EUROCODE LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR STEEL STRUCTURES

4 . M u l t i - s t or e y b u i l di n g s
In this section, Eurocode load combinations for multi-storey
buildings are set out. General guidance for both simple and
moment resisting frames is given in Section 4.1, since, in principle,
load combinations are the same for both types of structure.
However, differences in treatment often arise due to differences in
sway stiffness, member interaction etc. and hence, specific
guidance and examples for simple and moment resisting frames is
provided in Sections 4.2 and 4.3, respectively.

4.1 General

4.1.1
Classification of frames
Structural frames may be classified with regards to their lateral
load resisting system and sway stiffness. Concerning the lateral
load resisting system, a frame may be regarded as either braced
or unbraced. As a guide, for a frame to be classified as braced,
it should contain a bracing system with lateral stiffness of at least
five times that of the unbraced frame [8], which will be the case in
braced simple construction. Bracing systems using wire ties (as
opposed to open or hollow sections) may result in the frame being
classified as unbraced.
Sway stiffness is commonly achieved through the provision of a
suitable bracing system or by utilising the inherent bending
resistance of a rigid frame. Adequate sway stiffness is important
because it limits the lateral deflections of the frame and hence
controls second order (P-) effects. Sway stiffness is assessed in
EN 1993-1-1 in a similar way as it is in BS 5950, through the cr
parameter (equivalent to cr in BS 5950), which represents the
factor by which the vertical design loading would have to be
increased to cause overall elastic buckling of the frame (Clause
5.2.1(3) of EN 1993-1-1). A simplified means of determining cr for
regular frames is also given in Equation 5.2 of EN 1993-1-1.
Regardless of the frame type, if cr is greater than 10, the sway
stiffness is deemed sufficiently large for second order effects to be
ignored. Conversely, if cr is less than 10, second order effects
may no longer be ignored. Second order effects are discussed
further in Section 4.1.3.
4.1.2

Frame imperfections and equivalent horizontal

forces (EHF)
Frame imperfections may be incorporated directly into the
structural analysis by defining an initial sway for the frame.
However, the more general approach is to replace this geometric
imperfection with a system of equivalent horizontal forces (EHF),
referred to as notional horizontal loads in BS 5950. Whereas in BS
5950, equivalent horizontal forces were only required in the
vertical load case, in the Eurocodes it is deemed that since frame
imperfections are inherently present, they should be included in all
ULS load combinations. This appears entirely rational. EHF are
not required in SLS load combinations. The EHF should be
determined separately for each load combination since they
depend on the level of design vertical loads. For each storey, the
EHF may be calculated as the design vertical load for that storey
(not the cumulative vertical load) multiplied by 1/200 (i.e. 0.5%).
Depending on the height of the structure and the number of
columns in a row, reductions to this basic value of 1/200 are
possible, as detailed in Clause 5.3.2(3) of EN 1993-1-1. If
horizontal loads (HEd) exceed 15% of vertical loads (VEd) these

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sway imperfections may be disregarded, and EHF ignored this

would more oftern apply to low rise buildings.
4.1.3
Second order (P-) effects
Second order effects relate to the increase in member forces and
moments that occur as a result of deformation of the structure
under load. As outlined in Section 4.1.1, second order (P-)
effects need not be considered provided the frame is sufficiently
stiff (i.e. sway deformation under the design loading is relatively
small) this is deemed to be the case for elastic analysis when cr
> 10, and similarly, according to the UK National Annex, for plastic
analysis of clad frames when the additional stiffening effect of the
cladding has been neglected. In cases where cr is less than 10,
the designer is presented with a number of options. These include
enhancement of the stability system such that cr is raised above
10 and hence second order effects may be ignored, making
allowance for second order effects by approximate means
(amplified sway method or effective length method, both of which
were allowed in BS 5950), or making allowance for second order
effects by performing a second order structural analysis enabling
and accounting for deformation of the structure under load. It
should be noted that if cr is less than 3, then an accurate second
order analysis must be performed (Clause 5.2.2(5) of EN 1993-11). The aforementioned is summarised in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Summary of analysis methods and treatment of
second order effects

Limits on cr Analysis method

cr > 10

10 > cr > 3
cr < 3

First order analysis

Result

Second order
effects ignored

First order analysis plus Second order effects

amplified sway method or allowed for by
effective length method
approximate means
Second order analysis

Second order effects

allowed for more
accurately

The most common approximate treatment of second order effects

in multi-storey buildings, which may be applied provided that cr
>3, is the so called amplified sway method. In this method,
account for second order effects is made by amplifying all lateral
loading on the structure (typically wind loads and EHF) by a factor,
referred to in the UK National Annex to EN 1993-1-1 as kr, which
is related to the sway stiffness of the structure through Equation
D4.1 (Equation 5.4 of EN 1993-1-1).
kr =

4.1.4

1
1-1/cr

(D4.1)

Reduction factors for number of storeys (n) and

floor area (A)
As the number of storeys in a building increase, the likelihood that
all floors will be loaded to the full design level decreases. Similarly,
large floor areas will seldom be subjected to the full design loading
uniformly. To reflect this, reduction factors for imposed loads may
be applied for the design of floors, beams and roofs and for the
design of columns and walls. For the design of individual floors,