sixty-seven years old, and apparently either knew
nothing of Kant's work or \Vas too much ab-

l Letter of Ml' A. n:I. W. Downing, D.Se., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., ta the

Joumal of the Bj'itish Astronomical Associution, in reference ta the paper
on Swedenborg us " Cosmologist read at the Swedenborg International Con­
gress, 1910.
 INTRODUCTION. Ixxv

sorbed with other functious to give attention

to it.

Swedenborg's claim, then, is fully established by the above

dates, and he stands out as the first cosmologist of real
significance. But whether Kant owed his idea to Sweden­
borg is a moot point. It is certain that he was acquainted
with some of Swedenborg's works, but whether he had studied
the Principic~ it is impossible to say. After careful study we
are driven to the conclusion that as there are important
differences between the cosmology of Kant and Laplace, so the
system of Swedenborg and that of Kant are so fundamentally
diffcrent as to have little relation the one to the other. The
reader has the outlines of the two conceptions before him and
can therefore judge for himself. 'IVe now leave this matter of
priority, as completely substantiated, with a final quotatiou
from Professor Nyrèn. "It cannot be denied," he says, "that
the essential part of the neblliar hypothesis-namely, that the
whole Solar System has been formed out of a simple chaotic
mass, which first rolled itself together into a colossal ball,
and subsequentIy, by rotation, separated a ring from itself,
which then-during the continued rotation, broke up into
several parts, and finally conLracted into planetary masses,
was first expressed by Swedenborg. 1t shouid further be
observed that he has, in all probability, given his hypothesis
the more correct form, that the planets were formed out
of broken-up rings, not, as Kant supposcd, immediately
out of conglomerations formed from the original mass of
vapour."l
We have not yet comc to the end of Swedenborg's
anticipations of modem conceptions, and we must claim
the rea<1ers' attention while we examine one or two
other points.
Swedenborg advanced a brilliant idea of the nature of the
uni verse as a whole. He held the view that "The whole

1 Vie1'te7jaM'sckl'ift cler Ast1'01wmischen Gcsellschaft, 1879,

lxxvi INTRODUCTION.

visible heaven is one large sphere, and its suns or stars,

together with their vortices, are parts of a sphere connected
one with another in the way we have mentioned." 1 And again,
"The common axis of the sphere or stany heavens seems to be
the galaxy, where we see the greatest number of stars. Along
the galaxy all the vortices are in a rectilinear arrangement
and series and cohere as to their poles.... The other solar or
stellar vortices afterwards proceed from the axis and are bent in
different directions, but nevertheless all have reference to the
axis.... In the Milky Way lies the chain and magnetic course
of the whole of our sidereal system. 2 On the basis of this we
must imagine the stars arranged in an orderly manner over
the surface of a sphere, closely grouped together apparently in
the galaxy and more sparsely scattered over the sphere as
they recede from the galaxy or Milley Way towards the galactic
poles. Swedenborg speaks of the galaxy as an axis, but he
would seem to mean by this tlJat the Milky Way is a kind of
equatorial ring engirdling the sphere and forming the basis on
which the sphere is built up, the galactic pales being the
imaginary terminations of the axis through the galactic
equatorial circle. Moreover, as each star is the centre of
a world-system 01' smaller sphere, he regards aU these
systems in the Milley IVay as connected by theil' poles,
somewhat like the vortices in the lines of force around
the magnetic. All the other systems scattered over the
sphere have their axes or pales c1irected towards the galaxy.
Therefore, he says, " the other solal' or stellar vortices after­
wards proceed from the axis and are bent in different
directions." 3
It must be admitted that this is a magnificent conception,
indicating a mental grasp of the nature of the universe to
which there was no parallel among his contemporaries. No
scientific man appears to have noticed this brilliant idea, and
hardly one seems to be aware of the fad that Swedenborg was
the first in the field with a conception now generally accepted
l '{he Principia, vol. ii. p. 156. 2 Ibid. p. 160. 3 Ibid.
 INTRODUCTION. lxxvii·

by astronomers. Here is the evidence. "Thomas Wright of

Durham," says Professor Hastie, " was the first to propound the
idea that the stars are not scattered without order or connection
in space, but have a systematic arrangement or constitution,
like the solar system, whereby they are aH bound in to one
universe, unity and connection." 1 Dr Hastie, as usnal,
is ill informed upon the genesis of this question. As a
proof that Kant was not a student of Swedenborg's P1"incipia,
we may observe that he \Vas unaware that this wonderful
conception \Vas contained therein; for he seems to have met
with the idea in Wright's wode. Ml' Madie says "lt is
interesting to know that Kant was inspired in his brilliant
speculation by a summary in a Hamburg paper of a New
Them"y of the Heavens by one Thomas \Vright, son of a
Durham carpenter." And Kant's oIVn words, quoted by Dr
Hastie, are as follows: "1 cannot exactly define the
boundaries which lie between Ml' Wright's system and my
own; nol' can l point out in which details l have met'ely
imitated his sketch and carried it further." 2
This Thomas Wright, M.A., published his work in 1750,
sixteen years after Swedenborg's Principia. The book is very
rare, and hardly any of the writers who refer to his theory
would seem ta have read it at first hand. There is a copy of it in
the British Museum Library. 1t is a curious blend of scientific
speculation, bad theology, and poetical quotation. vVe give
here the words in which he states his theory, "How absurd it
is to suppose," he says, " one part of the creation regular and the
other irregular, or a visible circulating order of things to be
movecl with disorcler, and a part of an endless confusion, is
obvious to the weakest understanding, and consequently we
may reasonably expect that the Via Lactea or Milky Way,
which is a manifest circle among the stars, conspicuous to every
eye, will prove at least the whole to be togethel' a vast and
glorious regular production of being ou t of the will and

1 Kant's Cosmo[}ony, Introduction, p. \xvi.

2 Science, :/I1atte1' and lmmortality, p. 116.
lxxviii INTRODUCTION.

fecundity of the eterual infinite, one self-sufficient cause"

(Letter vi. and end)'!
This theory has been taken up by astronomers. Herschel
collected nnmerical data and workec1 out in detail the conse­
q nences of this fundamental hypothesis. 2 N ewcornbe elaborates
the theory, and says that the stars increase from the galactic
poles to the Milky ,Vay. "The stellar system," he remaries,
" is lmilt np \Vith special reference to the Milky vVay as a
founc1ation." 3 Lastly we will q llote Professor Arrhenius, who
says, " The suggestion is thrown out by Sweden borg that the
Milley \Vay played in the stellar universe the same part as
the rotational axis of the sun within the planetary system.
According to this notion the sllns with their planetary systems
would lie grouped about the great axis of the universe, which
would l'un through the Milky 'Vay." 4 Here agaill we see that
Swedenborg was first to gi ve to the world a most brilliunt
conception; but as in other matters he has Hot been allowec1
to bear the palm. Dr Hastie in his enthusiasm says, "Thomas
Wright is only now receiving a belated justice at the hands of
contemporary English writers upon science." The recognition
of Swedenborg's merits and the acknowledgment of his
extraordinary genins is becoming, slowly but sUl'ely, an accom­
plished fact, and we believe that Dr Hastie's words, with
another name substituted, will find fulfilment in the conrse
of time.
'IVe will conclude our observations on this point by q uoting
\Yords bearing on his brilliant theory of the universe, so
majestic in their sweep, and so remarkable in their conception
that they deserve a place in the history of scientific ideas.

1 The full title of this work is: "An original Theory or New Hypothesis of
the tfniverse. Foundcd upon the Laws of ::\ature and soh'ing by rnathematical
principle~ the General Phenomena of the Visible Oreation and particularly The
Via Lactea comprised in Nine Familial' Lettcrs fmm the Author to his Friend.
And iIIustrated with npwards of Thirty Graven /lnd Mezzotinto 1)lates By the
lIIasters. By Thomas 'Wright of Durham. Lonùon. MDOCL."
2 See His/ory qf Ast7'onomy, p. 334, by Arthur Berry, lILA.
3 Sicle Lights on Ast?'onmny, p. 38.
• The Life of the Un ive j'se, p, 116.
 INTRODUCTION. lxxix

" New heavens, one after another," Swedenborg says, "and new
creations may arise in endless succession. How many myriads
of heavens, therefore, may there not be-how many myriads of
world-systems, 1'here ma)' be innumerable spheres or stany
heavens in the finite uni"erse, and the whole visible heaven
is perhaps but a point in respect to the universe." 1
It was in 1729, as we have before stated, that
Swedenborg wrote The Nino?' Princil)irt; this he left in
MS., and it has no\V been translated. In this \Vork
many remarkable ideas are to be found, besicles those
we have had occasion to refer 1.0 in our rernarks. One
1.0 which we now desire ta cali attention is undulatory
pressure. It is now established that light exerts pres-
SUl'e; by means of such pressUl'e the sun drives minute
particles even out of his system. Dr Poynting deals
\Vith this subject in his little \York entitled The Pressw'c of
Light. He tells us that light ean be shown by experiment
to exert pressure. "It is just a hunelred years," he says,
" since Thomas Young killed the corpuscular theOl'Y of light
and founded in its place the theory that light consists of
waves, but there \Vas no reason at that time to suppose that
the waves could press, and sa experiments ta cletect light-
pressure ceased for nearly a century." 2 In 1873 Clerk
Maxwell enunciated his electro-magnetic TheOl'y of Light, a
theOl'y now ulliversally accepted. His calculations on light-
pressure showecl that strong sunlight falling perpendicularly
against a black surface exerts a pressure of about two-hundred-
thousandth of a grain on a square inch, Now light is
produced by waves or undulations, and we might cali the
pressure resulting therefrom undulatory pressure. Dr
Poynting says, "11. is interesting 1.0 know that whatever kincl
of waves we imagine, so long as they have the properties
which we observe in light, these waves must press against the
surface from which they start, and they must press against
the surface on which they strike. They must, in fact, carry
1 The Principia, vol. ii. pp. 161, 162. 2 P. 15.
[xxx iNTRODUCTION

momentum with them just as surely as if they \Vere moving

particles on the old corpuscular theory. The fundamental
idea of the proof is, that a train of waves is somewhat like a
cam pressed spiral sprillg. The waves con tain energy." 1
Singularly enongh, words almost similar ta the above were
written by Swedenborg one hundred years aga. "Undula­
tory pressure," he says, "is the cause of sight, light, and
coloUl'. It extends from the sun ta the earth. There is
in light nothing which cannat be explained by the l'nies and
mechanism of undulatory pressure." 2 "Vith slight reserva­
tians, these words are sa remarkable that they might almost
be supposed ta be a quotation from a modern text- book on
science, and particularly since he believed that there is an
all-pervading medium or ether. As a matter of fact it is
pretty weIl established that pressure does extenc1 from the
sun ta the earth, and that by means of radiant pressure that
body "drives the finest particles altogether away from his
system." 3 Let us then quote again from Swedenborg: "That
an undulation from the sun," he says, "and pressure from
the same can be maintained throughout sa great a distance
as ta our earth arises from the perfectly regular arrangement
and connec tian of the particles." 4 This infercnce Swedenborg
drew from his à priori principles, for there were no means of
experirnentally proving it in his day. It \Vas not a guess
but a true inference from the theory on which he \Vas working
in the earlier treatise. The electronic theOJ'y of matter which
has displaced the old solid atom idea, and to which the views
of Swedenborg so nearly approximate, as we have shawn
above, fully substantiates the conception of radiant pressure.
ProfessaI' Arrhenius refers ta the q nestion of radiant pressure
in his book the Life of the UnÙ"erse. He refers therein ta
Maxwell's wonderful prediction of the, amount of radiant
pressure, and he states that it was he himself who showed in.

1 Dr Poynting, The Pnssnre of Lighi, p. 2l.

2 The l1[ino1' Prindpia, no. 130. 3 The Pi'CSSU1'e nf Liglti, p, 82.

: The Jl[inor Principia, no. ] 29,

 INTRODUCTI01V. lxxxi

1900 the importance of this new universaI force. Further,

the explanation of the Aurora Borealis is now based on the
phenomena prodnced by radiant pressure. Electrons emitted
by the sun, as the result of the light-pressure exceeding
the attraction of gravitation exercised on such minute
partic1es, are driven throngh the space of ninety-three millions
of miles into our atmosphere. vVhen these minute bodies
enter the earth's magnetic field, they follow the lines of force
in spirals towards the poles. On their way certain gases are
electrified, causing thern to phosphoresce, and thus give
rise to this wonderful northern phenornenon.
While writing these words it is reported that a new
star has appeared in the constellation Gernini. Vlhen
first seen it was estirnated to be of the fourth magni­
tude. On March 19th, according to Dr Rambaut, Radcliffe
Observatory, Oxford, this star had already begun to wane.
New stars have frequently been noted by astronomers;
and the phenomena presented by thern has been explained
by opservers in various ways. Dr Bickerton's theOl'y, ta
which we have already referred, tries to account for the fact
by a collision between two suns. Lockyer considers the
phenomenon to be the result of collision between meteoric
showers. Huygens explained it as arising from the near
approach of two gaseous bodies. Tt is said that observation
has shown a tendency in a new star to develop into a nebula.
In August 1901 photographs \Vere obtained of a nebulosity
round a new star in the constellation Perse us, showing
remarkable condensations.
Tt is interesting to observe here that Swedenborg notices
the remarkable fact of the rise and \Vane of new stars. "\Ve
111erely mention his theory to show how he tried to account for
the phenomenon. The vortical centre of nebulous matter
becomes incrusted; the sun-centre is obscured and becornes
invisible; then the disl'uption takes place, the planetary
bodies are thrown off, and the new star becomes visible. The
waning of the light may be due in sorne \Vay to the decrease
f
lxxxii INTRODUCTION.

of energy after the dü;rnption of the incrusting nebulous

matter. Swedenborg's words on this point are as follows:
"Stars have been kno\Yll to COme into view, and after a
lapse of time to grow obscure and become invisible: then
again to become visible, and again obscure; so that either
they disappear altogether, or else, unless some neighbouring
stars should in the rneantimc occupy their vortex, remain
permanently in sight. Here then we see the planets actually
imaged forth to the eye. We see, as it were, the same in­
crustations arising from the compression of the circumfinent
elementary parts, and veiling over the star or sun to which
they belong; we see also their repeated dissipations and
separations. Astronomy is full of evidence of phenomena of
this kind, and continues to this very day to offer ta the eye
these representations of the chao tic condition of which we have
been speaking." 1 Our author here quotes from David Gregory's
AstTonomiae Physùxe et Geomet1'icae Elementa 2 in which thore is
a full account of the new stars that had appeared up ta that
date. The \Yords that follow the quotation are remarkable
as indicating the cause of "dead suns." "From these state­
ments it is eviden t," he says "not only that stars are seen to
come into view in the heavens, but that afterwards they form
around themselves another element, and in course of time
become incrusted; that in this state of incrustation, being
situatec1 among sa man y neighbouring stars that are arranged
in their own sphere in regular order, they are unable ta bring
any vortex around themselves to perfection, and consequently
always remain in a state of suspended forlllation; that, there­
fore, they become incrusted, continue in their state of incrusta­
tion, and tllUS remain concealed from view." 3
The fm'ther discussion of this and other questions would
take us beyond the limits of this Introduction, and now we
leave it, havil1g come to the end of our task. And we venture
to believe that su fficient evidence has been adduced ta show
l The Principia, vol. iL p. 19l. 2 Published in 1ï02.
3 The Principia, vol. iL p. 194.
 INTRODUCTION lxxxiii

the remarkable charaeter of Swedenborg's c1aims, his brilliant

inductive capacitr, his far-reaching perceptive power, and
his extraorc1inary illsight into problems which led him to
auticipate some of those moùern conceptions which are now
regarded as triumphs of thought and research. Although his
achievements were practically ignored by his contemporaries
and have been neglected by succeeding generations, ret we
venture to designate bim the greatest genius of his age and
the Democritus of the eighteenth century.

ISAIAH 1'ANSLEY.
 TRAN8LATûR8' PREFACE.
b the year 1734 Emanuel Swedenborg issued his great
scientific work, Opem Philosophica et l11ineralia, in three
large folio volumes, the size of the type page being 91 by
5~ inches. The first of these volumes is entitled Principia
Rern1n .Naturalimn SÙ'c .Nov01'mn TentMninwrn Phœn01nenc6
l11undi EleJnenta.?'is Philosophice ExpliCCtndi.
Since his death two manu8cripts on the same subject have
come ta light. They were first reproduced by photolithog­
raphy, and in 1908 a finely executed transcription of the
original Latin was issued under the auspices of the Royal
Swedish Academy of Sciences, the editor being Ml' A. H.
Stroh, M.A. The present work comprises a translation of
these three treatises.
The Principia Re?'1tm N atumlÙlm was first rendered. ioto
English by the Rev. Augustus Clissai d, J\'LA., a clergyman of
the Anglican Church, in 1845, and published by W. Newbery,
6 King Street, Holborn. It has been out of print for many
years.
Of the posthumous works, the larger one, now called the
j',lino1' Principia, is translated for the first time. Of the
shorter manuscript, entitlecl a Snmmary of the P?'incipia, a
version from the pen of Ml' A. H. Stroh was publishecl in
America in 1904:, under the auspices of the Swedenborg
Scientific Association.
The translation into English of scientific treatises written
sa long ago is not un easy task, for it is very difficult ta ente)'
into the spirit of an age so distant from our own and 50
scie ntifically clifferent. Ta-clay, technical terms in physic,;
and cosmology are sa clear and definite that we ~ cao ha)'dl}
lxxx v
[xxxvi TRAN5LATOR5' PREFACE.

compare them with the somewh8t vague expressions of a past

age. To-day a physicist writes of acceleration (,~), force

(ML)
T2 ,work (MU)
1'2·' power (MU)
T3' having the co1'1'espond­

ing definite mathematical formulœ in his mind. But in

Swedenborg's day, though N ewton's PTiiwipia was available,
there was no such definiteness of vocabulary, and the word v18
had in consequence to do many c1uties. Indeed, it is statec1
in the PoplûaT Encyclopœdia of Newton's PTincipiŒ that "not
more than two or tluee of his contemporaries were capable of
unc1erstanding it, and that more than fifty years elapsed before
the great physical truth which it contained was thoroughly
understood by the generality of scientific men."
It is very probable that if the modern vocabulary were
uniformly inserted in the English version, the reader might
infer the existence of conceptions that were not in the author's
mind. 'Ve have been very careful to give the nearest equiva­
lents to the author's expressions, and we have not even
attempted to modernise his multiplication of degrees (of arc)
by degrees.
Some readers may question the usefulness of printing the
tnathematics on pp. 121 and 129 and the lllass of figures in
connection with the determination of the magnetic meridian
in Vol. IL, for the mathematics are incomplete and unsatis­
factory, and the predictions have not been fulfilled. vVe have,
however, gone over the tedious calculations, and ventured to
correct a few e1'1'ors in the logarithms that were probably due
to the printer. The main arguments, however, with respect
to the cosmos are independent of the mathernatics, and we
doubt whether any mathematician of his day could have given
correctly the equation to the curve he tries to describe. l t
was, however, felt best to print the works as they issued from
the writer's pen; it would have been a difficult task to select
portions for issue. The reader now has the whole of the
 TRANSLATORS' PREr"/lCE. iXXXVli

\\'orles before him, and can judge of their merits more justly
than if selections had been arbitrarily made.
vVe have omitted certain diagrams found in the original
editioll, for ta these no l'eferences are ta be found in the text.
On p. 1 ~ l we have called attention ta difficuhies in the
mathematics of the spiral curve postlllated by the au th or. NI l'
Very, of the Astrophysical Observatory, of Westwood, Mass.,
U.S.A., in a valuable appendix, discusses this question at
length and provides the necessary solution. He also critically
examines other ma.tter::; in the work, adding thus a valuable
llIeans for the study of it.
vVe have been assi"ted by many persans in our labours.
IVe cannat speak tao highly of the help gi v:m by Ml' Very.
Prof. C. H.. Munn, of the Ryerson Physica.1 Laboratory of the
University of Ohicago, kindly read the proofs of the first
volume, and gave valuuble hints as ta the second. The Rev.
y Sewall, D.D., of vVashington, and Prof. Enoch Price have
also greatly assisted in the work. The late Hev. James Hyde
spent much time and labour at the British Museum in verify­
ing aH the references ta ail the authoritics mentioned or quoted
in the work. He also compiled an appendix of biographical
notices, and compiled an index of names of writers mentioned
in the volumes.
The whole of the work has been done jointl)' by the
undersigned. The first volume \Vas translated b)' Ml' Rendell
and the second by~lr Tansley, who is responsible for the
l11ino?' P?'incipia and the two sections that follow. Bath
translators collaborated in carrying out and completing their
labours.
JAMES R RENDELL.
ISAIAH TANSLEY.
 CONTENTS OF VOLUME 1.
PART 1.
PAGJo;
PR EE'ACE xcv
CHAP.
1. The means leading to True Philosophy, and the True
Philosopher 1
lI. A philosophical argument concel'l1ing the First Simple
of the world and its natural things ; that is, concerning
the First natural point, and its existence from the
Infinite . 51
rIT. A philosophical argument on the First or Simple Finite,
and its origin from points 79
IV. A philosophical enquiry concerning the Second Finite,
and the manner in which it seerns to have originated
successi"ely frolll the Simple Finite. Also, general
observations on its co-existent, which may be called
the Active of the First :Finite; and on the manner in
which it is geometrically deri"ed from the First and
Simple Finite 106
General observations on the coexistent of thi, Finite,
which we calI the Active of the First Finite 130
'". Obser"ations specifically on the Active of the First
Finite; its origin frOlll the First Simple Finite; its
motion, figure, state, and other attributes and modifica"
tions, showing that this active 1s one, and constitutes
the sun of our system; that it also forms the first
elementary particles 134
Wh ether there is any active belonging to the point;
and if so, what is its nature? 154
YI. The First and most U niversal Elementof the worlel-system,
or the First Elementary particle compounded of finites
and actives; its motion, figure, attributes and modes;
its origin and composition from the Second :Finite and
the Active of the First Finite; it constitlltes the
solar and stellar vortices 156
A geometrical discmsion of the form, and a mechanical
discussion of the arrangement and motion of the
parts and of the compound, in Finites, Actives, and
Elementaries 189
Jxxxix
xc CONTENTS.
CTIAP. l'AG":

VII. The Actives of the Second and Third Finite 197

The Actives of the Third Finite 206
VIII. The Thircl Finite or Sllbstantial 211
IX. The Second or Magnetic Element of the ",orld; that is,
the next Elementary particle composed of third finites
and of the Actives of the Second and Thircl Finite.
Its motion, form, attributes, ancl modes. This Element,
together with the former, constitutes the solar vortex,
nnd is the one which principally contriblltes to the
phenomena of the magnet 216
X. The existence of the sun and the formation of the solar
vortex 224

PART Il.
1. The canses and mechanism of magne tic forces 2:33
II. The attract.ive forces of two or more magnets, anù the
relation of the forces to the distances­
.A priori, or from fi l'st principles 268
The same argued a posteriori or from experiments;
Musschenbroek's experiments 274
Experiments i.-\'. 279-284
III. The attractive forces of two or more magnets when their
pales are alternatecl-
A priori, or from first principles 288
Musschenbroek's experiments, vi.-viii. 289-291
IV. The attractive forces of two magnets when their axes are
parullel, or when the equinoctial of the one lies upon
the equinoctial of the other-
A priori, or from first principies 292
Musschenbroek's e.xperiments, ix.-xii. 294-296
V. The disjunctive and repulsive forces of two or more
magnets when opposite pales, or those of the same
name, are applied to each other-
A priori, or from first principles 297
Musscbenbroek's experiments, xiii.-Xv. :304·311
VI. The 11ttractive forces of the magnet and of iron­
A priori, or from first principles 312
Mllsschenbroek's experiments, xvi.-xxii. 318-341
VII. The influence of a magnet upon heated irOll­
A priori, or from first principles 342
Musschenbroek's experimellts xxiii. :344-346
 CONTENTS. XCI

CHAP. P.\Gf;

VIII. The quantity of exhalations frOl1l the magnct, and their

penetration throngh hard bodies-
A priori, or from first principles 347
Mllsschenbroek's experiments, xxiv.-xxviii. 351-:371
IX. Various ways of clestroying the power of the magnet:
and chemical experiments made with it-
A priori, or from first principles :372
Musschenl!l'oek's experimellts, xxix., xxx. (twelve
processes) :376-409
X. The friction of a magnet against iron, and the force
comnlllnicated--
A priori, or from first principles 410
J\1usschenbroek's experiments, xxxi.-xliv.. 410-433
XI. On the attractive force of a magnet acting upon several
pieces of iron-
A priori, or from first principles 434
J\I usschenbroek's experiments, xlv. -cxxviii.
(Method of arming magnets, 464-467) 43;j-509

XII. The action of iron and the magnet upon the mariner's
neeclle; and the reciprocal action of one needle llpon
another-
A priori, or from first principles 510
lIIusschenbroek's experiments, cxxix.-cxxx. f>1 ;)-518
XIII. Other methoc1s of making iron magnetic-
Ji.. priori, or from first principles 519
MllSschenbroek's experiments, cxxxi.-cxll·i. 523-543
Appendix 544
 SERENISSIME PRINCEPS

LUDOVICE RUDOLPHE,
DUX BRUNSVICENSIUM ET LUNEBURGENSIUM, ETC.

AN1iIQUIS ritus fuerat, si aliquis ülorum ex numero Deus votis

annlleret, sive thure arm ejus injecto litaret, quod voti sui
compotes facti vel solverent quod voverant, vel sertis, verbenis,
ct vittis aras ejus cingerent: sique opulenta fuisset domus,
quod bidentes ad altaria ejus mactarent; vel annua vel men­
strua vota solennesq ue pompas ducerent; si vero pauperes
essent Lares, quod aliquibus farris aut thuris fiavi mieis foco
altaris ejus injectis, devoto mugis animo et mussitante simul
ore, sacra facerent, et ei grates agerent, et pro exiguis illis
donis, ut iternm vota sua seeundaret, precari ausi essent:
verbo, secundum rei familiaris sortern et fortunam, templis
ejus tanquam sui tutelaris, et inter numerum deorum maxime
faventis, propitii et secundantis, honores instaurabant, et altaria
donis struebant. Ipse, cum ante duodecim quod exeurrit annos,
Vestrre Serenitati aliquas micas hujus farris sive tenues pagellas
ru dis et incomtm Minervm porrigere ausus sim, lœte recordor,
quod illis visis, tamell annuere et favere dignatus sis; quod
eum mihi voti secundi argumentum fuerat, hinc, sed ignoscas,
seeundum ritum antiquorum, ad aram Tuam redeo, et quamvis
non divites honores templis indicere, bidentes niveos mactare,
et Tibi pompas dueere queam, usque tamen acerram jam thure
ejusdem generis sed pleniorem in grati animi pignus porrigere
ausim; quumque litaverint olim mieœ tantummodo illius farris
porreetœ, spero id iterum, aeerra pleniore jam muneri votivo
xciii
XCI. DEDICATION.

ob~attt: permitte ergo, ut opusculum hoc Principiorum nov­

onan plenum Te ut sui Tutelarem adoret, ntque Philosophia
hac nova, ante Tuas aras, Tibi sacra et votiva, quum melioribus
donis operari nequeo, veniat. Non orbem literatum latet,
qu:tlis Minervœ et literarum ejus Cultor et Amator sis; qnalis
cultorum ejus Tutela et Favol'; his fretus, propius propinsqne
ac<.edere et veniam poscere ausim, et ut votis allnuas, precari ;
si iternl11 annuis et faves, voti secundi faustüisima auspicia
ennt. Vive Serenissime Dux tot annos, quot in templis et
ad aras pro annis et saInte Tua vota reddnntur: quod
de:'Totissime precor

SERENITATIS VESTRLE

PCl'humillimus cuItaI'

EMANU EL SvVEDENBORG.
 PHEFACE.
A SU~lMARY OF OUR PHlLOSOPHY.

l FEAR lest, at the very threshuld and outset of our philosophy,

especially its First Part, my readers should straightway be
deterred from proceeding further, wh en they meet with views
which appear strange and different from those generally 1'e­
ceived; and also such unusual terms, as Finite, Active,
Elementary; tenns as yet unknown in philosophical works ;
that is, which are not applied to mechanics, geometry, and
the elementary wodd. For this reason it will be requisite
for me to give, by way of preface, a summary of our work,
and a key to its contents.
Every one, from the light of reason, may see that nature,
conforming to principles of geometry, is ever pursuing a
most simple course, a course peculiar to herself, and truly
rnechanical. He may likewise see that all things in the
world arise from what i8 uncompounded, and therefore from
a single fountain-head and a primitive cause; that this
primitive cause enters into the various things that are caused
(a truth which necessarily fol1ows, if further entities are to
be derived from those which have already been brought into
existence); also that there cOllld have beeu no other cause
than the one which had proceeded by descent, as it were,
from its first parent or simple. This cause, therefore, must be
latent in the first simple; and there must enter a similar
cause into the first entity derived from it. Now since the
worId deduces its origin and subsequent increments, by
means of a connected contiguous series, from the primary or
xcv
XCVI PREFACE.

single end through intermediates to another end; and since

there must be present a cause, and indeed an efficient and
active cause, before anything can be produced in a series; it
follows that there must be a passive, an active, and as a
product from both, a compound, or elementary. If therefore
there is anything of a composite kind, it must consist of two
principles; a passive and an active; without these nature herself
would be, as it \Vere, in a state of celibacy, destitute of progeny,
without a derived entity, without any new efficient, without
effect, without series, without pbenomena; in a ward, without
worIds. l have therefore tried to show that in the Finite,
which is the first in successive derivation from the Simple, is
contained each principle, bath passive and active, from which,
by the accession of a contingent or physical cause, arose the
Composite or Elementary; and further, that in every deriva­
tive, wh ether Fillite, Active, or Elementary, there always
coexists a similar cause, and consequently a similar power of
producing an effect, Damely, from the one into the other;
thus, as it \Vere, from one power into anotber, from one degree
into anotber, and sa on farther and fal'ther. So also in the
derivatives there is latent a principle similar ta that which
exists in the primitives; in composites a principle similar ta
tbat whicb exists in simples; in effects a principle similar ta
that which exists in causes; conseguently also that nature in
her kingdoms, and espccially the elementary, is in the cause
and in the effect simultaneously: sa that from known
principles of mechanism, under the guidance of geometry and
by the analytical faculty of reasoning, wc may, from an effect
visible and posterior, safdy draw our conclusions not only with
regard ta effects invisible and priaI', but with regarù ta the very
entities whieh are active and passive; indeed, ta the very cause
which is latent in aIl.
l wish then, in a few \Yards, ta give a sllmmary of the
whole philosophy ; and in sa doing begin from the first Simple.
l make therefore the following statements :-(1) In a Simple
there is an internaI condition tending ta a spiral motion, and.
 !'REFAC~. XCVl]

consequently thero is in it a similar endeavour to produce it.

(2) In the first Finite that results from it, th ore is a spiral
motion of the parts; it is the same in the other elementary
Finites, in ail of which thore is thus a similar priuciple.
Cl) From th is single cause there arises in every :Finite a
progressi ve motion of the parts, an axillary motion of the
whole, ancl if there is no obstaclo, a local motion of tbe whole.
(4) If there is a local motion, thora arises an active, similar
to the agent proc1ucing it, and differing only in degree and
dimension. From this it is clear tha.t wc admit of entitios
only of a threofold degree, namely, Finites, Actives, and Com­
posites, or Elementaries, which are compollnded of the two.
\Vith respect to Finitos we say that one is generated by the
other; and that ail tho Finites of the class thus arising, are
very similar to one another, and differ ouly in degree and
dimensions. Ronce the fifth Finite is similar to the fourth ;
the fourth to the third; the third to the second; the second
to the first; and the first to its own proper Simple: so that
ho \rho knows the nature of one knows the nature of aIl. So
also wo say, that Actives are vory simil:u to one another; that
the fifth, fourth, third, second, and first Active are ail of the
same nature; diifering only in dimension and degree, in the
same way as Finites. That Elementaries also are similar to
one anothor, since they aro compounded of the Finite and
Active; the Finites occupying the surfaces, the Actives the
interiors; that conseCluontly the first, second, thirLl, fourth, and
fifth Elements are all similar to one auother; so tha,t he who
le nows the nature of one knows the nature of aIl. We say
that in every Finite there are tlll·ee motions, namely, a Pro­
gressive motion of the parts, an axillary, and a local motion,
if there is no obstacle; nor am l aware that in these extromely
simple entities any other natllraJ motions can be assigned; or,
if we grant the motions of these entities, which no rational
person would deny, that any other COll Id be assigned more
conformable to nature. "vVe remark further, that ail these
motions procced from one fOllntain-head, or from one and the
g
XCVIII l'RF:F/lCE.

same cause, namely, from a spiral motion of the parts. This

motion, b()cause it is most highly mechanical, is also the most
highly natural; being that in which, as is weil known, the
whole potency of nature and al! mechanical force is inherent.
And if it be granted tbat motion is the cause of things, then
no other motion can be admitted th an that which is most highly
mechanical and geometrical; for, frOl11 its centre to its circum­
ferences in space, a spiral is a coutinuous thing, tending to the
circulaI' in ail its dimensions; and as such it cannot possess in
itself anything but what is rnost highly perfect, mechanical,
and natural in its motion; being Loth as to the situation of
its parts and as to its motion most highly geometricaJ. In a
Simple, however, in which tbere can Le nothing substantial to
be put in motion, nor any medium in which motion can exist,
we must conceive that instead of a mechanical and geometrical
motion, snch as there is between parts and in some medium,
there is, as it were, a total or pure motion, that is to say, a
state and an effort hellce arising from a similar toward a
similar gnasi motion; in wbich the one only cause and
primitive force tbat produced aH the entities subsequently
existing is latent.
Because in al! its kingdoms the visible world is so
di versified, and consists and su bsists in a series of parts
successively and simultaneously arising, it cannot possibly
have its termination in the same point in whicb it had
its beginning; thlls it cannot possibly have its termination
in its own first or mediate series or line of progression,
or in its first or second part. 'Vere this the case, there
would be no series in existence, neither would there be
any ends; because there would be 110 distinctions into
intermediates; consequently no element to constitute vor­
tices; none ta constitute ether or air; nothing ta constitute
tire; much less anything to constitute the innumerable
parts of the mineraI, vegetable, anù animal kingdoms; in
a ward, there would be no world. Tberefore I endeavour
to demenstrate that the first Finite derives its origin From
 j'RE FA CE. XCIX

tue Simple; the second Finite from the first Finite; the
third from the second; the fourth from the thircl; each
being attended by a cause similar to that which exists
in the primitive Simple, and which passes, by successivc
derivatioo, into the Fin ites. In this way l show that a
series of Fini tes thus springs from a Simple, or from thc
first Finite, in succession to the fifth :Finite. These nve
finites have a mutual relation to one another, are similar
to oue anothor, and differ only in degree and dimonsion,
01' in their relation to each other according as they are
raised to successi vely higher powers or degrees. Again ;
because ail Finites can become Acti ves, or porfonll gyres
from a like inhering and accompanying force or cause, that
is to say, From a spiral motion of tlle parts; and because
they can pass aIso into a local motion, provided there Le
space and 1I0thing in it ta oIrer any obstacle; it follows
therefore that there Inay be a fivefolcl series of Actives;
an Active of the first, second, third, fourth, and fifth
Fiuite points respectively; and at length that by Uleans
of the last or fifth Active, the fire of our system may pass
into atmosphere. The same reasoning is true witl! regard
to the compounds or elementary particles, which l hold
to consist of two principles, namely, Actives aUlI Finites;
the Finites occupying the surface, the Actives occupying
the interiors. And because there is thus a series of Fi.nites
and of Actives, there will also be a series of Elements
su ch as the first or most universal Element, the second or
Maguetie 01' Vortical Element, the third or Ethereal Element,
the fOll1'th or Aërial Element; before the elernentary
kiugdom with which the world is fllrnished has yet been
fully completed. ABd since every single particle of eacll
Element is elastic, encloses Actives, and possesses the faculty
of passivity and activity; thercfore the first Element encloses
within it the Actives of the first Finite; the second, thc
Actives both of the first and second; the third, the firl>t
Elementary par'Lides; thc fourth, both the first and secona
c PREFACf~.

Elementary particles; the two latter Elements participating

in each principle, although they enclose Ilot l'cal Actives
but Elementary particles. For the Elernentary particles
are not only passive but active; they are eonsequently
dastic, and arc movable with respect to particles and
volumes. The motion and mechanisln of their volume
depends IIpon the motion and mechanÎsrn of their particles;
although they [tl'e not mobile and olastic in the samo
degree as the enclosed first and second Elernentary particles
from which they recaive their elasticity. 'l'bus we show
that the l<:lements also differ in degrees and dimonsions,
progrossing eqllally witb the Fillitos, etc., in a certain order
alld succession.
The series of these several subjocts will bo fOllnd in the
work itself, as 1'ol1ows :-The means of attaining to a true
phiJosophy. The first simple or first llatural Poillt. The
tirst Finite. The second Finite. 'l'Ile third Finite. The
fOl1l'th Finite. The fifth Fillite. The pme lIIaterial Fillite,
or VI/ater.
With respect to the Actives, the series is as follows :-­
Tho Active of tbe Poillt. Till' Active of tho first Filiite.
The i.\.ctives of the second and thinl Finite. Tite Actives
of the fomth and firth Finite, or Fire.
\Vith respect to the Elements, the series is as follows:­
'J'lie first or rnost uni"ersal elellleut. The second or Magnotic
Element. The third Element, or tlle EtlJür. The fOl1l'th
~Iement, or tho Air. The fifth prOlluct similar to the
Elements, or Agueo'us Vapollr; ",here we final1y slJOw, that
in every drop of \Vatel' is contnilled every single tbillg which
hacl hiLhcrto existell ['rom tlJÜ first Simple, as also t11€
whole class of Finitcs, Actives, and Elell1elltarics; conse­
quentl)' that in a, sillgle drop of water the whole Elementary
worhl both visible and invisible is present.
Now since canses anel things callsed are simibr to each
ol,her, althollgh they elitrer in dc:gree and dimension, it
fol1ows that nature is always similar to herself, anù cannat
 PREFACE. Cl

Le dilferent in the larger system or elementary kingJorn

from what she is in the less; in the maeroeosm from
what she is in the microcosm; in a volume from what
she is in a particle; hence the quality of the volume may
be seen in the elementary partiele and in the volume the
q uality of the pal'ticle. From this we infer that the sun
consists of the Actives wbiclt fi l'st originate, or those of
the first and second Finite; particularly since it is the
canse of al! the sn Lsequcnt changes, the prime mover of
things; because other things could not have successively
existed except from the tin;t Actives, vr the solar spacc
consisting of thetn. Therefore that the solar vortex and
the vortex of the other stars consists of the first and
second, and consequently of the most universal, Elements.
That the sun itself, iu the formation of its vortex, being
surroundcd with a crust of Finites of the fourth kincl,
was thlts the original chaos of the eurtb and the planets;
and since this crust cnclosed within it the sun, or the
space conslsttl1g of the Acti ves of the first and second
order, while the fourth Finites occasioned a pressure from
without, snch a chaos could rcsemble 110 other than an
elemelltary particle; in whicb, in the same way, tbe Actives
exercise a pressure from within, wbile the Finites or Passives
ocenpy the surface. lt was th us by a proeess of the most
si mple kind tbat nature prod ueed a cllaos, from whieb she
afterwards brought fortb the cartbs; beiug thus similar to
berself in her greatest as well as her srnallest prod uetions.
That consequently t,be eartb, when just proJuced, and uear
the sun, eonsisted of the fourth Finites, aud possessed in
a larger system, like the Fiuite in the smaller, a motion
of its parts, an axillary motion, and also a local motion;
so that in itself it was the representation of a large Finite;
and as to its local and annual motion, the representation
of a large Active; that thus both in the earth and in
the other planets we lllay see what is the quality of the
Finite and wbat the quality of the Active in its minute
cii l'REFACE.

boundaries; and also in the chaos what is the quality of

the elementary particle. These subjects however must be
referred to in the work itself, where they ure treated of
under the following heads:­
The existence of the SUll and the formation of the solar
vortex, Part 1., Chap. x.
The cornparison of the stan'y heaven wi th the magnetic
sphere, Part Ill, Chap. i.
The diversities of worlds, Chap. ii.
The universal chaos of the sun and planets, and the
separation of its substance into planets amI satellites,
Chap. iv.
The vortex surrounding the earth, and the progresslOn
of the earth from the sun to the ci1'cle of its o1'bit,
Chap. xi.
The paraùisaieal state of this earth, and the first man,
Chap. xii.
ln the course of these chapters it will be seen what are
the vc1ocities, periodic times, anel eentripetul tendencies of
the pbnets at their respective distances from their own sun;
also what is the cause of the eccentricity of their Ql'bits.
Row the en,rth passed thwugh innumerable changes 1efo1'e it
arrived at its orbit or steady course: how these challges were
as innumerable as the orbits through which it passecl, or as
the different distances of these orbits from the su 11, and its
different ùegrees of velocity in its al111ual anc! diul'l1al rotation;
in a word, how every day and hour it unc!erwent sorne new
change from the sun itself to the course of its orbit; how it
was requisi te for it to unclergo these coun tless changes, before
it coulù be fully perfected, or be made to consist of so
many series of things arising simultaueously anù suecessively,
or be enrichcd with so many entities as to be complete in ail
its kingc!oms, mineraI, vegeta1le, and animal, or couic! cherish
seeds, unfolc! and expanc! thern, and thus in so delightful and
varied a manner adorn its own surface. In this state of the
earth, while revolving upon its axis and rotating round the
 PREFACE. CIII

sun more rapidly than aL present; or while, in consequence

of being nearer its parent sun, it meted out shorter c!ays and
years; we show how it must have been under the influence
of perpetuaI spring-a season most peculiarly ada pted to
the process of begetting and procreating; without whilch, no
seeds could have grown, nor any vegetable or animal pro-
d uctions have originated.
"Vith respect to the magnet and its forces, the reader is
referred to the whole of the Second Part of our treatise;
where l attempt to demonstrate tbat its force arises from the
motion of the first element and of the second or magnetic,
out of which arc formed the solar and also the planetary
vOl'tices. 'l'hat its magnetism consists in effiuvia, which arc
of such a nature as to be moveable ronnd their own axis;
and that tbese, when set in a gyrating or spiral motion, act
as the subtile element which IVe call magnetism; consequently
that from these rotations arise litLle vortices and connections
of these vortices from one pole of the magnet or its sp here, to
another pole; and that it is in this manner that magnetism
arises, as also its conjullctive force when similar effiuvia per-
vaùing any other body are brought near it. 'l'hat the magnet
itself as such, in regard to its interior texture, consists of a
rectilincar or regular arrangement of its parts, extending from
one polar side to the other; and tbat hence a sphere is
formed extrinsically, connected on both sides with its axis by
a mechanical necessity. 'l'hat the effiu via or forementioned
parts are nothing but what belongs to iron, and that iron is
rendered magnetical when those parts are brollght interiorly,
by friction against iL magnet, eitber into a rectilinear or any
other regular position.
We show, moreover, that the declinatiou of the magnet
arises from the situation of these same particles of the first
and second Element, or of the same element of which the
vortices round the sun and the car th are formed; and that
the magnet is directed into that same situation with its
sphero in which the very particles themselves of the fore-
civ PREFACE.

mentioned element are. That these elementary particles,

becanse at the same ti me they create a vortex l'mlnd the
earth, must necessarily take a spiral course extending from
one pole of the ecliptic to the other, and that honco ariso the
anomalies of magnetism.
See the Second Part of 'j'he Principia on the causes of the
magnetic forces.
'fhe attractive forces of two or more magnet.s.
The attractive forces of two magnets when their poles are
alternated.
The attmctive forces of two magnets wllen their axes are
paralleJ.
The repulsive forces, wh en similar poles are applied ta
each other.
The attractive forces of the mn,gnet and of iron.
The influeuce of the magnet upon heated irou.
The quantity of exhalations from the magnet, and theÏr
penetration through hard bodies.
Chemical experiments macle with the magnet.
The communication of the magnetic force to iron.
The attractive force of the magnet as exercised U pOIl
several pieces of irou.
The influence of irou and the magnet upon the mariner's
neeelle.
The various modes of rendering iron magnetic.
The declinations of the magnet as reduced by cal­
culation.
Tables of observations of the declinations of the magnet 111
different places and at different times.
The causes of the declination of the magnet.
Calculations of the declination of the magnet, in differen t
years, at London and l'aris.
Tables of the declinations of the magnet at Paris, from the
year 1610 to 1920.
Calculations of the eleclinations of the magnet at Rome, at
the Cape of Good Hope, and othel' places.
 PREFACE. cv

The starry heaven, showing that it is similar ta the mag­

netic sphere. For each is compounded of elementary particles
of the same kind, especially adapted to vortical gyres, and
being as it were barn and made mechanically for this
motion.

h
 THE PRINCIPIA.

PART 1.

CHAPTER 1.
THE l\IEAKS LEADING TO TRUE PHILOSOPHY, AND

TlΠTRUE PHILOSOPHER.

IF there is a proper connection between the mind and the

organs of its senses, or in other words, if man is truJy
rational, he continually aspires after wisdom. The soul desires
to be instrncted by means of the senses, and to continually
exercise its perception from them, as from something dis­
tinct from itself; while the senses desire to exercise their
perception from the so.nl, to which they present their objects
for stud}T. Thus each performs and contributes to the same
common operation, and tends to one final result, the wisdom
of the man. For this purpose a continuaI connection exists
between the soul and body; for this purpose also reason is
added to the senses, and hence the desire for wisdom becomes
the special mark and characteristic of man. Unless, however,
he is eager to attain a knowledge which lies beyond or above
his senses, he is not truly rational, nor is there a due connection
betlVeen the senses and the souI. The senses and their
varions organs can apprehend the phenomena of their world
but grossly, and in an imperfect measure. There are no
animaIs except man which possess any knowledge beyond that
acquired by the senses, and by their organs disposed in the pia
mater of the brain. They are unable ta penetrate further;
1 A 1
2 MEAN5 LEADING TO

and, from want of a more subtle and active power, cannat

refer the abjects presented ta their senses ta a higher or more
definite origin. But if we refer the abjects, or the operations
of the world upou our senses, not ta the soul and its reason,
but ta the same origin aR animaIs do, wc are not wiser than
tbey. The sign that we desire ta be wise, is the \Vish
ta know the causes of things, as weIl as to investigate the
secret and unknown things of nature. lt is for this pur­
pose that we eonsult the oracle of the rational minel, and
thence await 0111' answer; that is, we wish to acquire a
deeper wisdom tban tbat which is attained by the senses
alone.
But he who wishes ta reach the ,jnd, must desire also to
provide tbe means. Now the principal means which lead
ta truly philosophieal knowledge are tluee in number­
experienee, geometry, and the power of reasoning. First,
then, let us aseertain whether, and in what manner, we have
the power, by these three means, to gain knowledge Ci prio?'i,
or to reaeh the fartbest boullelaries of human wisdom with
respect ta natural and physieal things.
By pbilosophy we here mean the knowledge of the
mechanism of our world, or of whatever in the world is
subject ta the laws of geometry; or which it is possible to
unfold to view by experience, assistec1 by geometry and
reason. U nder the ru le of geometry are the tlll'ce king­
doms, the minerai, the vegetable, anel the animal, and, if it
be permitted to add another, the elemental. The mineraI
kingdom cornprehends everything in tbe worlel of a bard,
material, and terrestrial kind, wbether it is metallic, stony,
or sulphurous, and everything else, either fixed or fluid,
which cannot be describeel as vegetable or elementary. The
vegetable kingdom eomprehends everytbing which springs out
of the minerai kingdorI1, and wbich adorns the surface of the
earth by its growtlt and vegetation. 'Ehe animal kingdom
comprehends whatever depends for growth upon the vegetable
kingdom, but whieh lives in vil'tue of possessing sorne kinel
 TRUE PHILOSOPHY. 3
of souL The elementary kingdom comprehends ail those
substances which are fluid of themselves and by their own
nature, every particle rejoicing in and thriving by its own
peculiar motion and elasticity. A gronp of these constitutes
an element, such as air, or ether, or others still more subtle,
which we shall hereafter investigate in the course of our
P1'incipia.
U nder the empire of geometry, and under the mechanical
laws of motion, we place the whole mineraI as weil as the
vegetable kingdom, and indeed the animal also with respect
to mechanical organs, muscles, fibres, and membranes; or
with respect to its anatomical, vegetative, and organic rela­
tions. But with respect to the soul and its various faculties,
l do not think it possible that they can be explained or
comprehended by any of the laws of motion known to us ;
such indeed is our present state of ignorance, that we know
not whether the motions by which the soul operates on the
organs of the body are such as to be reducible to any mie
or law, either similar or dissimilar ta those of our mechanics.
The elements by which the earth is surrounded, and in which
it Roats, acknowledge mechanism and its laws to be as it
were peculiarly their own; sa intimately i8 mechanism
associated with the elements, that it owes its very existence
to them; and indeed the method by which they are set in
motion and actuated, is mechanism itself, which is thus both
conceived and born of the elernentary kingdom. Since then
the elements called air, ether, as weil as others of a still
more subtle nature, are naturally and peculiarly subject to
geometry and mechanism, we can explain them by the assist­
ance of expcrience, the known laws of motion, and geometry.
In this first division of our Principia we treat, in part gener­
ally, and in part specifically, of the elements; of their origin
from the first and most subtle, to the last which surrouncls
the earth; also of the motion of the elementary particles,
their form, and the l'est of their properties or essentials of
their nature.
4 ll1EANS LEADING TO

Tt is an arduous attempt to explain philosophically the

hitherto secret operations of elementary nature, far removed
as they are, and almost hidden from the perception of our
senses, and to place, as it were, before the eyes those things
which nature herself seems to have withdrawn from view and
of which she has dellied us knowledge. In this ocean I
would not venture to spread my sail, without having experi­
enee and geometry continually present to guide my band and
control the helm. ,Vith these to assist and direct me, I
think l sball be safe in approaching and, voyaging over
this ocean. For geometry and experience are, as it were, the
twin stars by which one's way may be directed, or which
show the way by their light ; for of these it is that we stand
most in need amid the thick darkness which envelops both
elemelltary nature and the human mind.
1. By experience we mean the knowledge of everything
in the worlel of nature which is capable of being received by
the senses. This definition embraces everything, whether in
the elementary kingdom, or in metallurgy, chemistry, botany,
anatomy, etc., in so far as we can ascertain the manner in
which it affects the senses or acts Πposte1'io1'i. These things
may ineleed he termed objects of the senses and phenomena,
drawn from the great storehouses of Datural things.
Let it not, however, be imagined that any experience, or
this knowledge derived Πposte?'iori, and confined only ta one
man, or even to one age, is sufficient for the purpose of
exploring the hidden paths of nrtture. Ta crown the in­
vestigation with success, we require the experience of many
ages; from one age ta another experience will increase, till
we have snch a store of information as will supply us with
phenomena and experiments calculated ta explain any part or
3.ny s8ries of the operations of nature.
The sciences, which have now for about a thousand years
been addillg ta our experience, may at this day be said to
have sa far advanced, that the enquiry into the secret and
invisible things of nature need be deferred no longer. For
 TRUE PHILOSOPHY. 5
an infinite number of phenomena is already known, capable
of leading us up ta this point; and besides, the writings of
so many ages are extant, which will sufficientl y aid us in an
a priori investigation, and deduction from the fjrst principles
of things. ,Vith respect ta elementaries we have an ample
wealth of experiments in regard ta the ether, air, fire, water,
and the magnet; and if we reckon those also which have
been made in metallurgy and chemistry, where nearly aU
the elements are called forth, and llsed for the solution and
condensation of bodies, we think that the world is at this day
sufficiently instructed for our purpose.
In fact, there is no need for that innumerable variety
·of phenomena which some deem necessary, in order ta
acquire a knowledge of natural things. We require ta make
use of the more important only, such as bear directly and
immediately upon the point, and whose reference ta our
mechanical world and its powers is not tao remote. For
by them we may be led first to complex, and ta us, general
principles; thence by means of geometry, and ailled by the
leading phenomena which lie intermediately between the two,
we proceed to particulars; then, by a chain of conllection, ta
the more simple; and th us at last ta the most simple, ta
the fountain-head, in proceeding from which they have
gradually become more and more modified. The remaining
mass of experiments, which are either farther removed from
the first source, and thus from the first and simple mechanism
of the world, or which are merely collateral, and not in the
same direct line of descent, are not sa essential; indeed,
they would tend rather to divert the mind into a different
course, than lead it onward in the great high road of our
investigation. The reason is that there is a countless variety
of phenomena that are very remote from their origin, and
which reveal no path leading ta it but through manifold
intricacies and mazes. Nature, branching out into such
varieties of modification in our world, may be compared
ta the arteries and veins of the animal body; these, when
6 MEANS LEADING TD

nearest to their com mon fou ntain, the heart, have considerable
breadth and magnitude; but become divided in their course
into smaller and smaller ramifications, and final!y into the
very smallest, and even into ramifications which are like
in visible filaments and capillaries. If you are ignorant of
the fountain-head and origin of the blood which flows
through these arteries and veins, and yet wish to explore
it by means of experiments, you would scarcely commence·
with the smaller capiUary vessels, and there make man y
dissections, so as in the mind to trace them from one branch
to another. In so laborious a pursuit you would most
probably be diverted from your track into other arteries
and veins, and thus remain long perplexed and misled by
their numberless intricacies before you could reach the great
and regal aorta. Nay, by such a plan, a still further source
of error, and consequent removal from the heart, might arise
in the section throllgh fl-rteries into veins, while aiming at
the contrary direction. Nature may be also likened to a
labyrinth; if you are in this labyrinth, the attempt to
wander through al! its windings, and to take note of al! their
directions \Vould be fruitless; for in this case the puzzle
would only grow the more inextricable, you would only
pursue your footsteps in a circle, and when most elated
by the prospect of emerging, come to the selfsame spot.
And so if you would reach with ease, and possihly by the
shortest road, the exit of the labyrinth, you must reject
the senseless wish of exploring aU its iutricacies; ratber
planting yourself at sorne intersection of its paths, strive
to ascertain somewhat of its general figure from the circuitous
route yon have already trodden, and retrace, if advisable, some
of your steps. Thus may you easily ascertain the way
leading to its olltlet, and there obtain the clue to direct
yüu throngh aH its mazes; and when you have familiarised
yourself with their plan, you may throw aside even the
clue itself, and fearlessly wauder about in the labyrinth
without it. Theil, as if seated ou an eminence, and at a
 TRUE PHILOSOPHY. 7

glance snrveying the whole labyrinth which lies before you,

how will you smile in tracing the various wind ings which
had baffied your judgrnent by maniîold and illusive inter­
sections! But let us return to actual phenomena, and leaving
similitudes pass on to the subject itself. By tao great an
accumulation of phenomena, and especially of those which
are very remote from their cause, you not only defeat the
desire of laying open the hidden operations of nature, but
plunge yourself more and more deeply into a maze, where
you are perpetually drawn aside from the end in view, and
misled into a contrary region. For it is possible that many
things of seemingly opposite natures may exist from one
and the same origin; from the same first cause exist tire
and \Vatel' which are contrary to each other, and likewise
air, which absorbs them both. Thus we are confused by
their contrary and heterogeneous natures, and by their
endless variety, and we may form a very diffuse and in­
distinct notion. After the experience of so many thou­
sands of years, if a person should be importullate, and
desire still further knowledge, confessillg that in these
respects he is still needy and ignorant, it is no wonder
that he ShOllld be unable to arrive at the knowleclge of
munclane things so as to reason from principles and causes;
for were he possessed of the greatest possible accumulation of
facts, they wauld only serve to increase the difficulty of
attaining his end.
In the state of ignorance in which we are at the present
day, we gain knowledge only through experience; not merely
our own individual experience and that of our own age, but
the experience of the wbole learned world and of many ages.
When we have learned from our teachers what the learned
world has discovered, we are individually enabled to add new
experience of our awn, and thus continually to become more
enlightened. l affirm, therefore, that at this day we are
made wise only by meallS of experience; nor can we arrive
at wisdom by any other path. It is impossible to receive
8 iJfEANS LEADING TO

knowledge immediately from the sonl; man attains it only

through the medium of organs and senses. The first fountain
of knowledge springs from these, and it is by means of the
connection existing between them, and the faculties of reason
and judgment, that we acquire a perception of abjects; that
is to say, it is only by means of experience acquired by organs,
and transmitted to the mind, that we can become wise. The
means, therefore, of ail our wisdom is to be found in experi­
ence ; without this the human race would be barbal'ous,
merely animal, and irrational. Suppose a person, clestitute
of education, left wholly to himself with wild beasts and apes,
or advancing to manhood without the society of uny animal­
What kind of brute would he be? What intelligence would
he enjoy from nature? vVhat would be the operation of his
higher aura, or mind, on the organs of his body; or, at a riper
age, what would be the operation of the organs of his body
on his mind? Man is made and formec!, and distinguisheJ
from the brutes, solely by education; in the process of which
the organs, \\'hich are intermediary between the mind and the
hody, being braught into exercise, are, as it were, cultivated
and fashioned; and exercise so arranges the elements enclosed
in the small membranes and organs, as ta enable the most
subtle tremors and motions to pass and repass througbout
them, and opens, as it were, those secret and intricate ayenues
which lead ta the most subtle and active entity of our nature.
It is by means of this that the oracles of the rational mind are
disclosed. From experience we have recei ved ail our sciences.
By experience we know how ta discharge the duties of a
citizen, and ta live \Vith others in moral society; \\'e learn ta
be prudent; we learn ta be philosophers. By experience we
acquire the arts of war and of constructing fortifications; we
learn ta train soldiers so that each individual of himself, con­
jointl)' with the battalion, and the battalion with each indi­
vidual, is enabled to stand securely against the attack of the
enemy. We learn by experience to construct ships, to build
houses, to cultivate fields and gardens; arts which were first
 TRUE PHILOSOPHY. 9
conceived from experience, and thereafter practised, at­
tained perfection in later ages. Let us instance the sciences
of metallurgy and chemistry. Metallurgy, which commenced
in experimental knowledge many ages before the flood, con­
tinued its progress until it attained the excellence it now
possesses; so that we now fully understand how the hardest
rocks can be penetrated; how shafts of different kinds can
oe dri ven even throllgb l110nntains, passages bored to the
bowels of the earth, and its metallic veins opened and ex­
plored; how laboratories and furnaces shollid he constructed
for the purpose Cif extracting and sl11elting the better part of
the ore, and how the metal is afterwards to be made into
bars and shaped; with many other particulars which relate
to the hidden course of the vein, and the formation of the
l11etal itself. These discoveries are all owing to that great
instructress experience, who seems to have been the more
ingenious in regard to this art, and the more desirous of
learning it, because it produces sil ver and gold; to which
l11eans all things are obedient which procure livelihood and
honours, and which, upon that account, so intensely interest
mankind. From experience we learn the vast science of
chemistry, or the art of decomposing ores and of separating
metals, and aU the constituents of vegetable nature, by both
the dry, and the wet method, as it is caUed; holV sulphur,
spirits, oils, and liq uids of various kinds, may be produced by
means of tire or a solvent; how the lighter parts, and likewise
the heavier, and metallic substances, dissolved by the solvent,
may be separated in the liquid itself, and made to sink to
. the bottom, or ascend to the surface; how flame and lire are
to be controlled, and to what degree of heat a body which can
be reduced by it should be subjected; or how a slow fire
wastes bodies, or a iitronger and fiercer one descends deeper
in to their structure, penetrates into their inmost and hidden
things, and divides and separates them into parts. But
this entire science is the offspring of experiment. We are in­
debted to experience therefore for aU our knowledge, wbile
ro 11:fEANS LEADING TD

experience itself is indebted to the senses, by means of which

objects are subjected to the rational activity of the mind, and
thus we are finally enabled to acquire wisdom. In proportion,.
therefore, as the sources of experience are the more abundant,
and the better disposed and distributed throughout the
organs; in proportion as the intermediary organs are more·
exact in their harmony, and better adapted in their form;
and in proportion as a more elevated path is thrown open to
the most subtle principles of things by series and continuity,
in the same proportion man may become wiser. But, after
aH, alas! what is our wisdom ?-truly such as what is finite
is to what is infinite ; and in respect, therefore, to the wisdom
of the Infinite, nothing.
The reason why we must acquire knowledge by means of
experience, and investigate the nature of objects and set
them in a distinct point of view, by subjecting them to the
operation of the reasoning faculty, is, that we have an active
and most subtle principle and soul, to which phenomena can
be submitted; whereby we are enabled, through the com­
parison and series of many phenomena, to form a judgment
respecting them; and, by considering tbeir uniformities, simi­
larities, analogies, and analyses, to discover their causes by
geometrical and rational investigation. Man is distinguished
from brutes by reason alone; in otber respects we are mere
animaIs and organized forms. vVe have senses like those of
brutes, and we have an interior structure not unlike theirs:
our sole distinction cOllsists in tbat invisible or reasoning
faculty, that more subtle active principle, to which we can
more inwardly refer objects, and consequently perceive them
more distinctly. It cannot be denied that there is a connec­
tion between the organs of the senses and the soul, and tbat
the motions of the organs of the senses can be in a moment
transmittèd to the soul by means of that connection; it is
equally certain that those motions thus pass out of a grosser
medium into a more subtle one, and that these media are
in contact and sllcceed one another in order. For if the
 TRUE PHILOSOPHY. II

motions irnpressed on the organs are instantly perceived in the

sonl, and if the organs of the senses are of a grosser substance
than the soul, it follows, that all perception passes out of a
grosser into a more refined medium, by mean:'l of a connection
and of a contigllity existing between them, and thus arrives
at that rnost active principle which is the primary and ulti­
mate constituent of man. 'vVe can form no idea of this per­
ception in the so111, but by comparing it \Vith the elements.
For there exists a primary and a most subtle element, and others
that are successively more gross; thus tbere are air, ether,
and others. If the particles of a grosser clement should by
any means be disturbed, either individually or collectively, so
as to experience either an undulation, or a tremulation, or
any othel' kind of movement, such movement wonld pass out
of this grosser medium into the more subtle one. If these
media were in such close contiguity and connection as ta
fonn together one volume, then the motion arising in the
grosser clement or medium would be more sensibly felt in the
more slIbtle one. 'The tremulatioD of one particle, or of its
surface, in the grosser medium, might cause a kind of undula­
tion among the particles, or in the volume, of the more subtle
medium: and if media and elements of a still more subtle
nature were present and intermixed, the same motion which
was tremulous in the first might be undnlatory in the second,
and cause a local motion among the particles of the third.
Therefore, when a motion passes from a gros:'ler medium into­
one that is more subtle, it becomes successi vely more sensible;
and if more sensible, then more distinct. 'vVe are distinguished
therefore from brutes by this, that their perceptions do Dot
penetrate to so subtle a medium as they do in mail, but that
they stop as it were midway, where perception is not sa acute
and less distinct. Let us suppose the organs of the senses to
be mecbanical, and formed ctccording to the mechanism of the
motions existing in the elements; let us suppose that. there
are membranes which are acted upon by waves of the air, or
the ether; let us suppose also that these membranes arc of
12 MEANS LEAD/NG TD

different kil1ds, either grosser or more subtle; let there be a

bard covering, a soft one, and one still more subtle; for we
see that an things, ooth in the vegetable and animal kingdom,
go out into ramifications, which become more and more subtle
tin they arrive at the highest degree of tenuity, as is the
case with the muscles, the nerves, the veins, and the mem­
branes. If, therefore, a motion arises in a grosser membrane, and
passes into one that is more subtle, the effect will oe exactly
the same as in passing from a grosser into a more suotle
medium. If the media or membranes oe so contigllolls and
in such mutual connection, that a motion impressed on that
whi.ch is grosser can be in~talltly perceived in that whieh
is more sllbtle, then the least motion in the grosser oe­
comes greater and of a higher order, in the more subtle, and
consequently more easily perceived and distinct. Tbat the
membranes percoive, is a very common form of speech amollg
anatomists. But let us leave these subjects, from whieh we
only mean to infer that we ought to be instructed by the
senses, and that it is only by means of the experience conveyed
from them ta the mind that we are able to aequire knowledge
.and thus become wise.
1 have observed, that man is perfected by exercise, and
that the organs which are intermediary oetween the senses
and the mind are formed by constant cultivation, and that
without culti vation and exercise those organs \Vould oe closed,
as it were, and consequently man would be like a brute.
The very slowness of his progress from infaney to man­
hood, contributes in a very fundamental and essential
manner to the forming and opening of such organs or
motions in the most subtle membranes; not to mention
the construction of the orain itself. Fo.r we do not arrive
at adolescence till after fifteen or twenty years, or more;
whilst the large l', stronger, and more muscular animaIs,
arrive. at maturity in between three and five years. In
the meantime, our organs are yielding and soft, like wax,
and are thus enabled to receive the natural and simple
 TRUE PHILOSOPHY. 13
motion of the elementary world, and to accommodate it ta
themselves in et graduaI and orderly manner; so tbat whilst
they consolidate, the traces and elements, or forms aod
changes, of the motioos they are exposed to, can be
fashioned withio them. The reason is tbat, while the
parts are being adjusted to one aoother and increasing in
size, they grow hard by degrees. If, therefore, during this
interval, the parts wbich as yet are weak, tender, and easily
affected, are agitated by perpetuaI and long-continued motions,
their tender texture, being thus constantly in motion and
agitation for a long time aud always acquiring form
during its growth and expansion, is rendered very pliant and
impressionable to the innumerable different motions of this
description. But on the otller hand, if an animal arrives
sooner at maturity, and its parts are fixed very quickly
with respect to one anotber before they are accustomed to
s1.lch motions, they must be rendered more rigid, and become
in a manuer hardened; and so the more subtle parts, and
those which are nearer to the most simple, afterwarcls yield
with clifficulty tu the motions impressed, and afford no
passage throllgh tbemselves but what is gross and obscure,
just as if the impressed motion had to pass through a thick
covel'ing; for the greater rigidity and thickness of the coverings
of the organs and membranes renders them leHs compliant
to subtle tremors. The longer, therefore, an animal is in
arriving at maturity and the full tension of its parts, the
more open will the passage to its most subtle organs be­
come, the thinner will be the coverings of its membranes
and parts, the more compliant to the motions impressed on
them, and the more oumerous the ramifications into which
it will extend; consequently, the more perfect will the
animal become, provided the means which can perfect him
are employed; which consist, as was before said, in perpetu­
ally calling his faculties into use, cultivation, and motion,
by meaus of education.
Now, althollgh we acquire wisdom by experience alone,
''4 MEANS LEADING TO

it does not, therefore, follow that they are the wisest who are
the most experienced, or who retain a great deal in their
memory; l affirm only, that they are capable of becoming
wise, and that experience is the means which leads to wisdom.
For experience, considered merely by itself, is knowledge, and
-not wisdom; it is only the threshold and entrance by which
wisdom may be approached. ,He who has knowledge, and
is merely skilled in experiment, bas taken only the first
step to wisdom; for he only knows what is posterior, and
'is ignorant of what is prior; thus his wisdom doe;; not
·extend beyond the organs of the senses, and is unconnected
'with reason. He who desires 1.0 be wise is wise from both.
In the state of ignorance in which we live, experience is
·a kind of phantom, a mere counterfeit which appears like
wisdom. At this day they are reputed the wisest who
bave the greatest experience; by making a display of it
-they are immediately regarded as persons of acute judgment
and refined perception; and the more so, if they have
eloquence and their words are weIl chosen anù arranged;
still more so, if they know how to captivate the ears of
their auditors by sweetness and melody of voice and
accent.. But those alone arrive at the goal of true wisdom
who not only possess a very great store of experience, but
have alsa their organs so formed and disposed, from the
,senses even to the soul, by means of exercise, and 50 \Vell
and closely cannected and arranged, that whenever required,
they can addllce from their treasllres of experience sllch
inst.ances, and such only, as are sllited to the immediate
purpose; by the similitude, analysis, and comparison of
which they are enabled ta l'eason clear1y, and by a chain
of argument to arrive even at the causes of the subject
of enquiry, or at the tbings antecedent and prior to it.
But experience taken by itself, as 1 have said before, is
not wisdom. A painter who possesses colours and c1yes,
and can draw lines with them, is not, therefore, master of
his art; nor is a manufacturer of instruments capable, on
 TRUE PHILOSOPHY. 15
tbat account, of skilflllly touching the strings of a barp
and producing barmony. He who possesses a large library
of books is not necessarily a man of learning, Bor does he,
for tbat reason" deserve the laurel, fol' his \Vit may pro­
bably be very gross and very dnll. Or, if we consider the
matter more closely and interiorly, the historian who has
turned over a multitude of books, anù has learnt from them
the fates and vicissitudes of the ages, and the lives and
exploits of a11 the heroes, is not on that account wise, and
worthy of being raised to official ernioence; that is, he is
not, from that fact alone, an able member of the common­
wealth, and more deserving than others to be seated at the
helm. He ought to have the ev.ents and exploits of former
times so arranged, by means of his organs and the various
chambers of bis memory, as to be able, on every occasion,
to refer to such historical circumstances as most resem ble
and are analogous to the case in hand; and these, as if
spontaneously, and no others, ought to present themselves to
bis reasoning powers. Nor is he even then wise, unless
he has previously penetrated, by rational pbilosophy, into
causes ancl principles; so that he may aftorwards be
able to argile upon the present circumstances from causes
and principles, or from reason and a pTioTi, and to fo1'm
more certain conclusions by a cbain of inferences; and,
having his cOUIlscls clerived from such a source, may be
able, by the timely adoption of proper measures, to provide
for the welfare of the State.
H, theJ'efore, fo11ows, that he who retains al! the natural
experience of the worlel laid up in the storehouse of memory,
is not on that account a philosopher, and capable of knowing
the causes of things, and of reasoning CI, priori; for to do this,
he must know how to digest a11 things analytica11y by means
of geometry amI rational philosophy, and must possess the
faculty of reasoning philosophically, which consists in a certain
arrangement and form of the organs, as connected \Vith
the rational faculty, produced by continuaI cultivation and
.ft' MEANS LEAD/NG TO

nse. Tt is th us that a man may first become a philosopher,

and penetrate into the causes of things, and afterwards from
causes speak by means of experience.
Hitherto we have treated of the first medium leading to
philosophical wisdom, or the 'knowledge of the mechanical or
organic world; we now proceed to the next.
2. The second means leading to wisdom, by which the
secrets of invisible nature may be unlocked and revealed, is
geometry and rational philosophy; by means of which we
are enabled to compare our experiments, to set thern in order
analytically, to reduce them to laws, rules, and analogies, and
thence to elicit sorne thircl or four th thing which was
unknown before. Experience alone cannot unfold or disclose
anything, and reduce it to its more simple parts; it cannot
so arrange facts that resemble one another as to discover
what was unknown by observing its similarity to what is
knowLl; for this is the office of reason. But to retain many
things in the memory, and afterwards to form theories or con­
clusions respecting things unknown from their resemblances
and analogies to such as are known, and thus to speak from
a ('hain of experiments, is a method of attaining wisdom at
once familial' and natura!.
The whole wor/d itself, elementary, mineraI, and vegetable,
and also the animal kingdom, as ta its anatomical organisa­
tion, is a pure system of mechanism. The science of
mechanics itself with ail its powers, geometry with al! its
figures and quantities, and philosophy with its resources of
reasoning sprang solely from the elementary wor/d; they are
the ofl'spring of the elements of which they were conceived and
born. The science of mechanics is the law of nature herself
as she acts and moves in the elements; and it is according
to this that her parts have their motion both in the simple
and compound. Without the elements and their regular
disposition and motion, no mechanism could exist. As,
therefore, the science of mechanics is the law of elementary
nature, it cannot be denied that the war/d itself is suitably
 TRUE PH1LOSOPHY. T7
governed by its laws and rules, anù tbat the whole is a
mechanism; a fact which becomes the more evident when
we observe that nothing can be in et state of motion with­
out obeying some mechanical law. If motion is supposed,
both the figure of that motion must be supposed, and also
its space; consequently, if there are figure and space, as weIl
as motion, the whole is mechanical, and is subject to
geometrical laws. The very attributes of motion, figure
and space, because they cleave to it, are geometrical.
However small a body may be, it is geometrical, because
it possesses figure and quantity according to its o\Vn dimen­
sions. It may al50 be considered as subject to the laws of
proportion in itself, because there is distance between its
limits, and betweell one point of that distance and another
there is proportion. The case is the same in other instances.
Thus not only motion, but every finite thing in a state of
l'est possesses attriblltes wbich are purely geometrical.
Geometry, therefore, accompanies the world from its first
origin, or first boundary, to its las t, and is im;eparable from
it; so also do the principles of mechanies, though they might
be different in a world differently formed, and in elements
differently formed and arranged; and thus, although there
may be innumerable worlels, nothing can exist in any finite
world which does not depend upou some mechanical principle,
and a similar principle of geometry must be common to them
aIl. Whoever supposes the \Vorld to be constituted in any other
way, must take refuge in occult qualities, tbat he may conceal
his ignorance and preserve his reputation as a philosopher
in the learned worId. He whose mind is weil formed cannot
deny that the world is composed of elements; that elements
are composed of particles; that particles are composed of
spaces and forms; that particles of definite form are the
result of motion, and of situation suited to such motion;
and that motion and situation have their proportions.
As ail things in the world which possess motion and limits..
are mechanical, it also follows that the smallest natural things,
lB
18 J.l1EAN5 LEADING TG

as weIl as the largest, flol\' in a mecha,nical order, and that the

smallest ancl largest are governed by similar mechanical prin­
ciples. And though the particles of the elements are invisible,
and in a great mensllre elude the observation of our senses,
yet, as they are fluent and bounded, they are geometrical, and
must f10w and sllbsist in a mechanical manner. The case
must be the same both \Vith the objects that are \Vithin, and
\Vith those that are beyond, the sphere of our vision. That
the equilibrium and motion of the greater bodies follo\\' the
·common and kno\\'n la\\'s of mechanics, is clear from the case
of the very gre<-ttest. vVe see it to be the case in the vortex of
our sun, in the planets, in the earth, in the satellites that
l'evolve wlthin the boundal'ies of the greater vortex and move
elliptically through their propel' orbits \Vith perfect regularity,
exactly as would smaller bodies if they \Vere made to revolve
in a similar orbit. These immense masses are governed by
the same law, or the same centripetal and centrifugai tendency,
as is observable in small bodies that are made in ]1ke
manner to revolve round their centre. A similar proof is
affol'ded by the animal kingdom a180 ; in the case of whales,
elephants, ancl other animaIs; tendons, nerves, muscles, and
fibres are observed to move the feet, arms, fingers, and the l'est
of the organs of the whole body. In certain animaIs we see the
b]oo<1 and fluids flow ancl return tbroùgh the large and small
arteries and veins, and by their proper clucts and vessels;
and either, as in plants, pl'oceed ta certain fixed boundaries, or
continually retrace their steps. "'IVe also see how the lungs per­
form their alternate movements, like a pë.ir of bellows, according
to the inspiration and expiration of the air. That ail these
motions are mecbanical, our eyer; are witllesses, for the nerves,
fibres and mnscles, ail properly formecl and adaptecl to the re­
spective movemellts, lie open to view; wbence we are enabled
to învestigate these mechanical and hydraulic machines them­
selves, to handle, as it were, these original motive powers,
and to demonstrate tbat they ail depend upon mechanical
principles.
 TRUE PHILOSOPHY. '9
'l'he same observation is true of the organs of the senses.
For it is known that the undulating air flows into the ear,
and occasions in its covering or tYlllpanum a motion imitative of
itself; that it afterwards continues the same motion throughout
its malleus, incus, cochlea, and cbannels and instruments of
sound, toward the interior parts; so that the undulation of
the air seeIllS to have formed su ch a mechanism of its own,
that it may be recei veJ and transmitteJ farther toward
membranes of the same kind lying within for the reception of
sensation. What a wonderful mechanism is to be seen in the
eye, where there are so many coverings, so many humours and
little f-ibrils, so many nerves leading from them towards the
interior pal·ts-by means of which wbatever is received from
the ether in the eye, insinuates and propagates itself therefrom
in a mechanical \Vay towarùs coverings of the same killd in
the meninges, anJ thus more and more deeply: so that the
ether seems to have formed in the eye a mechanism of Its
own, by which its undulations can be received, aod be farther
transferred toward the interior parts. till sensation is experi­
enced. These con tri vances alld minute machines, III ost
exactly formed, according to the l<LWS of mechanics, fol' the
reception of the modes of motion of the ail' anJ ether, we
can view, examine, and investigate in ail their parts, and sec
their very mem bmnes and coverings extended, as it were, from
the interiOl' of the !Jead to the light of day, in orJer that the
elements may be able to act immediately upon them, and
more speedily COll vey the impressed motions thence towards
the interiors, by first gradually affecting the coverings of
the same kind, and then such as are smaller and more
sensiti ve.
From these observations we may conclnJe that the ù,uimal
body is governed by mechanical law, and, as will now be
demonstra.ted, that the same kind of mechanism is found in
the smallest allimal as in the largest. For there are anirilalculœ
so small as to escape the observation of the keenest eye, and
to be discoverable only by the aid of lenses and glasses of very
20 MEAN5 LEADING TO

smail aperture: yet these, diminutive as they are and beyond

the limits of our vision, have feet, legs, and other members,
which are moved in the same manner as those of great wh ales
and elephants; they have lungs which inhale and exhale the
air; tbey have a heart which sends some kincl of blood
through their little frames; they have sight, and probably
hearing, consequently t,hey bave coverings and membranes,
which are extended and expancled from within the head
toward the cye and ear till they come in contact with the
element itself; they have humours, fibres, and vessels receptive
of the motions of the elements, by which those motions
are transferred toward the coverings and membranes that
are contained witbin this little animated point; they have
also their desires, pleasures, gratifications, love'.', parturitions,
and the emotions of their animal spirits. :N ow as there is
the same and eq ually ingenious mechanism in the smallest
animal body as in the greatest; and as the former seems, on
account of the more subtle texture of its membranes, to·
possess quicker and more perfect motions than those wbose
bodies are grosser (for the srnaller animalculre are in a manner
nearer to the more subtle and simple elements); wbat other
conclusion can be drawn than that nature is the same, is like
hersclf, and is governed by similar mechanical laws in the
smal1est finite things as in the greatest? Thus also in respect
to the elements; if they have motion it must be by means
of partic1es, consequently they must be made up of particles ;
and the particles of one element must have the particles
of another element within it and without it, with which it
must be in contact and in equilibrium. But this will be ex­
plained in tbe course of the work; l only wish to state here,
that in these invisible and very small elementary tltings there
is the same kind of mechanism as in the greatest; that it is
the same in wbales and the smallest insects, in a vast world
and a little revolving globe.
If geometry is considered, it will be found ta be always
like itself. For if there is space, it is always accompanied
 TRUE PHILOSOPHY. 21

by fonn; if there is motion, form too is al ways inseparable

from it; if several spaces and forms are imagined, tIJere
will always be a ratio between those spaces and forms;
there is the same ratio between the greatest numbers as
between the smallest; as for example, there is tbe same
between 100,000,000,000,000 and 500,000,000,000,000
as there is betwecn lOO,OOO,o~,ooo,ooo and lOO.OOO,o~o,ooo,ooo' The case
is the same with the differences in the infinitesimal
or differential calcul us; that is, there is the same ratio
between (clx) and (dy) as there is between the integers
themselves (:r) and (y), tbough (dce) and (dy) are differences
nearly equal to nothing. 'l'hus also in hidden nature, or the
smallest corpuscular existences, the relative motions among
the smal1est elementary particles cannot differ fi:om those
among the greatest masses in the same configuration,
unless there are present other bodie" outside which can
cause sorne dissimilarity. l t is only that which i8 not
finited or bounded that is out"ide the laws of geometry;
but as soon as anything is limited uy boundaries or
motion, Of' both, it is immediately connected with form
and space, and comes under the empire and control of
geOlnetry, which has for its subject whatevel' has boundary
or form. The mechauism of minute things is better, purer,
ami more conformable to rule, than that of things which are
large and intricately compounded. Fol' in minute things the
weight, circumference, snrface, and fOl'ln are less; their modi-
fication, whicb is tbe cause of change, is less; and consequently
there are less dissimilitude, fewer points of contact, and less
friction; thns in minute things there is llothing to prevent
the wboJe from being geometrically put in motion-a circum-
stance which cannot be hoped for in great bodies, for the
reasons j ust mentioned.
As nature operates in the world in a ll1echanical manner,
and the phenomena which she exhibits to our senses are
subject to their proper laws and rules, it fol\ows, that nature
cannot thus operate except by means of contiguity and con-
22 MEANS LEAD/NG TO

nection. Th us the rnechanism of the worlel consists ln

contiguity, without which neither the world nor its
mechanism cOlllel exist. U nless one particle were to
act both upon another and by means of another, or
the whole mass, by al! its particles, were to act as a unit,
anù at the same time at a distance, nothing elementary,
capable of affecting or striking the least organ of sense,
could exist. Ever}' operation takes place by contiguity.
\Vithout 11 perpetuaI connectioll between the end and
the me an s, there wOllld be no elell1entary nature, and no
vegetable and animal natures thence originating·. The
connection between ends and means fo1'ms the very life
and essence of nature. For nothing can originate from
itself; it must originate from sorne othe1' thing; hence tbere
mllst be a certain contignity and connection in the existence
of natllral things; that is, al! things, in regard to their
existence, must follow one another in successive arder. Thus
al! things in the worId depenc1 for their existence on one
another, since the.re is a connection, by media, from ultima.te
to ultimate, whence al! things have respect to their first
SOllfce from which they exist. For if al! things had not
respect ta their first source, but only to some intermec1iate
link, this intermec1iate woulcl be their ultimate: but an
intermediate cannot exist but from something prior ta itself,
and whateycr exists fl'om something prior ta itself cannat be
the ultimate, but only an intermec1iate; for if it were the
ultill1ate, the worlel would stop short at this ultill1ate and
perish, because it would have no connection with its proper
ultimate by something antecedent. These rema1'ks have
reference to the su bject of existence. "YVith respect ta the
subject of contingencies, or modes and modifications, which
exist both from 1Iltimate, simple, and intennediate sub­
stances, these must be continuons and mutual!y connected,
depeneling successively on one another from one end ta the
other. Th us must aU things, both those which are essential and
those which are incidentaI, necessarily have a connection \Vith
 TRUE PHfLOSOPHY. 2}

their first ~ubstantial principle; for they proceed ~olely t'rom

simple 01' compound substances; and as the~e substances
depend for their existence upon one anotber, it foUows that
the modifications related to those substances must be de-
pendent on the same connection.
We sec then that there is contiguity in aU thiugs, and
that nature prod uces them by means of the connect.ion from
one end to the other, of both substances and causes. Wbat-
ever is first produced by such connection must continue to
subsist by the same means. We see in plants that t11ere is
:.1 connection between the root itself and aU the extrernities,

and every least part of the extrelllities; that there is a

connection between the intermediate stem and the little
twigs and leaves, by infinite filaments stretching from one
shoot, branch, and ~talk, into another, and thu~ affording
hidden ways and passages for the continuaI reception of
nourishment. It is in ~uch contiguity that vegetation itself
consists; and the life of the plant afterwards continues in the
same contiguity and connection; the part where it ceases no
longer grows, but withers and dies, and drops useless from its
stem.
The case i5 the saille in animaIs; parts cover over parts,
and grow by contiguity. Both the nervous and membranous
~ystem is coherent and contiguous. There is no part in the
whole animal to which the fibres, muscles, veins, and arteries
do not extend; no fibre, that is Dot derived and ramified
from some larger nerve; no nerve, that does not proceed
from the medulla spinalis or oblongata and its coverings; and
uo vein, but what originates from that great one which flows
immediately from the heart. The medulla aud its coverings,
with which the nerves are connected, are in contiguity with
the very membranes of the whole brain; its grosser coverings
are contiguous to its more subtile ones; the dura mater 1.0
the pia mater; the pia mater to the more subtle parts; aud
thus the contiguity is continued tiU it arrives at those simple
active substances, from which aU motions or affections can
24 MEANS LEADING TG

afterwards refiect and expand themselves ta the most sllbtle

principles of ail. It is, therefore, manifest that there is a
continuai connection of the \Vhole body \Vith its lI1inutest
parls. If the connectio\l with any part \Vere broken, that
part \Vould no longer partake of the life of the l'est of the
body, but \Vollld die, having lost its contiguity. If a connect­
ing part, med iating between the grosser and more su btle
motions of the body, \Vere to be broken, something like death
wonld seize that part. Hence also the poets have comlJared
the life and fates of man to a continuous thread woveu by the
Fates, and they feigned that if this thread \Vere anywhere
severed, his life wou Id also be cut off and ail the series of his
destinies.
But to return to our elementary world. If we admit
~ontiguity, we immediately have causes for every occurrence;
but if there be no cOlltiguity, nothing can occur in the world,
because there is no cause for its happening either in one
manner or in another. The canse and reason of ail effects
and phenoillena is to be found in cOlltiguity and cOllnection.
If this prin ci pie of contiguity of nature \Vere to begill to be
dilllinished and fail, the world, as tu the phenomena existing
in it, \Vould fail and pant as it \Vere for breath, and be
reduced to its last extrcillity. Thus ail things depenJ on
sOlllething contiguoW:i to them, as the body depends on life,
heariug on the air, sight on the ether. The equilibrium of
ail things in the elements depends also on contiguity. The
air itself could not undergo and communicate pressure accord­
ing to its altitude, nor could it force IIp the mercury in the
barometer to indicate the approaching weather, unless its
particies \Vere contiguous to, and rested upon one anather,
and unless the pressure and weight of its lowest particles, or
those nearest the earth, were lJalanced ily those which are
above the clouds; neither could any particle of air expanJ itself,
nor could there be so exact a proportion betweeu tbe ùegree of
its expansion and the superincumbent weight, without the
contiguity, continuous action, and consequently equal pressure,
 TRUE PH.lLOSOPHY. 25
of the surrounding particles. Nor could the air vibrate so
-distinctly and harmoniously, and actuate the drum of the
ear in a manner conformable to itself, and operate as it does
in every direction, unless there were contigllity. ,Vithout
the existence, from the sun to our globe and to the eye,
of more subtle clements, the particles of which are con­
tiguous to one another, the eyes could not behold the
sun; there would be no Jight, and no sight or perception
of light; but as the eye sees and perceives objects at a
distance, it is clear that there is a contiguity between
itself and the sun, the stars, and the planets. In short, no
reason can be assigned for any phenomenon, unless we admit
contiguity or connection; for no phenomenon can exist,
except in something contiguous. The conclusion, therefore,
is, that the mechanical world depends upon contiguity and
cOllnection.
l'hat there is a connection and contiguity in the elements,
appears also in men and animals, who are constituted, and in a
mêmner formed, according to that connection and contiguity of
the elements. In sorne, the connection of things existing in
the elements appears to be natural, for aU the harmony in the
elements answers to the connection of thcir organs, and so
a corresponding harmon)' is felt in their organs without any
assistance from mles: for to some men and animals the
mechanism of the world is natural, or is familial' to them
by nature without any other instructor. 'l'hus wc tind the
hearing delighted by harmonious sounds and the concordant
vibration of musical strings. Musical harmony has itself also
its own rules and its own geometry: but we have no need
to learn this; wc have it in the car itself and the organs of
hearing, which are in harmonious coherence. \Ve are ex­
hilarated, affected, entranced by harmollious and concordant
sounds; but discordant sounds give us pain. For sound when
harmonious, glides on into the soul as it were spontaueously by
means of the connection between the two, and with an even
stream; but when it is discordant, the connection is immedi­
26 MEAN5 LEADING TO

ately distmbed and distorted, and the sound does not arnve
at the soul witbout giving pain. It is from the same cause
that sorne persons are musicians by nature, and know im­
mediately how to accompany their voice with an instrument,
or an instrument \Vith their voice, without a master; although
music, like ail other things in the worlel, has its own geo­
metrical rules and proportions. The eye, a180, can feel
whether a thing be harmoniously formed or not; if it is,
and its mechanism is weil arrangecl, the soul is immediatcly
delighted through the eye. 'l'bus the eye discerns wh ether a
tree is growing and flourishing in a mallner to give us a
sense of beauty and delight; whether the ornaments of a
garden conform to the ru les of art; whether certain mixtures
of coloms harmonize weil; w hether an edifice with its parts is
constructed according to rule; whether anything is beautiful
and, therefore, clelightful; whether the face of a man or of a
virgin is finely formecl or not: and ail this it does without
knowing the l'nIes in conformity with which beauty consists;
alth011gh, nevertheless, beauty has its proper rules, and consists
in a conformity and harmony of parts. As, too, tbere is a like
connection and harmony between the eye and the minci,
therefore whatever is harmonious immediately fiows, with
even course, ta the mind, which it exhilarates alld expands;
'l'hile ail things that are distorted, and not in conformity,
occasion it a certain violence.
vVe have still more striking tokens of barmony in the other
senses, as in the slDell and taste, by which latter sense alone
we can discover whetber the parts of a substance be angular
or rouncl, or what is their form and figure. The mechanism,
therefore, of some things is natural to our senses. As brute
animaIs also are formed accorcling to the connection of the
worlel and its elements, so also the organs of their senses
are in like manner endowed with a connection and harmony
similar to that of the elementary world itself; hence there are
indications, in many of them, of a certain natural mechanism.
vVe see the spider construct her webs in a geometrical manner,
 TRUE PH1LOSOl'HY. 27
c1rawillg radii from a centre, and binding them together III
polygons and circles; and she places herself in the middle,
and lies in ambush for her prey. ,Ve see the beaver buiJd
bimself a house, neatly fitting one beam to another; exactly
like an arcbitect who proceeds by geometrical principles and
rules. We see birds build their nests, in various ways,
of boughs, straw, reeds, earth, and clay, so that it wou Id be
scarcely possible to bllild them better by the ru les of art.
They know how to give a round form to their nest, to attach
it to the' caves of buildings or boughs of trees, to contrive
. supports for it, and ta unite together its parts so as to leave
in the middle a cavity lined with chaff or feathers, withill
which in soft repose they may lay their eggs, and pass the
perioc\ of incubation. Bees form for themselves hexagonal
cells of \\"ax; and there are num berless other instances.
These instances may suffice to point ont and confirrn the
existence of a natural mechanism; for the senses are formed
in accordance with the mechanism of the elementary worlel,
and everything is in agreement with the senses which suits
the continuity of their structure.
But though the world is mecbanical and composed of a
series of fi nite things wh ich originate by means of the most
varied contingents; and though the world, being of such a
nature, may, with the aid of geometry, be explorec\ by means
of experiment and its phenomena; it does not, therefore, follow
that ail things in the world are subject to the government of
geometry. For there are inullmerable things that are not
mechanical, nor even geometrical; snch as the Infinite, and
whatever is in the Infinite. Geometry treats only of finite and
limited things and of the fOrIns and spaces originating from
these, together with their several dimensions; but that which
is Infinite 1S beyond and above the sphere of geometry, being
regarded by it as its origin and first beginning. For the
finite rAcognises that its origiu is in the' Infinite. ViTithout
the Infinite the finite could neither arise nor subsequentl)'
subsist; and to this every finite refers itself, even geometry
28 MEANS LEADING TG

also. Geometry, therefore, is itself subservient to that

most vast Infinite, t'rom wbich as from their fountain-head such
an infinite num ber of finite things emanate, and owns that
tbere is nothing in itself either similar or analogous to iL
There is then an Infinite, which can by no means be geome­
trically explored, because its exi"tence is prior to geometry, as
being its cause. There are also many other things, the
nature of which, though they originated from the Infinite, and
began ta exist together with the world, has not yet been dis­
covered by allY geometry or any rational philosophy: for
instance, that intelligent principle which exists in animais,
or the soul, whicb, together with the body, constitutes their
life.
vVe may perhaps learn the mechanism of tbe ol'gaus, and
may kllOW how they are moved by muscles, tendons, fibres,
and nerves, by the feet, arrns, and other members; how the
undulating ail' is recei ved by the membranes and instruments
·of the ear, and is represented within tbe chambers of the
brain by means of sounds; we may also come ta kuow how the
ether exhibits a mode of motion of itself in the eye, and ruus
through the tissues of its nerves till it reacbes the meuinges
of the bl'ain; how a motion extends and expands itself out of
a grosser into a more suutle medium, and thus arrives more
distinctly at the rnost subtle membranes. Perhaps, too, we
ma)' kllow how a motion is received by some subtle active
principle, and how it does not and cannot relax its tension
till choice bas determined it into act by meaus of the will.
vVe also see every emotioll and mode of the soul exhibited
mechanicaily in the uody. But after ail, what that intelli­
gence itself is which is iu the sou l, which knows and is able to
determine, which kno\\'s and is able to choose, and to let one
thing pass out iuto act and not another, we are obviously
ignorant. For it does not consist merely in the relation or re­
action of motions proceeding from grosser llledia, through such
as are more subtle, to that contexture of active principles where
perception takes place; for this exists in the elements every­
 TRUE PHILOSOPHY. 29­

where, yet there is not, on this account, an intelligent prlnciple

in everything belonging ta the elementary world. In the
souls of brutes, tao, there are the indications of a kind of
intelligence. Birds kno\\' ho'" ta fonn their nests according
ta just proportion and mechanical rule; they kno", how ta
deposit their eggs, t.o sit upon them, ta hatch and l'ear their
infant brood-functions that are variously performed by various
species according ta the difference of nature in their tender
offspring. Other animaIs are aware of the approach of winter
and make timely provision against it. Ants throw up their hills,
and diligent.ly carry and store up in them snch things as
ought ta be under shelter during the win ter. Bees know ta
suck honey and wax from f1owers; to construct hexagonal
cells, and ta store and fill them np ",ith honey. The eider
ones know how to send out their offspring ta forlU new colonies;
to kill their useless companions and drones, and to cut off
their wings; in a ward, they know how ta make provision
that they may not perish with hunger in the winter when no
sustenance is ta be found; not ta mention otlier marks of
their prudence and natural intelligence. \Ve see the spider
construct her artful snare ",ith crossing Enes and bincling
circ1es, and then Iying in the midd le, sa place her feet as
instant1y ta feel on which thread of her web the boaty has
fallen. What marks of prudence excite our wonder in the
fox! What artful frauch and cunning tricks cloes he practise !
\Vhat wonders of a like nature are observable in innumerable
other animal::;; and a1l f10wing naturally from a grosser kind
of sonl. But what is the nature of this intelligence, pertain­
ing ta the active being of animaIs as an inherent quality,
geometry has hitherto been unable ta discover; and we are
yet ignorant whether the laJws ta which it is snbject are
similar ta those of mechanics; although it cannat be cleniecl ta
have laws, because it has an orderly connection, and is
natura!.
In the soul of brutes there is sorne idea of this intelli­
gence; in man it is more distinct and rational; in the
3° .MEAN5 LEAD.ING TG

Infinite it is infinite, and infinitdy surpasses the comprehen­

sion and sphere of the highest rational intelligence. Tbere
are also many othe1' things which OCClll' in the worlel that
cannot be called geometrical. Thus there is a rrovidence
respecting all things, which is infinite in the Infinite, or in
the Being who is provident in the highest degree; and there
f0110ws thence a connection or series of consequents, according
to which all circumstances are determined and arranged, by
causes and the causes of causes, toward a certain end. vYe
sce from experience, and Ct poste?'ùYI'i, that tbere is such <1,
connecti.on of incidentals, from causes, and their results in
proclucing a given end; but to know the nature of this
connection, Cl p?'iori, is not witbin man's province or th,:J,t of
geometry. 1'here are also innumerable other things whicb wc
in vain endeavour ta explore by geometry and Π2Jl'im'i; as,
perhaps, the nature of love. vVe see, a poslerim'i tbat it has
its consistence in the connection of things; that the exercise
of love independently of the organic body is antecedent to
corporeal pleasure; and, l>eing conjoined in the animal with
intelligence, prodllces everything which C,tn concIuce ta the
preservation and perpetuation of its kind. The ancients re­
gardecl love as being of great importance, attributing to it tbe
production of the universe; and many will assert that traces
of intelligent love are to be found in plants and inanimate
objects. Them is probablyan infinite nllmber of other things,
of wbich we have no knowledge and wbich yield no obedience
ta the known laws of mechallics. Hence we ma)' conclude,
that there are qualities in the soul that are still very remote
from mecha,nical apprehension: so that, even if wc knew ail
the mechanism and geometry of the visible worlel, of animal
organization, of plant life, or any other departmellt of nature,
there is still an infinite number of things of which we are
ignorant.
But since intelligence in the soul is not mechal1ical, but
only the mode in which the soul operates, we next enquire
wbat that is in the sou1 which is not mecbanical, and
 TRUE PHILOSOPHY. 31
what is its essential rational and intelligent principle which is
not subject to known laws. The rational principle in the
soul does not consist in knowing many things which the
world naturally exhibits and presents to the senses; for this
knowledge has reference to the world, the senses, and ex­
perience. The rational principle does not consist in knowiug
the figures and spaces in which motions tenniuate; for this is
the province of geometrical science. The rational principle
does Ilot consist in knowing the proportion between figures
and spaces, and the other rule~ and proportions of motion, by
which the worlel acts and proc\uces its phenomena; for this
belongs to nature, meebanics, science, and philosophy. But
the rational principle consists in knowing how, and at the
same time in being able, to arrange into such order and con­
nection the reasons known l'rom the wodd, so as to vieil' tllèir
anal ogy ; yet this presu pposes an active principle, or a certain
force, impelling iuto motion ail those things wbich inhere in a
similarly orderly manner in its organs; that is, it presupposes
a sou1. The rational active principle derived from this, COll­
sists in knowing ho 11', and in beiug able, actually to elicit from
analogy a third or fourth truth previously nnknown. A
subsequent rational principle consists in oeing able to form
a certain series and conucction of sach l'casons, consisting of
things known and unknown in succession, till it distinctly
arrives at the end it has in vieil'. To accomplish this, aU
the sciences must co-operate with reason; as geometry,
mechallics, rational philosophy, together with aoundant ex­
perience. The rational principle in the soul, therefore, is the
continuaI amdysis of those things which inhere in the same
orderly manner in its organs.
These observations may suffice respecting the second mcans
of arriving at a mechanical knowledge of the secret things of
nature; we now come to treat of the third means, or the
faculty of reasoning.
3. The third meéms by which we may ani ve at a true
philosophy in cosmology, and at the knowledge of hiddün
32 MEAN5 LEAD/NG TO

nature, is the facnlty of reasoning. Let experience and

geometry he given; that is, let a man possess the utmost
store of experimental knowledge and be at the same time a
skilful geometer, and yet suppose him to be deficient in the
faculty of reasolling correctly, or of comparing the several
parts of his knowledge and experience, and presenting them
distinctly to the soul; he can never know the mysteries
and in ward recesses of pltilosophy. Knowledge without reason,
- a vast mass of things in the memory without judgment to
separate and clearly distinguish them, and without the
talent of deducing the nnknown object of inquiry from
certain known data, by means of a rational or geometrical
analysis-in a word, the possession of the means without the
faculty of arriving at the end, does DOt make a philosopher'.
the maids of Parnassus will not entwine any laurel-wreath,
plucked from the sacred bill, arollnd the brow of him who is
destitute of this talent. The faculty of reasoning correctly,
and of arriving at the end in view by the proper means,
which are experience and geometry, is the characteristic of
the rational man. But a like faculty of reasoning is not
given, and at this day cannot be given, to aIl. There are
sorne who are unable to attain to it through some defect of
nature; being deprived of it from the first moment of their
birth by disease or congenital fault. We see chilclren born
into the fOl'm and likeness of their parents; with the sam€
face, that is, with the signs and marks as if of the same
face; the same disposition; the same situation and arrange-
ment of their organs; with much the same faculty of reason-
ing as their parents; and inheriting their very diseases, which
in tbis case are called hereditary. Some also, by defect, are
born blind, or deaf, or idiots, having the brain of improper
weight, dimension, or form, who, therefore, are able to acquire
nothing, or very little, of the faculty of reasoning, by any use
or practice; for their organs cannot be so disposed as to
a.fford a distinct communication of motion from the senses to
the soul and its reason. A passage may, indeed, be open to the
 TRUE PHILOSOPHYo 33
more Rubtle interiors, but it is one that is irregular, indistinct,
imperfect and dark. There are others who labour under no
natural defect; but who, having been deprived of the advan-
tages of a proper education, and, being without experience,
have been nnable to acquire any talent for reasoning; the
\Vay that leacls from their senses to the soul may be comparec1
ta the passage of rays through a very dense medium and
through a cloud to the eye; their animal motions do not
arri ve distinctly at their acti ve prineiples, but stop, as it were,
in the middle of their course; the forms of the motions, as
in other living things, seem scarcely able to travel any
further, because the organs are not yet fashioned, as it were,
by use and cultivation, that is to say, have not yet become
contiguous to, and conjoined with, their more subtle life.
The organs are indeed potentially there, but require exercise
to form and fit them for use. But when, by experience and
knowledge, they are adapted to motions and tremors of every
kind, there are then innumerable things inherent in them,
which, by sorne active principle or motive force, are cap-
able of being brought forth into act, and so arranged as to
gi ve their possessor the capacity to reason, or to display
the operations of his rational faculty. U nless a motion can
penetrate successi vely, by means of con tiguity, from grosser
things toward those which are more subtle, it either stops
in grosser or mediate th ings, or passes into a state of
obscl1rity. In proportion, therefore, as a man's store of
experience is greater, and its disposition and distribution
through the organs are more peI°fect; in proportion, also, as
the harmony of his mediate organs is more exact, and their
form better adapted to the conveyance of every kind of
tremor or vibration, and in proportion as the passage is
more deeply opened, in series and continuity, to the most
subtle things of ail, so mllch the wiser may the man
become.
Tt \Vas said above, that the facllity of reasoning is acquired
by cultivation, or, that we are rendered rational by exercise
le
3.+ MEAN5 LEADING TO

and education; and likewise, that we lTIay becorne more

rational in proportion to the length of time through which
we aclvance to maturity, or in proportion to the number of
years which are required to form and consolidate the organs.
But we treat of this below.
But that the natme and quality of the faculty itself
may be cleady unclerstood, it must be observed, that our
knowleùge and experience must be so arranged and hal'­
moniously diffllsed throughout the organs, that immedi­
ately on the approach of any active principle or power, aIl
those things so arranged that are of a sirpiiar nature, should
immediately vibrate and l'un as it were to meet it, and
present themselyes to the soul simultaneously; but no others,
except obscurely, by virtue of their connectioo. IL is as if
there were a hundred musical strings of equal length and
tension, one of which being moved or struck, al! the others
vibrate withont being touched, l'lin as it \Vere together into
the same sound, and present themselves at once in concord ta
the ear. This being pl'emised, it fo11ows that our wlsdom is
proportionecl ta the a.cqnisitions of our memory.
Suppose, then, that the means are ours, that we have
acquired the power and facllity of reasoning aud have brought
it into actual operation, we may arrive at true philosophy,
or may be able by the aid of experiments to speak and treat of
the phenomena of nature from their causes; in fact, we may
arrive at the very fountain-head from which al! things that
appear mysterious are derived. 'Vith respect ta the kno\V­
ledge of the clements, which is the chief subject of discussion
in the present volume of our Pri?'wipiŒ, l confess tha.t it
appears ta be of the most secret nature, being remote and
incapable of being percei ved by the senses. N evertheless,
the motions of the volumes in the elements are perceptible to
our sight and hearing. Thus elemcntary nature places before
our eyes the most diverse phenomena, by which, as by sa
many tokens, she seems tü reveal herseIf; now sporting haU
naked before our view, nolV concealing herself; yet by her
 TRUE PHILOSOPHY. 35
phenomena ever displaying her image to observation as in
a mirror. For we see that aH things are acted upon and
put in motion according to laws; that they all fiow from the
motion and arrangement of smalt bodies of different forms in
mu tuaI contact. If, therefore, experiment and geometry are
callec! to our aid, l have no doubt, under their auspices
and leadership, that we can arrive at some knowledge of the
things in our world that do Dot appear to our sight; especially
since elementary nature, as just observed, is perpetually
sporting so beautifully before our senses, and entertaining
them with her illusions, always showing her face hall' unveiled
to geometers and philosophers. Let us then call the proper
l1leans to our assistance, and we shall probably arrive at the
true causes and knowledge of things occult. Unless, however,
principles be formed with which experiment and the phenomena
of our world agree, geometry also adding its calculus, they are
ta be regarded as the mere fictions anù dreams of a delirious
mind. But if our principles agree with cxperiment, and are
a.lso confirmed by the test of geometry, then it may be per­
mitted us to liken them to truths, and to declare them to be
a legitimate offspring. How t'ttr this may be affirlll ed of my
Princ'ipia, i t is for the reader to deciele.
4. By a true philosopher, we understand a man, who, by
the means above treated of, is enabled to arrive at the real
causes and knowledge of those things in the mechanical worlel
which are in visible and remote from the senses; and who is
afterwards capable of reasonillg ΠlY1"ioTl:, or from first prillciples
or causes, concerning the woriel and its phenomena, both in
physics, chcmistry, metallurgy, anù ail other sciences or
subjects which are under the government of mechanical
principles; and who can thus, as from a central point, take
a sUl'vey of the whole munùane system and of its mechanical
and philosophical laws. For the lllechanicai worlcl of nature
is not unlike a spider's web, and natural philosophy ma)' be
compared to the spider herself. The spider choases a
situation which will permit her to fasten her threads ta the
36 MEANS LEADING TG

various parts of surrounding objects; the radii whicb Hhe­

draws sbe then causes to meet in a certain centre, and these
she ties and connectH together, at various distances, by circles
and polygons; her design being to bring all the parts of
the sphere which she occupies into contact with one another.
Then betaking herself to the middle or centre, she so plants
her feet on the threac1s or rac1ii, as to be able to perceive the
smallest particle that may alight on any of the mdii at any
distance; so the creature snares her food, and while thus
lying in n,mbush, she knows immediately whether anytbing
has come into her web, and feels into what part of it the
prey has fallen; for by tbat very tlu'ead and no other, she
darts out instan tly and seizes her entangled victim,
N ow nature hel'self closely resem ble:; tbis spicler's web;
for she consists, as it were, of infinite ra<.1ii proceeding from a,
certain centre, and connected together, in like manner, by
infinit~ circles and polygons; so that nothing can happen in
one of them which does Dot immediately extend itself to the
centre, and from this it is refiected and distributed through
a great portion of the fabric. It is by such contact and
connectioll tbat nature is able tn perform her operations, and
in this her very essence consistH; for wherever this contact
is interrupted, wherever a thread of the web is broken so as
to dissolve the connection between the centre and its circum­
ferences, there nature herself cease~ and terminates. Natural
philosophy is capable of taking ber station, with nature
herself, near this centre to which ail natural things have
reference, or where 11,11 the motions or affections of ail tbe
surrounding parts are concentrated. She is capable of in­
stantly knowing and feeling anything that occurs in the
peripheries, what it is and whence it cornes; and is able to
explain to nature her companion the reasons why the
phenomena occur successively, and by a kind of necessity, at
a definite distance, in a definite manner, and in no otber. In
a word, she is able, from the centre, to take a simultaneous
view of her in finite circu mferences, and survey ail her
 TRUE PHILOSOPHY. 37
'illundane system at a glallce. She does not therefore take
up her abode in the mere outward circumference, or like a
fiy entangle herself with great labour and effort more and
more in the web and become the prey and sport of her own
wisdo m.
Were it possible,. by such means, ta bring ta light the
nature of the elemen tary, and afterwards that of the metallic,
vegetable, and finalJy that of the animal kingdom, how great
woulù be the advantages which the world would reap from
the discovery! For if we knew Π]J1'i01'i the causes of the
things in these kingdoms, and \Vere able to speak of them,
commencing from the same princip~es and Cll,uses from which
nature herself brings forth and manifests her phenomena,
every one might then know the abjects which she has in
view; every one lUight then gi ve responses as from the
inmost recesses and from behind the veil of nature's temple;
every philosopher would be a Themis or Apollo, that is, would
know ail the phenomena that could exist, and would hold the
vastest sciences in a nut-shell. But if any one is content with
devising principles, and is so indulgent to his imagination as
not to look for the evidence of them in geometry and their
agreement with physical facts; or if he forms ta himself a
distinct theOl'Y for every series of phenomeua, and for every
series of experiments contri ves new links of connection, and,
wben hi::; fragile ties give way, endeavours to restore their
coherence with clumsy knots-such a one can ne ver be ad­
mitted to these oracles. Surely nature will look at him and
laugh at him as a bungler who wastes his time in ùreamy toil;
or as an infant wishing to build nests in the air, to provide
them with eggs and there to hatch young; or as a simpleton
employed in making for himself \Vings of wax, vainly regard­
ing himself, not as Icarus, but as Mercury-ambitious of
directing his flight towards the sun-and believing, as the
poet sings,
"1 muy not thwart
The prompting god, that bids these lips disclose
Oracular the secret of the skies,
38 MEANS LEAD/NG TO
The scheme anrl plll'pOSe of the Mind Suprcme,
And ail the mighty mysteries, hidden long
From earlier quest." 1

No man seems to have been able to arrive at true phila­

sophy, since the age of that first of mortals who is said to
have been in a state of the most perfect integrity, that is to
say, who was formed and made acc ording to ail the art,
similitude, ancl scheme of the world, before the existence of
vice. Ail who are governed by a right min d, aspire after,
incleed, are intensely desirous of arriving at the same degree
of wisdolll, as at something which has been lost. But how
far it is possible to succeed none but the true philosopher can
see; he who is only in part a philosopher, or who wishes to
be repnted one, ma)' imagine himself ta have arrived at the
goal, and even ta have proceeded beyond it; although his
wisclom is mere foily.
The reason wh)' man in a state of integrity was made a
complete philosopher, \Vas that. he might the better know
how to venerate the Deity-the Origin of ail things-that
Being who is ail in aIl. For without the utmost devotion
to the Snpreme Being, no one can be a complete and truly
learned philosopher. True philosophy and contempt of the
Deity are two opposites. Veneration for the Infinite can
nover be separated from philosopby; for he who thinks himself
wise, whilst his wisdom does not teach him to acknowledge
the Divine and Infiuite, that is, he who thinks he can be
wise without a knowledge of and veneration for the Deity, has
no wisclom at aIl. The philosopher sees, indeed, tbat God
governs His creation by rllles and mechanical laws, and that
the RouI governs the body oy rules and mechanical laws; he
may ev en know what these are; but ohe nature of that Infinite
Being, from whom, as from their fountain, ail things in the
world derive their existence and subsistence-and what is the
nature of that Supreme Intelligence \Vith its infinite mysteries
-he in vain strives to know.
1 Ovid's 11JctCtmo?'Phoses, Lib. xv. Il. 144·147, tl'3.l1s1ated by H. King.-Tn.
 TRUE PHILOSOPHY. 39
'Yhen, therefore, the philosopher has arri ved at the end of ltis
studies,even supposing hirn to have ë1cquired socompletea kno\\'­
ledge of allmundane things that nothing further remains for him
ta learn, he must there stop; for he can never know the nature
of the Infinite, of Supreme Intelligence, Supreme Providence,
Supreme Love, Supreme Justice, and other infinite attributes.
He will, therefore, acknowledge that in respect ta this supremely
intelligent and wise Being, he kno\Vs nothing; he will there­
fore most profonndly venerate Him with the utmost devotion
of soul; and that veneration, from the mere thollght of Him,
will cause his whole frame, or membranous and sense system,
from the inmost to the outermost principles of its beillg,
reverently, yet agreeably to tremble.
As nature is the beginning of the changes that OCCLU" in the
world or natural universe, or as nature is the motive or active
force, or collection of forces, it follows that the world is
dependent on nature and in separable from it; and that the
world is nothing without nature, and nature is nothillg
without the \Vorld. But Infinite existellce is still Infinite
existence independently of the world; no conception can be
formecl of a world without Illfinite existence; it is everything
and it is universal in the \Vorld. 'Ye see th en that without
the \Vorld nature cannot be, but that the In finite cau, and
that the Infinite Being is capable of being separated from the
worlel. We see also that aIl things were produced by the
Infinite, that the \Vorld was created by Him, and \Vith the
world nature herself. Nature is only a ward which connotes
aH the actuating forces proceeding from the first motion of the
Infinite till the world \Vas completed; with this first motion
it begins; and as this is produced Ly the Infinite, 50 also
is nature. They, therefore, are mere children, and have
reached scarcely the first threshold of true philosophy, who
ascribe to nature the origin of ail things. to the exclusion
of the Infinite; or who confound the Infinite and nature
together; when yet the Jatter is only an effect, or thing
caused, the Infinite being its Generator and Cause. Nature,
4° MEANS LEADING TO

however, when once prod uced, may be called the generator and
cause of the world, in so far as aH things afterwards suc­
cessively exist by derived motive forces anù modifications.
Yet it cannot be called the first cause: for no other idea can
be conceived of the first motion or mode, th an that of an
immediate production from the Infinite; therefore this moùe
cannot oe cnJled an attribute or the essence of the Infinite,
the essence of the Infinite consisting in Itself alone. Nor can it
be denied that the Infinite existed before the world, (which
,vil! be the subject of our second chapter); neither can this
mode be a mode of the Infinite; for no such thing can be
said or predicated of the Infinite except by way of eminence;
but it is an immediate production from the Infinite. It
fol1ows, therefore, that nature, beginning from such motion or
mode, is a tbing caused and produced.
Now as al! nature together with the whole worlJ, is the
work of God Himself; as ail contingent circumstances, before
the world \Vas produced and completed, are to be nscribed
solely to His wisdom; so also, in case He should be pleascd
by other contingent causes to display new phenomena, whether
Foreign and contrary to the natllre of our world, or in conformity
with it,yet :;uch as cannot be produced by any other active
principle than the Deity-to the same Infinite Wisdom must
these also be ascribed. Th us true philosophy leads to the
most profound admiration and adoration of the Deity; nor
can anything he found to diminish, but an infinity of things to
increase, tbis admiration. As when a man sees that ail things
are from the Infinite, and that in cOlllparison with the Infinite
he hirnself, as a finite being, is notbing; when also he sees
that ail his oIVn wisdom and philosophy, in comparison \Vith
the Di vine wisdom, bear the same proportion as the finite
to the Iutinite-that is, as nothing.
Neither does true philosopby detract from the credibility of
miracles, ail things being ascribed to the divine omnipotence,
as the origin of the worlù, and its formation by various means
and successive changes. There is no contingent mean,
 TRUE PHILOSOPHY. 41
tending to the perfection of the world, which is not a miracle.
The world itself is a miracle; whatever exists in any of its
kingdoms, whether in the animal, the minerai, or the vegetable,
exists by a miracle, because it exists by a contingent mean,
which, by a series of others, is terminated in the Infinite itself,
as in the first cause of ail cOl1tingent means. For it cannot
be denied that intermediate causes and changes proceed
successively from the Supreme Being, who produces ail things
perfectly, and cond ucts them to their destined end. Now
what He thus produces by contingent means and causes,
cannot be said to be contrary to the order of universal nature,
but according to it; and although something may appear
which does not agree with the nature of our world, or there
may be phenomeua not consistent with the mechanism of our
world, yet even in this case they must exist from certain
causes, which, like the world itself, derive their origin from
the Infinite alone. And relatively to the mechanism of our
world, it is a series of miracles alone that could produce
one such phenomenon or miracle; similarly wben returning to
its first origin and cause bycontrary contingent means, it
would be by a series of miracles alone; that is, supposing our
world to remain the same as before tbe miracle took place.
Ail things which exist in auy other world, were they to
occur in our own, would be miracles, as being contrary
to its laws of motion-to its order of succession and
modification; although prod uced according to the order
·of nature, and in their own world quite natura!. In sbort,
if a miracle exists, it exists from the Infini te; if from tbe
Infinite, it exists by means of causes. There may also be
miracles which agree with the mecbanism of our world, and
others which are foreign to it; but neither can be produced
but by some one or other active intinite principle, of which
we can form no idea, and, consequently, cannot understand its
cause.
But probably yon may wonder why l affirmed, at the
beginning of this chapter, that ail our wisdom or true philo­
42 MEANS LEAD/NG Ta

sophy must be acquired by the use of means; and that the

way ta reason and tbings priaI' is 1.0 be opened by experience
and posterior things; thus, that our body and externai senses are
our only teachers and leaders, leaving but little 1.0 the mind,
from which, nevertheless, as its fountain, all reasoning must
proceed, or ta which ail things must have l'eference; con­
sequently, that the millCI of itself, without the use of means, is
nnable to give any instruction or din'lction to its body. 1
will, therefore, draw a picture of the two states of man; first
of his state of integrity, which was most perfect, and then of
that perverted and imperfect state in which we mortals live
at this day. From sucb n cornparison ie will probablyappear,
that i1. is only by the use of the means above mentioned that
the way ta the most subtle active principles can be opened,
and that this way can only be prepared by experiments.
To b~iD, th en, with man in bis state of integrity and COlll­
piete perfection. ln such a man we may conceive that thel'e
\Vas snch a complete contiguity throughout the IJarts of his
system, that every motion proceeding with t-\, free course from
his grosser parts or principles could arrive, through an unin­
terrnpted connection, at bis most subtle substance or active
principle, there being notbing in the way which could cause
the least obstruction. Such a man may be compared to the
world itself, in which ail things are contiguous frorn the sun
ta the lowest part of our atmosphere. Thus the motions
about the sun, or rays, proceed with an uninterrupted course,
and almost instantaneously, by means of contiguity, through
the more suutle or the grosser elements, tbrough etber 1.0
the air, till they reach the eye and act upon it, by virtne of
such connection, as if they were present; for contiguity
occasions the appearance of presence. When, therefore, the
most subtle active principle of man, by the providence of
Gad, c10thed itself \Vith a body, and added, by degrees, parts
upon parts, ail the motions in the most subtle elements which
were present would necessarily move or affect that extremely
impressionable and tender substance, and would gradually
 TRUE PHILOSOPHY. 43
imprint themselves and their own mechanism upon il. Sa also
would the motions in tiJe grosser elements, such as the air; for
this, always moving and undulating around it, and perpetually
acting upon the same substance, would also form to itself
something similar, and, by its continuai motion, cause itself,
as in the case of the other elements, to be received within.
The same would occur in regard to whatever \Vas fluent in
the air \Vi th a more unequal motion, for the atmosphere is
always stored \Vith tlJe effiuvia of plants, etc.; tbis, therefore,
by its continuaI contact, \Vould form its o\Vn mechanism in
the sense of smel!. In a word, during the growth of the
very tender parts possessing motion and life, every motion
that 'l'as perpetually present must nocessarily have left indi­
cations of itself, and must consequently have naturally formed
its own mechanism, so as after\Vards to be recei ved still more
interiorly, but in the same manner as in the yet tender
substances.
The man thus formed, in whom ail the parts ",ere co­
ordinated to receive the motions of al! the elements, and te
convey them successively, when received, through a contiguous
medium, to the extrelllely su btle active principle, must be
deemed the most perfect and the first of ail men, being one
in who111 the connection of ends and means was continuous.
In a short time so perfect a material and active being would
by the senses alone become posse'ssed of ail the philosophy
and experimental science natural to him; for whatever could
present itself to his senses, would immediately flow, by con­
nection and contiguity, to his extremely subtle and active first
principle. Thus whatever presented itself to the eye would
immediately flow, through the minute membranes set in
motion by its undulations, to those successively more subtle,
til! it arriveù at the most subtle principle. The case wonld !.Je
the same with motions occurring in the sense of sigl1t, smell,
and tas te ; these operations wonld also be most easily trans­
mitted to the extremely subtle principle, through the medium
of the sight, and the harmony of the several senses. As,
44 MEANS LEAD/NG TG

tberefore, the whole man \Vas constructed according to the

motions of the elements, and those motions were capable of
arriving, without interruption, through a medium so con­
tinuous and elastic, at the extremely sllbtle active principle,
-what conclusion can we draw but tbat such a man must
have possessed the most complete, perfect, and distinct faculty
of reasoning; tbat all tbe mllndane system or motions of the
elements must have become familial' to bim after a little
contemplation and experience; that every relation of their
motions, being impressed upon all his organs as it were
naturally and from his tender infancy, would be felt with
perfect regularity from his external parts or senses to his sonl ;
and that the souJ, being furnisbed with such a body, wOllld
naturally be so well acq uain ted with geometry, mecbanics,
and the ~undane system, as to be able to instruct hel'self
without a master, from the simple contemplation of the pheno­
mena of nature and the objects of sense. Sucb a man would
be capable of taking his station as it were in the centre;
and surveying from thence the whole circumference of bis
system at a single glance, he would be able to llnderstand
th ings actually before him, as weil as all other things in
detail, both in regard to those that bad occurred, and those
likely to happen.
Let us now consider the perverted and imperfect state of
man into which we are born at this day. In this state we
cSee that nothing can be fully known without the use of
means; tbat notbing can penetra te to the ultimate active
principle, or to the soul, except by means of continuaI experi­
ments, by the assistance of geometry, and by the faculty of
reasoning acquired from both; we see that the way which
leads to this most su btle and intelligent power is almost
entirely closed, and capable of being opened only by continuaI
cultivation and exercise, that is, by perpetuaI experiment and
the practice of philosophizing, and by the faculty of reasoning
thence acquired. vVe see that even then tbe way is not, as
it was in a state of integrity, so open, as to preclude the
 TRUE PHILOSOPHY. 45
necessity of continuai experirnents, by means of which, as
things constantly present in the memorj', ail motions or
affections may be remitted to the most subtle principles of
our organism, and the passages thus kept as it were constantly
permeable and open. For the nature of man's state at
this day. and its unlikeness to his former state, are well
known; how possessed he is by affections quite foreign to
rationality: how contioually his organs are acted upon by
thern; how his interiOl' structure has suffered violence from
vices, so that the connection between his more subtle and
grosser structures is drawn asunder, distorted, and rendered
less contiguous than before. What power the affections of
the body, as pleasures and cupidities, have over the fine
membranes, is well known from experience; for they are able
to induce their own affections on the fibres, muscles, and
nerves, both the more subtle and the grosser. They are able
to distort them; their impression appears in the grosser and
external appearance of the face, for we often see the counten­
ance disfigured by thern and totally changed in a moment.
What then must he the effect on the membranes and more
subtle parts, or on those mediate membranes and fibres
through which an affection is gradllally transmitted to the
most subtle active principle ? In these parts are the organs
leading to the most sllbtJe principle. If then tIJese are
continually disturbed, they are totally disfigured and dis­
torted; consequently, the Datural connection, which beforc
was perfectly regular, is severed or broken.
Now bodil}' pleasures, lusts, desires, and vices of this kind
have almost filled the whole man. Increasiog with time, they
pass from practice into habit, and from habit become so com­
pletely spontaneous as to govern the will itself; in othe!'
words, lusts at length take possession of the will and with­
draw it from the control of the reasoning sonl, so that at
length man is capable of scarcely any voluntary action but
what proceeds from these emotions and desires, and is
frequently without the consciousness of rationality. ,Vhen
 46 MEAN.';; LEADINC; TO

the will is thus agitated byalmost nothing but innumerable

temptations and enticements, the consequence is that it
arranges ail the organs that are intermediary between the
body and the mind, with their series ILDd structure, iuto the
likeness of its own emotions, or into it,s o\\'n form ; and when
tbeir structure is thus rendered wholly subservient to the
seductions of the senses, it can no longer be inclined and
moved by the mind, except \Vith difliculty and irnperfectly.
Such an organization, acquired by indulgence in pleasures
and depraved emotions or appetites, is also left by the parent
as an inheritance to bis children; for we often see children
resembling their parents in their t'ace and external form, and
it is equally common to observe in thc m a similarit)' of mind,
that is, a disposition more prone to certain lust" than to
others. Children, therefore, are born and formed also after
the interiOl' countenance and likenes:; of tbeir parents; and
thus the whole assemblage of the orgalls that mediate between
the body and the minci, is, from its rudiments, or from the
womb and the cradle, formed after that of tlle parents,
tarnished with the same stains, full cf the same cOlTllption,
and rendered naturally, and, as it were, radically disobedient
and unresponsive to the most subtle modes or modifications,
alld tremors or vibrations of the mind, and hence is slow to
rccei ve them.
As then these disorderly emotions of the body have occupied
almost the whole man, amI have also taken possession of the
membranes in which the mediate motions take place, it is no
wonder that at tbis day the facult)' (,f reason is onl)' ta be
acquired by the use of means, and tbat it is not possible ta
arrive by reasoning at the most subtle substance or principle,
without the aid of analytiCc'tl rule:- similar ta tbose of
geometry ta be taught us by a maste!". These hodil)' emotions
and vices, whicb seem to have dOlle such injury ta the
mediatiog organs, are Dot unlike those very dense and dark
c1ouds, wbich, intervening between fhe sun and the eye,
deprive it of tbe use of light, although some rays still penetrate
 l'RUE PHILOSOPHY. 47
through the clouds, not in regular order, but with confused
refraction; hence, when the sky is thus overcast, we are
deprived of the contiguity of nature, and are unable ta c1iscern
the firmament and the sun itself. Such a cloud, as it always
overshadows our heaven, can be dissipated only b)' suitable
means; but as some traces of it, either inheritecl or acquired,
will alwa}'s remain, so must our use of the means fol' its dis­
persion be constant. That vices and lusts not only disturb,
but also destroy, the natural connection of the organs and
modifications that leu,c1 to the reasoning faculty of the soul,
ma}' be illustrated by example. Anger and an intemperate
excitement of the body so dissolve this connection as to
render a man irrationaJ, utterly incapable of reasoniug, insane,
and more like an animal than a rational being. Look at the
·effects of intoxication. How it takes aw,LY from the soul al!
use of reason-al! power of aualysis! Thus the connection is
broken, so that nothing but a confused object is presented by
the organs to the soul; no difference is eliscerned between
things like anel unlike; but ail, both like and unlike, rush on
with the activity imparted to them, and present them con­
fused to the soul. The case is similar \Vith ail the passions,
when they exceed the bonnds of moderation.
l have saicl that, in his state of integrity, man \Vas master
·of al! philosophy or \Vorldly knowledge, and this too of
himself, by virtue of the perfect mechanislll of his organisa­
tion, that is, by nature; and that, being furnished with s11ch
excellent senses, nothing could be concealecl l'rom him, becallse
he was formed responsive to al! the motions and operations of
the world and nature. l have saiel further, that nothing
could exist in the worlel l'rom the regular connection of
CRuses, which \Vould not instantly flOIV, as throllgh il most
clear and pel!uciel medium, \Vith a certain sensation, to the
minel; that is, that aIl the sensations of each of hi~ organs
would penetrate to their most subtle principle, without delay,
confusion, or obscurity. But wh en every modification iu the
worlel, of whatsoevcr kind, hael thus arrived at its ultimate, or
48 MEAN5 LEAD/NG TG

at his soul, it necessarily 1'01l0ws tbat his knowledge and attain­

ments would stop tbere, and that he would regard and venerate,
with a most profound admiration, those other countless things
that exceeded the bounds of his intelligence; that is to
say, that most vast Infinite-.infinitely intelligent, infinitely
provic1ent-which begins where man and his nnite faeulties,
intelligence, and providence, terminate: he would see tbat in
this Infinite ail things have their being, and that from it aIl
things have their existence. As, therefore, ail his sensations
thus necessarily penetrated to their ulti mate seat without any
intervening obstacle, and there settled into a most profound
veneration, it follows that this perfect man's veneration of the
Deity was equal to his wisdom, and as constant as the action
of his senses; we may, therefore, conclude, tbat the more
profound the wisdom, tbe more profound will veneration be.
Further, no one couic! better know and acknowlcdge the in­
finite grace of the Deity, than that first and wisest of men;
whence it f01l0ws, in the same manner, that he loved the
Dcity supremely; for when we greatly respect any one,
acknowledging at the same time the benefits and favours
received from him, especially when we are intimately
associated \Vith him, we are secretly impelled also to love
him. "vVe may, therefore, conclude again, that the wiser a man
is, the greater are his veneration for, and love of the Deity.
His delights wholly terminate in the love of God-a love
which exhausts and replenishes aIl sense of delight. AlI the
delights of the worlJ, resulting from its variety, are nothing
unless the mind also partakes of them; for no human
delights can be real, without the participation of the soul,
since the more refinec1 delights are lacking : and the delights
which the body and soul are capable of enjoying together are
not genuine and true unless they have sorne further connec­
tion, and terminate in the veneration and love of God, that is,
unless they have reference to this love and ultimate end, in a
connection with which the sense of delight most essentially
consists.
 TRUE PHfLOSOPHY. 49
It may, therefore, be very reasonably infetTed, that the
delights of the first man consisted in this; that the end of
the delights which he derived from the contemplation cf a
,,"orld so perfecto and pleasing 1eft to him and posterity in
succession, and from the agreeable perception, by means of
his senses and organs, of the motions existing in all the
elements, was the love of the Deity. 8upreme veneration and
supreme love of the Deity could not exist without the supreme
worship of Him. What we venerate and love, that we
worship; for the utmost degree of veneration conjoined with
love must be active and operative, and must extend to
the will and actions. As no other desires occnpied the
whole man \vhen in such a state, no others could l'ule his
will; for the will is ruled by the inclinations and desires of
the soul and body; neither cou Id he bring anything into the
will, nor cOllld the will bring anything into act, but what was
applicable to the supreme adoration of the Deity, and to the
gi ving to Him thanks full of veneration and love; for these
are the delights to which the man who was master of himself
and of all his delights and desires wOllld wholly devote and
apply himself. For what could be more delightful aud
volllntary, in such a state of mind, than to ascribe perpetuaI
honours to a Being, supreme, incomprehensible, and so closely
bOllnd to Him by love-to pay to Him unceasing vows, to
wol'ship Him with constant praise, secure always of His
favour and acceptance? Therefore the wiser a man is, the
more will he be a worshipper of the Deity. From the same
reasoning it follows that God must have loved such a man
supremely; for love is not only reciprocal, and according to
connection, but is also greater in its prior degree, and becomes
less in a derived degree.
But the contrary to aIl this must necessarily take place
in a man not in a state of integrity, and in whom the
connection has perished. Such a man has not the wisdom,
the veneration, and adoration of the Deity we have described ;
and as bis knowledge of the Divine benefits and grace is
ln
,0 MEANS LEADING TO TRUE PHILOSOPHY.

also irnperfect in proportion to his lack of wisdom, so neither

can he have such love. In a word, he cannot have any
such veneration, adoration, and love of the Deity, as that
of the wise first man, unless he receives thern from another
source, that is, immediately from grace. But whatever
veneration, worship, and love may exist in a man so
changed, .and in whom the connection is broken by vices
and lusts, they can never be unaccornpanied by fear, because
he never can be without cause of fear. N either can love
be supposed to exist in God towards man, after the con­
nection is broken, but, instead of love, justice. Man's
ha ving cause for fear implies justice in Goù. It is, therefore,
agreeable to reason to conclude that there would have been
no love in God towards man in his ul1connected and dis­
continuous state, but only justice, had not the Infinite and
Only Begotten for this cause become Man, in order that in
Himself as a NIan, and consequently throngh a certain COI1­
nection with Himself, He rnight restore a connection with the
Infinite in those who are like Him.
 CH AP TEH II.
A PHILOSOPHICAL ARGUMENT CONCERNING THb; FIRST SIMPL~

OF TH~ WORLD AND ITS NATURAL 'l'RINGS; 'l'HAT I8,

CONCERNING THE FIRST NATURAL POINT, AND IT8
EXISTENCE FROM THE INFINITE.

ΠNo rational and intelligent philosopher can deny that

the first entity \Vas produced from the Infinite, as weil as
the l'est in succession, or ail the parts of which the world
is composed. For the world cannot exist from itself, because
it is finite, and consists of parts; neither can these parts
exist from themselves, because these also are finite, and
consist of their parts; nor again can these latter, for the
same reason. In short, nothing that is finite can exist
from itself, that is, without purpose and a cause. For there
must also be a reason why it was finited in this \Vay, and
-if! DO other; or why it has reached this lill1it, and no other.
In other words, nothing can exist without a cause, save the
Infinite. The Infinite alone exists withou t a cause, or from
itself; nor does it consist of parts. 'l'bus the ultimate
cause of things terminates or begins i.n the Infinite, that
is, in Him who exists of Himself, and who consists not
of parts; so that from Hirn finite things must of necessity
have proceeded. What is fini te, therefore, takes its origin
from what is infinite, as an effect from its cause, and as a
thing limited from what is in itself unlimited, yet having the
power to limit ail other things. Whatsoever was produced
of a fini te nature, could not be finited by itself; nothing
finite can exist by i.tself, because it must be finited before
it exists; and if so, it must be finited by something else;
5'
52 THE FIR5T NA TURAL POINT.

therefore it follows, that a finite must necessarily exist by

that which has the power of finiting it, and which of
itself is infinite. In a word, it is most evident from
rational philosophy, from the light of nature and the
intelligent sonl, as well as from the Sacred Scriptnres, that
the first entity, as also other entities in successive deriva­
tion from it, of wbich the world is built up, and by
which it is connected together, \Vere produced by and from
the Infinite.
Rational philosophy itself recognises a certain connection
and succession, both in the original existence of things
and in their subsistence; nor can it terminate its idea
concerning the existence, succession, and series of tbings,
except in what is simple and unlimited, 01' in that which
may be said to have only one limit. With respect to
the existence of things, sound philosophy teaches us that
tbings which are mnch compounded take their origin from
things less compounded; the less compounded from those
which are still less so; these from their individual substances
or parts, which are least of ail compollnded, or least of
al! limited; and these again from things simple, in which
no limits can be snpposed, except one; fi'om which circum­
stance also they are calleel simples. But ",hence is this
simple, in which only one limit is to be conceived? And
whence its limit? It cannot exist by itself; for there
must be something by which it may exist, if it has a
limit, if it is simple, or if it is capable of giving origin
to two or more limits. Extending the inquiry, therefore,
by the samo philosophy we rationally proceed to the con­
clusion, that such a simple derives its existence from the
Infinite; but that the Infinite exists of itself. Again, if
we contemplate the successive progression of causes, it is
rational to conclude that nothing fini te can exist without
no cause; that things which are much compounded, or
which consist of many individual parts, neitber could be
compounded, nor could subsist, without Il cause by whicb
 THE FIRST NA TURAL POINT. 53
they were compounded, and on account of which they
remain so; for a cause always precedes, and afterwards
accompanies that which exists from it. The individual
parts of such a composite must in like manner be
compounded of, and lm bsist from, indi vid ual parts still
smaller ; and these again, by the order of their succession,
from things simple; but still things simple can neither
exist nor subsist from themselves. vVherefore there must
be an infinite something; there must be something in­
finitely intelligent, which not only purposes but also
executes its designs; which must be both the power which
can create and the active agent which does create all things
that exist. Therefore, composite things derive their origin
from simple oues; tbings simple from the Infinite; and
the Infinite from itself, which is the sole cause of itself
and of all things.
l have said that ail finite things came into existence
successively; for nothing can be at once such as it is capable
of becoming, except the Infinite. Everything finite acknow­
ledges a certain mode, by which it is what it is and nothing
else; a mode, by which it is of such a form and no other ;
a mode, by which it occupies such a space and no other.
In a word, all finite things are modified; and therefore they
acknowledge a mode prior to their modification, and according
to wbich it takes place; they acknowledge also a time in
which they \\"ere so modified. Hence nothing is at once what
it can become except the Infinite. Ali finite things must
necessarily undergo different states successively;" but not so
the Infinite. And thus we perceive, that aH things except
the Infinite have their modification, but that in the Infinite
there is no such thing as development, simply because He
is tirst and the original cause of ail modifications. Hence
also it follows, if nature consists in the modification of things,
that the Infinite is the origin and the author of nature.
Thus does rational philosophy first acknowledge something
prodllced from the Infinite, and sorne simple as the origin of
54 THE FiRST NA TURAL POINT.

entities not simple. This first entity, or this simple, we

bere calI the natural point.
@ Geometry itself also acknowledges a certain simple and
primary beginning of its existence; and this it cal!s its own
or mathematical point. Geometry recognises that a point is
something simple, since it does not kllOW how to limit it
either in figure or in space. Hence it declares that it is
without extension and indivisible; and yet that it is of
such a nature, that by its motion, lin es, areas, and solids can
be generated; that by its motion, and multiplication into
itself, finally spaces may be filled; and tbat by its motion
the successive derivations and parts exist by means of
which things are limited and bounded. In a word,
geometricians ascribe the origin of al! tbeir figures and
bodies to such a point, yet not as belonging to the
science itself, because that is incapable of defining it in a
geometrical manner. Thus geometry seeks for its origin
beyond itself: deriving this point not from itself, but from
rational philosophy. N ow since the world consists of finites
only, and since it is geometrical and mechanical, therefore,
like aIl finite and geometrical things, it acknowledges its origin
to be in a point, which is the same as the natural point of
which we are now treating.
@The Holy Scriptures themselves also give us plain informa­
tion on this subject, and teach us that the world was created by
God, or by the Infinite; that it was created successively; that
it was created in time; and that the Infinite is an Ens in itself;
that it is Being which is; that it is al! in ail, that it is
universal; and further, that it is allowable to contemplate it
a 2JOSÜJ1'ior·i, or from effects, but not a prim'i, or from reason.
And whatever is confirmed by Holy Scripture is in no need of
confirmation from reason, from rational philosophy, or from
geometry, this being already sufficiently implied in the fact
of con firlllation by the Infinite Himself.
Q Rational philosophy wil! not admit that anything can be
or exist without a mode; and since a mode in limited, finited.
 THE F1RST NA TURAL POINT. 55
or in physical things, consists solel y in the variation of limits,
i t, therefore, follows that nothing can exist without motion.
Whatever is devoid of motion, remains such as it is; what­
ever is at l'est, produces nothing. If anything is to be produced,
it must be prodllced by a mode or by motion; if anything
is to be changed, it must be changed bya mode or by motion;
whatever cames to pass, dOEs so by a mode, that is, in
physics, by motion. Without motion or change of place, or
more generally, without a change of state, no new existence,
no product, no coming to pass can be conceived; that is,
nothing is capable of existence or change, except by motion.
It follows, therefore, that this first simple entity, or point, \Vas
prodl1ced by motion; and since the cause of production is in
the Infinite, it follows also that this simple or natural point,
was produced by motion from the Infinite.
@ If then it is admitted that the first simple was produced
by motion from the Infinite, we are at the same time bound to
suppose, that in the producing cause there was something of
will that it should be produced; something of an active
quality, which produced it; and something intelligent pro­
clucing it thus and not otherwise, or in this particular manner
and in no other; in a word, something infinitely intelligent,
provident, powerful, and productive. Hence this first point
couic! not come into being by chance, nor by itself, but by
something which exists by itself; in which something there
must also be a kind of will, an agency, and an understand­
ing that it should be produced thus and no otherwise.
There must likewise be some foresight, that the product
shol1ld be successively modified in a particular way and
no other; and that by this series, certain .. particular results,
and no others should arise. Ail this must of neces­
sity have been in some way present in this first mode and
motion: for in this particular and first motion of the
Infinite, things future and coming to pass can be considered
in no other \Vay than as if they were present and already in
existence.
56 THE FIRST NA TURAL POINT.

@ Since, therefore, l'le have traced the origin of the simple,

or first point, ta the Infinite, from which it is derivec1 by
means of motion, l'le may now c1efine it thus :-That it
is a simple and first entity, existing from the Infinite by
means of motion; and th us that, in respect ta existence, it
is a kind of medium between wbat is infinite and what is
finite.
vVe shall now proceed ta consider and expiain, distinctly
and particularly, whatever concerns the origin of the first
point, together with its attributes and essential properties.
(j) Let us return, for a few moments, ta the positions
alreadyadvanced. With respect ta tbe essential of the first
simple, l rnaintain, that this natmal point is the same as the
mathematical point, or the point of Zeno. For the world
is geometrical or mechanical; nature modifies itself by the
laws of mechanism, which are its own laws; wllerefore the
the same beginning is ta be assigned ta the worId, as ta
geometry. 'l'he same point is the first of the worId, because it
is the hrst of geometry; or it is the first of geometry, because
it is the first of the worId. Geometry is the law and essential
attri bu te of every indi vid ual fiU bstance in the worId, or of the
whole world; and mechanism is the mode by which the
worId acts or is acted upon; hence the point is cornmon ta
bath, because bath flow from the same origin. Thus each
acknowledges a certain entity existing before itself, and out­
side of itself, l'Illich it considers as a kind of seed, from which
it was conceived, and by which it afterwards exists and
subsists. 8ince, therefore, bath geometry and the wodd are
derived from the same origin, the same seed, and the same
parent, l'le must conclude that they bath proceed from the
same point, the differellce consisting in this, that the latter
point, or that of the \Vorld, is called the natural point, while
the former, or tbat of geometry, is called the mathematical
point.
Π'L'his point is a simple eotity, and iudeed sa very simple,
that nothing can be more sa, because that which is simple
 .THE FIRST NA TURAL POINT. 57
admits of no degrees. The Infinite itself, from a geometrical
point of view, may be called an entity, yet only in an eminent
sense; but that which first exists by motion from the Infinite,
becomes an entity because its essence consists in motion. It
cannot be said of the Infinite that it is the first simple; for
there is a great difference between what is infinite anJ. what
is simple; the one being the cause, and the other the effect.
That which is simple, as it has one limit, cannot be the
cause of itself, but must acknowledge its cause to be in
another, which has no li mit, and which is the cause of itself.
'Therefore, if they are distinct in themselves, one must be
priol' to the other. N either can the same be predicated of
the simple as is predicateJ. of the simple of the infinite;
nor the same of the simple, which may of the infinite; where­
fore this first product of the infinite must be that simple entity,
which is to be acknowledged as the first simple of things
finited, and as the cause of the first limit among such finites.
Nor can it be a finited simple; for this must cOllsist of
two boundaries at least, without which it cannot be called
a finite: but this subject will be more fully discussed in
our next chaptel'.l That it is, therefore, a simple, appears
from this, that nothing can exi:;t in a more simple state than
that which primarily and immediately proceeds from the
infinite, and which first exists in the infinite, prior to the
possibility of its existing in any nnite, or among things
finited; also that it is the origin of the first boundary of
the finites, from which all others are afterwards successively
derived. Now siDce composites acknowledge their origin ta
be in some simple, and since nothing can exist of a more
simple character than the point of which we are now treating,
we conclude, both from the consideration of its existence
from the infinite, and from the existence of things nnited
by it, and also from the nature of the thing regarded in itself,
that this point must be a simple entity.
It follows, therefore, that it is iD no respect compounded,
l Chal" iii. ; l'roI'. g,-Trs.
58 THE FIRST NA TURAL POINT.

finitec1, or limited, because it is simple; except tbat it

may be saiJ to have only one termination or limit. Since
it cannot be denied that a simple entity onght to be con­
sidered as the origin of entities not simple; that there must
be one limit before there can oe two; one boundary before
several; it must also be admitted, tliat a relation between
such boundaries first exists, when one is succeeded by allother.
But if the one which precedes another is finited, and if it
contains within itself several smaller boundaries, it follows,
that there is no final ratio nor can there be, except in that
which has one limit only, and that it exists before the
tirst substantial or finitec1 boundary. When therefore. two
things are given, one must be given; when several limits
are given, there must be one limit; in short, according to,
ail the facts of the case, wherever there i:-; a finite, tbere
must be something not finited ; wherever there is a composite
tbere must be a simple; wherever there is a body, there
must be a point of that body; and since there must be such
a point before there can be limits, boundaries, and a body, it
may hence also be said to possess one limit. Nevertbeless
this point has in itself sometbing analogous and similar to
what exists in things linJÏtec1, because it consi.>ts in motion;
and although pure motion does not necessarily require any­
thing substantial as the basis of its existence, there still
pertain to it both form and space, which are attributes of
motion. And thus there must dwell in the point sorne
relation of figure or space to its motion; or to whatever is
analogons or similar to motion in it; this entire allalogy or
simple relation makes up the essence of the point.
(Q) Since this point has only one li mit, it follows, that it
is the first entity and seed of things finited. The Infinite
cannat be said to be the first entity and seed of things finited,
except so far as it is their cause, and the efficient power to
bring them forth; such a first entity must be produced
from the Infinite, in order to be of the character here
intended. Erery seed must acknowledge its autbor, its
 THE FIRST NA TURAL POINT. 59
producer, or cause of its production; for it cannot he self­
produced: it must, therefore, acknowledge Him to be its
author, IV ho exists of Himself. Hence it cannot he said
that the Infinite is the first seed of things fiuited, ex ce pt
so far as it is the cause and efficient producer of such an
entity and simple point, or so tar as something of infinity if;
admitted to enter into the pure motion of this entity aud
simple point.
Q.2! Nevertheless this point is a kind of medium hetween
the infinite and the fini te. For it is through the medium
of this point, that finite things exist from the Infinite.
This point is a medium both as to existence and as to origin ;
for it first originates from the Infinite, and then gives origin
to things finite. On the one hand it acknow ledges the
Infinite, and on the other the finite; thus it stands between
the two, and looks as it were both ways, having respect as
weil to the vast Infillite, as to the vast finite; and in
reference to its existence, may be said to participate in the
nature of both. It may be compared to Janus with two
faces, who looks two ways at once, or at both universes. On
one side is the pure Infinite, into which no hllman mind is
able to penetrate, or in which it cannot discover either a least
or a greatest, both being completely unknown, and of thel1l­
selves identical; on the other side is the finite alone, to which
we may have access, through the medium of this point, which
partakes in a manner of the nature of both. By this point,
as by a door, we are introduced into the world; we are
admitted into a kind of geometrical field, where there is
ample scope for the exercise of the human understanding.
As soon as, through the medium of this point, an entrance is
found into the finited universe or the world, man instantly
begins to have a knowledge of himself, to perceive that he is
something, that he is finited, mechanical, and even a machine;
that is, by this point we are introduced inta the world, and
into its law, that is, into geometry, which could have no
existence prior to the existence of the point. Nature itself
·60 THE FIRST NA TURAL POINT.

also commences with this same point: to this it is indebted

for its birth, that is, for its conception and birth; and From
this it first receives what may be called its life, and its forces
under their several modifications. vVherefore the world
begins with this point, and with the world nature itself; or,
nature begins, and the world with nature. On these grounds
this point may be said to be the medium between the Infinite
and the finite.
@. This point is produced immediately from the Infinite.
With respect to existence, as was said before, one precedes
the other; with respect to cause, one is the cause of the
other; with respect to mode, one modifies the other, this
other not being capable of existing without a mode; and
with respect to subsistence, one subsists from the other. N ow
in relation to existence, it is evident from reason that the
Infinite must have existed before the point; in relation to
the cause, that the Infinite must have been the sole cause of
motion in the simple or in the point; in relation to mode,
that the Infinite, by means of motion, must have produced
the first simple or the point; and in relation to subsistence,
that all finite things, thus produced, subsist from the same
cause and mode. Since, therefore, the Infinite in respect to
existence precedes, it f01l0ws, that as an antecedent power it
might have existed, and might still exist, without such
motion as that above supposed. And since it was the cause
of motion, it f01lows also, that it was in ~ts power either
to be, or not to be, the cause of such and such a particulaI'
effect. Similarly, since motion was the mode by which
the point came into existence, there can be no mode
in the Infinite, unless indeed the will that something
should exist by a mode be so called. Thel'efore, since
ail fini te things, which exist by such a cause and mode, are
in their nature distinct from the Infinite, it follows that the
first motion, which is the essence of the point, was immediately
produced From the Infinite. W fil cannot say that the essence
{lf the Infinite consists in motion, motion being rather the
 THE FIRST NA TURAL POINT. 6r

offspring and production of the Infinite, and indeed its im­

mediate production; unless perhaps we indnlge the thought,
which nevertheless is evidently outside the sphere of reason,
that the motion, which takes place in the point thus im­
mediately existing from its source, is afterwards in separable
from the Infinite, becallse there is motion in the nniversal
Infinite; in which case WE: may infer, that snch motion,
although it is not the essence of the Infinite, is yet not
inconsistent with its essence, because it manifested itself in
this manner.
@ This natural point is pure motion in the whole
Infinite; and consequentl." it is pure and total motion, a
motion which cannot be thought of as geometrical. When
we lay down the position that the first motion exists in the
Infinite, it is absolutely necessary that such motion should be
considered as pure and total; there being nothing which i8
capable of bounding it; nothing, by reason of which it may
be said to be mixed; nothing which admits of degrees; so
that it cannot therefore be thought of as velocity. Ail motion.
which is mixed, or which i8 bounded by degrees, supposes some­
thing substantial, capable of motion or of modification; but
the motion of which we are now treatillg cannot admit of any
such thing, because it belongs to the Infinite, and exists in
the infinite; for which reason also, in consideration of its
producing cause, the motion must be supposed to be pure,
and in comprehensible by the powers of geometry. But as it
is not strictly geometrical to say that there can be pure and
total motiGn, wllen no such motion is found in things
geometrical and finited, a doubt on the snbject may possibly
present itself to the readel"s mind; yet if you will grant,
what indeed cannot be denied, that there is an Infinite Entity,
and that finite things were produced from the Infinite, what
other conclusion can be rationally drawn from these premises,
than tbat a first mode did exist? And if so, reason dictates
that it could exist only in the Infinite, and not in any finited
medium. Rence, if it be granted that the Infinite is a
62 THE FIRST NA TURAL POINT.

producing cause; and if a mode or motion, as an effect

produced, be likewise granted; then it mllst also be conceded
that there is a pure and total motion. For that which alone
does or can occasion t.he motion to be not pure, and not total,
but mixed, is the finite itself, which, according ta our
hypothesis, is not yet in existence. Therefore, since this
motion must have existed in the Infinite, and before the birth
of finites, it follows that it must also have existec! before the
world, and before its established laws, that is, before
mechanism and geometry; thus it cannat be thought of
geometrically, but rationally. And though we cannot think
of such motion as geometrical, we are not ta conclude that it
is nothing; although it has no rel!1tion or analogy with fillite
motions.
A simple cannot he thought of geometrically; yet it is not
on that account nothing. The Infinite cannat be thought
of geometrically; yet it is not on tha.t account nothing. A
finite, in respect ta the sim pIe, is as nothillg. A finite, in
respect to the infinite, is nothing, because there is no ratio
between the finite and the infinite; which is the reason why
it is said that what is finite is notbing in respect to the in­
finite. Still, however, what is infinite: pure, total, and simple,
is not to bE: regarded as nothing; although respecti vely
it may equal nothing, and thus cannat he geometrically con­
ceived. Rationally speaking, if there he a composite, there
must be a simple; if there be anything extended, there must
be something not extended; if there be anything mixed,
there must be something pure; if there be a part, there
must be a whole; that is ta say, if there be a mixed and
partial motion, there must be a pure and total motion.
Pure motion may therefore exist, but not in space, or in a
medium consisting of finites, or among finites.
13:
'"-'
This motion presupposes nothing substantial by which
it may be said to exist. In the Infinite there is nothing
substantial, nothing capable of modification, as in finites.
But since motion is not in consistent with the Infinite, the
 THE FlRST NA TURAL POINT. 63

Infinite may be considered not only as the cause and pro­

·ducer of it, but also as eminently its modifier. Renee, as
there is in the Infinite nothing substantial to be modified.
there if; no motion but what is pure.
But sincc pure motion exists neither geometrically nor
mechanically, it must, therefore, be of sllch a quality, that
neither degrees, nor momenta, Bor anything of velocity can
be assigned to it; all we can say of it is that such motion
actually exists in the whole Infinite. Yet the Infinite is
utterly ineomprehensible; hence an idea of this motion as
existing in the Infinite beeornef; still more iucomprehensible.
For if you were to multiply the greatest finite, or the whole
world, by the infinite, the result would be nothillg, since
no fini te, whether cOllsidered particularly or generally, bears
the smallest proportion or ratio to the infinite; but every­
thing finite vanishes by the comparison, or becomes nothing.
Row then are we to conceive of this pu rity and totality in
motion? Certainly in no other way, if geometrically and
rationally understood, than as an internai state or effort
toward motion. For if in the whole motion there are no
steps in space, no moments in time, and thus no velocity;
and if again there is nothing substantial, as before observed ;
what else, accordiug to every hurnan notion or idea, can
result thence, but effort? When we understaud space sim pl)'
as it is, and consider motion as pure and apart from time, in
such case the motion must be instantaneously present in ever,\'
part of its own space; and thus it will be like effort itself:
for in effort not only is motion everywhere present, but with
it also its force, direction, and velocity. This effort towards
motion may also be called internai state.
But to prevent any confusion or misapprehension in our
ideas concerning motion, effort, and state in the simple,
which, as hitherto used, appear to be mere terms, entirely
s.part from, and foreign to, every law of geometry, so far
as they are said to belong to things simple, l will now
endeavolll' to explain the subject by means of geometry,
64 THE FfRST NA TURAL POINT.

figures, and compounded motions, and thus in sorne measure

fix our ideas. For example, let us suppose the parts or
minute particles of a body, which are perfectly alike, to be
moving among one another; and let us further suppose that
the cause of the motion is within each particle; it will hence
fo]]ow, that by continuing their motion for a sufficient length
of time, they will be brought into a situation conformable to
the motion and figure of each, when they will hegin as it were
to link themselves together; and in this state they will be
found to be in the situation suited to their peculiar motion,
whicb situation is that of the whole composite body, or its
internal state. But the cause of motion, since it remains in
each indi vid ual particle, and no single particle can be l110ved
withaut a]] being l110ved together, therefore becomes common,
anJ pervades the whole; so tbat by reason of it al] strive and
conspire together to produce one corn mon and unanimous
motion. Tbis is what we meau by effort. Thus we have
first the motion of each individual particle; then the state of
aU together, which is the internaI state; and thus effort.
Let us now return to things simple, and see wh eth el', by
the aid of the motion, state, and effort in geometrical
substances, as just above described, we can form any better
~onception of the motion, state, and effort, which take place
in things simple. In a simple tbere are no parts or individual
corpuscles which can Le moved: but since there is in it a
cause of motion, as before observecl, we must, therefore, form
an idea of motion without parts or individual particles, like
an effect from its cause; and this can be thought of in no
other manner than as a pure and total motion. Rence there
can result no disposition of parts, nor can any other state arise
by means of position, tban such as is inherent in that per­
petu2.1 motion; consequently, neither can there arise an effort
from any other source than motion. It fo]]ows, therefore,
as motion is destitute of parts, that motion, internai state,
and effort in the simple, may be considered as one and
the same thing; when yet in finites they are different from
 THE FIRST NA TURAL POINT. 65

one another, becallse in these there is a motion of the parts,

and conseqlIently a mixed motion. BlIt if the reader still
doubts, and does not yet comprehend what motion is without
something substantial, or what is meant by pure and total
motion in the simple, l would observe that it is its state.
Should this appear equally to require explanation, l say that
it is its effort leading to a kind of motion; and if this be not
satisfactory, then l add that it is aIl these taken together. l
cannot give a c1earer and fuller explanation of the interior
nature of the simple, unless indeed the following may be
so considered-That in things sllbject to geometry there
can be neither state nor effort without motion; similarly,
in things that are beyond the reach of geometry, that
is, in things simple, there can be neither state nor effort
without motion; yet there is this difference, that in things
geometrical they are distinct, and one is the cause of the
other, while in the simple they are not distinct, but one is
coexistent with the otlier, and all together present one simple
mode, and constltute a simple entity.
@ This point cannot be conceived as having extension;
it is without parts, and consequently indivisible. If there is
in the point nothing substantial to be moved; if the motion
is pure, not mixed with anything substantial, and not arising
from it; or if there is an effort tending to motion; it follows
that it must be destitute of parts, there being nothing of the
kind in sucb motion or effort; for parts presuppose the
existence of things substantial put into motion, of which they
necessarily consist. If the point be without parts, it must
also be indivisible; for to divide would be to anDihilate it.
In reiipect to its own motion, it may be said to have a kind
of extension; hut, considering tbat there is nothing substantial
in it that can be moved, that it cannot be divided without
annihilation, that it has only one limit, and is thus a simple,
it must be pronounced to be without extension. For everything
limited originates from something not limited; every tbing
fiDited from something Dot finited, or from a simple; eyery
lE
66 THE FIRST NA TURAL POINT.

thing extended from something not extended ; just as numbers

arise from unity, and unity from what is least in our concep­
tion, or next ta nothing.
@ Neither can it be said ta fill space, unless it be spaee
understood as simple. If the point has no extension, but is of
such a quality as to give ris€: ta extension, it follows also that
it does not occupy space, unless it be space understood as
simple. For since it possesses only one limit, because it is a
simple entity, and this one limit iDcludes no space, it cannot,
in reference ta things finitéd and varionsl)' limited, be said ta
be a space; but in respect ta that pure motion, from which
it originates, something of space may be attached to it in idea;
yet only by anal ogy, and in the relation of an attribute.
@: The point cannot be said to be endued with figure,
unless the figure be llnderstood aS simple; and this cau only
be eomprehended hy a certain allaIogy and similitude, whieh
it bears to its own motion within itself. As its space must
be understood as simple, sa likewise must its figure; for of
whatever kind is the space, of sueh is the figure, the quality
of the space consisting in the figure. N ow since the space
must be conceived as simple, and considered as a limit or as
one boundary ta finites, in the same manner also must the
figure be conceived; that is, in respect to the figures of finited
spaces it must be understood as simple. For the largest
figures, which we will suppose ta be circular, have many or
very extended points of contact; smaller figures have fewer
or less extended; and the smallest or sim pIe figure may be
said to have the smallest points of contact, or such points
understood as simple; and thus it may be ca11ed il, simple
figure. As for example, let us imagine innumerable circles
round the same centre; and let radii or diameters be drawn
at every angle from or through the centre, cutting a11 the
circles; the greatest eircle will then gi ve the largest arc to the
angle; the smaller eircles, or those nearer the centre, will give
smaller arcs; and the eircle nearest the centre will glve the
least; but the centre itself will give none. Still however a
 THE FIR5T NA TURAL POINT. 67
conception must be formed of its figure, by analogy, with
reference to its effort or motion; for motion creates space,
and consequently figure; motion cannot exist without space
and figure; anù whatever there is in motion is present also
in effort. Yet in itself, and in respect to the motion of
which it is composed, something analogous and similar to
what exists in things finited must be conceived.
@ Figure thus cOllceived is most perfecto Since effort
may be cOlltemplated after the manller of motion, what.ever is
in motion is also in effort; and since there is nothing in
motion which did not previously exist, and is iu effort;
therefore, instead of the term effort, we shall in the following
pages substitute pure or total motion. Nothing then can be
more perfect than the figure which is produced from the
purest motion, and which exists in the Infinite. And if sl1ch
figure be most perfect, ail entities of a like kind must also
bear an en tire resemblance to it. In the Infinite there is
nothing unlike itself; nor is there anything of dissimi-
larity in pure motion. DissimiJarity is produced by limita-
tion, by the blending and conjunction of several things;
also by multiplication, division, geometr)', and the mode or
modification of similar things. For the more an entity is
modified, so much the more is it rendered unlike anotber
entity; dissimilarity increasing in the things modified in a
continuaI series. Since then this first point is not yet
modified, and since it derives its origin from no other source
than from the Infinite, and from pure motion, nothing of
clissimilarity cau be supposed to enter into it; for ail
dissimilarity, whether of the least or greatest degree, is pro-
duced b)' modes, which multiply in series, and which increase
. .
ln successIOn.
Ci§--: In respect to quautities, or when geometrically con-
sidered, this point is as nothing, or escapes the imagination.
For although it is the origin of so many and such great
finites, yet in tbings finited and geometrical it will be equal
almost to nothing.
68 THE FIRST NA TURAL POINT.

(19':
'-..:­
Nothing can be ascribed to this point, which is aRcribed
to a composite, except by way of analogy; seeing that it is
absolutely simple, unmixed, pure, and the first primary. But
since it is of sllch a nature, that it must be contemplated as
immediately proceeding from the Infinite, and yet existing
before any finite, and so must be considered as non­
geometrical, although it resembles what is geometrical, inas­
much as the latter is produced by it, like always begetting its
like; l could wish that some other person, capable of the task,
would favour us with a better idea of the subject. For my
own part, l would willingly give up further consideration
of the first entity, to which something of infinity adheres, and
proceed to the finites treated of in the following sections,
in which the point will be found to be more clearlyeluci­
dated; but to prevent any interruption in the thread of our
principles, we will for the present continue the enquiry already
begun. Let it then be observed, that whatever is present in
effort, and does not yet exist in act, cannot be termed geometri­
cal until it so exists; but still in every entity exerting an
effort there is something similar to geometry, and to actual
motion.
@ In its pure and most perfect motion are contained ail
those things, both active and passive, which bonnd things
fini te, and continue to do so throughout ail their series. That
the essence of the point consists in motion was observed
before, and will presently be more fully illustrated. N ow
since its motion is most perfect in its naturè, since it has
the po,yer of creating something very like itself, and since
from this point ail Bnite things originate, therefore it must also
contain everything finited, and everything which exists through
a long series of finites, both acti vely and passi vely. For since
it is the one only entity which gives existence to finites, there
must be included in its very effort and motion everything that
is modified throughout any series, or that is capable of still
further modification, together wi th ail the propertieR of self­
modification, such as we finc! actllally existing in the world.
 THE FIR5T NA TURAL POIJVT 69
For unless the point or simple consisted in an effort toward
motion, and also in motion actually produced, nothing could
be conceived to be in it that is efficient, active, and pro­
ductive; there would be no cause in it that could produce
any effect, any active or living power; and yet it is in real
actnal motion alone that the cause of ail existence lies con­
cealed. If a simple were imagined to be void of ail internai
motion, it would be something inert, or a mere atom, of itself
altogether passive; Gor could anytbing new ever exist or
spring up arnongst such inert substances or atoms, unless
indeed an extraneous motion were immediately introduced
among them, which yet must have its cause in some active
entity. For if tbis simple produces anything, and if it is
something active which produces, then there must be motion,
and this motion must be in the point itself; that is to say,
there must be, not effort, but action. If any one were dis­
posed to represent the first simple as destitute of internai
motion, he must in this case stop short at this first simple, and
finite the whole world in that simple and its atom.
@. 'V\T e now come ta inquire analytically into the nature
and quality of the form of this simple point, and inta the
nature of its space so far as it has respect to motion. For if
there is effort toward motion, tbere must also be fOl'm, there
must be space, and other attributes and essential properties,
whicb, according to geometry, belong to motion.
Since this motion, in which the point consists, is an effort
toward motion, or what amounts to the same thing, since it is
pure motion, not existing in any medium of finites, but in
the Infinite, ils form must neèessarily be absolutely pm'fe ct.
Pure motion, or motion in the Infinite, cannat produce any­
thing imperfect, or unequal; but whatevel' is produced by it
must be absolutely uniform and perfecto If the form of the
motion is absolutely perfect, it must necessarily resemble a
circulaI' form, for there is nothing in the nature of finite things
more perfect than this. But since the point consists purely
of motion, sa that this point, alld pure motion, and an
70 THE FIRST NA TURAL POINT.

effort towards motion, are one and the same thillg, it fo11ows
that motion mllst exist everyw here in the poiut. If an
absolutely perfect form is circular, then the absolutely perfect
figure of the motion above described must be the perpetu­
a11y circular; that is to say, it must proceed from the centre
to the periphery, and from the periphery to the centre.
If therefore the motion be perpetua11y circular, from the
centre to the periphery, and reciproca11y from the periphery
to the centre, or if it be equally diffused throughont, it must
necessarily be a spiral, which is the most perfect of ail
forms. In the spiral there is nothing but what partakes of
a certain kind of circular form; and nothing within it is
put into motion but what takes a circular direction. The
motion ad van ces perpetually to a circle. The spiral motion
may be said to be infinitely circular; every motion round the
centre is a circle; its progression towards the periphery is
circular; in a word, in ail its dimensions and in every sense
it is circular. Perpetuai circulation is Iike a perpetuaI spiral;
hence the most perfect figure of motion, as weil in effort as in
act, can be concei ved to be no otber than the perpetuaI spiral,
winding, as it were, from the centre to the periphery, and
again from the periphery to the centre; thus it is a flowing
spiral motion continua11y returning upon itself; which is not
only the most perfect of aU figures, but aiso the best adapted
to the nature of finite things.
If we su ppose the most perfect figure of motion to resem ble
the perpetuaI spiral, and the point to be a perpetua! effort
toward the spiral motion, and thus the most perfect and
uniform entity, it follows from the Iikeness, which may be
traced between it and tbings subject to the Iaws of geometry,
tbat it has a centre, and also peripheries, or a centre with un­
Iimited peripheries. This motion must therefore have its centre
in effort, and it must have a periphery. These may be con­
sidered as the attributes of a motion perpetually spiral and
returning upon itself, or of one which occupies space from the
peripheries to the centre. But since this internaI motion in
 THE F'IR5T NA TURAL POINT. 7I
the point and its figure can he understood only in the way of
analogy and resemblance to the things which exist in finites,
its mechanism can be more satisfactorily il!ustrated from the
finites ta be treated of in the sequel.
Seeing then that it is a pure motion, without anything sub­
stantial to move, and that it flows iuto the spiral, or perpetuai
gyres and complete circles, we cannat conceive that there is in
the point any such actual f10wing out and in, from centre to
periphery, and back again, as there is in finites, but only an
effort tending ta such motion, and a figure very like it. Now
as pure and total motion, or effort, admits of no degrees of
velocity, but generates from itself the first degree, moment of
time, and li mit in velocity, that is, generates velocity not yet
brought forth into act, therefore it cannot be said that su ch
motion f10ws from the centre to the periphery, unless it be
understood that it is in the centre and in the periphery at
the same moment, and thus imtantaneously present in every
part of its space. Hence, if we would amuse ourselves by a
play of ward s, we might say, in regard to the point, that its
motion is in the centre when it lS in the periphery, and in
the periphery when it is in the centre; thus that it is al! centre,
and al! periphery; or that it consists, as it were, of perpetuai
peripheries; and that, with respect to the presence of its
motion, the centre and the periphery are in a manner one and
the same, both together constituting this point.
But geometry can neither express Lhe effort toward this
motion, nor descriIJe its figure, except by similitude. It is
incapable of giving any demonstrations; for while it is with­
in this point, it ackllowledges itself to be not yet finited, not
yet, as it were, put fOt'ward, or brought forth, in short not yet
anything, but only about ta become something; and in tbis
state it lies as it \Vere in embryo till matured ; that is, it cannot
as yet be analysed by finite terms or limit.s, whicb neverthe­
less successi vely arise from this ovum. Since therefore this
point can receive no adequate geometrical demonstration, we
must have recourse ta the principles and axioms of rational
ï2 THE FIRST NA TURAL POINT.

philosophy, and instead of the point substitute an entity, and

so proceed to its investigation by the attributes proper to
sueh entity, No\\' if we take a rational view of this meta­
physical entity, we shall fjnd it to be of such a nature as to
consist of only one limit; it is not properly limited; it is not
finited; but it is that from which things limited and com­
pounded are derived. It is a sOll1ething which cannot be
geometrically resolved; it is that, to whicb, and beyond which,
no science can possibly extend. It is simple; an,d yet, being
of a productive nature, it is active, consisting in' effort toward
motion; which motion, were it to take place, would he pure
and total, or the same and everywhere present as it is in the
effort. In tbis lies eoncealed all that quality whicb is capable
of bringing into act finite things, together with aU their
modes and contingencies, and even of producing the world
itself. Thus, unless motion were in potency and in effort, it
won la possess no power or ability to bring into act those
things which are really produced, and which together eon­
stitute the worlel.
@: But while there is merely an effort tOlVarels motion in
the point, we have as yet nothing actua1. Inertia, force, and
effort, without motion in act or effect, is like something inert,
passive, and clead; which, by rueans of local motion, or the
transition of effort into aet, becomes active, living, and efficient;
thus from a mere eause it becomes operative. It is with
great propriety, therefore, that IVe inquire, whlLt is the lJature
of tbat effort? In otber words, into wbat kincl of motion, or
into wbat figure of motion, bas such an effort a tendency to
put itself fortb, if there is uo obstacle in the way ? For it
is well knolVn, tbat in effort there are present both force and
determination, direction and velocity, with aH the essentials as
\vell as attributes of motion. Tberefore, before anything can
be produced, effort must pass into ad, like wbat is formai
~nto Wh,Lt is real; and consequently tbe point \Vith its effort
must so pas" into motion. Since then total motion, or that
whicb is internai, tends. to a figure most perfectly and purely
 THE FIRST NA TURAL POINT. 73
mechanical, that is, to the spiral, we hence obtain an idea of
the internai state of the point; by which internai state we
perceive the quality of the effort as it presses forward into
external motion. The real determination and direction of
active or local motion is solely owing to the figure by wrlich
this effort exists. l t was before observed, that the figure is
perpetually spiral, proceeding from the centre to the periphery,
and reciprocally from the periphery to the centre; by and
according to which form it is inclined to direct every effort,
and, as it were, to aspire to active and Jocal motion. For if
there be an effort tending to motion, and if a similar quality
exists in effort as in motion, there will exist by similitude,
figure, and space. For example, if there is an effort tenJing
directly from one extremity to the other, a rectil\inear motion
will ensne in that direction; but if the effort, by the forrn
which it assumes, revolves round some centre, in this case a
circulaI' motion will be the result. But flot only is motion
determined into form, it is also directed by effort; and thus
whatsoever does or can exist in motion, is previously to be
found in effort. The form, therefore, in effort, of which the
simple consists, is spiral, in agreement with what has been
already advanced. From the 1'orm we may now concluJe as
to the kiml of motion into which the effort l'uns.
l say then, from the mechanism and geometry of the
internai spiral motion there arises first a kinù ofaxillary
motion; afterwards a progressive motion of ail the spi rais
round their poles; and lastly, from the axillary and progres­
sive motion, if there is full liberty, and there is no contact,
another or local motion in agreement wi th the former, and
indeed tending into perpetuai surfaces. But as these subjects
cannot be geometrically treated, and still less demonstrated,
without having recourse to sorne finite body or particle, con­
sisting of parts and indi vidual substances, and in which those
parts and individual substances becorne arranged into a posi­
tion and a spiral form, like those which the effort assumes
in the point; so by the methoJ here proposed we shall he
74 THE FIRST NA TURAL POINT.

able to obtain a mechauical and oeular demonstration, tbat sucb

an arrangement or disposition of the parts or individllal sub­
stances begets and produces not only a common axillary
motion, but also a progressive motion, conformable to the
position and series of the spi rais ; and in addition to this,
provided there be full liberty, and no contact hinders, a second
or local motion, Ly which the surfaces are truced out. As
the point consists not of parts, it cannot so well undergo
geometrical examinatiou, explanation, investigati?n, and dis­
section, we shall, therefore, proceed to the consideration of
finites and actives, in which the mechanism of the same
motion will be gradually presented to view. We shall after­
wards demonstrate by experience, and likewise by the laws of
mechanism, that in the point, or in the effort of the point, lies
concealed the whole power, both active and passive, of
mechanically producing, in jllst order and in regular succession,
all finites whatever, or the world at large, both with respect
to its smaller and simple parts and its greater and com­
posite unes. Geometry, therefore, and mechanism, in relation
both to the parts and to the whole of a body, and also in relation
to the world itself, consists in this, that the first figure of
motion, state, and effort, is spiral; and tbat by virtue of such
a figure there sllcceeds a motion of the whole composite, or an
axillary motion; a motion of its parts, or a progressive
motion; and lastly, from these, a local motion. Such is the
sum of our whole work and of its principles; and such the
cause of all the parts and composites in out mechanical
world.
~3: As the subject here treated of is the point, or the
simple entity of things natura.l, we cannot in proof of our
theory adduce any experience and confirm our principles hy
it. In subjects so extremely minute and simple we have no
experience and no phenomenon; no motion presents itself to
our selises, until we betake ourseIves to tbings variously
finited and much compounded, and thus to a series of com­
posites connected with one another, which, taken collectively,
 THE FIRST NA TURAL POINT. 75
represent our world; and thus exhibit their phenomena in a
\Vay adapted to the mechanism and connection of finite
entities, yet not by simple, but by variously compounded
motions. On the present occasiolJ, therefore, while treating
of the point, nothing in the way of experiment can be pro­
duced by which the truth of our principles may be confirmed
or tested. We can only observe, that nature, which is a
motive force, has neither the tendency nor the capacity of
fiowing into any other figure of motion more freely than into
the spiral; by which figure also its whole velocity is conveyed
with the greatest freedom and facility tbrough ail its
gradations; and to which, in like manner, it appears to have
applied aU its mechanical energy and power.
24} Still, however, it follows from reason and experiment,
that motion is the only \Deans by which anything new can
be prodnced. :Motion itself, which is merely a quality and a
mode, and nothing substantial, may yet exhibit something
substantial, or the resemblance of what is so, provided there
is anything substantial put into motion. If any small body
is moved in the direction of a line or a circie, there is
immediately produced by the motion the semblance of a line
or a circle; although there is nothing substantial in it, except
that I;maU body in the place which it occupies. If the motion
were to proceed in a spiral figure, or by continuous spires
spatially from the centre to the peripheries, a body of a round
form could then be imagined; and yet there would be
nothing substantial in the whole of this space, except the
single particie, which makes aU that space ta be substantial
in which it moves, or where it is present. If now the motion
be very rapid, so that in a moment the body is present in
innumerable places, during that moment it makes ail that
space substantial, wherever it is present. By motion
alone, therefore, something resembling what is substantial can
be produced, and it cannot be produced without some other
means. Motion itself represents something thus multiple
and aggregated; and there would also actually be a multiple or
76 THE FIRST NA TURAL POINT.

aggregate arising solely from motion, were not moments of

time present in the velocity. If now the times of velocity
were the least imaginable, the least would also be that which
\Vould distinguish such a kind of substantiality or modification
from a positively substantiated form, owing its existence to
an aggregate of small bodies. On this account also geometers
su ppose a poin t to be the origin of geometry; from this
poin t they deri ve th eir lines, areas, and solids; but they add
also a motion or fluxion of the poin t or points. They COIl­
sider a point without motion to he iIlcapable of anything,
however small, toward the production of a !ine, because the
point is destitute of length and breadth; but by its motion
they can form every dimension of a body. In the differential
calculus, or the analysis of infinites, they likewise avail them­
selves of a kind of fluxion, from which they obtain their figures,
and the relative proportions of those figures. In a word, it is
a natural or physical truth, that things finite are generated
by fluxion and motion, and that without this nothing which
is the subject of geometry could exist.
'- 2~: Seeing, therefore, that we are now brought to the con­
sideratioll of finites, and are, as it were, introduced into the
mechanical world, l propose in the following pages to proceed
to the exposition and demonstration of our principles in the
following order. First to explain for what reason and in
what particular manDer a posterior finite, eotity, or particle,
derives its origin from a prior one, whether by motion or by
any other mode and contingency. Then to give a definition
of the entity, finite, active, or particie, both in general and in
particular terms, also to examine in a circumstantial manner,
as we did in relation to the point, ail the attribut es, essential
properties, motions, figures, spaces, and other qualities, belong­
to that entity. After this l shall take a geometrical view of
the subject, and endeavour to see how far we may safely
indulge in philosophical reasonings and arguments concerning
this entity. Experiments will be adduced as witnesses, if any
are to be found; by which means we shall be able to ascertain
 THE FIRST NA TURAL POINT. 77
whether the truth of ex periment does or does not accord with
the truth of geometry. For a thing may be geometrically and
mechanically true, but may not yet be confirmed by experiment.
There is a geometrical connectioll of finites even in worlds
quite different from one another; but still the same pheno­
mena do not therefore exist in ail; for there may be various
kinds of geometrical connections, while only one kind is
adapted to the perfection of one and the same world. Lastly,
1 will show the connectiotl of every finite, active, or elementary
particle, from its first point and origin; so that it may be
evident whether or not ends and means bear a mutual respect
to each other and in ",hat manner.
Having no other end in view, and being influenced by no
other desire, than to be able ta arrive at the knowledge of
things by the most simple and correct method; in arder ta
discover truth, 1 do not see that we are at liberty to pursue
any other course than first of all to lay down our philo­
sophical principles, and then ta explain them, particularly in
reference ta the very small and most minute parts above
referred ta; that we may be able ta discern the nature of
their form, motion and other modes and attributes, together
with the true cause of their origin ann existence. After this
we shaH add an analysis of the whole, that we may see
more clearly whether ail the particulars do or do not separately
and distinctly square or coincide with one another; that is,
whether or not our principles are capable of receiving fuller
evidence and demonstration. We shall th en proceed ta
experiments, or ta phenomena, by which nature in a manner
renders herself visible ta us, and presents to our view her
ultimate figure or external features. Hereby we shall be enabled,
ta see whether the principles which were at first the work of
imagination, and after wards found ta be geometrically tru e,
are alsa confirmed by actual experiment. Lastly, 1 shall
endeavour to trace the connection between preceding and
subsequent principles when they are thus geometrically and
experimentally exhibited before us, in order that we may
78 THE FIRST NA TURAL POINT.

thereby discover whether anything new is produced which did

not previously exist; and also whether ail things proceed in
successive order geometrically and physically, and thus
necessarily from the first entity. If this course and method
is pursued in our endeavours to find out the laws of our
world, it may be faidy presumed that we are treading in tbose
steps which alone can lead to the discovery of the secret things
of nature. Yet, should any person percei ve in the principles
here laid down only what disagrees with experience, or with
analytical geometry; or should he be able to point out any-
thing imperfect or defective in them; if he will have the
kindness to communicate the same to me, l shall receive his
hints with gratitude. For truth is but one. Truth is my
single aim; and if any friend will educe from his treasury of
knowledge a juster and truer representation of the subjects
in hand, his kindness in so doing will be esteemed a most
acceptable service. Since then nature can be searched out in
this and in no other way; and since we are admitted into
its interiOl· recesses by this, and by no other gate; on these
grounds l hope for the favourable opinion of the critical reader,
who, l trust, is inclined ta direct all his attention to this
simple entity, and to enter fully into the discussion of the first
natural point and to look leniently upon the things he would
criticise. But let us proceed in due order with our work;
and l have no doubt the subject-this natural point-will
receive additional illustration in the following pages.
 THE PRIN CIPlA

OH

THE FIRST PRINCIPLES OF NArrURAL THINGS

TO WHICH AHF. ADDED

rrHE }\!IINOI{ PRINCIPIA

AND SUMIVIARY OF THE PRINCIPIA

llY

EMANUEI-l S'VEDENBORG

TltANSLATED FIWM THE LATIN llY

JAMES R. IŒNDELL, B.A., AKII

ISAIAH TANSLEY, B.A.

WITH AN IKTRODUCTION BY

ISAIAH TANSLEY, B.A.

AND A FOREWORD BY

l'IWFESSOR SIR WILLIAM F. BARIŒTT, F.R.S.

VOLUME IL

THE SWED]!JNBORG SOCIE'l'Y

(INSTITUTED 1810)
BLOOMSBURY STIŒET, LONDON
1912
o
z
"
 CONTENTS OF VOLUME II.
PART II. (contimœcl).
CHA~. PAGE

XIV. The declination of the magnet, calculated upon the fore­

going principles 1

Tables of magne tic declinations 14-54

Halley's Map, Musschenbroek's remarks on 54-56

X V. The causes of magnetic declination . 57

XVI. Calculation of the declination of the maguet 69

PART III.
1. Comparison of the starry heaven with the magnetic

sphere 151

n. The diversity of worlds 162

III. Resul11ption of the philosophical argument concerning the

fourth fini te, and its origin from the second elemen­

tary pRrticle 170

IV. The univer~al solar and planetary nebular maLter, and its

separation into planets and satellites 172

V. The ether or third element of the world 195

V 1. The fifth fin ite 224

VII. The air or fourth element of our system 226

VIII. Fire, or the actives of the fourth, fifth, and following

finites 235

IX. Water, or the plU'ely material finite . 255

X. Agueous vapour, or the fifth element of the world 261

XI. The vortex surrounding the earth, and the earth's pro­

gression from the sun to the circle of its orbit 269

U. The paradise formed upon our earth, and the first man 280

Conclusion 289

y
 ,'J CONTENTS.

THE JVlINOR PRINCIPIA.

PAGE
1. A philosophical theory concerning the ol'igin of natul'al things 297

---~ The infinite as well as the finite motion of the first natural

point generates the line, the surface, and the solid . 300

3. The motion of the natural point proceeds by means of cÎl'c1es , :306

4. The motion of the natural point proceeds by a circulaI' spiral,

that is, by a spiral line, whence arises figure, or the primary

partic1e 307

5. When the natural point moves in a spiral mannel' ovel' the

sphere, there is a space around the poles whel'e this point

does not come 309

6. This movement ol! the natuml point ma}' aisa bring an equator

into consideration 311

7. The line which cuts all those spirallines at right angles, forms

a kind of ecliptic, and this ec1iptic has a definite or fixed

node or intersecting point with the equator 311

8. The passage of the point along the ec1iptic takes place at equal

distances, but those distances may be greater or less accord­

ing ta the velocity of the motion 313

9. This natural point will return ta the same place in the ec1iptic

only after an infinite number of revolutions ; and this is

the reason why a persistent and, as it wcre, continnous

surface is formed 316

10. This flow of the natnral point is continuous and everywhere

equal . 317

Il. This movcment of the point cannat be designated either motion

or l'est; but it has something common to bath 319

1:2. A single point can of itself give rise to a surface; sa also

several points toge the l', if they move in the same circ1e and

in the same way 320

13. If several points, however, move in another circ1e of the same

sphere, in such a way that they cross the ecliptic at- the

same time, but not the same degree of the ec1iptic, then

they can meet in the polar circle, especially if one point is

near another 321

14. Points having a common centre do not easily meet, but they
flow uninterruptedly in the same surface; and if they do
not come into contact when they have described the first
circle, then they will never meet :322
15. If al! the circ1es consisted of an infinite number of points,

those circles with their points could not be urged into that

gyration or spiral, unless one point moved another from its

place; consequently they could not mcet unless the points

in any circle stood apart from one another . 322

 CONTENTS. Vll

PAGF.

16. If the points are eccentric and the distance of the centres is
equal ta or less than the diameter of the sphere which is
descriLed, it may happen that one point will more or less
come into contact with another; they also may never
meet . 324
17. Points sa alTanged will caille into contact sometimes more
frequently, sometimes more rarely . 327
18. Varions consequences follow from the collision of the points. 328
19. If the centres are slightly llloved forward with respect ta one
another, it then follows that all the points will Le snLject
ta disturoance, and that the figures will oe rearrauged :~29
20. If in the equator of each circle the points directly meet, no
change in the figure will arise; Lut there will oe a sudden
alteration, as it were, in the same 331
:H. If the points meet, they llllltually recede aceording ta the
angle at which they meet, that is, in that direction ta
which the line is drawn, which is midway Letween the line
j oining the cen tres aud les tangen t . 332
22. The median line along which the point reccdes frOlll its
pl'evious position is the tangent of another circle. If a
perpendicnlar Le dtawn hom this tangent it will pass
through the centre of a new cil'cle, which the saille point
deseriLes. By such impacts eircles cannat ùe descriLed at
a greater or less distance chan a semi-diamct.er, unless they
are moved fal,ther l'l'am the point of another circlc . 335
2:3. The primalT motiou is aLsolnte motion, and it is spiral hom
the centre ta the circnmference, sa that in that motion the
position of the pales is infiuite and the gyration is infinite ;
and the motion is that pertaining ta a most perfect gym­
tian; whence must arise that other spiral motion, which
has Leen descriLed in the preceding pages 336
24. The Howing natural points cannat Le said in the primary
statc ta Le transferred from place ta place . 341
25. If there he a certain sphere of activity and the flowing points
arc eonfined ta that sphere; or, if there he a particle ta
which the predicated points are confined, then they cau Le
said tu l'est in definite ways, and ta Le tl'ansferred from
place ta place ln definite ways 342
26. A point with its quiescent centre may Le called a particle of
the first kind, or a primary particle 343
27. The pal'ticle of the second kind is the point f10wing with its
centre along spiral circles 344
28. The third particle is formed, exteriorly, of points, or particles
of the first kind; interiOl'ly, of enclosed fiuent points, or
particles of the second kind . 344
viii CONTENTS.
PAGY.
29. The fluent points at length, by their own motion, surround
themselves with a surface consisting of points of the first kind 345
:30. The surface of the third particle that has thus originated, at
length acquires the same degree of velocity as the included
fluent points; the superficial motion cannot be more than
~~ 3~

:31. The motion of the surface, or of the third particle, is the

same as the motion of the illcluded point, that is, it is a
spiral motion 347
32. In the surface of this impelled particle, we have polar
position, an equator, an ecliptic, a uniform progression
along the ecliptic, and so forth . 348
:33. The enclosed fluent points, or the particles of the second
kind, follow the motion of the surface, and are forced
round spirally even ta the centre 350
:34. The enclosed points as far as the centre are together drawn
into a spiral gyration ; but the points more remote from
the surface do not then follow or obey this motion; but
gradually retract themselves, while the point at the very
centre itself simply tums itself equatorially 351
35. The fluent matter that enters does so through polar cones as
far as the centre, and remains in the centre. 354
36. In this particle there is something of a centripetal and
vortical nature :356
:37. In this particle let there be a perpendicular from the centre
to every part of the spherical surface, and a horizontal line
wherever any part is carried through any circle parallel to
a circle at the centre or the surface. The progression of
any part along the said perpendicular, or a greater or less
progression toward any cl efinite circle parallel to the
surface, when the motion is spiral, is motion from place ta
place, otherwise there is l'est :358
38. The primary or superficial particles are ulso carried to "the
surface of the polar cones 360
39. The matter at the $urface can be whirled as far as the centre
near to the walls of the polar con es, that is, from both
directions 360
40. The centre may increase considerably from the surface
matter, and thus the particle be contracted as ta its surface 361
41. If tbe sphere at the centre is somewhat small it will be carried
along the equator as though round its own axis; but if
somewhat large, and the matter is fluent, it will move very
nearly indeed along the circle at the equator, but still
there will be some striving of the motion toward the polar
segment 361
 CONTENTS. IX

PAGE
42. As long as the effort toward the l'oies persists the central
small globe cannot be exactly spherical, but it will be
elliptical 362
43. vVhen the surface matter flows into the centre, then the form
of the polar cones is somewhat changed 364
44. The surrounding matter, or that which is enclosed in the
same way by the walls of the polar cones, may tlow to the
centre or to a certain distance l'rom the centre 364
45. The heavier matter seeks the centre and the lighter the
surface, whence the sphere is differentiated in snch a way
that the heaviest material settle5 at the centre, ",hile the
lighter gradually recedes from the centre 365
46. The polar cones may also be filled with fluent material ;365
47. The motion of the matter in the polar cones is a spiral motion
round the axis toward the centre, where it is terminated
in the circle whose diamcter is perpendicular to the axis ol'
the pole ' 365
48. The axis in the polar cones throughout its whole length is
the seat of a centripetal tendency 366
49. In the polar cones the revolution is more rapid near the centre
than at a distance therefrom, bnt yet the motion itself is
slower. 367
50. There is a certain centripetal tendency along the axis as l'al' as
the centre; but it is less than in the sphere itself . 368
51. Lines parallel to the axis terminate in a triangle at the
centre. 368
52. A heavy body in the polar cone falls to the centre along a
parabolic line; and a light body ascends by the same line . 369
53. The lighter matter separated l'rom the central globe can be
carried toward the surface of the sphere, but not beyond
the sphere except through the polar cones 369
54. The light 01' fluent matter enclosed between the surface and
the central globe will enter or go out by the l'oies, and
nowhere else; but the heavier matter will remain in the
central globe, nor can it pass out by the l'oies or by any other
way :370
55. This third l'article can undergo contraction and expansion,
and, indeed, merely by contact with the adjacent surfaces;
for there is nothing to impede such contraction or ex­
pansion, whether it be the surface itself and its texture, or
the enclosed points 371
56. Although the l'article is smaller, yet the same velocity remains
in the surface; and in respect to the revolutions of the
surface they are more frequent in the smaller than in the
larger l'article :374
x CONTENTS.
l'AGio:

57. The smal1er the particle the greater its inituence upon the
central small globe 375
58. The wltole slll'face may become a kind of globe 376
59. The central globe without a surface and enclosed mobile
matter loses its own mobility; nor Itas it any but what it
takes up from the motion of the neighbouring pal'ticles :376
60. It was shown that between the part,icles of the third kind
mobilc matter 1Iows or particles of the second kind ; SO, also,
olltside the particles of the third kind, particles of the
second kind flow and are moved 376
61. If particles of the third kind undcrgo contraction 01' dilation,
still tlle same quantity of Huent matter is required both
within amI witllout . :377
62. The fluent points 01' particles of the second kind, fol' various
reasons, may be brongh t together in to one [place] and sepa­
rately form a kiml of volume, which globe can also he
very greatly expallded and increased :378
6:~. The sun and stars had this origin 381
64. Sucll a sun or star ma)' perish and disappear :383
65. The originant sohll' source referred to urgcs into a kind of
gyre ail the surroLluding matter, wltich consists of particles
of the third kind. This gyre becomes greatcr and greater
according ra the increaec of the originant source. This
spiral motiotl, however, is near titis souece; bnt il, ter­
minates vemotely therefrorn in a motion almost circulaI'
along the ecliptic :384
G6. Around ail the partieles of the third kind there is a kind of
smaH sphere eonsisting of points of tlte second kind 387
67. Whatever particles of the thircl kind aee joincd up with their
o\\'n splleres, or in whatel'er way this takes place, they
nevertheless al ways main tain their polar situation, nol' can
they be di,-erted from it in any way without returning to
the same sitnation - 389
68. Pole cannot be conjoined with pole except at the distance of
the sphere around the pole 389
69. Particles of the thircl kind can be conjoined only about the
~~~ 300
70. The motion of the great or nn iversaI vortex proceo;ds along
the ecliptic :393
71. The alTallgement of the pal'tieles varies accol'cling to the
distance froll! their ~ouree; the ecliptic, changing the
situation of its own pole, consequently changes the points
of contact not only with the equator, but also with the
ecliptics of the more remote particles. The same happens
in the motion of the larger vortex 394
 CONTENTS. Xl

PAGE
72. In the motion of the large vortex there is a certain pressure
between the particles, which is less at a greater distance from
the sun, and greater at a less distance :396
n. By reason of the aforesaid pressure the particles of the third
kind suffer diminution, the surface lapsing into a kind of
central globe, ln consequence of which a particle of another
kind arises; this is here designated a particle of the fourth
kind 397
74. The greater the distance from the sun or source, the smallel' is
the size of the central globe, and the greater the surface,
and contrariwise 398
75. The smaller the particle of the fourth kind, the greater the
number of rcvolutions its surface describes in the same time 399
76. The smaller the surface of the particle of the fourth kind, the
grcflter the motion of the central globe; this motion follows
the equatorial circle . 399
77. Ail motion in the surface of a particle of the fourth kind tends
toward the centre and aets upon the sUl'faee of the central
smail globe 401
78. The sphere around thc compressed or smfliler particle, or that
of the fourth kind, is greater than that whieh encompasses
the non-compressed particle, or that of the third kind, con­
sequently it ean be deflected from its own p01ar situation
and that of its ecliptic only \Vith very great difficulty 402
79. The central smail globe remains in its own equilibrium, and
must be said ta be without motion, although it revolves
along the equator 40:3
80. N ear the source of motion, or the sun, the compression is still
greater, and the entire surface l'uns oft' into a smail globe,
so that there is a sruail naked globe, without a surface apart
therefrom; this is the particle of the fifth kind 403
81. The smail globe or particle of the fifth kind is so smail that
matter of the second kind can exereise no force upon it, but
the spiral gyration perishes with the l'est of the qualities,
which come under consideration with regard ta the particles
of the third and fourth kinds 405
82. This globe of the fifth kind is so smail, that the environing
points are unable ta impart ta it a spiral motion 406
8:3. This smail globe has the same weight as the particle of the
thlrd kind ; and a volume consisting of particles of the fifth
kind, or small globes, is very heavy . 407
84. This great compression existed in the beginning of things,
before the salaI' vortex was perfectly formed 408
85. The particles of the fifth kind cannot be in equilibrium with
the particles of the third and fourth kind 410
XII CONTEN7:S.
PAG";
86. The sun in the beginning of things was covered with a crust
consisting of such particles, and was, consequently, ob­
scured; this was the origin of solar spots 411
87. In the meantime the sun i8 increased by attenuatec1 matter,
or that of the third kind, until the disruptec1 crust
separates 412
88. In the crust previously mentioned, or in the volume of the
partieles of the fifth kind, there fio1l's a considerable amount
of attenuated matter, or that of the partiel es of the second
kind 413
89. Matter of the second kil1c1 acts upon these pal'ticles of the
fifth kind, in the saille way as it does upon panieles of the
fil'st kind, and drives them into those surfaces, thus begin­
ning a new particle, which we call a particle of the sixth
kind . 415
90. Although the partieles of the sixth kind have in the beginning
different magnitudes, nevertheless they turn out to be
equal when the}' form one volume . 4"16
91. Particles of the sixth kind are larger than those of the third
kind, but the}' may be compressed until they attain a
similar magnitude 417
92. Theil' motion is also spiral, and they have two poles, through
which the attenuated matter, or matter of the second kind,
Hows in and out 41 ï
9:3. The particle of the sixth kind has llluch in common with the
particle of the third kil1d 4Hl
l:l4. In the interstices of these particles of the sixth kind fiow
particles of the fonrth kind, together with attelluated mattel' 418
%. The vortices cOllsisting of attenuated matter maintain them­
sel ves with difficulty in the position around the particles of
the fonrth kind. and al'olllld those of the sixth kind 420
96. The particle of the sixth kind has its own pales and polar
canes through which the attenuated matter f10ws in and Ol+t,
as is the case with the particle of the third kind 421
97. The particles of the sixth kind pl'eserye their own polar sitna·
tian and are lllutually in contact in the circles para!lel to
the ecliptic; but the interstitial particles, or those of the
fourth killd, cannot do this if the larger particles or those of
the sixth kind are moved 422
98. The interstitial pal'ticles, 01' those of the fourth kind, cannat
easi!y be dellected ta the poles of partieles of the sixth
kind . 423
99. Particles of the sixth kind cannat be conjoined ronlld the pales 424
100. The vortex of the eal'th consists especially of particles of this
kinc! . 424
 CONTENTS. xiii
PAGE.
101. The vortex of our earth by a kind of revolution, and then by
the circle of a definite ecliptic, gradually withdrew from the
sun to its present distance 425
102. This volume receding gradually from the sun has a spiral
motion in its farthest part, and, consequentl)', forms poles . 42\1
103. The motion round the centre, 01' the motion of each central
globe takes place along the eqnator . 432
10'1. Motion in the beginning of creation was more rapid than
afterwards, and, consequentl)', the )'ears and days passed
more quickly ; but the motion of the terres trial vortex was
already definite and fixed, so that it could only be challged
by the will of God 433
105. The motion is more rapid the further it is removed from the
centre or from the earth ; but, nevertheless, one revolution
can be described about the surface of the vortex, while
several may be described in the same time about the centre 438
106. With a given motion from tlle periphery to the centre, a kincl
of vortex arises, the flux of whose particles tends to the
centre, and consequently a centripetal tendency arises in
our vortex 440
107. The particles contained in this vortex, in consequence of this
motion and centripetal tendenc)', put on varions elementary
properties 441
108. The particles of the sixth kind rested upon one another in
the vortex, and gave rise to a gradually increasing pressure
toward the centre 442
109. The radii, which are saicl to be perpendicular in this vortex,
rio not proceed in a straight line, but l'un in a CUl've 443
11 O. The gyration of the terrestrial vortex may be mOl'e trul)'
called l'est than motion 443
Ill. :Matter consisting of particles of the sixth and fourth kind
flows in through the poles, by which the wunt of that
matter around the earth is snpplied . 444
112. In the beginning of creation the pressure arouud the equator
was far greater than at the present day, and consequently
watel' from the earth's equatol' \l'as carried to the poles,
where it stood at a greater height at that period 445
113. Particles of the fonrth kind, which in the vortex of the earth
flow between the particles of the sixth kind, also suff'el'
compression in the vortex through the centripetal tendency,
as also pal'ticles of the sixth kind 446
114. The undulation proceeds very rapidly in surfaces of the thircl,
fourth, and sixth kincl of particles, but with a dilferel1ce
of rapiclity in each class of these pal'ticles 447
XIV CONTENTS.
PAGF.

115. Vibration can he imparted ta several points in the surface at

the same time, these points either cohering or being
mutually separated, and yet the vibration so imparted may
proceed regularly 450
116. The attenuated enclosed matter reacts and, consequently, the
vibration is gradually diminished 451
117. An undulation is a greater amount of vibration conjoined
with the motion of the centre 452
118. A certain undulation ls set up in the sola1' vortex and also in
the planetary v01'tices by the sun's motion . 452
119. Particles of the third, fourth, and sixth kind are particnlarly
suited to take up und ulatory motion and communicate it
to neighbourillg particles ,[5:3
120. An element which is subject ta an impact, or caused to take
up an undulation, does not undulate throughout the whole
of its path, but only in that place where it has a detiuite
opening, or where there is no obstacle that can resist the
undulatory pressure . 456
121. Aronnd the origin of motion there is some undulato1')' motion,
but then it is merely pressure which l'uns out again into
undnlato1'Y motion where the pressure ceases 457
122. There are greater and smaller undulations, or degrees of
undulation of very diverse kinds 458
12:3. The difference in the undulatory pressure is proportional to
the distances . 459
124. If the undulatory pressnre is propagated according to the
general pressure of the vortex, it would seem to be aug­
mented according to the ditferences of the volnmes into
which it tends ,1,60
125. The undnlatory pressure of the elements differs from their
general pressure 462
126. Undulatory pressure is at once arrested by an OppOSillg
obstacle, nor can it get behind it, unless it can pass directl)'
through its pores. The undulatory pressure is reflected at
the incident-angle by any abject which it cannot regularly
traverse. 463
127. There may be many thousands of such undnlatory pressures
ln onc volume, nor will one impede another; but each
pressure will complete its own undulation when the oppor­
tunity is given 4ô5
128. Particles may be variously reflected from solid bodies, if they
are of 1'egular form 467
129. The regularity of the pores in opposing bodies is the cause of
thc passage of an undulation; inegularity in this respect
leads ta the confusion and disappearance of undulations '.68
 CONTENTS. xv
PAGE

130. This und ulatory pressure is the cause of sight, light, and colour 469
131. Undulatory pl'essure affects the smaller particles which f10w
between the larger elementary paroticles; and it js none the
less exerted although the larger elementary particles f10w
between 470
132. If an undulation is deflected by some abject, and, even if it
tends in another direction, still the eye can only conceivEl it
as proceeding toward itself in a straight line; by such pres·
sure vision is very largely, but natura11y, subject todeception 471
133. A body existing in an element with smaller particles is
amplified, if seen by the eye which exists in an element
consisting of Im'ger partieles ; and the amplification takes
place accordiug to the difrerence between the particles in
the media, aud contrariwise . 472
134. A body in water or any other Iiquid has less appareut eleva­
tian when the eye and the abject lie in the same perpen­
dicular; but more when the eye and the abject are situated
in a Hne that forms an angle with the surface 474
135. Great pressnre or nndulation in particles of the fourth k;nd
gives rjse ta a sma11 pressure or undulation in partieles of
the sixth kind. On the contrar)", a small pressure al' un·
dulation in particles of the sixth kind gives rise ta a great
pressure or undulation in particles of the fourth kind 475
136. A slight pressure al' und ulation in particles of the fourth
kind canses merely a vibration in pal'ticles of the sixth
kind ; or a vibl'ation arising in partieles of the sixth kind
sets up an undulation in particles of the foul'th kind 476
137. Vibration in particles of the fourth kind cannat impart any
vibration ta a particle of the sixth kind 477
138. The surface of a particle of the sixth kind, by reason of com­
pression, may betake itself ta the centre, aud there form a
sphere, and become less and less, whence there arises a
particle of the seventh kind . 477
139. A eompressed particle can llndergo expansion, and the smaU
globe at the centre, as ta either the whole or part of it, may
pass ta the periphery . 479
140. A volume consisting of particles of the seventh kind be·
cornes heavier the more the particles are cOlUpressed ; and
in consequence of the difference in weight and magnitnde,
it gives rise ta different characteristies 483
141. A pal'ticle of the seventh kind can be eompressed ta snch a
degree as ta become nothing but a kind of sman globe,
that is, it can be compressed into a quite smaH globe,
which will be slUaU in eomparison with particles of the
s]xth and seventh kinds, whence there arises a partiele of
the eighth kind • 484
2b
XVI CONTENTS.
[tA GR
142. 'Vhen a particle of the seventh kind becomes compressed
into a small globe or into a particle of the eighth kind,
which takes place at the centre of the earth, partiel es
of the four th kind remain enclosed among such small
globes. 485
143. From the motion of the particles of the fourth kind among
the partiel es of the eighth kind there arises a spherical
body (bulla) which constitutes a ne\\' particle; this we de­
signate a particle of the ninth kincl ; it is the saille as the
air particle 485
144. Air, or the particle of the ninth kincl, is subject to exterior
pressure by tlnee forces, that is, by particles of the fourth,
seventh and ninth kinds. But interiorly it is under pres·
sure of particles of the fOl\1'th kind, which are more cam·
pressed than the partiel es of the fOlll'th kincl which exert
pressure l'rom without 487
145. Although an air particle undergoes compression, and by
compression becomes less and less, still it retains its
spherical form, and preserves its own motion alllong the
equally compressed particles . 489
146. The surface of the air particle is moved intelTuptedly by
interior particles of the fourth kind, but by neighbouring
particles most advantageously along the equator; and in
the air particle there is a double motion 491
147. If a particle of the ninth kind sutrers compression, the com·
pressed surface l'ails toward the interiOi' parts, and, by
enclosed matter of the fourth kind, it is formed up iuto
new, but small particles 492
148. These new enclosed particles that have originated l'rom sur·
face matter of the air particle, are carried now toward the
centre, now near the surface, according to another motion
of the air particle 495
149. When the air particle expands, then these enclosed particles
also expand and are dispersed, and return to the expanded
surface of the air. A portion of them does not sutrer dis­
pCrSil)ll lluless the air particle is dilated to the arnount of
pressure tu which these particles are subjected 495
150. Because the air exerts pressure accorcling to the height of its
column, therefore its particles are more expanded in the
higher parts of the atmosphere than in the 10IVer. Never·
theless, the air particles may he much expanded in the
lower regions of the atmosphere, and yet a column in the
upper region of the atmosphere may exert upon them the
same pressure as that hy which the neighbouring particles
are contra.cted by great pressure; and the contrary 498
 CONTENTS. XVII

PAGF.
151. If a particle of the ninth kind is tao greatly expanded, its
surface may be c1isruptecl ; bllt the surface matter set free
and c1isruptcd will pass into the surfaces of other particles
of the same kind 500
152. There may be particles of the ninth kincl in the midclle and
lowest region which dill'er bath in weight and size; but
still, after an interval, they may gradua11y become equal
in bath weight and size • 501
153. Inequality of forlll in the tc11urian vortex, arising [rom un·
equal pressure of the circumfluent matter, gives rise to
inequalityof the moon's motion, the ebb and flowof the
sea, ancl also ta varions states of the air and i ts storms 502
15'1. The particles of the ninth kiud arE, subject to an unclulatory
pressure.i ust as are the pal'ticles of the sixth and seventh
kind . 507
155. The greater pressure exerted on particles of the ninth kind
the greater the clifliculty of vibrating 508
156. The particles of the ninth kincl posscss considerable elas.
ticity, and also aptitude for vibration 508
157. A sma11 vibration in particles of the ninth kind sets up a
certain but minute vibration in particles of the sixth and
seventh kincls, also a considerable vibration in particles of
the thircl and fOUl,th kinds, and the contrai')' 509
158. Undulatory pressure of pal'ticles of the ninth kincl is re·
fiected. . 511
159. Refraction also takes place among these particles of the ninth
kind, but it can rare]y be ohserved . .• 511
160. If a particle of the ninth kind be sa compressed that the
greater part of its surface is trallsformed into small enclosed
partic1es, sa that the enclosecl matter of the fourth kind is
fol' the lHOSt part taken possession of by these, then a new
partic]e will come into existence, which is designated a
particle of the tenth kind; this is the water particle 512
161. The particles which arc enclosed in this particle of the tenth
kind are various]y expanded by the matter of the fourth
kind ; and a]so the nearer they are to the centre, the more
are they compressed, ancl the contrai')' 513
162. Particles of the tenth kind cannot he further compressec1 516
163. During this period of the creation of particles the earth
would seem ta have been nothing but ocean. Subse­
quently, however, after various changes, dissolutions,
movements, and compressions of partic]es, a definite sub­
stratum came into existence, and the waters of the ocean
became partia11y encrusted 517
XVlll CONTENTS.
PAGE
164. As a result of their inactivity and of the excessive pressure
tü which theyare subject, particles of the tenth kind may
be broken up . . 518
165. Tbe arrangement of elementary particles, as also that of
particles of the tenth kind, is such that oue particle is able
ta pass through the interstice existing between four other
particles, above, below, and laterally, and ta be the subject
of movement intel'luittently . 520
166. The mobility of these particles of the tenth kind depends on
the mobile eharacter of the circumfiuent matter of the
seventh and fourth kinds 521
167. 'rh!" pm·ticles in this position exercise pressure proportionate
ta the altitude 522
168. These particles at every altitude, exercise pressure equally
and laterally in every direction, bath above and below;
and, indeed, in proportion ta the height from the surface . 522
169. The pressure exerted by particles is proportionate ta the base
and altitude whatever the base may be, whether large or
small; and whatever may be the number of the superincum­
bent particles . 52;3
170. If an abundance of matter of the fourth and seventh kind
110ws between the particles under consideratiou, or those
of the tenth kind, then they will be again expanded into
sinall spheres, or a new particle, which is designated a
particle of the eleventh kind, or the vapolll' particle. This
encloses matter· of the seventh and fourth kincl, and has
air extel'llally . 52:3
171. Vapour, or a particle of the eleventh kind, may undergo
contraction or expansion, and its surface become either
denser or more attenuated 524
172. A volume of particles of the eleveuth kind, or vapour, has
the maxim mu of expansion . 525
1n. 'rhere is another kind of spherical particle which has no
p.ower of expansion 527
174 The volnme of elementary particles endeavours ta act npon'
certain smail spheres whatever the particles, although they
may be irregular in form, provided they are separated and
rçtain their Huency 527
Appendix on fire 528
 CONTENTS. XIX

SOJ\1E POINTS BEARING ON

'l'RE Fn~ST PRINCIPLES OF NATURAL 'l'RINGS.
PAGK
2. Comparison of the general ontology and cos1llology of Christian

- Wolff with my first principles of nature 531

3. Definition of the natural point. 532

4. The attributes of the point, continued . 533

5. The motion and form of this point [)34

6. The geometry of the point 537

7. The metaphysics of the point 538

8. Row subsequent differentiations may take place; in a word,

concerning the point. 538

9. Definition of the first particle 539

10. The active of incalculable l'apidity ol'iginating from the point;

let this be treated at the end of the section, or the fourth

particle 540

Il. The order of the particles 541

12. Nature is like a spidel"s web 541

SUMMARY OF 'l'RE PRINCIPIA

OR

'l'RE FIRS1' PIUNCIPLES OF NATURAL 'l'RINGS.

PART 1.
CHAP.. PAGE

1. The means leading to a true philosophy 545

II. 'l'he first simple of the world 551

III. The first or simple finite 554

IV. The second finite 556

V. The active of the first finite constitutes the sun, besides

forming the first elementary particles 558

VI. The tiret and most universal element of the world, which

constitutes vortices 561

The form and other characteristics of the above-Illentioned

entities 566

xx CONTENTS.
CRAP. PAGE

VII. The actives of the second and third finites 568

The actives of the thircl finites 569
VIII. The third finite 570
IX. The second or magnetic element of the world 571
X. The existence of the sun and the formation of the salaI'
vortex 572

PART II.
1. The causes and mechanism of the magnetic forces . 574
II. The attractive forces of magnets and the ratio of the forces
ta t·he distance 579
III. The attractive forces of two magnets when their pales are
alternated . 579
IV. The attractive forces of magnets when their axes are
~~W 500
V. The repulsive forces of magnets, when opposite pales, or
pales of the same name, are applied ta each other 580
VI. The attractive forces of the magnet and iron 582
VII. The influence of the magnet upon heated iron 582
VIII. The quantity of exhalations from the magnet, and theil'
penetration through hard bodies . . 582
IX. Chemical experiments \Vith the magnet 58:3
X. The friction of the magnet against iron 584
XI. The attractive force of the magnet acting upon several
pieces of iron 585
XII. The action of iron and the magnet on the mariner's needle,
and the reciprocal action of one needle upon another 585
XIII. Other methods of rendering iron magnetic . 586

PART III.
1. Compal'ison of the starry heaven with the magne tic sphere 587
II. The diversity of worlds 590
III. The fourth finite 592
IV. The universal salaI' and planetary chaos 592
V. The ether or third element of the wortd 594
 CONTENTS. XXI

CBAP. PAGE

VI. The fifth finile • 601

VII. Air, or the fourth element of the world . 602

VIII. Fire, or the actives of the fourth, flfth, and following fmites 602

IX. Water or the purely mate rial finile . 607

X. Vapour or the fifth element . 608

XI. The vortex sUIToullding the earth and the progression of

the earth froni the sun to the circle of ils own orbit 610

XII. The paradise on our earth and the first man 613

Appendix A: Notes on Swedenborg's Principia 615

Appendix B: Biograpbical notices of the principal aut.bors

ci~ 6~

Index of subjects 645

Index to Musschenbl'oek's experiments 660

Index of authorities . . 662

Index to the Minor Principia 665

CORRIGENDUM.

Vol. ii., p. 406, paragraph 82, 7'C(ul fifth fOl" fourth.

 CHAPTER XII.
THE PARADISE FORMED UPON OUR EARTH, AND THE FIR8T MAN.

'VE have thus briefly described the way in which our earth
surrollnded itself with ether, then with air, and lastly with
water; we have shown that as soon as it began its journey, it
revolved on its axis, and also at once round the sun; and that
from its infancy, therefore, it began to measure out years and
days. We have explained how its revolutions were at the
bcginning more rapid, then in process of time slower, till, in
arriving at the orbit it now annually describes, it attained its
slowest motion. Here we left it, surrounded with water without
a shore. Not, however, to leave it to the lawless ftuy of 8, flood,
wc here resume the subject, and explain in a few words in what
manner shores were now added; that is to say, how it was that
dry land was acquired; how the waters superinduced upon
themselves a crust, which not only coerced them within given
limits and kept them within an enclosure, but also how ail that
we now flnd in the vegetable and mineraI wor'!ds was cnabled
to enter into the crust; ho\\' heaven also not only deposited its
sceds in this crust, but also gave them germination and expan­
sion. This, however, we shall explain but briefly, since the
subject is one which strictly belongs to a treatise on the minerai
and vegetable kingdoms. Not to forsake the earth then in its
state of inundation, we shaH ncxt in order briefly enquire into the
origin of the minerai kingdom. With respect, therefore, to the
incrustation we have mentioned, it is to be observed :­
1. That this crust was formed upon the \Vatel' by the dis­
solution of the parts in the water, and the interjection of nnites
whi~h emerged to the suriace, and formed upon the water a crust
:::30
 PARA DISE. 281

which continuaily increased by an addition of parts one under

another.
It would be a tedious task to explain everything relatij1g to
the origin of hard bodies composing the terrestrial crust from its
bottom to its surface; we may, however, observe thus much in
general, before treating of the minerai kingdom,-that from the
operations of causes very diversified, as also at various distances
from the sun; from the immense variety of changes which the
earth underwent in its journey from the sun, first at a more rapid,
then at a slower rate, first in the immediate presence of the sun
and under its rays, then at a remoter distance; that portion of
\Vater which was of looser texture, and the parts of which had
from various causes been set free, occupied the interstices of the
othel' portions of water, and so together \Vith these emerged to
the surface, aceompanied by fourth and fifth finites which
mingled themselves with them. From these arose compound
entities of different forms, \Vhich produced a crust, as also other
entities flo\Ving freely, because adapted to the interstices of the
water, and giving rise to a variety of phenomena. On this
subject, however, we have here said sufficient.
2. The earth undenvent innumerable changes before arnvmg
at its present circle or orbit, that is ta say, changes as numerous
as the circles it completed, or the different distances of these
circles from the sun; as numerous also as \Vere the degl'ees of
velocity in the course of its annual and diurnal revolution; in
a word, every day and hour it underwent some new change,
during its journey from the sun to its present orbit.
The number of changes it experienced, therefore, may be con-
cluc1ed from this, that when issuing from its chaotic state it \Vas
nt first naked, and was so near the sun as to appear comparatively
diminutive, yet able to look closely into the vast solaT ocean;
that afterwards every hour, day, and year it receded to a farther
distance, al1d in relation to the immense solar disk became
smaller and smaller, because subtending a continually less angle;
that it thus \Vas in a less degree bathed in the solar rays. The
farther it recedec1 the less became its relative size, and the greater
282 l'ARA Df5E.

was the c1iflerence of manner in which the solar beam was receivec1
on its surhwe. Bvery moment it was changing its place and its
distance from the sun; so that the sun could act upon it when it
was near in a manner different from what was possible when it
was farther off, and with variety, every successive moment.
'l'hus every instant it was undergoing some change in its relation
to the sun, which was, as it were, ever changing, producillg, and
vivifying everytl1ing in its vortex. Similarly it was ever under·
going some change as to the elementaries fJowing round it,
which near the solar centre are subject to a greater degree of
compression and a more rapiel motion than when farther from
it; so that what in the first instance these elementaries Ullitecl,
they at othe1' distances either dissolved or united in a c1iflerent
manner, and the contrary.
'l'he changes the earth experienced are evident ~lso from these
further considerations; that it was at first entirely uncovered,
then after this enveloped with ether, and in this state received
the solar heat in a diflerent manner from what it did beforc,
and in a manner again continually differing in proportion as the
sphere of the ether became larger and larger; that it afterwards
becamc envelopec1 with air, the column of which grew continually
higher, and thus was capable of being set in motion in a different
manne1' when it was low from what it could when it was high,
and in ways differing from eaeh other at c1iflerent distances from
the sun. When finally it was surrounded with wate1', it then
assumec1 a still different state, and in t,his state also received the
rays of the sun in various ways, differing according to its distance
from the sun. Its states were also varied first by its more rapid,
and aftcrwards by its slowe1' revolutions on its own axis; by its
completion of longer and shorter years, which varied according
to t.he variation of its motion, and, consequently, according to the
temperature of the newly-formed ether, air, and water, or to the
seasons, sv that the earth must necessarily have ulldergone a
variety of new changes. '1'0 this we may add, that at every new
distance its ecliptic was different, its equator being exposed to
the sun in one place more directiy, in another more obliquely,
 l'ARAD/SE. 283

just as we see in planets nearer to the sun and farther from it ;

in which cases different zodiacs a~e traced, aceording as the
different solar or proximate vortices more or less alter the direc­
tion of the axis; in tills case, therefore, the seasons of the year
must have been constantly dissimilar, sneh as the winters, sum­
mers, springs, and autumns; the frigid zones also could not
always have been frigid. In a word, it is impossible to enumerate
the various changes which the earth must have necessarily ex­
perieneed before it had reached its final destination. From al!
these consiclerations, however, we are at liberty to infer that
the system of our earth must have undergone innumerable
changes before it could have been fully completed, and have
consisted of so many series of things simultaneously and suc­
cessively arising; or before it could have been enriehed with
so lUany things as would suffice to supply the minerai, vegetable,
and animal kingdoms; before also it could have received its
seeds, unfolded and expanded them, and so dclightfully and
va,riollf.;ly ac10rned its own surface.
3 During that state of the earth in which its revolutions round
the sun and its rotations upon its own axis were more rapidly
performed. or when the earth measured out shorter days and
yeaTs, the whole surface of the earth enjoyed perpetuai spring­
a season the most highly suited to the purposes of generation and
procreation. Without this perpetuai spring no seeds would have
germinated, nor eould the various subjects of the animal and
vegetable kingdoms have been produced.
That our earth formerly measured out days and years of
shorter duration than the present seems to be eonfirmed by the
age of our first ancestors; for we learn from Seripture that the
lives of some extended to eight or nine ages, or tha t they li ved
to sec ten and even thirteen generations of their own families,
and that it was but a slight thing for them to live from one ta
three ages. If, however, the earth at that time performed its
annual l'evolutions more rapidly, and if it measured out a year
to its inhabitants within the space of a few of our present months,
they lllight in this case bave lived through several ages, when yet
284 PARAD/SE.

the duration of these ages, or the greater number of birthclays

occurring in one life, might not much have exceeded in duration
a single age in the present day; whence they might be said rather
ta have lived a great number of years than ta a great age; for
if they could have reckoned as many summers as the inhabitants
of Mercury or Venus, the number of their years \Vould be greater
than ours, but the duration itself equal.
Could the antediluvians, therefore, now make their appear­
ance amongst us, their surprise \Vould be awakened by the
shortness of our spring and the length of our autumns
and winters; they might perhaps chide the length of our
aI1llUal revolutions and complain of growing old before they
had fulfllled their wonted number of years. But this b.v the
way.
Tt is evielent from what we have stated, that there was a tiIlle
when the earth in completing its year occupied only a fe\\' of our
present days; on arriving at a greater distance from the sun,
in completing its year it accupied the space of our present month ;
afterwards two months, then three, and sa on successively till as
the years lengthened they reached their present duration. Thus
the planets which are nearer the sun reckon their yea,rs br our
months; while those which are farther off extend the dnration
of their year sa as ta make it comprise several of ours. Tf Satum
divirled its year into twelve months, a year of our earth woulel not
equal two weeks of Saturn; the nearer, therefore, planets are ta
the sun the shorter are their years, the shorter, therefore, are the
seasons of the year, and in this case a summer would scarcely
last the length of our month, neither would an autumn or winter ;
as saon as the summer had commenced, autumn woulel supervene,
which woulel be as rapielly followed by winter ; thus after fi brief
interval summer would return \Vith ail the produce of its plant
life, and the operations of nature \Vonld observe the briefest
cycles. The summer, therefore, could not infuse an)' warmth
into the earth which was not saon dissipated by the supervening
autumn and win ter ; neither could the winter (sa rapic1ly suc­
ceeding the summer and hence tempered by its lingering \Varmth)
 PA RA DISE. :l8S

occupy the zones with its cold, without the rapid return of spring
and summer dissipating these chills.
The duration of the seasons thus being shortened, they would
become as it \Vere confounded, and collectively would form only
one perpetuaI spring. Moreover, if the lengths of the days and
nights were extremely short, the heat of a summer's day infused
into the earth would become dissipated by the cold of the night
and the cold of the night by the heat of the day. In this case the
vernal temperature wonld be the same as if a thermometer were
appended to a cylinder and the cylinder rapidIy rotated before a
fire; in which case the spirits of wine in the thermometer wouid
rise to no higher degree than temperate, unless the motion were
too rapid. In this manner then the earth once enjoyed a per­
petuaI spring, as indeed was maintained by the ancient phiIo­
sophers, who \Vere guided only by the light of reason, althongh
the cause of the vernal duration was a subject of which they were
ignorant. Ovid, therefore, makes the following beautiful
allusion :­
"The Golden Agil was first :-whenFaith and Right
Were honoured, by no law enfoœed with fear
Of pain or penalty
Spontaneous earth, unwoundecl by the stroke
Of share 01' hanow, gave them aH her store.
Content with food unlaboured, frmt they plucked
Of <}rblltus, 01' 1Il0untain-strawbeny.

Amidst etel'llal Spring, the gentle breath

Of Zephyr fostering cheered the llnSOWll flower~.
Earth gave her corn llnplollghed, and, year by year,
Unfallowed, whitened fresh with plellteolls grain.
'Vith flood of milk and nedar l'an the streams,
And from the oak the honeyed gulcl clistiHecl." 1

Again the poet, when signifying that the seasons were shorter
than they are now, observes ;­
" 'Vhen-Saturn clown to dal'ksome TaI,tarus hurled­
.J ove rulecl the world, the Age, of Sih'er cal1eel,
SlIcceeelecl, worse than that of Gold, but far
Before the time of ta wny BraSE.

l.lIela>(W7ï)1I0SCR, lib. i., 11. 89, 90, 101·104, and 107-112, translatell by
H. King.-l'i·S.
28ô l'ARAD/SE.

'1'\\"H8 Jove the limit., of the pl"imal Spl"ing

Contmcted, and, with change of ,easons fonl",

,\Tinter, and Suml1lcr, Antnllln va.l"iable,

_"IlHl shmtened Spring, tilled out the furnished l'l,al"." 1

Virgil :­
"1 would believe that even ,ndl were tlle day" that (la\\"ncd at th~ hl"st
opening of the ne\\"-cl"eated wOl"ld, ~l1ll1 sneh the conrse they kept ; 't\\"aS
~pl"ing-tillle thcn, the mighty globe was passing a season of ~I)["ing, ami the
Eastern galc" rcstl"ain~d t heil" win Ll"Y blasts." 2

Alcimus Avitus : ­
" Km winter here hcld his altcrnate l"cign ;
~ Ol" aftcr wintcl" chills shane bnming" SllllS ;
. . . . But hel"e soft spring her constant l'eign maintained ;
Unknown as yet the mthless southern blast.
And evel" undel"neath the dew.v heavens
Into clear ait' thc gathel'ing mist dissolved.":l

The ancient philosophers, in their references to this pcriod,

thought that paraclise was sitllated in sorne higher region than
that occupieel by the surface of the earth at the present day,
so that they would seem ta have imagined that the earth \Vas
nearcr the sun; and so Plato in his Phœdo (§§ 109, 110) speaks
of a certain ethercal earth. Hesiod 4 mentions the garc1en of the
Hcsperidcs beyond the ocean; Moses also tells of a fiery fiamiug
s'Nord separating the first man from paradise. 5 Thus the whole
globe \Vas ac1ornec1 with a kind of paraclise as the result of a con­
tinuous spring time; all nature was in her illfancy, sportive
and smiling. This \Vas the time of the golden ages, wheu accord­
ing ta the philosophy of the ancients the gods \Vere barn. l'hen
Flora and Ceres reclinec1 eternally on the earth upon thcir grassy
couches. Dianft with hcr nymphs \Vent through cvery wooel.
Jupiter, Phœbus, and the rest of the gods, lived in claily inter­
course with men, and celebratecl their loves in every grave.
Pinto came forth from his Tartarean shadows into the light of
clay, and carriecl off Proserpine; and Venus with her son Mars
concerned tl1emselves \Vith love and battle.
l ),[etamorl'lIoscs, lill. i., 11. 1]3-118.-7"i'8.
, Geoi'ljica, lib. ii., ll. 33G-:3'39, tr:llls1atcc! uy ,J. Lonsdale an-:l S. Leo.-T".
;j Poc-mcrt('." lib. i., "De Iuitio r\lnndi," lI. 2]8, ~19, 222-~2J.-T,'s.
• 1'hcoljOdÙI , Il. 214-21G.-Ti's. ., Genesis iii. 24.-1'.. .,-.
 PA NAD/SE. 2Sj

Ra.d not an uninterrupted spring surrounded the em·th, the

earth through aIl its changes could never have received tl18 seeds
of things, nor have prolonged its existence for sa long a time
beyond the age of iufancy, after having received life, as it \Vere,
in the \Vomb of its mother; a kind of continuous spring was,
therefore, the most efficient and almost the only means br wmch
things could have been generated.
At the very time of creation it was eommanded that the soil
should bring forth its seeds; the seed its tender shoots and fruit;
the sea its fish; and the earth its animaIs; not ta mention other
things which show that the Omnipotent l'roduced and perfected
the world by the use of means, whieh we may reasonably believe
ta have been those innumerable changes and that continuous
spring by which alone the various objects of the world could have
been brought into being. And how wonderful is it that the earth
briugs forth her seeds, which not only l'roduce shrubs, and
fiowers, and herbs, but also continually reproduce themselves!
How wonderful is nature also in the alùmal and vegetable
kingc1oms! Thus, although perpetuaI spring hegan gradually
to leave the earth and recede far off, although winters and
unequal autumns succeeded, yet aIl things continued thcir life
as when they cnjoyed a constant vernal temperature. Vve
cannot but be moved, then, with a feeling of amazement, wonder,
and adoration in the contemplation of aB these signs of the
infinite l'are and prudence of which the)' arc the clearest
·l'viùenees.
When, therefore, this globe beeame fertile iu, beautified by, and
adorned with plant life, and animaIs of all kinds had COlne into
existence, then the first man was introduced into paradise,
created to enjoy aIl the harmony of tIle visible world. He was
made ta be partaker of a more subtIl' or rational aura, in order
that he might know how to render the worlel around him still
more perfeet, by accomplishing that wmch could be effecterl only
through the medium of a living and rational agent endowed with
il, material body, a being able to enjoy the charms and varieties

of nature, and become wise that he lUight venerate, 1m'e, and

288 PARAD/SE.

worship that infinitely wise God who is the Author and Builder
of the universe; and whose better and more refined nature,
though clothed with a material garment, might aspire cven to
heaven itself. Oh! man, how happy, thrice happy thy destin}',
born to the joys both of earth and of heaven !
 CONCL USlON.
INDULGENT reader, l have now placed before you a sketch of my
philosophical principles, which reach from the first simple of our
world ta the ultimate compound, from the smaUest invisible
to the first visible thing, and, therefore, to the paradise of our
earth; principles connected throughout, as l think, from one end
to the other by intermediates. Whoever aims at laying down
principles, and yet does not begin from the simple, and proceed
in order to the last, cannot, so far as l am aware, perceive any
just connection between them. For he who stops short in inter­
mediates only, does not perceive the end of the series either on
one side or the other, much less does he see whether these ends
have relation to each other, or whether they are connected by
intermediates. This was the reason which induced me to for­
mulate a complete system.
That the principles here laid down are of the most simple
nature, any one may see, and that they have consequently a perfect
similarity to one another, in agreement with what we observe in
the phenomena of nature. From the light of reason every one
may perceive that nature acts with the utmost simplicity; that
aU the various things in the world have been produced from one
and the same origin and cause; that this cause continues on
through every derivative. In the simple itself is that one sole
cause; it is latent in the first derived entity, or in what l have
caUed the finite ; indeed in this one finite are the two principles
of nature, the active and the passive, from both of which the
composite elementary exists; consequently in derivatives there
is latent that which is in primitives, and the same is the case in
regard to compounds and simples; in regard to effects and
causes. Thus nature has her residence always in the cause,
2T ,89
29° CONCLUSION

and reappears in every efiect; whoever, therefore, seeks for her

in the efiect, will be able to find her in the cause.
Since then nature acts by the most simple laws, it may be well
to o:ffer a brief summary of the whole of my philosophy. Let
us begin from the first simple. 1. In the simple the internaI
state is a tendency to a spiral motion, and, consequently, its
endeavour or efiort is of a similar kind. 2. In the first finite
arising therefrom there is a spiral motion of the parts, as is the
ease also in the other finites, so that there is a similarity in all
the finites. 3. From this single cause there results in every finite
a progressive motion of the parts, an axiUary motion of the whole,
and, if nothing pre vents, a local motion also. 4:. If the motion
is local the actives arise, one similar to the other. 5. From
finites and actives arises the elementary, one similar to the other,
and di:ffering only in degree and dimension. It is, therefore,
evident that 1 conceive the existence of only three kinds of
bodies, namely, finites, actives, and the compounds of these, or
elementaries.
With regard to finites, 1 have stated that one is generated from
the other; that aU the finites thus arising are perfectly similar
to one another, di:ffering only in degree and dimension; that the
fifth finite is thus similar to the fourth, the fourth to the third,
the third to the second, the second to the first, and the first to its
simple; so that he who has learnt the nature of one wiU have
learnt the nature of aIl. In the same manner the actives are aU
perfectly similar to one another; the fifth, fourth, third, second,
and first, being aU of the same nature, andlike the finites, difier·
ing only in dimension and degree. The elementaries, moreover,
are similar to one another, being compounded of the passive
and active, or of the finite and active, finites occupying its sur­
face, and actives its interior; hence the first, second, third,
fourth, and fifth elements are aU similar to one another, and he
who ha" learnt the nature of one will have learnt the nature of aIl.
1 have stated also that in every finite there are three distinct
motions; a progressive motion of the parts, an axiUary motion,
and, if nothing prevents, a local motion; that, so far as 1 am
 CONCLUSION. 291

aware, these are the only motions in nature; or at least, if the

motions of bodies be granted, it cannot be denied by any rational
being, that of aU others these are the most highly adapted to the
operations of nature. 1 also state with regard to these motions.
that they also proceed from one and the same source or cause­
the spiral motion of the parts; and that since this motion is
most highly natural, it is also most highly mechanical, being
·endowed as we know with every possible mechanical potency
and force; and that if it be granted that motion is the cause of
things, no other motion can be granted than the one which is
highly mechanical. In the simple, however, since there is nothing
-substantial in it capable of experiencing motion, we must instead
of motion conceive of state, or of effort arising thence, as it were,
from one such motion to another such motion; a state in which
the sole cause and primary force of aU the things which sub­
se(]uently exist)s latent. The whole of our elementary philosophy
consists of these principles, ofwhich we have here given a summary.
The reader may obtain a fuller view of tbese principles by
taking a cursory glance at their exposition, beginning from the
point and tracing them to the end. In propounding these
principles, 1 do not seek to gain the favour of the learned
\Vorld, nor do 1 desire renown or popularity; 1 wish to make
these things public, led only by the love of the truth. To me it
is a matter of indifference whether 1 win the favourable opinion
of aU, or of none, whether 1 gain much or no commendation ;
such things are not objects of regard to any one whose mind is
bent only on truth and a true philosophy. If 1 should happen
to gain the assent or approbation of others, 1 shaU receive it
only as an indication that 1 have pursued the truth. 1 have no
wish to persuade others to lay aside the principles of various
iUustrious and talented men and adopt mine. Tt is for this
reason that 1 have not referred to the philosophy of any partic­
ular writer nor even hinted at his name, lest 1 should seem ta
wound his feelings, impugn his sentiments, or detract from the
praise which others bestow upon him. If the principles 1 have
advanced have more of truth in them than those which are advo­
29 2 CONCLUSION

cated by others; if they are truly philosophical and in agreement

with the phenomena of nature, assent will follow in d~e time or
its own accord. And, should l not gain the assent of those who
have already embraceo. other principles, and can no longer
form an impartial judgment, still l shall gain the assent of sueh
as are able to distinguish the true from what is untrue, if not
in the present, at least in some future age. 'l'ruth is but one,
and will speak for itself. Should anyone desire to impugn my
sentiments, l have no wish to oppose him; but should he desire
it, l shall be happy to explain my principles and reasons more at
large. What need, however, is there for words ? Let the thing
speak for itself. If what l have said be true, why should l be
eager to defencl it ?-surely truth can defend itself. If what l
have said be false, it would be a degrading and silly task to
defend it. Why, therefore, should l make myself an enemy to
any one, or place myself i.n any opposition to him ?
l cannot conclude, however, without referring to the name of
Christian von Wolff of our age, who has given so much attention to
the cultivation of his intellectual powers, and who has so much
contributed to the advance of true philosophy by his various
scientific and experimental researches. l refer more particularly
to his Philosophia Prima sive Ontologia,l as also to his Cosrnologia
Generalis,2 in which he has formulated various rules and axioms
to guide us in our progress to the attainment of first principles,
a perusal of which has served very considerably to confirm my
views; although the principles laid down in the present work
bad been worked out and committecl to paper two years oefore
l had an opportunity of consulting his works. In the revision
of the present volume l acknowledge myself much indebted to
his publications; so much so, that if anyone will take the trouble
to compare the two, he will fincl that the principles l have here
advanced and applied to the world and its series, almost exactly
coincide \Vith the metaphysical and general axioms of this
illustrious author. We cannot but acknowledge, therefore, in
J Pllblished at Frankful't and Leipsic, li30.-T'I'S.

" l'llblished at Fl'ankful't and Lcipsic, li31.-1''i'S.

 CONCLUS/ON. "93
the words of this learned writer, " That in philosophy we must
grant a place to philosophical hypotheses, so far as the)' prepare
the way to a clear discovery of the truth." Again: "Science
can make no progress without freeclom to philosophize." Again:
" Full liberty must be granted to aIl who philosophize in a philo.
sophical manner, nor have we any reason to apprehend from such
a liberty any danger either to religion, to virtue, or to the State."
THE [MINORJ PRINOIPIA;

OR

THE FIRST PRINCIPLES OF NATUHAL THINGS

DEDUCED

FROM

EXPERIMEN'rs AND GEOl\'IETRY

01:

A POSTERIORI AND A PRIORI

A POSTHUMOUS TREATlSE BY

EMANUEL SWEDENBORG

TRANSLATED FROM THE LATIN BY THE

REV. ISAIAH TANSLEY, B.A.

 THE [NI IN 0 R]' P il l Ne 1 PIA.

1. A. PHILOSOPHIC.-\.L THEORY CO:NCERNING THE ORIGI:N m'
:NATURAL THINGS.

For a long time it has been a, subject of discussion with

the learned whether natnral philosophy, throughout its whole
extent, is based on the same fundamental prineiples as geometry,
that is, whether nature as given to us by the Supreme Will is
simply geometrical, or, to use a freer term, is entirely mechanical,
or whether all the operations, phenomena, and elements of nature
proceed by a kind of meehanism, and like that which we have
long known and been familiar with through geometry. Some take
a negative view of this, but others assent to it, because almost
all the constituent parts of figures, masses, stable bodies and
forms are invisible, anù have not yet been revealed by experi­
ment and rational investigation; consequently they eonsider
that sorne of the philosophers of our country take refuge in the
same ideas as the aneients, preferring to resort for an explanatioll
to occult qualities, and to eonceal their ignorance under fallac:ious
conceptions rather than to bring that to the light which they
foresee will be disproved by the learned of a subsequent age.
But others maintain, and try to prove, that natnre is wholly
and entirely meehanical, and that everything that takes place
among invisible partides proceeds geometrically, acknowledging
that the only differenee is that which exists between greater
and less. For they think that nature acts in the same way in
the least things as she does in the greatest; and they l'est
satisfied to prove this by examples; seeing, as they do, the
same eharacteristic of analogy and law when they deal with
vast quantities as when dealing with infinitely small ones.
For these reasons they desire that nothing in nature should be
'97
29 8 THE JlINOR PRINCIPlA.

considered occult, except where phenomena have not yet come

to our knowledge through the understanding and experiment.
Since, therefore, in things of a larger kind, and apprehensible by
our senses, nothing has hitherto been found to exist that does not
acknowledge geometrical rules, and as aU nature is visible, l
consequently know not whether it is permissible to take
refuge in something of an occult nature, and in a quality other
than that which is based on exact philosophical principles. l
also know not whether the human mind can rest in, and, in
a way, acknowledge a theory which is based upon a mechanism
either different from, or ampler than that which has long been
made known. In order that the truth may be more evident, l
desire to deal with those first principles which have been set
forth both by experiment and geollletry, that is, a posteriori and
a priori. l, therefore, fully hope that it will be seen, whether the
mind ought to be content with occult qualities, or with those
that are plaeed, as it were, in the light of geometry. Those who
desire to search out the matter will find that natural philosophy
and geometry have the same origin. If, according to our thesis,
it is true that there is nothing in nature that is not geometrical,
then the origin of nature and geometry must be acknowledged
to be the same.
In geometry the mathematical point is the primary entity.
From this arises the line, as a result either of an infinite series of
points, or of their motion; then from this stream an area is de­
rived, and from this again a solid body is said to originate. And
thus geometry takes its rise from a formless and imponderable
point as if from something unknown. Geometry can describe
the nature of the point only obscurely by means of words. lt
cannot be said at all to have substantiality, since it gives birth to
the line, the area, and by manifold motion, a solid. But it is
regarded as unknowable, and non-conceptual, in order that some­
thing capable of being known may be arrived at, as is the case
with respect to differences in the calculus of infinities. Geometry,
however, is not in fault, sinGe the primary entity is hardly capable
of being defined except by bare words; it cannot be visualized.
 THE MINOR PRINCIPlA. 299
If we wish ta think of the nature of the world before its exist­
ence or creation, when as yet there was no matter, nor even the
point, by whose movement or fiow, the line or the solid could
arise, then we must conceive it as being absolutely empty, or
that in the place of the world there \Vas a kind of immense void
in which there was nothing whatever that would seem capable of
giving rise ta matter. At that time such a point fiowing of
itself or from another, could scarcely be conceived, or anything
finite. Consequently our philosophy or reasoning concerning
the beginning of things ought to go still further back, and
consider whether in that absolute void something may not be
comprehended that could give origin or birth to some entity from
which the hne, the surface and the sohd might be produced.
If a kind of void be granted in which nothing existed that
could move in a material and geometrical sense, much less
produce anything, then it must be entirely infinite, and have
existed befor(geometl'Y; this was primitive nature which obeyed
no geometrical laws, such as they are knO\nl to us. Geometry
had not yet been conceived or born, since the point which
could fiow or move mechanically did not exist in nature. In this
state even our mind is blincl; there is nothing hel'e except
what is infinite and surpasses OUT comprehension. Nor does
the matter seem capable of being expressed in any other way than
this, that the beginning of l'egulal' and geometrical nature was
an immense void, and that the primary origin was only infinite
motion in an infinitel:,- small point. But in using such an
expression we seem to tl'ifie with words, since we cannot form a
conception of infinite,motion, apart from something moving or
moved, nor of such motion in an infinitely small point where there
is no space, in which case two infinites mar here be supposed
- in motion, the infini te of veloeity, and in place, the
infinite of smallness. But because sueh infinity cannot be
apprehended geometrically, we must consequently have recourse
altogether ta something of an infinite kind, and a self­
originating nature, or a Supreme God and prime moyer must
be aeknowledged, who is without any geometrical attribnte or
300 THE lvflNOR PRINCIPIA.

qualit'{. who aJone is greatest and least infinite motion, and

who by His own infinite motion in an infinitely small place gives
rise to the point from which geometry has its commencement and
origin, and according ta whose mIes the whole of nature then acts
\Ve, therefore, carry our reasoning through these infinities up
to a certain primarily existing entity or point. FOI' we can only
define this point as having Ol'iginated from infinite motion in an
infinitely small space; consequently from sueh infinity some­
thing definite existed, that is, the first natural point, from which
ail other things derive their origin; and together with this very
point geometry, or nature bounded br geometrical laws, was
born. This point seems to be something between the infinite
and the finite. It participates both of infinite nature, which has
no geometrical mIes such as our world has, and also of geo­
metrical nature. By means of this point one is permitted to
enter, as it were, throngh the door into the presence of that nature
which appeals to and is adapted to our senses. That from
something infinite the finite can arise is proved by the infinitesi­
mal calculus; and geometry also acknowledges the fact, that
from the motion or infinite fluxion of points something of a
finite charader is determined, whether it be the Jine or some­
thing else. The science of physics also which regards matter as
infinitely divisible proves the same.

2. THE INFINITE AS WELL _-\S THE FI~nTE :YIOTION OF THE FIRST

NATURAL POINT GENERATES THE LINE, THE SURFACE, AND
THE SOLID.

We assume this natural point to be almost the same as the

mathematical point. This is the beginning or primary entity of
lines, consequently of figures, and thus of the whole of geometry.
It is the primaI'}' entity of the lines that exist in nature, and,
consequently, of solid bodies, and of the whole of nature. This
is defined as non-infinite or as partaking of both. But how thL"
was able to generate the finite has been stated in the preceding
paragraph. It is not for us to cletermine how, from infinite
things, something finite can be produced; but since nature, or
 THE IJRINCIPIA.

INDEX OF SUBJECTS.
.1CTION OF IRON AND 'l'HE 'MAGNET UPON 'l'HE ~IARrNER'S NEEDLE, L, 510.
AC'l'lVES may f10w within one and the same space without collision, 1., 143, 144.
Actives, innumerable, may occupy an exceedingly la.rge space, as the solar one,
or an extremely small one, L, 147. Actives occupy space; they perpetually act
upon the adjacent finites, 1., 149. Actives are beyond the sphere of the most
subtle sense, L, 152. Actives have no dimension; an infinite number of them
may be present in one space, L, 155. Actives, their action within the elementary
pal'bcle, L, 167. Actives perpetually acting on passives, produce a third
body, I., 157. The form of motion by which their surfaces are described, L,
193. Actives suppose a space into which they may project themselves, 1., 199.
Actives of the same kind always f10w with the same velocity, L, 202. Actives
must be enclosed by finites; and in their enc!osed space they have nowhere
upward or downward directions~L, 204. Actives act merely by form, velocity,
and mass, 1., 205. Actives themselves are not elemelltary particles, 1., 205.
Actives are simila:r to one another, II., 236.
ACTIVE, THE, OF THE FIR5T FINITE, there is nothing substantial in, L, 139.
lt has no dimcnsion; is an entity, everywhere present, filling the whole world
in its smallest spaces, L, 155. Actives of the first. fini te, thcir motion and
velocity, L, 138.
.1C'l'IVE, 'l'HE, OF THE POINT. The point may become an active, but dcscription
ofit omitted; it is a point impelled inta motion by its own internai forces. 1., 154.
ACTIVE, THE, of the first substantial is the motion of one substantial runnillg
into circ!es and into local motion, L, 138; of the second linite is the same as
the second fini te put into a free sta,te, L, 198. The second active is larger than
the a.ctive of the first fini te, 1., 199. The active of the second fini te possesses
a greater momentuID than that of the nrst nnite, 1., 205. Thc third active
consists of 10,000 01' 1,000,000 first substa,ntials, 1., 207.
ACTIVES OF THIRD FINITE, properties of, L, 206-210. The spaces between
the particies of the third linite are so large that actives of the lirst. may flow
into them, 1.,209.
AC'l'lvE :F'ORCE, the first finite possesses the same active force a..; the point,
L, 86. Active force consists in local motion, 1., 185.
ACTlvE FonCE AND l\fASS, proportion between, L, Ill.
ACTIVE AND PASSI\'E. Unless there were two elltities in thc world, one aetiyc
and the other passive, no elementa,l'Y could be produced, 1., 133. An active and
a pa-ssive are essential to the existence of anything elementa,ry, 1., 156.
ACTIVES AND PASSIVES in arrangement, shawn in diagram, 1., 158.
AIR, without, there would be no ~mduL,tioll, II., 164. The air originated in
successive arder, II., 227.
AIR PARTICLES. Theil' surface consists of fifth finites, and wit'\ün of first
and second eiementa,ry particies, II., 227. Theil' formation a.nd nature, II.,
229-234; are larger than water particles, II., 259. Air and ether pa,rtic!es a,re
similar as to their surfaces, II., 227, and have a "imilar origin and form, Il., 227.
645
64 6 TH!:' PRINCIPIA.

ANCESTORS, the lives of, according to i'->cript.nre. extended to eight or nine

a.gos, and \\'hy, II., 283.
ANGER and intemperate oxcitcmcnt of the body, their disintegrating effect,
L,47.
ANDJALGULA, movemont, of, ,ubicct to meehanislU, J., 19.
ANIMAL T\.1NGDOM, THE, what it comprises. L, 2. Animal kingdom takes its
rise from the two other kingdoms, II., 165.
ANDlfALS, ho\\' distinguished from man, L, l, 10, 1 L
ANTEDELUVIANS, mentioned, II., 284.
ARISTOPJHNES, quoted, II., 175, l!H.
ARISTOTLE, his view on the orginal forll1f1tion of nat,ure, II., 174.
ARR ANG KllENT, motion always precedes, 93. Arrangemonts of parts in
the fonu of mot,ion, 1., 94.
ATTRACTIVE FORCES, THE. OF '1'WO OR ~roRE MAG NETS. 1., 268·273.
ATTRACTIVE FORCES O~' '1'\\'0 MAGNE'1'S, 1., 288-289­
ATTRACTIVE FORCES OE' TIrE MAGNET AND OF IRON, L, 312·318.
BECŒlING, not.hing is at once what it can beeolUc except tho lnfinitc, J., 5:~.
BELl', THE, fOl'med around the sun had a rotatory motion, II., 184.
BODY, the llnimaI. ,\ mechanism, whethe.r in large or small a,nimals, 1., 19.
The motions in the subtle elemcnts and thc a,tmosphere impressed thcir
mechanism llpon t,he hody; ail parts of the body ll'ero .finally coiil'dinated to
receive the motions of the elements, L, 43.
OASSIOPBA, IL new ,tm' in, appeared in 1572 and continued till1574, II., 192.
CAUSE, Ilothing can exist without cause, exoept the Infinite, 1., 51. Nature
l'osides in thc causc, IL 290. Like cffects will folloll' like ca,uses, 1., 229. The
will to know the canses of things is a sign of a desire ta be wise, L, 2.
CENTRE OF CRA VITY, THE, in a spiral is not in the oentre of the system,
L, 99; a particle progl'esses in like manner as the centre of gravity, 1., 100.
The centre of gral-ity consists in motion, L, 117. The centre of gravity is
in the plane of thc ecliptic. not in tha,t, of the equator; motion of, 1., 137.
CHAOS, common ta the suu and planets, II., 178. O\'id, quoted in
l'cga,rd ta chaos, II., 190.
CHE)lISTRY and experienoe, L, 9.
C'rRCULAR, the eircultu' forlU is the most peJ'feet" 1., 69. No figure more
perfect than the circulaI.', but it, is the pcrpetually circulaI' or spiral, I., 90.
The propcrtie., of the circulH!' .figure, 1., 115.
CONNECTION, THE, between ends and means fonns the very life and essence
of na ture, L, 22.
CONTIGUIl'Y, the mechanism of the wodd consi,t, of; and by means of it, el'cry
operation takes place, I., 22. There is contiguit,y in all things; illustrated
from the veget.able and animal kingdoms, L, 23. It is the key to causes, L, 24.
The eq uilibrium of ail things in the elements depends on contiguity, 1. It
cause8 the appearance of presenoe, 1., 42. Ali thingR are contiguous
floom the 8un ta the bottom of the atmosphere, J., 42. Elementary nature
exists and consi~ts in contiguity, 1., 176.
CO~YEXI·I'Y. a sign of perfectly equal pressure, I., 161.
CORPUSCLES can move a volume of ether, but not a volume of ail', rI., 219.
CREATIONS, new, may ".rise in endless succession, n., 162. The solar Cl'l"t
was not nnlike an elementm'Y particle, II., 182. The crnst round the sun
cOllsisted of fomth finit~s, and had a circulaI' motion. II., 181, 182.' The process
of oollapsing and forming: a belt, or crnst, and finally taking the fonu of globes,
II., 18:3, 184.
 INDEX OF 5UBjECT5. 647
DECLINATION OF THE ilLAG:\ET. Tahles of ohsernd ions of. from \l'ork by
Athanasius Kueher, II., 14-2n; in Acla ]l;rudilonl11l, :{(J; in Christ,ian Wolff's
AlIe";wnd niUzlichc 11er.mc/i.e. :l2, :~:~; taI_en at· Paris, :~:). :~4; London.:N;
Bt'rlin. by Kircher, :H; in the 13altic, afi: in voyage~ to FT lIdson\ Ba.y, :~ii·:l9 :
obsel'\'ations contained in Jliscellanca Our iosa , an.40; taken hy Feiiillt\e,
41; in the South Sea, 42, 4:1; by No,;l, 43, 44; in oca of Slindil., 4,1· :
in Ethiopic Oceans, 45, 46. 4D, 50; recol'det! in liisloire de l'Ac(rdbm:e Royale
des Sciences, 46. 47; taken by Captain HonssHye, ,n; eonta.ined in
Tf is/oiTe de l'Acadimie Royale des Sciences, 48, 49; on the eo,"st of
Aft'iea..50; tn.kl'n by Comma.nder de La Verune, 01; hom nitml'ier's NCle
Voyage round the Wodd, 51; dest'.l'ihel1 in the ]JiBloire de l'Acadrlmie de.>
SC'iences, 52, 5a. Dec1inution of the magnet, calculatcd at Lonùon fol' the
.vears 1722, II., fHl.80; 1700, /;0-82; 1692, S2·84; 1735, 84·R5; at:Pari" lolO,
86·RS: 1620,88·90; l(j:~0, !J0·D2; W40. n:~·u;;: 16:;0. Do·97; 166:;.97·]00:
](;70,100·102: ](;80,102-104; J(iDO, 104·[U.;; 1iOO, 107-LOO: 1710, IO!)·] Il ;
li20,1l1.II:L 1730,113·116; 1740,IHj·I'li; 1750,118-120; ],(;1\]20.122;
17iO. 122·12:3; 1780, 124-12(;. Tahles of declinntions at ]Jo'H!on and l~al'i"
127·1:32. Calt:ultttion of declinn tion at Home. 1(;70, ] :~;1·1 :~:j ; Umlliborg,
1672, 13fi·137; OH voyage to Hudson's Straits. 1721 and li2;';. l:l7·I:IO; :->obalù
hlands, 1.707, 1:~!l·142: Cape of Gootl Hope, 1600. .l42·14fi; l(ii5, l-1c:;.147;
1720, 147·149.
DELIGHT:> of t,he first mail, uatme of. ùesel'ibcd, J., 4n,
DIPPER}]"'TIAl, CALCUL"S refened to. 1.. 21, 7(;.
DrSJUNCTIVE A:<ll REl'liLSn'E FonCES Of' 'l'\\'O vH .ll0In~ :lIA01ŒTS, 'l'JŒ,
l., 297·304.
DrSSBm,AJ<I:L'Y is [)roùuecd hy lin,itatioll. multiplicatioll, di\"Ïsioll, geometry,
and modification; in the point thero is llO dissimilal'ity, .1.. 67, ..\ri~es frolll
modes, l., 110. It implies Îlliperfectioll, il., J51.
EAR AN]) J.!;YE, THE, differenecs bet\\'eell action of. IL, 2:l3.
K'R'l.'H. each. in a \Vorld-svstem. in its infallov, \\'onld be ,imilar to OUI' 0\\'11,
J L, lti3. Âxillary motion' of the cal'tiJ. H.: l!)iî, The carth is 11 single
I.arge finite, TI., 200. Consequcnces of the ùiul'nal Illotion of the eMUl, IL,
201. Onr earth, (lJ'igin"lIy haèl '" nniforlll monotony of a,ppeHmneo, II.. 22a.
The changes that may "wait. the mllth, 11., 25:J. The cH"th, on it.s Wl1Y to its
orbit, Il.. 25;). The em'tlt was earried rOUllù (.Iw sun by the stre:Ull of the solul'
'-ortox, II., 272. The earth, sliITollncled only \l'ith ether and air, II., 2:;5.
The earth fOl,'med a vortex roulld itself, n" 2,2. 'J'he Cl'u.st. of thc cartlt formed
lIpon the \Vat.el', JI.., 280, :l.lotion of the earth ill its pas,;age from the snn,
II., 274. The carth underwent innumerable changes before ani\'ing at its
present circle or orbi!. II., 281. Once the emt·h was neal' the sun, lI., 281.
The ea.rth wa.s at· fil'st entirely ullco\'ered, t,hen cll\'eloped in etber, tholl ill ail',
then SUITolHlded with \l'a,tCI', 11., 2R2. JI. is impossihlc to cnumcmte the
changes of the l'arth lIntil il' l'eaehed its finHl destination, .LL, 2R:t rn
completing it; yea.l· the earth onco oecupied only a te\l' ot our ùay,;,
II,, 284.
EDUCATION. lllan distinguishcd ff'()1ll the "ru te" "y l,duelltion "Iolle; whaL
takes place in thc process, 1., H.
EFFORT, wlmt is mcant }n', L, ()4. 1.[ there i., cHort towurd motioll, thcre
must ill~o he form. 1., 5!), ln effort thero are pn,"cnt force <l nd dt'terlllinatioll.
direction and volocity; and effort mllst: PHS; into <lct bcfore anything C>ln
he produccd, 1.. 72. Effort tending to motion gi "CS l'iso lo figure and 'pace;
cxamplcs. J .. 73. \\'h,llc\-cr does or cau cxi,;t iu Illotion i,; p,'e\'iollsly to he
64 3 THE PRINCIPIA.
found il1 cffart, J., 73. The effort of a ccrtain Humùer of paTticles joine<1
togcther is inta " !'ight li nc, J., D6.
EFFLUVIA. or particles w!lcn fl'ee, ca.nnot Le quie~cent; they forlll active
centres, ctc.. L, 247. A hard body throngh which effiuvia cau flow is magnetic.
J.,24n. The effiuvi<1 round a magnet, l., 248. The greatcl' part of the cffiuvia
of iron 01' steel is magnetic, l., 26:3. The atmotiphcre is ladeu with effiuvia,
J.., 269. !rOll. like al! othcr metals, abound, in interior ,paees in which flow
cffiuyin. :r., :317. :\Teither fhune nOr heat can interfere with the gymtion of
<'ffiu\'ia., l., 342. Effiu\ia lie enclosed within thei!' Oll'U yorticles, l., 348.
EGYPTIA:<S, the philo;;ophy of the, coincides with the MOtia.ic philosophy,
H.,178,
ELASnCITY, the perfeet ela;;tieity of the ;;urface of the fil'it clemeutal'Y,
L, W:j Elastic.ity and mo\'ement of partieles, L, 17H.
ELECTRICn'y, how prodllccd, II, 219. Electricity depeud~ npon the vibra.
tion of the small and subtle parts of a body fl'om whieh effiuvi" pl'oeeecl,
putting the ether alone in motion, II.. 221.
EUnI'ENT, the First, L, 156·189. The first elcment is the lllOtit uuiversal
of our solar vortex, and is a eontigl\ous medium betwep.n the eye and the sun
as well as al! the stars, L, 182, 187. The first clement is the origin of ail sub·
sequent elements; c;onsi:;t~ of the smallest parts, :md ean be present where
no other element ean, J., 187: by means of it ail things in the stan'y stysem
appear, as it werc, l'resent, L, 188. Elements arc eomposed of l'articles;
particles are eomposce! of spa.ces anu figtll'es, l., 17.
EI.EMENTAL IV:<Gno)!, THE, what it comprises, 1., 3.
ELE)IENTAL NA'L'CRE, dîftieulty in cxplaining operations of, 1., .{,
ELEMENTAllY PAlll'lCLE, TIΠ:FIIIST, the surface of, is in a 1I10St perfeet
equilibdum ane! balance, l., 162. Hs snrfaee is most pcrfeetly impressiona.ble.
l., 163. lt is, thcrcfore, masl; highly elastie, l., 164. Thc elementary l'article
is the ligure of cla.sticity, L, 166. The finites forming the surface of n.n
element,w)' part.icle nre connectee! together in a eontiguous series, and arranged
spirally. l., HiS. A "hange of state in one finite in the surfaee of an elementary
l'article e'llIse" a change of ôtHte in another throughout the whole snrface,
1., Hm. l'rom one elenwntary partiele there may exist many aeti\'es. 1.. 171.
The clementary particle, eousisting of finites and aetÎl'es, may be compressee!
ane! expa.n<led, l., 171. The elementary I,,"rticle may eeasc to be so, a.nd
beeome a ne\\' finite. l., 17;j. '.l'he finites in the surface of the elementary par·
tide eH,nnat beeome aet,ive, l., 170. In the elementar)' partieles there may be
presenteu every po.;sihle degree of elastieity, L, 170. ...1.11 that had pl'e.existed
is latent in the e1ement,u'y pa.rticle-t,he enbire world system, 1.. 188. .ln regard
t.o figure, elementary partides arC similar ta finîtes anel actives. 1.. I!l3; their
centre of gra"ity is in the surface and in the plane of the eeliptic, 1., 194.
Elementary Jla.Lticles may be expandecl 0,. eompressed, and losc: t.heir ele­
menta.l'Y na,! lire; how this takes pince in regard to them in the ;;olar
vortex, 1.. 213·2:14. Withollt a termination in elementaries. IlOthing coulu
exîst, J., 2W. The second clement"",y p"rtiele~ eonsist of thi,.d finites, and
of the acl,ives of the secone! ane! first finite, anel arc hU'ger than the first; they
originate neal' the sol;},. oecan: they have an axil!nry motion. 1.. 218,219.
The seeone! clementary particlc has, exceriorly, first elementary particlcs, and
interiorly, actives (lf t.he first ,end second finite, 1., 210. Jn the second elementary
partiele, there is e~'eryt"l-lil1g in the worle! that ha;; hitherto aL'isen from the
l'oint, J., 22:3. Elementary pal·ticles re~el1lble a. bubble, L, 234. The most
subtle elelllcntary particles penetrate the texture of hare! bodies, l., 240. The
 INDEX OF SURjECTS. 6-+9
arangement of elementary partieles Hround iron is cliametraL 1.. 513.
Elementary partieles are most highly eompressed nea·r the solar active spa ce,
II., 179. Elementary partieles are enclosed in other partieles, n., 202. Ncm­
t.he sun elemental'Y partieles are in the highest clegree of compression. II., l!)Ç).
EMANATION, a sphere of, perpetually goes forth from iron, l., 510.
EN'l'ITY, the Fu'st., wa,s procluced from the Infinite, I., 51. There i. an lll­
finite Entity, l., 61. The metaphysieal entity, Or point, cousists of onl)' one
limit; but things limited are derived hom il.; il. cannot be geometrically
resolved; il. is simple, yet active, eonsisting in effort toward motion. L, 71.
In every entity thel'C are an equH.tor, an eeliptie, meridian", and other pcr­
pendienlar oireles, L, 94.
EQUILIBR1-UNl in different cOllneetions, L, 161. Attributes of equilibrilllll ;
essentials of equilibrinm present in the first elementary partiele, I., 161.
";TllER, without, there would be no light, II., 164. Doctrine of thc ether,
or the phenomena eaused hO', II., 219. How the ether 'l'as formed and t.ook
its rise a.ll over thc earth's surfnee, iL. 200. Ether penetra tes ,tH bodies,
II., 221. J~ther and air arc silllilar a, to their surfaces, Il., 227. Ether ,md
air partieles ha\~e a silllilar origin Hnd form, n., 227. Thc ether ('in'llbre;; in
water, II., 258.
~8THEREAL PARTICLES interpene·trate the clemest li'lllilb and abo (laJUe;;.I..
347. How ethereal particles differ from the first amI second elernentaTY lli\rtieles,
IL 201. Etherea.! IJartieles are both active and passive: are 'pherienl in
fonl1, ane! in contumal motion, Il., 202. Ail etheJ'e<tl partiele i, more
compressed a t the suriace and more expallcled al. the centre, IL, 20:3. How
ethp-renl particles differ from elemelltary particles, n., 204. Ten"ioll of
etherenl l'articles, II., 20G. The etherenl l'articles ha vc n pel'petual ùentrnl
motion, n., 209. The surface of an ethereal particle may bc doubled, triplet!,
or multipliec1 in varions way", II., 210. The etherea.! particle in highest degree
of compression, is oeeupied from surface to centre by slllall spheres, Il., 211.
Elasticity of ethereal partieles, II., 211 ; exerted equaHy in aH directions, II., 212.
The motion of a volnme of ethereal particles is the same as the rnotiolL of the
l'articles indivie!ually, Il., 213. Diagram of a.u etheroal partiele, II., 215.
]~ther jmrtieles ean permeate the interstices of water, II., 259.
EVAPORATION, water, mereury, and all other liquids c\-aporate nt the "UrÏ<IC'e,
IL, 199.
EXERCISE, man perfeeted by exercise of the senses, 1., 12.
EXHALATIONSFROlVl THE JIAGNET, 1., 347-350.
EXPERIENCE, its nature: it must extelld 0\7er many age" L.·.l. Knoll'·
ledge gaincd only throngh experienee, I., 7. Ail the sciences are from experi­
ence, L, 8. The reasoll why knowledge must be aequired byexperiencc. L.. 10.
Profitable use of experienee, L, 14. Experience and wisdom, 1., ]4. Ex­
perience considered by itself is knowledge, not wisdom. L, 14.
EXPERIMENT, knowledge and experiment only first stop 1.0 wisdoll1_ L, 14.
A thing may be geometrienlly and mechanieally truc, butnot .l'et confirmee!
by experimcnt, 1., 71. The worth of eXlleriment in regard to ethcr. or fire,
wu ter, und the rnagnet, 1., 5.
EYE, THE, action of. deseribed; the mecha.nisrn of the eyc formed by action
of thc ether, L, 19. Connectioll and hnrmony between the eyc and th" mind,
1.,26.
FIN1TE, nothing finite can exist trom itself, 1., 51. What i, finit<' ul.ke,; its
origin from \l'bat is infinite; point argued, L, 51. Whcmver therû is a finite,
there must be something finited, 1., 5R. The simple fUlitc is prOc!t1cf'd from
6)0 THE PRINCIPIA.
poillls. 1.. ï9. A finite eUJl originate onl,v by means of motion among points,
L., 79. The simple finite defined, L, SO. One linite proeeeds sueeessi\'ely
From unother, J., 116. A finite linked \Vith others in a series possesses only an
axillar,v and progressive motion, L., Hl. The partieles in a finite are ûmilar
to one nnother, in rega,rd to form, arrangement ;Ind motion, J., 189. The
form of il nnite il!ustrated, 1., 190-191. From pnre finites nothing proeeeds
hut what is similur to them, lil7. _-\.I\ the finites are perfectly ~imilar, L, 212;
Il., 23ü. AIL finites may become actives, II., 188. Finites round the snn
would thl'oW into ,ha.dow the "'hole worlel-system, n., H,1. Finites of e\'ery
pOW(,1' "ml dimension may hecome actives. II., 2:~;').
Fr.NrTE, THE FrnST, is the least substancc. Tt arises immecliately from the
points hy motions. In the whole worlel there is no othel' snbsta,nce but this, 1.. 81.
It is thcfin;t snbstanoe, J., 82. The figure of the first finite is the !\lost pcrfeet.
L, 83. The first finite origina ted hotu the motion of thc points among t hem­
selves. I.. 84. Thc first finitc in l'olation to thirlgs mnoh finited ,(.11~1 corn­
poundcd is, as il. WPI'C, llothing, L, 89. Il. is t,ho bOllndnry of ail other finites,
L 89.
j<'rNITE. THE SECOND, 1., 106-133. The second linitc derivcs its ol'igin
trüm the tirst aJl(1 Icast sllbstantial, 1.. lOi. Thc second finite consish of
iirst and least slIbst..mtials, 1.. 107. Thc s('conc1 finite, definihon of. T., 108. It
is not divisiblc into ,wything smallcr than t·he simple finites of which it. consis.ts,
1., 10U. No finite is smaller tlJan, L, lOV. Its lIgure i~ similar to t.hat, of the
li l'st substa.ntial, L, 109. The \-elocity of the second finite is less t.han that of the
fir,t linit.e and wh)', 1., Ill. 'l'he cOl1nection of tho second linite with the lirst,
1., 129. The second finite took its origin in some \'olul\1e of snbstantia.b \\'hiùll
wprü in cont.aüt with one another, L, 132. The 'H;tive of the sCDondfinitc l'Ilns
int,o surfaces, L.. 19!.!.
FIl\ITE, 'l'HE THLRD, cousist.,; of second iillites, 1., 212.
FI~ITE, Trm FOURTH, II., 170, 171. The central globe of the earth consist. of
fOl1l'th finitcs, II.. 253.
FDfI'l'E, TUE FmTH. In this point is raiscd to the fifth power ,tuc! henDe is eou­
siderable in mass, II., 241. Actives of t,hc fifth finite entcr into the structure
of tCI'I'l'stTia.1 bodies, II., 24:3. The a,ctiY(~ of the fifth finite is the cause 'llld
origin of atlllosphoric lire, Il., 240. How t,hc fifth linitc originn.ted, II., 224, 225.
Fnm. without, ail things woulel he tm'pic!, elevoid of motion and life, IL, 2;3;').
FLUXlOX AND .\10TION, if is a na.t.nru\ and physical truth that things Jinite
are gencratecl by. L, ilî.
FOlWE, the primitivo in the point, causes onc finite to cxist from anot;her
suel'l'i'si\'cly, L, 1V8. Tho modilication of active force eonsists in ve\ocit,y,
1.. Ill. The proport,ion of activc force and ma,;s, I., Ill. ~atul'e i, a motive
forec. variously modifieù, 1., 228.
Fomr AYD .\fO'J'HlK insepal'able, 1., 20.
GALAXY, THE, i~ the common axis of tho sidereal heuvons, along the ,;"lux)'
ail the vorticf's aTe in il rectilinem arrangement and series, Il., 160: relation
of ot.her ,toilai' \'ortices to the galaxy, II., 160.
GEOMETHY. threc kingdollls undel' the l'Ille of, J., 2. Cieomotry and rahoual
philosophy are the second means leading ta wisdom, L, Hi. Geomet.ry aCl'om­
panie~ the world from ifs fil'st boundary ta its last, 1., 1ï. Things not {inited
or bOLlnded are out.side geomctl'Y, 1., 21. Geomctl'y and the world del'ivcd frolll
the ~ame ol'igin, 1., 56. 'l'he la w and cssential attribute of every substance
in Hw worlù, is geometl'Y, .1., 5ü. Geometry begins with the lirst Iinit.e, L 82.
Geomet,ry reYLli.res at lea~t tln'ee b()undal'ic~ to determine anything by analy,is.
 INDEX OF 5UBjLCT5. 6Sl

1., Il;,. Every finitc thing in a st,tte of rcst pos~cs:;c:; altribllks whioh are
pUl'ely geometrioal, 1., 17. The principle, of geometl'Y are tho same in every
worl.d "ys tem, n., 167.
GYIM'I'TONS may tl'<\\'el from various centre, eithor \\"ithcnt 01' \Vith in tlte
sphere of another, L, 242.
HALLJ,Y'~ MAP, Musschenhroek', remarks on, n., 34-,,6.
HAR)TON\: in the senses il/nstmtoe! by references to the ,eusos ,..nel actions
of mon and animais, 1., 2G, 27.
HEAT, cause of, II., 219. Heat is an intense central motion of the parts of
ail' or cthcr, IL, 247.
HEAVENS. ail the, ho\\"evel' man)', howe\'er "'lSt, yet, being bnt finite, do not
amount even to a point in comparison \Vith the infinite, II., 161. New heinens
onc nher the; othor muy arise, II.. IG2. vVhen hea vens boeome .old lUlU fall
into deCily, infant hca vcns and carths may come into existenec, II.. 163.
H ELIX, 'rirE, exorcises tho powcr of a lever, L, !l2.
RIPPARCHUS, according to Pliny, observcd a new star, II., l()2.
IGNORANCE, infitùto Hüngs of which we arc ignorant, 1., :30.
IGNUS FATUUS, is merci)' motion extending the volume of the ether, without
any rigid cxpansion of its particle.s.
INCIWS'J'ATION, finitcs fOl'lned an inerust<ltion l'onnd the SUll, H., 188.
INER'J'IA, force and effort wit.hout motion in aet 01' effcet, is like something
inert, passive, ami dead, L, 72.
IN'FANCY, slowncss of progro>s from, to manhood, rea·son for, J., 12.
I1ŒI~ITE, that whiûh ioi, i$ beyond the spllere of geometr'y. L, 2·7. The
Infinitû \Vitllout the finite (Jan neither arise nor subsequently subsü,t; is
prior to geomctry, 1., 28. No conception can be formed of a. world
indepcndent of the, 1., 3U. The Infinite exi~ted before the worlel, 1., 40. The
In.fi.uite does·not consist of parts, 1., 51. The Infinite is slLbjeût t.o no modifica­
tion, 1., 53. The Infiuite cou Id bc 01' not be the cause of snch and such a
particular effect, 1., 60. The Infinite C>1nnot be thought of geometrieally;
t.here is no ratio bctween the Infinite and the finite, 1., 62. The lnfinitc is
ntterly incomprehensible; overything vanishes by cOlU]xlTison with, l., G3.
III Ilny compound 01' simplo substance there is nothing bnt the Infinite, 1., 82.
The Infinite i> t.ho cause of tho whole filùto wodd and nlli"erse, li., 151. The
Infinitû i,; il unity in which greator or less can have no existence, and in
\\"hich there are sünnltaneously aU t.hings that ever can be, II., lii1. III the
Intinite, the grcatest and least entity are one and the s",me, II., 152.
INFl.~ITE BEIXG, THE, the philosopher in vain stri \'es to know the natnrc of,
L, 38.
INFDIITF: BXISl'ENCE is exist,ence independently of thc world, 1., ;19.
INTELLlGEXCE, what it is in the soul, we aTe ignorant, 1'., 2·8. A kind of
intelligence in the souls of brutes, illustrated, 1.,29. In the Iniinite.int,eILigence
is infinite. 11l1d infinitely surpasses the comprehension and spherc of t.hc highest
rational intelligcnce, 1., ;10
IRa:>. ThcTe is notLing tndy iron which is not magnelie. L, 2(j;3. How iron
"ecomes magnctic, 1., 264. Partiel(Js of iron fOllnd in almost cvery kind of
,oil, in rivcTs. tountllins. plants, 1., 24(;. Conjnnction of iron with the magnet
hy moans of spheres, 1., 264. A magnct dra wn ovcr iton ca,uses its parts ta
A5;,ome a. regular arrang0111cnt, I., 412. Once irou is Inagnetiscd, it ca.nnot, hy
further fri(Jtion, be fnrther lI1agnctiscd, 1.,413. The spllere of emanat.ion Mound
il'on ex tends to H eOllsidemble distance, 1., 510. ~\faking irOll magnetic, L, 519.
1.rOIl is rcndcrcd lllagnetil, br strctching and hellcling. L, ,i21. Iron filings,
65 2 THE PRl.:VClPIA.

thrown into a definite ordcr by a magnet give an image of what takeô plac" in
i.ron, r., 544. The presence of iron causes the mariner's needle to devia.t.e from
ib true magnetic meridian, II., 2.
KINGDO~I, the animal, what it comprises, L, 2. \Vhat the vegetable
killgdom comprises, L, 2. \Vhat the mineraI kingclom comprises, L, 2. What
the elemental kingdom comprises, L, 3.
KNOWLEDGEgained only through the medium of the senses, 1., 8. Knowledge
without reason does not make a true philosopher, 1., 32. Knowledge anel
experiment only the first step to wisclom, L, 14.
LIGHT, procluces fonns and images of things, II., 219. Light i, ohe result
of motion diffused from a given centre through a contigu ons mcdium. II.. 2] 9.
LIGHTNING, its natnre and action, II., 252.
LnuT, there must be one limit before there are 1,'1'0, 1., 58.
LOCI in spiral motion, L, 93.
LONGITUDE, knowledge of, still uncertain, II., 9.
MAGNET, THE, the sphere and vorticles of the magnet a.lways ,wcompany
one another, 1., 253·254. The aotion of the magnet on iron brings the part.s
of the iron into a straigh t line, 1., 350. Iron conj oined \Vith the magnet by
means of spheres, 1., 264. The sphere of the magnet differs according to its
form, 1., 269. The attractive forces of magnets vary according to distance,
1., 271. The difference in attractive force of magnets, when thcil' axes are
parallel, or when in line, L, 294. \Vhen two or more magnets are applied to
one another with the same poles opposite, then a single s1'hcre ariscs having
two l'oIes one at each end of thc magnet, L, 303. Arrangcment of "orticles a,ronnd
the magnets of same opposed poles, shown by diagram, L, 298, 304. Why
heat alters action of the magnet on ITon, L, 343. The magnet loses its force
and the rectilinea.r arrangemcnt of its parts under influence of heat, L, :3i2.
The friction of the magnet against iron, 1., 410. The magnet cannot CoOl·
municate its forcc to iron beyond a certain depth, L, 414·416. The force of a·
magnet may be greatly augmented by application of an arma turc, L, 434.
ln the magnet there is a type and image of the heavens, a world system in
miniature, II., 153. In every vorticle round the magnet there is an active
centre; similarly, in every vortex in the 11eavens, Il., 153. In the sphe,'e of
the magnet there are spiral gymtions or vorticles; and in the sidereal heavens
there are spiral gyrations 01' vorticles, n., 153. In every yorticle round the
magnat there are prohably minute particles moving about the centre amI
revolving round an axis; similarly, in the heavens, II., 153.
,\'!AGNETTC BODIES defined, 1., 245. Bodies of every forl11 al'e llllLgnetic,
provided the elementary magnetic l'articles CMl pass through the pores,
L, 246. l\!agnetic bodies ha.ve rectilinear interstices, 1., 247.
MAGNETIC DECLINA'l'ION varies in every place, and lIndergoes allnlll11
mlltation, IL, 1. Chief causes of difficulty in making observations of magnetic
declination, IL, 2. Observation of magnetic de~lination ·mil.Y be wrong,
unless the altitude of the pole and the latitudc of pla.ces he a.ccllrately obscrved,
Il., 7, 8. Near the pole, 01' at some degrees distant, there can exist no
directive force of magnetic cleclination, IL, 7. .\IlIsschenbroek, qlloted on
magnctic declina.tion, II., 10·13. );Iagnetic declination varies ne",rly c,-ery
hOllr and minllte, Il., 12; see also DECLINATION OF THE l\!AGNET .
.\IAGNETIC ELE)IENT, THE, fills the spaces between thc l'articles of ether,
1., 348. Jt, flows a.lways in a rectilinea.r, paI'allel, or perfect.Jy reguhr "-lTange·
ment, 1., 520. 'l'he l'articles of the magnetic element hecome perpendicnla.r
near the pole, II., 4. The magnet,ic element. is made visible by mngnetic
 INDEX OF SUBjECT5. 6;3
experiment.'<, II., 57. Partieles of the magnetie element are slnA.ller and larger,
II., 57. The magnetic element exists chiefly in the solar vortex, II., 58 The
influx of the pàrticles of the magnetie element is a,t the south pole. II., 59. The
stream of these tends from t.he south~ ta the north pole il'. a spiral manner,
II., 59.
l\fAGNETIC EXPERIMENTS m,d Sweclenborg's principles, I., 234.
:MAGNE'rre FORCES, causes and mechanism of, L, 233-267.
MAGNETIC POLE. The north magnetic pole moves more quickly ronnd the
north pole of the earth than the south magnetie pole. Tl., 60, Il. completes
it,s circle ronnd the north pole of the em'th within 386 years and from west to
east. The magnetic poles cannot retmn to their original position for 5400
years, II., 60. Angular distance of the nOl'th magnetic pole from the meridio.n
in yeal' 1720, II., 61. The magnetic poles are in motion and pcrform n eert,ün
rolK'ttion aronnd the poles of the earth, II., 60.
MAGNETIC SPHERE. The ;l,xes of the vortieles nrp. pamllel to t,he maglletic
sphere, L, 255. The magnetic sphere eOllsists of elementary pal'ticles bent into
the same armngement as thatin which the point, ROll' in the figul'e (11), 1., 256.
The magnetie sphere with it." vort,ieles is a type and ,mali image of the stan'Y
he<wens, L, 256. The magnetir; sphere about one pole is not, similar to that
about anothel', 1., 288. lt ean flo,," freely through 'lir, ether and \Vatel', 1., 347.
Il. remaius at.tll.ehed to the magnet by the gyrA.tion of the \'orticle;;, 1., 349.
lnnumerable magnetic spheres m<1;1-' intersect withont intcrferonce, 1., 512.
NIAGNETISM consists in the union of vorticles within and withont a mass,
or hard body, T., 250. M:agnetism in t,he samc stonc ariscs hom various
causes, J., 268. Magnetism consists of an element 01' effim'ia mOl'e subtlc than
those of electl'icity, II., p. 221. Il. is oommunicatcd to iron, 1., 410.
MAGNETISI:-lG IRON, by inRuence, L, 520. The magnetisl1tion of il'on
illustmted, L, 266-26ï.
MAN, how distingllishcd from brutes, L, 1, 10, Il. ~ian, in a state of
lntegl'ity described, 1., 42. In a stnte of integl'ity uy the senses alone man
bec'tme possessed of ail the philosophy and expN'imcntal sciences na,tur" 1 to
him; and how this took placc dcscribed, r., 43. In a st,ate of intego'it,y man
posscssed the most complete and perfect faculty of reasoning, 1., 44. Man
in a perverted statc described, L, 44, 45. In fi state of intcgrity man loved the
Deity supremely, L, 48. The first of man's dolights dcscribcd; his \'cneration
of the Deity, and God's 10\'e for him, 1., 49. No love in God toward 11H10 in
his state of non-integrity, !mt jnst.icE;' L, 50. Thc nl1tlll'O of t,hc first nU"l
introduced uüo Paradise, IL, 287.
J1ARINEU'S NEEDLE and magnet, action of one upon i1nother is by Illeans of
sphercs. L, 515. The ma,riner's noedle elevii1tes frOnt its truo magnetil: meridian
in the presence of iron, II., 2. The mariner's lleedle may bc oaused to deviate
by a clmnght of air, II., 3. If not properly set, the mariner', needlc will not
give true indications, II., 3, How the ll1A.riner's needle is aetcd upon by the
magnet,ie element, II., 61. Why the declination of the ml1riner'~ necdle is
so difj'ereot ail the worlel over, II., 62-68.
MASS cannot be attributed to the t,hird finite, 1., 208.
MATHEMATICAL POINT, THE, and geomef,I'Y, 1., 15,1.
MA'I'URITY, influcnce on length of arl'iving al., 13.
MEANS. Given the proper rneans, we shall prou'l bly a l'l'i\'e a,t the true ca,u;;es
and knowled!le of thillgs occult, 1., 35.
M.ECHANICAL. Motions aud funchons in animais a"e mechanical; the saille
is tt'llC of the ol'g'tns of t,he senses. 1., 19.
654 THE PRINCIPIA.

MECHANICAL A~n GEOJ,lETRlCAL, innurnernble things that ure no t, l" 27.

YIECHA)."'!CAL POWER, ail, is inherent in spiral motion, L, 104.
)lECllANICAL rRiNCIPLES. The smallest as weil as the largest thillgs are
governerl by thern, I., 18.
'\lEcHA"''lOS, the science of, is the law of elementa.ry nature, I., 16. The
prineiplcs of mecha.nies might be different in '" world differently formed, 1., 17 .
.\IECllANISM horn of the element,tl kingdom, 1., :3. 'l'he world a pure system
of mcehanÎsm. 1.. 16. }Ieelu,nism is thc mode hy which the worlel aets or is
aeted lIpon, I.. 56.
3ilECHANISM, :NATURAL, illnstrated by hahits of the spider, the beu\'er,
bird~ lbnd i.Jees, r., 27 .
.\lETAT.LURGY and experienee, 1., 9.
MTNERAL IÜNGlJOM, 'l'HE, wha.t it comprises. l .. 2.
)flRACLE, the world itself is IL, 1., 41.
)llRACLES, ail things whieh exist in any other worlel, wer'e they to oceur
in our 011'11, wOllld be miracles, 1., ,n.
}IOlllJCIED, ail fiuite things arc modified or are subject to mocles, T.. .33.
Evcrything that happens takes place hy modification, I., 79. The greater the
nnmbcr of modifieations of thil1gs successive, the more perfect tl]() "'orld,
II., 165.
)IOMENTu~r is proport.ionecl to the mass an,I veJocity, 1., 151.
nIOSAIO PHlLOSOPHY in some mensure eoincid"s with the aneient philosophy
of the Egyptians, TI.. 17R.
MOSES,. quot.ed in refereoce to cosmogony, TI., liS; a.nd in regl\.l·d t.o the
abyss, JT., ] 91.
~f01'ION. Nothing is in a sta.te of motion wit.hout obeying some mechnnical
law; the attributes of motion are figure and spacc. J., 17. Whatever is to
be produced mnst. be prodllced by ,t mode or by motion; ail modification
must l'e8ult from motion, L, ,")1'>' ln the fi!'st. motion of the Infinite, th.ings
future were present and already in exi~tence, J., 5i5. Motion is t,he offspring
of the Infinite, L, 61. Pure and t.ot,'11 mot.ion cannot. be thought of geometric­
ally, L, UI. Described, 1., Gl. Cannot exist in ,pace, 1., G2. Pure and t.ota!
motion is an int.erna! effort towa.rd motion, not \'e1oeity, apart from space aud
time, 1.. 6:3. ~'Iotion is c1cstitut.e of parts, L, U4. J, stat.e, 1.,65. The m'ltion
of the point is the most. perfect in its na.tnre, 1., G5. In real actua! mot·ion alone
lies concealcd t.he cause of ail existence, J., 69. The motion in which the point
consists 18 a.bsolutely perfect., and the fonn of the motion is circulaI', 1.. G9.
Motion exists e.\·erywhere in the point, J., 70. Pure and t.ota.! motion admits
of no de~rees of \'elocity, bnt generates it, L, 71. :::ipiral motion must. have its
centre in effort, and Illnst ha.ve ;t periphory, 1., 70. The foz'm of motion is the
perpytually circular, ,ma therofore spiral, 1., 70. .·\xillary anc1 progressive
motion, 1., 7:3. Mot.ion, which is merely a 'luality and a mode and noth.illg
substantinl, may yet exhibit somet.hing subst.antial, 1., 75. Motion in
goomet.,ry fOl'ms evcl'è' dimension of a body, 1.. 76. The entiro oause of motion
among l'oints must be in the point itself, 1., 80. ,Vhatever is withollt motion
must be cliss.ipated of its own accord, L, 85. Similarity of motion in a poin!. to
tha.t in Il finit'), J., Ri'), 86. In interna.l motion alone consist.s t.he power of
bringing forth sequents into acts, l" R7. Spiral motion must he reciprocal,
1., 92, 93. In spiral motion t.here a.re two poles, 1., 93. Progressive motion
among parts, J., 97; follows the ecliptie, I., 98. lu internai mot,ion in 'L simple
or particle, t.hel'e is a power of putting it.self in mot·ion which is inherent. 'and
permanent: consequences of the absence of this power, 1., DR ~'Jotion gi\'es
 INDEX UF 5UBjECT5. 655

both figure and "pilee, and limitat.ion, 1., lOï, lOS. 100. ,\Iot.ion in LIIü ,;illlple
is aboolnt.ely pe,.fect.. L, lJ;'). .-\ ~Ilrfa<:e may Lé rop"of;cnted b.v motion; illns·
t.ratod, r., 130. Ll local motion re~id('s ail motive and act.i"e force, J.. J:\!J.
'Vithout. local motion no aeti"ity ean bo ooneol'l1ed, 1., 14·1. Every being.
whet.her ln'nte or man, is impelled by intel'nal motion only, L, J;;~. l ""('gntar
motion rcslllts t'rom intervention of dissimU<\r partieies, T., Z10. HO\l' '·0I't·ie<11
mot·ion arises, 1., 181. Motion in <\ ,'olume of ]l<tl'tiele., is aec;ording hl motion
of indiviclunl parts, L, Z:36·Z3ï. MOLioll among fil'st olementary and nwgnetic
part.icles is diffnsod in o\'ol'Y direetioll t'rom ('ontro to ciroumferenees. f.. ~:37.
SpiralaI' ,'orti('nl motion. illllstmted, L, 2:38·240. .'-[otion hetween mngncti('
part.icles run.-; ronnd a centre in il spiral direet.ion, T., ~:l!). 'l'hem 1l1;':V be as
many vorticles as centres of motion, L, 241. \V<\,'es of motion and tl",i!' intel'.
action illllst.ra.ted,. 1., 241.!\Jotions, progressi'-e, axillary, and locaL L. JOI.
J\lotion of two pJa.netary bodies in the solar vortex cakillat,ed, TL, 27G. ;\11)tion
and form in,eparnble, L, 20.
JlUNJ)A~ΠSYSTEM. One \'ortex with il.> aeti\'e centre constitl1tes olle he,,\on.
or one Innn<'J:nlC l''ysteul, 11., 155.
:ll'U.';ICIASS DY NATURE, \l'hy some pel'sons arc. J., 2(;.
:llu~SCHENDROEK q 1I0ted on ma~lletic cleelina tion. ! 1., J 0·.1 3.
SA'l'URAL POINT, the First, 1., ijJ·7A,
~,'TUHE and her modifications c:ompared in eOl11plexity to the nrteries ;lJHI
veins of the body; like a labyrinth, T.. 0, KatUl'e i.'i go"emee! hy ,imilar
meehanieal law in the "malle,t finite things us in the ~reatest.. J., 20. Th"
meebaniea.l wode! of nature is like a spider's \l'eb and the natura] philosopher
like the spider her<;elf, 1.. 30, :~(i, ::\atlll'e is a motive force diversely
mocli{ied, 1., 228. Natnrl' is ah\'i'YS the saille. and identieal \Vith her~elf,
II., .1;'il, 195. Na.tlll'e is identioal in eanses and ell't'ct-. .11., 214. Nature must
arise and he mnltiplied snccessi\'oly, II., 228. l.'lt.imate natnre is where the
senses begin, Il., ~lil. ]~le.mentary na.ture i.'i similar 1.0 hersolf, bath in thl'
great.cst and Icast t.hingH, L, 22R. The ll1iglüic-st operations of natlll'e are ,eeu
in the minutest things, n., 267. NMlIl'e 'lets \l'ith the utlllost sil11plicity,
II., ~8D.
S.EEDLE.. the mariner's; sec :i\JARINlm's XEEDLE.
OXLY BEGO'I'l'EN, THE, \l'hy He bccame man, 1'., {l0.
OmGINS. :\11 things in the wodd de pend fol' their existence upon one
another. An intermediate cannot exist but fl'om sOlllet.hing prior 10 it.'t~lf,
L, 22. Origins mllst he by motion. 1.. 84.
OVIn, quoted, II., 176, 177, 28;;.
PARADŒE. The whole globe adol'ned with a kind of, as the re"l1lt ot " con·
tinuons spl'ing of. II.. 286.
P,mTICr;E, the fil'st clementary, eomponnclecl of iln Heti\'", and a [lH"i\.-e,
consists of seeonû finites and the actives of the fir;t finite, 1.. lM). Second
finites constit.nte the snrfaec-, and aùtives the internaI 'pilce of the [l;Jxtide.
L, lfiD·l60. Part,ides, !1l0"ümelü of "(l!l1me of, 1.. 179. l':lastieity ilncl
movement of particles, 1., 179, 'Vhen moved in \'oinme !"articles prese)'\'e
t.h"ir e'jnilihrium, II., 213,
PHENOMENA a.nd the acquisition of a kllowlcdgc of natul'al thing:-;, f., :1 .
.-\n infinity of phenomena alroacly known, T., 1;.
PIIlJ.OS01'HER, a. truc, defined, 1., :15. The aneient. philosopher" shre\l'dly
guessed the we·exist.enee of 11 ehaotie condition, but \Vere ignora.llt of the
series by whioh things ca.me UltO exi._tenee, II., 175. The reason \\'hy man
in a ,ta.te of integrity \Vas a oom piete ,philosopher, 1., :38. Wilho11t the ulmost
65 6 THi...' PRINCIPIA.

devotion 10 t,he Supreme Being no one ean be a truly learned philosopher,

1.,38.
PHILOSOPHICAT_ KNOWLEDGE, the means whieh lead to, L, 2.
PIiILOSOPHY, Means leading to true philosophy, 1., 1. Definition of
philo~ophy, L, 2. Love of philo~ophy and eontempt of the Deity are opposed,
L,38. Philosophy, summal'Y of author's, 11" 293.
PHOSPHORESCENT LIGHT, AND ELECTRICITY, both have the same orJgm
in the ether, in whieh either local motion, or cise an effort toward it, is set up,
JI., 22(1. Phosphorie light depends npon the vibration of the small and subtle
patt,s of a body, from which pl'oeeed effln "ia l'nttin~ the ether alone in motion
IL. 221.
PLANETARY BODIES, motion of, in the solar "or tex ealClllated, II., 2i6.
PLANETS, THE, are govemed by the same eentripetal and eentrifu~al tendeney
as smull bodies, L, 18, The planets fOl'med by the eollapsed belt of the sun
cOllsisted of fonrth finites, II., 185. How the pla nets arrived at their orhitB,
IL 18;';. Detaih of the formation of the planets shown by dia.gnl,ms, II.,
185,191l. The planets eonRist of fom'Lh finites, II., 196. The motion of the
planets is similar to the motion of fourth finites, II., 196.
PLEASUHES. indulgence in, resnlt (lf, I., 46.
POl "'T, the mathematical point and geometry, I., 54. The point i~ the one
entity whieh gives existence to finites, I., 68, sIotion of the point is ail centre
and ail periphery, L, 71. Internai state of the point" L, 72, 73. In the point,
01' in the effort of the point, lie~ eoneealed the whole power, both active and
pasRivc, of meeha,nically produeing ail finites, L, 74. Once nothillg existed in
the universe but a point, L, i9. The point eannot but produce derivatives,
aud why, 1., 19i. Everything mobile in the whole universe exists in the
point, 1., 198, 'l'he first point wa,s produeed by motion from the Infinite,
L,55. The first point is a kind of medium bet,ween wha,t is finite and \Vhat
is infinite, L,56. The first natnral point is the same «,s the lllathematicai
point, or the point of Zeno 1., 56. The finit, natural point, L, 51- i8, The
first point is a simple entity, 1., 57. The tirst point origina,tes from the Infinite
and then givcs origin to things finite: il., may be eompared 1.0 Janns, L,59.
l'he fil'st nat.ura,l point introduees us into a kind of geometrieal field, L,59,
l'eOlu"tl')' could ha vo no existence without the first point, L,59. The first
point was produced immediately from the Infinite: the Infinite lUUSt hav'e
exi,tüd before the point, L, 60. The first natural point is \Vith out pa,rts and
indivisible, and why, 1., 65, 1'0 divide the point would be to annihilatc it, 1., 65,
rt is not Rpatial and not endl1ed with figure, and why, L, 66. If ail first sub­
sta,nees \Vere resolved there would remain in the universe onl)' simple points;
and ",ere these resolved without being annihilated thcre wouk! remain onl)'
the Infi'Jite, 1., 82. The point,s exist immediately from the Infinite, I., 8:3,
An aggregate of points eannot be finitec1 exeept, by motion, L, 84. The
motion of the points mnst he spiml, L, 91.
POLES of a spiral motion, 1., 93.
POWEH, ail meehanical power is inhel'ent in spiral motion, 1., 104.
P1UNCIPLES, the order of exposition of the allthor's prineiples, I.. i6, n.
PROGRESSIVE MOTION a,mong parts. L, Di.
Pr.IOVIDENCE is ,infinite in the Infinite, L, 30.
:RATIO, the salUe bet"'een the greatest numbers as betweell the smallest, L, 21.
RATIONAL PRiNCIPLE, THE, ,,,hat it does not consist in, l,; :31. In the sonl the
rational pl'inciple is the continuai analys,is of those things which are seientifieally,
as it \Vere, inhcl'ent in its organs, J., 31.
 INDEX OF 5UB.lECT5. 657
REAS ON, man is distinguished from brutes by reason alone, L, 10. The
sciences must co-operate with reason, L, 31. The third means leading ta true
philosophy is reason, without this. experience and geomctry are uscless, L, 32.
Knowledge withont reason does not make a true philosopher, J., 32. The faculty
of reason has ta be acquired at the present d"y by use of means, 1., 46. What
the faculty of reasoning philosophically consists in, J., 15. The facultv of
reasoning, together with experience and geometry, clHHacterise the rati'~nal
Inan, L, 32.
REFLECTION AND REFRACTION, II., 218.
SCIENCES, THE, now far advanced, 1., 4.
SCRIPTURES, THE ROLY, tcach ~us that the world was created by Gad, or by
the Infinite, succcssivcly and in time, 1., 54. vVhatever is confirmed by, is in
no need of confirmation from reason, rational philosophy, or geometry, 1., 54~.
SECOND' FrNITE, THE, L, 106-133. The active of the second finite is the
saille as thc second fini te put into a free state, L, 198; see also FINITE.
SENSES, man alone possesses knowledge beyond tha t acql1ired by the senses,
1., 1. Knowledge is gained throngh the medium of the senses, L, 8. Nature
has dcsigned that wc should bc instructed through thc medinm of the scnses, II.,
152. Our senses perceive effccts, but not causcs, II., 261.
SERIES. A series of things existing successively and simultaneously necessary,
II, 164.
SIDEREAL REAVEN, the whole, is one large sphcre. n., 156. The common
axis of the sidercal heavens seems ta be the galaxy, II., 159. T'here may bc
innnmerable sidereal heavens, IL, 161. The whole visible sidereal heaven
may be but a point in respect to the nnivcrse, II., 161.
SUIILAlUTY, the principal dcgree of perfection consists in, 1., 83.
SDIPLE, THE, has one limit, and arises from the Infinite, L, 52. vVhy simple,
are so called, and their relation to things compoundecl, L,52. The first simplc
or entity is not a finited simple, L,57. A simple admits of no degrees; has
one limit, and is not the cause of itself, L,57. The simple must prccede
the existence of the compound, IL, 173.
SOLAR OCEAN, THE, secms ta comist of actives of thc first and second finite
L, 206.
SOLAR SPACE, no salaI' spacc can be conceived without surrounding finites
or elementaries, 1.. 225.
SOLAR VORTEX, THE, tends to flow into a spiral gyration, L, 104. The greatest
motion of the solar vortex was at the centre, II., 274·.
SOUL, THE, cannot be explained by any of the laws of motion known to l1S,
T., 3. The connection bctwecn the senses and the sOIlI, L, 10. The soul is
the primaI'Y and nltimate constitucnt of man, L, Il. Perception in the soul
compared with the elcments, L, Il. The sonl is deriycd from the aura of a
better world, II., 153.
SOUNDS. vVhy harmonious sounds exhilarate and discordant givc pain, ex­
plain cd, 1., 25.
SPACE is always accompanied by form, L, 20. The natural point docs not
fill space, L, 66. Motion creates space, J., 67. Space and form are shown to
be the result of motion, L, 75. The largest active space has the same weight as
the smaIJest, L, 204.
SPIRAL, THE, or the perpetually circulaI', is the most perfcct of ail forms,
L, 70. Spiralimotion is infinitely circulaI', and why, J., 70. The perpetuai
spiral is the most pcrfect form of motion; it is a flowing spiral motion con­
tinnally returning upon itself, J., 70. The first figure of motion, state and
221'
65 8 THE PRINCIPIA.

effort is spiral; this gives rise to axillary, progressive, and local motions, L,
74. The spiral described, L, 91. Nothing is more regalar or more potent in
its motion than the spiral, 1., 91, 92. From the regular arrangement of parts
into a spiral figurc arises a general effort tending to one and the same general
motion, L, 95. A spiral figure must have a centre, which is not the centre
of the circle, J., 99. The spiral in relation to the circle, L, 115. The spiral
is continuity of motion, L, 116. Geometry of the spiral, 118-12:i. Calculations
based on the spiral, L, 120-12:~. The spiral form is the most perfectly
mechanical, L, 197. Spiral gyrations have a greater curvature in proportion
to their proximity to the centre of motion, or to the sun or a star, JI., 155.
SPRING. The earth once enjoyed perpetuai spring, JI., 283.
STAR. A new and variable star in the breast of the Swan was observed hy
Kepler, JI., 192, also in the right foot of the Dragon and in the neck of the
Whale; also other observed variable stars, n., 192-194. Canse of variable
st,ars, JI., 194.
STEEL, why it retains magnetic force better than iron, I.. 459.
SUBSTANCE, THE FmST, was produced from points, L, 79. Resemblance
to a substance may be reprcscnted by motion, L, 139.
SUBSTANTIAL. THE FIRST, has an axillary rotation, and a progressive motion.
J., 13. In the infinitc there is nothing substantial, nothing capable of modifica·
tian, L, 62. Thc Icast substantial is geometrical, L, 82. How the first sub.
stantials flow together into some new finite, L, 107, 108. The second sub­
stantieL!, J., 108. The multiplication of substantiaJs, L, 207.
SUCCESSIVE OROER, ail things must follow in, L, 22. The existence of
things must consist in a sncccssive series of entities, L, 84. Finite things
came into existence successively, 1., 53.
SUN, THE, communicates to its element a perpetually circnlating motion.
II., 172. In the middle of the sun's vortex is the fountain of ail the motion
oi the parts constituent of its wodd, L, 224. The sun and the solar vortex,
L, 224-229.
SUN SI'OTS, the author's conception of, II., 184, 190.
SURFACE. There can be no yielding in any surface unle~s the contents
within he non·contiguous, L, IG4. A surface may be represented by motion,
II., 239.
THIRD FrNITE OR SunsTANTIAL, THE, L, 211. The properties of the actives
of the third fini te, 1., 20G-21O. The third finite has mass rather than weight.
L, 208. The a,ctive of the third finite is nearly 10,000 times larger th an that
of the first, L, 209; see also FINITE.
TRANSPARENCY, cause of, JI., 2IG, 217.
'l'RUTH is but one and the autlwr's simple aim, L, 78. Truth can defend
itseif, JI.. 292.
TYCHO BRAHE treats of a new star; quotation given, JI., 192.
UNDULATION from a grosser medium to one of a more subtle nature, 1., IL
VMOUR, when formed, encloses within itseif a small volume of ether, II., 263.
Va pour is formed on the surface of water andfrom the motion of the interfluent
ether particles, JI., 263. Vapour may be compressed and dilated, II., 264.
VARUBLE STARS, cause of, IL, 191. Account of, Il., 192-194.
VARIE'IY, the perfection of the world eonsists in variety, TI., 165. A single
variety among a thousand changes makes the perfection of the world different
from what it otherwise would he, II., 167.
VARIOUS 'VAYS OF DESTROYING THE POWER OF 'l'HE MAGNET, 1., 372.
VEGETABLE KINGDO~I, THE, what it comprises, L, 2.
 INDEX OF SUBjECTS. 659
VELOCLTY. vYhere velocity is greatest, there enel'gy of acting is the greatest
possiblc, L, 140. Velocities in the solar vortex at thc several distanees from
the centl'B ealculated, II. 276.
VELOCITY RATIO, first and sccond, 1., 112.
VICES AND LUSTS, their result upon the mind and organism, L, 47.
VIRGINIAN SAND, experiments to ascertain whether attra.eted by the magnet,
1.,460.
VORTEX. Bodies moving in a vortex a,nd ealculations respecting, 1., 123-129.
VORTICAL MOTION, how it arises, L, 181. Vortical motion in a volume when
th~ axes of the parts do not lie in a righ t line; explained, IL, IG9.
VORTICLES defined, J., 241. They may tnwel from various centres, either
without or within the sphere of another, 1., 242. There may be as many
vortieles as there are cent,res of motion, L, 242. One vor.t.iele may gyrate
near another with resistance or retardation; illustrated, 1., 243. Vorticles
meehanically eonjoiued in their motions tend to remain united, L, 244.
"VAT.ER seems to have originated in the same manner as the air pnrtieles,
II., 256. and water originated simultaneotlsly with the air, Il., ~56. Ether
particles can permeate the interstices of water, II., ~9. 'Vatel' exerts pressure
proportioned to the depth and al'ea, II., 259.
"VATER PARTlCLE, THE, is similar to a eompressed particlc of air; It is in­
cnpable of actuating itself, Il., 256. The water particle is non-e1astic, II., 256,
Waterparticles owe the.ir motion and flllidity to the interflllent ether, II., 25f'i.
WAVES OF MOTION and thelr interaction illllstrated, L, 241.
WEIGHT. Active force and weight depend upon the quantity of motion
which is the product of mass and the veloeity, L, 201. Weight cannot be
spoken of the third fini te, 1., 208.
"VRITE. C,,,use of white in COIOUl', II., 217.
Wrr~L. In the cause produeing the first natural point there was something
of will that it should be produced; something of an actÏ\7 e quality which pl'O­
duced it, something intelligent, J., 55.
\VISDŒI, 'ohe des.ire of wisdom is the special mark and characteristic of man.
1., 1. "Yisdom and experienee, 1., 14.
\-VOLFF, CHRISTIAN VON, referred to, the author's principles almost coïncide
with his metaphysical and gcneral axioms, II., 292.
VVORLD, THE, cannot exist hom itsclf,l., 51. The wodd in embryo consists
solely of least possible finites, I., 106. The world had to pass throngh many
changes bcfore "man could he introduced, II., 226. The variety of the pheno­
menl1, of the wodd would not have arisen had it consisted of a single clement,
1., 210. The world is similar to itself in gI:en.test a,s in least things, L, 223.
WORLD-SYSTE)!S. Thore may be myriads of these, and fresh ones may every
moment come into existcnce by the will of the Deity, II., 162.
ZENO, the point of, identical with the first natural point, 1., 56.
660 THE PRINCIPIA.

INDEX 1'0 MUSSOHENnnOEK'S EXPERIMENTS,

ACCIDENT. In the physica.l sciences discoveries are made more by accident
than by foresight, 1., 294.
AIBIATURE. best way of making an, for a magnct, 1., 330.
AR~[lNG THE MAGNET, methods of, 1., 464.
ATTRACTION OR REPULSION, ex periment to determine whethcr greater in two·
magnets, and results; attraction found to be much greater than repulsion,
but no constant ratio, 1., 305-311.
ATTRACTIVE FORCE, differcnce of, in lllagnets when the axes are parallel, or
when in line; expel'iments and results, 1., 294
COMPASS, when use of at sea first known, 1., 473.
EFFLUVIA of magnet, Musschenbroek's doubts as to, and desil'e for proof of,
1., 351-353. The existence of magnetic effiuvia disputed, 1., 371.
HAWKSBEE, FRANCIS, the fil'st to inquire into the proportion of the magnetic
forces at various distances of the magnet from the il'on ; his experiment de­
scribed, 1., 334-335.
IRON, action of, on the magnct; experiment showing this, 1., 320. Iron
renders a piece of stone in which it is embedded magnetic, 1., 320. The presence
of iron rendel's al! bodies magnetic; cases enumcratcd, 1., 321. Action of
magnet on iron filings; experiments and results, 1., 327·330. Magnetic force
universally present in iron, 1., 522. Iron rods remaining long in a direction
parallel to the horizon, in the terrestrial or magnetic meridian, become imbued
with directive magnetic force, 1., 524. Experiments on action of iron laid
parallel to the earth's equo,tor, 1., 526. Iron cutting tools become magnetic,
1., 540. Heated il-on placcd perpendicular to the hol'izon becomes imbued
\\·ith magnetic force; experiments, L, 533-536. Pointed iron bodies acquire il
greater magnetic force than when blunt, 1., 540. Behaviour of iron wire
magnetised, and then split, 1., 504·505.
MAGNETIC FLUID, existence of, disputed, 1., 361·363.
MAG:'\"'ETIC FORCES, metals transparent to; cxperiments proving this and
authorities quoted, 1., 356-359. An iron plate is deprived of its magnctic force
when heated, 1.,443. Magnetic forcc universally present in iron; examples
given, 1., 522. ls greater in pointed iron than in blunt, 1., 540.
:1I'IAGNETIC il'IERIDIAN, iron rods left for somc tirne in, becoille irnbued with
directive magnetic force, I., 524.
lIfAGNETIC PHENO~lENA, Musschenbroek confcsses the caU8e of, to remain a·
secret, 1., 381.
MAGNETISED IRON, communicates its force to othcr portions of iron in
decreasmg proportion, 1., 491. Arrangement of iron dust or Indian sand
about magnetised iron; ex periment and illustrations, I., 497-504.
UAGNE1'ISED WIRE, if roughly bent loscs its force, 1., 494.
MAGNETS, forces of, when placed at a distance ascertained by balance;
apparatlls describcd and precautions in experimcnt, with tabulaI' results
(ex periment 1), T., 274·280. Experilllent to find difl'erence in attractive force
 INDEX TG iJ1"USSCHENBRGEK'S EXPERIMENTS. 661
of t.he two pales of a magnet, l., 289. Action of sphercs of two magnets,
l., 292. Difference in attractive force of magnets, when axes are parallel, 01'
when in line; experiment and results, 1.,294-296. When the opposite pales of
magnets are applicd ta each other, the spheres of the magnet.s coalesce, L, 297.
Action of a magnet on iron filings; experiment.s and result.s, l., 327-330.
Reciprocal attraction of a magnet and iroll, experiment.s and results, l., 318­
329. Best \Vay of a.rming a magnet., L, 330. The forces wit.h which magnet.s
mut.ually attract and repel each other, compared with the distances, L, 333.
Experiments ta ascertain the action of a magnet on heated iran, L, 344-346.
A magnet and iron do not rcspectively undcrgo change in wcight when rubbed
togcther, r., 363-368. Ali the force and strength of a magnet consists in the
regularity of its pores, l., 374. Expc.riments ta ascertain permanence of
attractive forcc of the magnet, l., 385.409. How a magnet communicates its
fmce ta iron, cxpcrimcnts ta ascertain, l., 417-423. The forces of the magnct
do not consist in any tremor of the pa.rts, l., 421. Why the magnet does
not lose its forcc after repeateclly magnetising iron, L, 429. Experiments ta
ascertain action of a magnet on several picces of iron, l., 435-439. The very
rapid rotation of a magnet on a whirling t.able does not prevcnt attraction
of a needle; experiments, l., 446. Arrangement of iron filings around a
magnet and on iroll plates; cxperiments, L, 451-454. Action of a magnet on iron
filings in glass tubes; experiments, l., 455. The armature of a magnet ought
ta be formed of soft iron, 1., 465. A magnet is generally endowed with two
pales, which are not mathcmatical point<l, l., 470. A magnet suspended by
a silken thread, 01' on a float, tUl'llS its pales approximately north and south,
l., 472. Magnets fOl"l1led of built.up steel plates, 1., 494. 'l'he force of the
earth's magnet is quite universal, l., 542.
M:ARINEU'S NEEDLES, action of one mariner's needle upon another; cxperi­
ments, l., 515-518. Mariner's needle and magnet; experiments with, L, 331,
339, 340. Different results in magnetising a needle, l., 483-489.
NEWTON, SIR ISAAC, the princc of ail nrttural philosophers, l., 310.
POLES, t.he two, of a magnet, do not exert the same force of attraction;
shawn by experiments and results, 1., 289-290. Magnets have generally two
pales, how ascertained, expel'iments, l., 470. Definition of pales, l., 472.
Direction of the pales of the magnet; experiments on, r., 474-489.
662 THE PRINCIPIA.

INDEX OF AUTHORlTIES.l
SAORED SORIPTURE-
Genesis i. 2, II. 178
ii. l, II. 178
iii. 24, II. 28Ll
Pruverus viii. 27, II. 178
Academiœ Cœsareo-Leopoldinee Naturee
CuriosorU'1n Ephemerides. See
111iscellanea Curiosa.
Acta E(1{ditorum, 321; II. 30
Albertus Magnns, 483
Alexander Aphrodisœus, 382
Amieus, J oannes Baptista, II. 28
Antonins Pallormitailsis. See Beeea-
delli. A.
Aphrodisœns. Sec Alexandor.
Arehimedes, II. 168
Aristophanes, II. 175, 177, 1!Jl
Aristotle, II. 174
Avieenna. Sec Husain ibn 'AbdAllah
Avitus, Aleimus Eedieius, Il. 286
BALTHASAR, Conrad, Il. 27
Ballard, 541
Bardi, Girola mo, II. 26
Barlow, William, 427, 474
Beeeadelli, Antonio, 474n.
Berti, Jean Casparus, II. 26
Blaneanus, Josephus, Il. 26
Bond, Henry, JI. 34
Borough, William, II. 34
Borro, Cristoforo, II. 25
Boulliau, Ismael, II. 193
C~BEUS, Nieolaus, 321, 383, 408, 4G6,
532; II. 13, 26
Camerarius, Elias, 382
Cassini, Giovanni Domenico, II. 4Gn.
Chesaud, Aimé, II. 28
Chiaranda, GioYtmni Paolo, II. 2(;
Cie,.nans, Joannes, II. 27
Claudianus, Claudius, 320n.
Cobavins, André, II. 27
Colepresse, Samuel, 524
Cornwall, Capta.in, II. 40
Cotes, Roger, 382
Cysatus, Joannes Baptista, II. 27
D'~MPIER, \Villiam, II. 51, 142
Deelùles. See Milliet.
Degner, Gulielmus, II. 2(;
Demoeritus, :171
Derham, \Villiam, 380, 427, 435, 495,
496, 504, 541
Dcsaguliers, Jean Théophile, 481
Descartes, René du Perrot, 371, 380
Durand, Jacques Honore, II. 28
Dykgraaf, 471
E~LPEDOCLES, 371
Epicurus, 359, 371; II. 175
FAURIOIUS, David, II. 192, 193
Fatio de Duillers, Nicolas, 425
Fauchet, Claude, 473
Ferehault de Réaumur, René Antoine,
384, 50G, 522, 528, 1529, 532, 5~3,

Bourdin, Pierre, II. 2.5 538, 540, 541

Boyle, Robert, 321, 345, 356, 357, 377, Feüillée, Louis, II. 41, 55, 141
380, 385, 403, 407, 460, 470, 528, Eon tanerus, Fredericus, II. 26
520, 532, 5:33, 540 Fontenelle, Bernard le Bovier de,
Brahe, Tycho, II. 102, 103 432, 542
Bulbia1dus. Sec Boulliau, I. Fournier, Georges, 471
Burroughs. See Borough, \V. Erezier, Amédée François, II. 55
Burrus. Sec Borro, C.
Buttedield, 467 1 GALEN, Claudius, 382
Byrg, Jobst, II. 193 Gallo, Chrysostom, II. 25
1 Chiefty quotcd or rcfcrred to by Musschenbroek.
 INDEX OF AUTHORITIES. 663

Gassendi, Pierre, .358, 361, 363, 437,

Jardin, Franciscus du, II. 26

449, 486, 522; II. 26

J oblot, Louis, 428

Gellibrand, Henry, II. :34

Jones, Renry, 335

Geoffroy, CLaude Joseph, 321

Giattini, Giovanni Battista, n. 26

KEDDE, Jodocus, II. 27

Gilbert, William, 358, 363, 383, 428,

Keppler, Johann, n. Ul2

475, 483, 524, 526, 528, 529;

Kirche, Gottfricd, II. 34

II. 27
Kircher, Athanasius, 345, 358, 437:

Gioja, Flavio, 474

II. 14, 22, 25, 26, 27, 28, ~9

Glauber, Johann Rudolph, 405, 457

Krüger, Oswald, II. 28

Gmham, George, II. 11, 13, 34, 79

Grandami, Jacques, 475; II. 25

LA HIRE, Gabriel Philippe, 320

Graves, Johu, II. 28

La Rire, Phillipe de, 416, 429, 4~2,

Gregory, Da\Tid, II. 191

437,438,439, 495, 501, 502, 504,

Gregory a St Vincent. See Saint

5lG
Vincent, G.

La Loure, Antoine de, n. 25

Grimaldus, Franciscus Ma,ria, 441,

Lana Terzi, Fra,ncesco, 377, 467

495, 532

Leeuwenhoek, Antony van, 358

Grothaus, J'ohann, II. 27

Lo Lorrain dc Vallemont, Pierre, 465

GUlUppenberg, Wilhelm, n. 27

Lémery, Louis, 377, 380, 457, 458

Gunter, Edmund, II. 34

Leotaud, Vincent. II. 25

Guyot de Provins, 473

Le Tcllier, Jean, II. 22

Lcucippus, 371

HALLEY, Edmund, 479; II. 34, 54,

I,eydckkcr, Melchior, II. 39, 147

5:'}, 56
Lintz, Rubcrt, II. 27

Hambergcr, Georg Erhard, 381, 485,

Lisle, Joseph Nicolas de, II. 48

486
Lucretius, 371, 408, 449

l'bmilton (Jamcs), Lord Paisley, 469

Hartmann, Georg, II. 27

MAWLINI, Carlo Antonio, II. 26

Hartsoeker, Nicolaas, 357, 424, 428,

Manzini, Giovanni Battista, II. 26

431,439,467,493
Marcellius, Renricus, II. 27

Hawksbee, Fra-neis, 334, 364

iVIariug, Simetl, II. 193

Helmont, Jean Baptiste van, 322, 382

Martini, Jeo,n Antoinc, II. 26

Hesiod, II. 286

Martini, Martino, II. 25, 26, 28

Hevelius, Jommes, II. 192, 193, 194

Massini, Il. 193

Hipparchus, II. 191, 192

Mattcnkloth, Lamentius, II. 27

His/oire de l'Académie Royale des

Maxwell, John, n. 45n.

Sciences, 321, 377, 380, 429, 432,

.1lle'moires de l'Académie Royale de3

437,439,457, 501, 506, 522, 528.

Sciences, 416, 515

532, 538n., 541. 542; JI. 46, 4';,

Mersenne, Marin, 363, 467 ; II. 25, 27

48, 51, 52, 54

Middendorff, Lubertus, II. 27

HoLwarda, J oannes Phocylides, II.

Midclleton, Christopher, II. 35n.

193.
Milliet de Châles, Claude François,

Homann, Johann Baptist, II. 14.2

424, 430, 432

Rondius, Jodocus, II. 27

N iscellanea ClIriosa sive Ephemeridum
Hooke, Robert, 541
111 edico·Physicarwm German'icanLm
Houssaye, Commander de, II. 47
Academiœ Natllrœ CU1'iosor'um,
Husain ibn'Abd Allah, 382
II. 39

Molinus. See Moulen, A.

J. C., 529n Molyneux, William, 321

James, Robert, 383n., 461n Moneta, Carolus, II. 26

664 THE PRINCIPlA.

Moretus, Théodore, II. 27
Rogers, Woods, II. 42n.

MOllien, Allen, 460

Rohfl;ult, 1aeques, 437, 522, 528, 529

Müller, Joannes Henricus, 524; II. 13

Rubinus, Petrns, II. 28

Musschenbroek, Pieter van, 274, 289,

294, 304, 318, 344, 350, 351, 376,

Saggi di Natumli Esperienze iatle

416,435,515,522,544; II.10,13,
neU' Aeeademia dd Cimenta, 358,

33n., 34n., 35n., 39n., 41n., 42n.,

369

43n., 44n., 45n., 46n., 47n., 48n.,

St Eligius, Peter de, II. 25

49, 50n., 51n., 52n., 54, 56, 135

Saint.Vincent, Grégoire de, II. 27

Sanderson, William, II. 35n.

Sehonberger, George, n. 27

NEWTON, Isaac, 310, 311, 367, 382

Sehott, Gaspar, 358, 380

Niceron, Jean François, II. 26

Shaw, Peter, ·345n., 377n., 380, 385,

Noël, François, 536; II. 43n., 44n.

460

Norman, Robert, 363. 428

Staudaeher, Miehel, II. 27

Sturm, Johann Christoph, 357, 371,

OVID, 38n.; II. 176, 177, 190, 191,

426

285

T ACHARD, Gui, II. 10, 11

Taehenius, Otto, 359, 429

PAISLEY, Lord. Sec Hamilton, James.

Ta.ylor, Brook, 285, 336, 481

Paolo Venetiano, 474

Tellier. Sec Le Tellier, J.

P'lyen, Antoine François, II. 25

Perrault, Charles, 474

UREMANNUS, Joannes, n., 28

Perseus, Franeiseus, II. 26

Philosophical Tmnsactions, 285, 321,

VALLEMONT. See Le Lorrain de

335, 358, 380, 427, 435, 460, 473,

Vallemont

481, 495, 502, 504, 524, 529, 532,

Verunc, Commander de la, II. 51, 142

533, 537, 541; II. 11, 12, 13. 35,

Vintimiglia, Ca.rolus de, II. 26

42, 45, 49, 50, 55, 80n., 135

Virgil, 343; II. 286

Philosophical Transactions Abridged,

Viva, Jacques, II. 27

335, 345n., 377n., 380, 385n, 460

Plato, II. 286

Pliny, 322; II. 191

WALLIS, John, 473

Polinière, Pierre, 305, 369, 489, 532

Whist.on, William, 337, 339, 363, 364,

Porta, Giovanni Battista della, 385,

365, 381, 382, 425, 447, 469, 470

475
Windham, Colonel, 425

Puget, Louis de, 471

Wolff, Christian von, 357, 358, 369,

380, 382, 426, 437, 522, 528, 1529;

II. 32, 292

RÉAUMUR. Sec Ferchallit de

Réaumur.

Rieeioli, Giovanni Battista, 427; II.

ZENO, 56

192
Zieglerus, Joannes Reinardus, II. 27

Ridley, Mark, 473

Zupi, Jean Baptiste, II. 26

 INDEX OF 5UBjECT5. 665

~rIIE JVIINûR I>RINCIPIA.

INDEX OF SUB,TECTS.
AGES, the golden, silver, iron and clay, 436.
AGES OF :MEN. why they differed when the earth 'l'as young from those of
to-day, 437.
AIR, pressure of, II., 498.
AIR PARTICLE, or that of the ninth kind, ho IV il. arises, 487. How it retains it.s
spherical form, 489. It has a double motion, 491, 492. It has particles of the
faurth kind within, 492, (illustration) 493. New particles formed with the
air particle, 495, 496.
ANDLl.LS AND FrSH. The author hardly sees how, in obedicnce ta Divine
command, these could have been produced, unless the ciimatic conditions and
temperaturc of the earth had differed greaUy from those of to-day, 436.
AREA-, circle 01' line, ail, formed by motion, 302-304.
AT~IOSPHERE, particles in thc highest region of, are capable of distension,
II., 500. Formed of particles of the ninth kind, 513.
BRAIN. Rince the covcrings of the brain extend to the radiat.ing fibres of the
eye, undulations must be taken up by thc retina, II., 470.
CENTRIFUGAL TENDENCY in a vortex; and in the polar vortex, II., 427.
CrRCLE, area or line, a, formed by motion, II., 302-304.
CLIMATIO CONDITIONS originally greatly differed from t,hose of to-day, II., 436.
CORPUSCLE, A, moving with great velocity can mark out a surfacc, II., 535.
COSMOS, THE, originated from the Deity, II., 533.
CREATION. In the beginning of, motion was more rapid than afterwards.
and the years passed more quickly, II., 433. The solar year \Vas then corn·
pleted in a few days, 433.
DIURNAL MOTION, 'IRE, of the earth 'l'as once more rapid, II., 434.
E.o\.R, THE. an undulation in the membrane of, givcs rise to an undulation in
the nerves, II., 508.
EARTH, THE. The vortex of the earth consists of particles of the sixth kind,
II., 424. It was many years before it reached its limiting boundary, 429. In
receding from the sun the earth had a spiral motion, 430. lVlotion of the volume
which gives rise ta the motion of the carth, 430. The motion of the earth 'l'as
more rapid in the beginning of creation than now; night and day were com­
pleted within the time corresponding to our hours, 433, 435. It departed from
the sun by numerous revolutions until it reached itl! present position, 433.
When the earth reached iLs limit it lay in the bos6m of its vortex without
approaching nearer, or receding farther from ihe sun, 434. The effects of the
diurnal motion of the earth in changing its surface, 435. Changes resulting
from the withdrawal of the earth from the sun, 436. When the earth 'l'as at
a middle distance from the sun it reccived a procreative virtue from God, 436.
The earth departed from the sun by spiral gyrations, 437. It was once nothing
but ocean, 517.
666 THE MINOR PRINCIPIA.

ELEMENTARY QUALITIES due to gyrations, II., 441, 442. These had no

existence when the volume of the ea.t'th formed a part of the sun's crust, 442.
They began to exist with the eRrth's motion, 442.
ENTITY, THE PRHIARY, is the mathematical point, it cannot be visualized, II.,
298.
EXTENDED, THE, originates from the non-extendad, II., 533.
EyE. In the eye there is a kind of mecbanism to take up undulation, II.,
469. The structure of tla.e membranes of the cye is R mechanism for ta king up
and distributing the wayes impinging on the membrane, 470. Undulatory
motion takes pla.ce in tbe optic nerve, 471.
FrNITE, THE, owes its birth to infinite motion, Il., 337. Originates from the
Infinite, 533.
FIRE, appendix on, 528.
GEmlETRY takes its Tise from a formless and imponderable point, wlùch is
unknowable, and non-conceptual, II., 298. Acknowledges nothing but what
is natural, 337.
GEO~IETRY AND NATURE, origin of, the same, II., 298.
GEOMETRY OF THE Pourr, II., 537.
IMPACT OF SPHERES, Il., 455, 457, 459, 466.
INFINITE MOTION must be conceived as a persistent gyration from a centre
to a definite pcriphcry, Il., 3:n.
LIGHT. There is nothing in light which cannot be cxplained by the ru les
and mechanism of undulatory pressure, II., 469.
LINE, area, or circle, a, formed by motion. II., 302-304.
MATHEMATICAL POINT, TH~', is the primary entity, II.. 298. It gives rise to the
line, area and solid, 298.
MECRANIOAL. Is nature whoUy mechanical? II., 297.
MECHANIS)I. There is a kind of mechanism extending throughout the whole
body cooperating to take up undulations, II., 469.
MEDIUlI!. There is a medium between the Infinite and the finit';), II., 533.
METAPHYSICS OF THE POINT, II., 538.
nfOON, THE, why it revolves in twenty-eight days, II., 439. :Motion of, 50!,
5001. Its influence on the weather, 507.
MOTION of a point in empty space, II., 306-309. Motion and apparent l'est,
444. By means of motion elementary qualities exist, 517. Infinite motion
must be absolutely perfect, perfectiy circulaI' and perfectly spiral, 53(\. Prima l'y
motion is absolute motion; is that of an infinite gyration proceeding infinitely
froIQ. centre to periphery; in such motion therc are infinitc poles, 337.
MOTION AND ÀPPAREN'r RES-l', II. 444.
n10VING POINT, a circle, area and solid formed by shown, II., 304-305.
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, whethet' it is based on the same fundamental prin.
ciples as geometry, II., 297.
NATURAL POINT, THE, is almost the same as the ml1tbematical point. It is
the beginning of lines, figul'GS and the whole of geometry, II., 300. It wa·s
pl'oduced by motion. It is limited by motion. How it fOl'l~1s a line, 301.
Examples given of lines 01' <ircles fOl'med by a moving body, 302.
NATURAL POINT, the origin of, is absolute motion, II. 337.

NATUllE, like a spider's web, II., 541.

NATURE AND GEO~IETRY have the same, Il., 298.

NEW SUNS OR STARS, why they may arise and vanish, II., 412.

NOAH mentioned, II., 437.

OCCULT QUALITIES, ought the mind to be content with these ? II., 298.

 INDEX OF SUBjECTS. 667

OCEAN, THE, was deeper in primeval times than now; evidenee given, II.,
445. The VTaters of once beeume partial!y enel"Ustcd, 517. Its depth once
extended to the centre of the eurth, 518.
ORBIT. How long the earth took to roaoh its orbit, II., 446.
OVID on the primeval ages, CJl1oted, II., 437.
PARADISE, mention of, in the Sacrcd Scripture. II., 435.
P ARTICLE. A point with its CJuiescent centre may be callec! a partiele of the
fil'st kind or a primary particIe ; it is nething but a point that has origina,ted
rrom pure motion, II., 343, 344. A particle of the second kind is t,he point.
flowing with its centre along spiral eireles, 344. The particle of the third is
formod exteriorly of points of the first kind, but interiorly of points 01' particles
of the third kind, 344. !ts mechanism, 346·349. Tho third partiele can under­
go contraction and expansion, 371-:374. Partieles of the ~econd kincl fla,,"
between thoso of the third kind; 376. Chanwteristies of pa.rticlps of the
fourth kind, 399-402. Plll'ticles of the third kind aro ~UlTOIlilded with a small
sphere of points of tho socond kind, :387; and with a d~finito vortex, :388.
Ch,waotoristies of part.icles of the fifth kind, 406-410. Particlos lue forced by
the sun to aH the peripheries of the sola,r vortex, and they undeJ'go pressme
acoording to thcir distance from tho centrc, 4(iO. The particlo.'! become less and
less in proportion ta their distance from the sun, 4tH. Rcilcetion of from
various bodies, 46::;. A eomprossed particle: ean undoJ'go compression, 479.
A volumo of particles of the soventh kind bocomes heavier the more thg particlos
are eomprossed, 48:3. A particle of the seventh kind cau boeome cornprosscd
into a small globc, 485. How a purticle of thc ninth kind arises, which is the air
partiele, 485, 486. A solid partiele cornes into existence when motion cousos
among oCJual particies, 517. Particles of the tonth kinù may be broken IIp, 518.
Differenco between motion of particles of nint!J. and tenth ldnùs, 521. Pressl1l'e
exerted by partielcs proportionate ta base and altituùe, 523. Particlo of the
eleyenth l,ind, or \Tapour particlo, 523, 524, 525. It can be seen by the eye '~nd
is spherical, 523. Another particle not designatod by namo, 527. Particlcs of
the ninth kincl subject ta undulatory pressure, 507. They possess consider­
able elastieity, 508. How tlley influence other particles, 500. A partiele of the
fourth kind is \Tery small compared with, 509. Undulatory pres~ure of thesc
partieles, 511. Refraction aillong these particles, 511. P'll'tioles of the ninth
kind in the beginning of things extendecl ta the centre of the oarth, 513. Par­
ticles of the tcnth kind or the mataI' particlc, theÎr origin, 513. TI1ustrat,ion of,
514. These eatUlot be oompressed, 516. Particles created one from another
up ta partioies of the tenth kind, 517. Dofinit,ion of the first pa.rtiole,
II., 530. Tt is Il simple finito ontity, 539. Possesses a very rapid internal
motion, 539. Geometrieally, it is the most perfect that ean he, 539. It is the
medium between the point and finit{) tllÎngs, 530. It is thc first substantiate,
540.
PATRIAllCHS. Theil' long lifo due ta simplicityof thei!" food and their un­
sophistioated habits of life, and the peaceful state of theit· minds. The years
\Vere also muoh shorter with them, II., 4:37.
PEHPENDICULAR LINE, A, is not straight but eurved and why, II., 443.
PLANETS. The nearer the pla nets aro ta thc sun the more rapid thei,' motion,
II., 427.
POINT, THE, originated from infinite motion in an infinitcly smal! space;
from this existed the fiTSt natural point; and from this ail things derive their
origin. It is sOllletrung between the infinite a,nd the finite; by it wo enter into
nature, II., 300. Motion of the point in empty space, 306, 313. Innull1erable
668 THE MINOR PRIl'/CIPIA.

points may mark out the same surface without coming in contact, 323. Con­
sequence of the collision of points, 328, 329. Movemcnt of several points or
an infinite number of samc, 320-322. The natural point defined, 532. It is
absolute motion, non-composite, 532. It is a medium between the finite and
the Infinite, a most simple entity, 533. The motion and fOl-m of the point.
534. It existed hom the Infinite by means of motion, 535. Roll' it can give
rise ta a line, an area, a solid, 535. It goes forth directly from the Infinite, 535.
Tt is something pme and absolute, and is the origin of geometry, 535.
Geometry of the point, 535.
POI,ES. Water at the pales stood far higher at thc pales in the beginning
of oreation than to-day; reasons given, II., 445, 446.
PRESSURE around the eguator was far grcater in the beginning of creation
th",n at the present day, and water was earricd from the equator ta the pales
where it stood at a greater height than to-day; reasons given, n., 445, 446, 519.
SACRED SCRIPTURE, THE. Its mention of paradise, IL, 435. Creation of
animaIs, 4:36. Reference of ta the arder of creation, 436.
SATURN. Thirty of our yea.rs egual one of those of Saturn, II., 427.
SENSES, :l'HE. Different ea.paeity of, 470.
SOLAR YEAR. In t.he heginning the salaI' year \Vas completed in a few days,
n.,433.
SOLlOS, ail those found in our earth derived their origin from f1uid partieles,
II., 517.
SIXTH IUND OF PARTICDE, their eharacteJ:Ïsties, IL, 416-424.
SPACE, FmITE, originates from the infinitely small, n., 533.
SPHERES, impact of, 11.,455, 4l57, 459, 466.
SPIRAL MonON, n., 308-313.
STARS, their origin, n., 382. Why they become covercd with il crnst and
vanish, 413.
SUN. A new sun arising in a certain place in the universe at once urges
the surrounding matter into a kind of gyre and forms a vortex, n., 382. In
the beginning of things the sun \Vas eovered with a crust of particles of the fifth
kind,411. This crust. \Vas impelled into a perpetuai gyration, 411. This erust
darkened the sun, and on being disrupted initiated many things in the salaI'
vortex, 412. Cause of the disruption, 413. Result of disrU1)tion of the crust.
426. The sun eonsisted of attenuated matter or particles of the second kind,
426. The motion of the enerusting mlttter deereases aeeording ta its distance
from the sun, 427. The slln drives particles ta ail the peripheries of the solltr
vortex, 460.
SUN AND STARS. holV they had their origin, n., 381, 383. Theil' influence
one upon anothllr, 383. RolV It sun or staT may disappear, 383.
SUN-SPOTS, how they arise, II., 412.
SUPREl>IE GOD (Summum Numen), A, must be aeknowledged, who is without
any geometriea.\ attribute, who alone is greatest and Icast infinite motion, and
who gives rise ta the point from which geometry has its commencell~ent,II., 300.
TELLURIAN VORTEX, effects of ineguality in form, II., 502.
UNDULATION, nature of, in a,n element, II., 456. The generaol undulation
in our vortex arises from the sun's motion. The undulation begins from the
sun and exerts pressure upon the surrounding matter, 456.
UNDULATORY PRESSURE. If undulatory pressure meets a very thin mem­
brane, it ta.kes up a certain amount of motion of undula.tion, and why, II.,456,457.
Undulatory pressure is proportional to the distance, 459. Undulatory pressure
ispropagated in ,. right line, 462, 470. It is arrested by an opposing obstacle
 INDEX OF SUBjECTS. 669
463. There may be many thousands of undulatory pressures in one volume
without being impeded, illustrateù, 465. Why undulatory pressure from the
sun ean be maintained through sa great a distance, 468. Undulatory pressure
is the cause of sight, light and eolour, 469. Undulatory pressure extendR from
the sun ta the earth, 469. There is nothing in undulatory pressme whieh cannat
he observed in light, 469. Undulatory pressure the cause of light; belongs to
partieles of the sixth kind, 470. lt extends from the sun ta the earth, 470.
Refraction of undulatory pressure, 471. Undultaory pressure takes the form
of waves when opportunity is given, 477. Unduhl.tory pressure of partieles of
the ninth kind, 511.
VAPüUR P ARTICLES, or that of the eleventh kirrd. They arc spherieal, and
ean be seen by the eye, II., 523.
VOID. Primitive nature wa~ a,n infinite void, wherein the point did not exist.
The beginning of regular and geometrical nature was an immense void, and the
primary origin was infinite motion in an infinitely small space, II., 299. The
motion of a point in, 318, 319.
VORTEX. A vortex formed by motion, II., 427. In it there is a centrifuga
tendeney, 427. A body 1110ving in a vortex tends ta take a path along a tangent
ta the gyr"tion, 427. In the salaI' vortex there is a centrifugai tendeney, 427.
The motion of, 434. Movement of a vortex more rapid on the surface than
nearer ta the centre, 438. It is in the nature of a, vort<lX ta exert pressure.
Effeets of inequality in the form of the tellurian vortex, 502. The matter of the
telluria.n vortex eonsists of partieles of the fourth and sixth kinds, 475.
W ATER, THE. at the poles stood at a far greater height in the beginmng cf
creation than to.day; l'easons given, II., 445. 'Vhy an abject plaeed in watel:
appeal's ta be larger when viewed by the eye in the air (illustration), 472, 474.
WATER PA.RTICLE, origin of, II., 513; illustration of, 514. It cannat be
eompressed,516.
'VEATHER; TITE, reasons for changes in, II., 506, 507. Influence of the
moon on, 507.
'VORLD, THE, before creation., an empty void, II., 299.