Chapter 2

ENGINEERING ANALYSIS

Introduction
Analysis is the breaking down of an object into its basic
elements to get to its essence.
Studying the nature and identifying its essential features and
their relationships.
Tools of analysis are based upon logic and the application of
logical systems (e.g. mathematics, physics & mechanics).
The role of analysis in design is a critical one and can be
considered the internal guidance system of a project.

A project without analysis is like a sports team without a

coaching staff.

The Role of Analysis

The traits of engineers and their relationship with analysis.
What comes first: analysis or experience?
At what point in the evolution of a design should the guidance
from theory be given.

priority? Guidance from experiment?

The seamless interplay between hands-on and theoretical
components.
Will the application of the tools of engineering remain static?

The Role of Analysis (Cont.)

What happens when theory and experiment do not agree?

How is it known that an analysis is flawed?

How is a design analyzed?

What are the types and levels of analysis?

Where does analysis begin?

Does a project ever begin based solely upon analysis?

Engineer Traits & Analysis

Universities are developing educational programs to

encourage ambidextrous thinking, or both the left & right
hemispheres of the brain.

Linear logical process and verbal abilities derive

primarily from left side of brain.

Visual spatial properties, intuition and qualitative

assessment skills derive primarily from the right side.

An eventual goal as an engineers skill evolves is to move

towards whole brain thinking.

Engineer Traits & Analysis (Cont..)

1st year students have significant analytical or creative skills,

but lacks broad set of abilities required in engineering.
University education is focused to nurture existing as well as
broaden range of talent.

The Role of Analysis in Design

Process (Complementary Roles)
Design requires different abilities &
perspectives at different stages.
Initially either or both perspectives
can derive the choice of project.

Creative brainstorming
path investigated.

suggests

Next
stage
involves
critical
assessment of the possibilities &
first level of analysis : resulted in a
prioritized list of choices and
rational.

 After first analysis, followed with

iterative & review to include additional
avenues.
Creative review the ways of
constructing, testing & implementing
the design usually leads to prototypes.
Elements
of
final
design,
recommendations for production, use
of marketing are key product of the
review.
Always an opportunity for another set
of iteration and fine tuning.

Iterative Process

Radcliffe [Ref] presents an alternative view of the design process.

Emphasized the iterative nature of design.

New information can be introduced at any design stage, which also

necessitates to return to the previous point in the process.

The Design Spiral : Submarine

Designing a submarine is a challenging task.
Design constraints in designing a submarine:

Size and weight

Environmental challenges (depth & pressure)
Critical life support needs
Hull design
Mission requirements
Propulsion and energy requirements

Design of each of these parameters effect the other parameters

as well.
Different design parameters are methodically integrated with
the help of design spiral.

The Design Spiral: Submarine

The Design Spiral (Cont)

The strong interactions between subcomponents are
accounted in all stages.
On moving from outside to inside, each of the systems is
revisited in an interactive way, moving toward the final
design.
Design of aircrafts, space vehicles, defense vehicles also
offer similar challenges.
Analysis can be viewed as an umbrella that protects the
whole system-ensuring a minor change in one sector
wont produce disaster changes in another sector.

Interplay Between Theory &

Experiments
Design should be a seamless transition between theory and
experiments.
An effective engineer respects & understands the relative
roles of analysis and practice.
Engineer should be comfortable in handling theory
experiments as well as transition between both.

With experience, the choices and application of engineering

skills should become a reflex.

Theoretical & Experimental

Developments

Evaluation Areas for Theory &

Experiments

Several important questions are raised when theory and

experiments are not in agreement.

Keys area to evaluate in theory and experiments are

tabulated as:

Critical Role of Analysis in

Engineering Projects
It is essential for engineers to learn from success & failure.

Success and failure helps to derive valuable lessons by

analysis of a great range of designs.

Radio Detection and Ranging

Required an existing base of
electronic capabilities to be
feasible.
Supporting technology grew to a
threshold to made radar possible.

This development eventually led

to parallel remote sensing devices
using light and sound.
A successful design exploiting one
area of technology may have
fruitful derivatives applications in
other areas as well.

Stay on Tabs: Al Cans

An example of the value of
being sensitive to a societal
need.
Replaced many throw-away
taps and curved pollution.
Recovered and recycled
cans along with tabs helps
in saving tons of aluminum.
Simple
concept
significant impact.

with

Boing 777
40% conventional materials are
replaced with advanced materials.
Advanced
software's.

computers

and

Networking permitted engineers

world wide to work effectively on
the same design.
An example of paperless design
and concurrent engineering.
Considered as the most advanced
passenger planes.

Global Positioning System

An example of an existing
base of infrastructure and
technical
capabilities
making
a
concept
practical.
Satellite platforms and
electronics enabled the
execution of the concept,
permitting
accurate
location world wide.
Example of an area that is
under dynamic expansion
with different set of
applications.

Tacoma Narrows Bridge

Bridge collapsed under
modest wind in 1940.
Modest wind
resonance.

exciting

An example of extrapolated
engineering, effects of winds
were
not
properly
considered.
Engineering design failure
should encourage caution
when
extending
past,
seemingly successful, design.

Walkways Regency Hotel

The walkways failed in 1981,
resulting in many deaths.
Seemingly
non-critical
design change to save time
and cost resulted in a weak
design of suspension.
Unimportant
design
element: NO SUCH THING

Challenger Space Shuttle

Exploded on January 28,
1986.

Design of O-ring seals failed

at low temperature launch.
Seals were critical elements
for
separating
different
stages of rocket.
Decision to use multi-stage
rocket
was
politically
motivated.
This decision made the
design more complicated
than
necessary,
which
eventually led to failure.

Three Mile Island Nuclear Plant

Simple component can cause
major problems.
Indicates the importance of
working
out
foolproof
displays of system status.
Valve failure led to
overheating problem.

to

Visual display did not

indicate
the
actual
overheated status of the
valve.

Reliability
The reliability method of design is one in which we obtain
the distribution of stresses and the distribution of
strengths and then relate these two in order to achieve an
acceptable success rate.
The reliability R can be expressed by a number having the
range
0R1
In the reliability method of design, the designers task is
to make a judicious selection of materials, processes, and
geometry (size) so as to achieve a specific reliability goal.
It is important to note that good statistical data and
estimates are essential to perform an acceptable reliability
analysis.

Safety & Liability

The strict liability concept of product liability generally prevails
in USA.
It ensures the liability of manufacturer for any damage or harm
that results from any defect.
Liability of manufacturer will not be eased if unknown to defects
or defective design.

Best approach to the prevention of product liability are:

Good engineering in analysis and design.

Quality control.
Comprehensive testing procedure.
Warranties and sales literature should be reviewed carefully.

Statistical Considerations

Introduction
Statistics in mechanical design provides a method of dealing with
characteristics whose values are variable.
Products manufactured in large quantities have a life that is variable.
One automobile may have so many defects that it must be repaired
repeatedly during the first few months of operation while another may
operate satisfactorily for years, requiring only minor maintenance.
The variability inherent in limits and fits, in stress and strength, in
bearing clearances, and in a multitude of other characteristics must be
described numerically for proper control.
Evidence gathered from nature by measurement is a mixture of
systematic and random effects. It is the role of statistics to separate
these, and, through the sensitive use of data, illuminate the obscure.

Random Variables
Outcome when two dices were tossed:

A Probability Distribution:

A Cumulative Probability Distribution:

Random Variables
The strength determined by random experiment
is called a random, or a stochastic, variable.
A probability distribution shows all possible
values of a random variable and with the
corresponding probabilities.
The probability function p = f (x ) , a function of
x, is often called the frequency function or,
sometimes, the probability density function
(PDF).
A
cumulative
probability
distribution
describes the probability that x is less than or
equal to a certain value xi.

Arithmetic Mean, Variance , and

Standard Deviation
The total number of elements, called the population, may
in some cases be quite large.
A small part of the group, called a sample is generally
selected for measurement.
Sample mean :

Sample variance :
Sample standard deviation :

Gaussian ( Normal ) Distribution

The Gaussian, or normal, distribution is expressed in
terms of its mean x and its standard deviation x as

The normally distributed variate x can be expressed as

where N represents the normal distribution function.
To avoid the need for many tables for different values of
and , the deviation from the mean is expressed in units of
standard deviation by the transform

Gaussian ( Normal ) Distribution

Probability Distribution Function

Cumulative Distribution Function

Lognormal Distribution
The lognormal distribution is one in which the logarithms of
the variate have a normal distribution.
Use the transformation
y has a normal distribution
The lognormal distribution has the following two characteristics:
The distribution is asymmetrical about the mean.
The variables have only positive values.

Lognormal Distribution

Probability Distribution Function

Cumulative Distribution Function

Uniform Distribution
The uniform distribution is a closed-interval distribution that arises
when the chance of an observation is the same as the chance for any
other observation.
The probability density function (PDF) for the uniform distribution is

where a is the lower bound and b is the upper bound.

The cumulative density function (CDF) is linear in the range
given by

The mean and standard deviation are given by

axb

Uniform Distribution

Probability Distribution Function

Cumulative Distribution Function

Weibull Distribution
Most reliability information comes from laboratory and field service
data, and because of its flexibility, the Weibull distribution is widely
used.
The probability density function, for Weibull, is

where x0 = minimum, guaranteed, value of x

= a characteristic or scale value ( x0)
b = a shape parameter (b > 0)

Weibull Distribution

Probability Distribution Function

Cumulative Distribution Function

Propagation of Error
Suppose we wish to add
the two variates x and y to
form a third variate z.

The mean is given as

The standard deviation

Linear Regression
Statisticians use a process of analysis called regression to obtain a
curve that best fits a set of data points.
The process is called linear regression when the best-fitting straight
line is to be found.
The standard equation of a straight line is

A correlation coefficient r calculates how well x and y correlate with

each other.

Computer Aided Design

&
Computer Aided Manufacturing

Introduction to CAD/CAM
CAD/CAM is commonly used in engineering :

Drafting
Design
Simulation and analysis
Manufacturing

CAD/CAM includes four major areas:

Geometric modeling
Computer graphics
Design applications
Manufacturing applications

Product Life Cycle (PLC)

(Design Process)
Synthesis
Design
definitions,
specifications

Design
Need

Collecting design
information,
feasibility study

Design
conceptualization

Design modeling
& Simulation

Design
communication &
documentation

Design
evaluation

To manufacturing process

Design
optimization

Design
analysis

Analysis
CAD Process

Product Life Cycle (PLC)

(Manufacturing Process)
From
design process

Process
Planning

CAM Process
Production
Planning

Design &
Procurement
of new tools

Production

Quality
Control

Packaging

Order
Material
NC,CNC,DNC
programming
Design need
(Design Process)

Marketing

Shipping

Major Components of PLC

Design

Synthesis: Philosophy, functionality and uniqueness is determined.

Design takes the form of sketches and layout drawings.
Analysis: Conceptual design in the engineering sciences to evaluate
the performance of the expected product. To finalize the best
drawing.

Manufacturing
Process planning: determines the most efficient sequence to
manufacture the product. Outcome is production plan, tools
procurement, material order and machine programming.

CAD Disciplines
Material properties
Finite element analysis
Dimensioning & tolerances

Assembly modeling
Documentation and drafting

Geometric
modeling

Computer
Graphics
CAD

Design

CAM Disciplines

Computer aided process planning

(CAPP)

NC programming (Numerical modeling)

CAD

Automation

Design of injection molds

Coordinate measuring machines

verification (CMM)

Inspection

Assembly with robots

packaging

CAM

Manufacturing

CAD/CAM Modules
Geometric module
Core of system
Developing, editing and manipulation of geometry
Drafting and documentation
Applications module
Geometry is mean to achieve the goal.
Mass property calculations
Assembly and tolerances analysis
Finite element modeling and analysis
Mechanism analysis
Simulation and analysis of plastic injection molding

CAD/CAM Modules
Programming module
Allows to customize the system
Adapt system with certain design and manufacturing
tasks
Communication module
To achieve integration between CAD & CAM, other
computer systems and manufacturing facilities
Collaborative module
To established real time connection between design
teams working in different geographical locations

Numerical Control

 Numerical control (NC) is a form of flexible

(programmable) automation in which the process is
controlled by numbers, letters, and symbols.
The electronic industries association (EIA) defined NC as
A system in which actions are controlled by the direct
insertion of numerical data at some point. The system
must automatically interpret at least some portion of this
data.

53

Basic Components
An NC system consists of the machine tools, the partprogram, and the machine control unit (MCU).

54

Machine Tools
The machine tools perform the useful work.
A machine tool consists of.
A worktable,

One or more spindles, motors and controls,

Cutting tools,
Work fixtures, and.
Other auxiliary equipment needed in the machining
operation.

55

The Part-Program

The part-program is a collection of all data required to produce the

part. It is arranged in the form of blocks of information.
Each block contains the numerical data required for processing a
segment of the work piece.
56

The Machine Control Unit

The machine control unit consists of the data processing
unit (DPU) and the control loop unit (CLU).
The DPU decodes the information contained in the partprogram, process it, and provides instructions to the
CLU.
The CLU operates the drives attached to the machine
lead screws and feedback signals on the actual position
and velocity of each one of the axes. The drive units are
actuated by voltage pulses.

57

Computer Numerical Control

(CNC)

 The EIA definition of computer numerical control (CNC).

A numerical control system wherein a dedicated, stored
program computer is used to perform some or all of the basic
numerical control functions in accordance with control
programs stored in the read-write memory of the computer.

The CNC uses a dedicated

microprocessor to perform the
MCU functions.

59

 CNC supports programming features not available in

conventional NC systems:
Subroutine macros which can be stored in memory and
called by the part-program to execute frequently-used
cutting sequence.
Inch-metric
conversions, sophisticated
interpolation
functions (such as cubic interpolation) can be easily
accomplished in CNC.
Absolute or incremental positioning (the coordinate systems
used in locating the tool relative to the work piece).

60

 The part-program can be edited (correction or

optimization of tool path, speeds, and feeds) at the
machine site during tape tryout.
Tool and fixture offsets can be computed and stored.
Tool path can be verified using graphic display.

Diagnostics are available to assist maintenance and

repair.
61

Direct Numerical Control

(DNC)

 A system connecting a set of numerically controlled machines to a

common memory for part program or machine program storage with
provision for on-demand distribution of data to machines.
In DNC, several NC machines are directly controlled by a computer,
eliminating substantial hardware from the individual controller of each
machine tool. The part-program is downloaded to the machines directly
(thus omitting the tape reader) from the computer memory.

63

Terminology of Solid Models

Coordinate Systems
Model(Master) Coordinate System (MCS)
MCS is the reference space of model with respect to which all
the model geometries data is stored. In a CAD system MCS is
generally shown by displaying X,Y,Z axis.

Working Coordinate System (WCS)

Portable coordinate system often employed when desired
plane of sketching is not easily defined as one of the MCS
planes.

Sketching Planes

Are

the

orthogonal

planes

created by the axis of MCS or

WCS. Creating or selecting a
sketch plane is the very first
step toward creating a CAD
model.

Three Modeling Approaches

Primitive Approach
Views a solid model as a combination of simple generic, and
standard shapes that can be combined. Primitives include,
block (box), cylinder, sphere, cone & tores. These primitives
are combined with Boolean operations.
Steps :
i. Create the block using block primitive.
ii. Create a cylinder in the desired location/orientation.
iii. Subtract the cylinder from the block.

Block

Hole

Feature Approach
Similar to primitive approach, it replaces primitives with
features and embeds Boolean operation in the features
definition.
Steps:
i. Create the block using block feature.
ii. Create the hole in the block by creating a hole feature.

Sketching Approach
Sketching
Similar to features approach, with one change . Instead of
using predefined shapes only, it allows designers to create
much more elaborate & more general features starting from a
sketch.

2-D Sketch

Solid Model

Modeling 3D Operations

Extrusion
Revolving

Sweep

Loft

Types of geometric Model

21/2 D
Have uniform cross-section and thickness in the direction
perpendicular to the plane cross sections. Axisymmetric
model also falls in this category. Models made up of many
21/2 D features are called composite 21/2D model.

21/2 D

21/2 D Composite

Axisymmetric

3 D Model
Are the ones that do not have a uniform cross section and/or
not have constant thickness. Require more than one sketch in
different sketch planes.

Visualization
Once the model is created, CAD system allows to view those
models in many different ways. Viewing operation in a CAD
system can be classified into three groups.
i. View orientation
ii. View modes
iii. View manipulation

View Orientation
Includes standard views such as front, top, right and
isometric.

View Modes
Allow us to change the display of the model to different types
such as wireframe, hidden & shaded

Wire Frame

Hidden Dotted Frame

Shaded

View Manipulation
Allow us to dynamically rotate, pan and zoom the model to
gain better control over its viewing.

Softwares
CATIA
Pro-Engineer
Solid works
ANSYS
Abaqus
I-DEAS
LS-DYNA

Introduction
to
Finite Element Method

Introduction to FEM

Without numerical techniques, it would be almost

impossible to solve practical engineering problems.

Finite Element Method (FEM) is a numerical method

for solving engineering problems.

The finite element method has been employed in:

(i) structural analysis
(ii) fluid flow
(iii) heat transfer

Application of FEM
APPLICATIONS
AEROSPACE
AUTOMOTIVE
BIOMECHANICS
MULTIPHYSICS

FEM in Design : Discretization

FEM in Piping

FEM in Safety

FEM in Crashworthiness

Discretization of Continuum
Numerical techniques in continuum mechanics are
based on the principle that a continuum can be divided
into an equivalent system of smaller bodies.
These bodies are connected at points (nodes) common
to the sub-regions (smaller bodies called elements).

As the size of these small bodies gets smaller, the

numerical solution becomes more accurate.

The cost of computation time may become prohibitive.

Elements & Nodes

Advantages of FEM
Accurate representation of complex geometry
Inclusion of dissimilar material properties
Easy representation of the total solution
Capture of local effects.

Element Geometries

The Finite-Element Method

Since the finite-element method is a numerical technique

that discretizes the domain of a continuous structure,

errors are inevitable.

Computational errors : due to round-off errors from the computer floating-point calculations
and the formulations of the numerical integration schemes that are employed.

Discretization errors : The geometry and the displacement distribution of a true structure
continuously vary. Using a finite number of elements to model the structure introduces errors in
matching geometry and the displacement distribution due to the inherent mathematical
limitations of the elements.

Mesh Generation
The network of elements and nodes that discretize a region is referred
to as a mesh.

Results generally improve when the mesh density is increased in areas

of high stress gradients and/or when geometric transition zones are
meshed smoothly.

There are three basic ways to generate an element mesh.

Manual mesh generation : This is how the element mesh was created in
the early days of the finite-element method.
Semiautomatic mesh generation : this method enable the modeler to
automatically mesh regions of the structure that he or she has divided up,
using well-defined boundaries.
Fully automated mesh generation. Many software vendors have
concentrated their efforts on developing fully automatic mesh generation,
and in some instances, automatic self-adaptive mesh refinement.

Element Mesh

Mesh in Biomechanics

Meshing Curves

Mesh

Overview of the Finite Element

Method

S W G M
Strong

Weak

Galerkin

Matrix

form

form

approx.

form

Sample Problem
Axial deformation of a bar subjected to a uniform load
(1-D Poisson equation)

p x = p0

x = 0, L

d 2u
EA 2 = p0
dx
u 0 = 0
du
EA
dx

=0
xL

u = axial displacement
E=Youngs modulus = 1
A=Cross-sectional area = 1

Strong Form
The set of governing PDEs, with boundary conditions, is
called the strong form of the problem.
Hence, our strong form is (Poisson equation in 1-D):

d 2u
= p0
2
dx
u 0 = 0
du
dx

=0
xL

Weak Form
We now reformulate the problem into the weak form.

The weak form is a variational statement of the problem in

which we integrate against a test function. The choice of test
function is up to us.

This has the effect of relaxing the problem; instead of finding

an exact solution everywhere, we are finding a solution that
satisfies the strong form on average over the domain.

Weak Form
d 2u
= p0
2
dx
d 2u
p0 = 0
2
dx
L
d 2u

0 dx2 p0 vdx = 0

Strong Form
Residual R=0
Weak Form

v is our test function

We will choose the test function later.

Weak Form
Why is it weak?
It is a weaker statement of the problem.
A solution of the strong form will also satisfy the weak form,
but not vice versa.

Weak Form
Choosing the test function:
We can choose any v we want, so let's choose v such that it
satisfies homogeneous boundary conditions .

Steps Involved in FEM

Divide continuum into a collection of pre-selected elements
of simple geometries (triangles, rectangles and quadrilateral
elements)
Derive element equation for all types of elements involved in
the mesh such that
equilibrium and compatibility are enforced
assumed displacement within each element is dependent
upon nodal values
equivalent nodal loads are established using principle of virtual work
[K]e[u]e = [F]e

 Assemble element equations to obtain the equilibrium

equation of the whole problem

[k]g{u}g = {F}g

Impose boundary conditions

Solve the equilibrium equations for the nodal
displacement
Calculate stresses and strains and post-process results

Fundamentals of FEM
(i)

Idealization of structure
simplify the geometrical features of the structure

(ii)

Discretization of structures
subdivide the structure into a system of finite elements. The
size and number of elements are dictated by the
geometrical features of the structure, applied load and
restrains, accuracy and size of computer.

(iii)

Choice of interpolation function

assume a trial function for the displacement
polynomial)

(e.g.

Fundamentals (Contd)
(iv) Derivation of the element stiffness matrix
Derive the element stiffness matrix using the principle
of minimum of potential energy (equilibrium equation).
The derived stiffness relates the nodal displacements
to the applied nodal forces.
The stiffness matrix is a function of the material and
geometric properties of an element.
(v) Assembly of global stiffness matrix
Assemble the global stiffness matrix from the element
stiffness matrices

Fundamentals (Contd)
(vi) Solution for the unknown nodal displacement

apply boundary conditions

solve the global equilibrium equations that can be
described as [K]{u}={F}
(vii) Computation of element & nodal strains and stresses

calculate the element strains and stresses using the

appropriate solid mechanics relations

Features of FEM

have no limitations with regards to geometry,

physical composition of domain and nature of
loading.

involves a systematic procedure that can be

automated for use with digital computers, and
yields approximate analysis by assuming a
displacement field (or a stress field)

Pre Processing
General features,
nodes, elements,
topology, Co-ordinate
axes etc.

Material properties,
yield strength,
density, coeff. of
thermal expansion
Boundary conditions
imposed, mechanical
& thermal restraints

Applied loads

Preprocessor

Appropriate
Input Data File

General purpose
FE software

Post Processing
Displacement
Strain
General purpose
FE software

Stress

Post Processing

Temperature
Velocity

Result Files

Basic FE Algorithm

Input Data
E.S.M.G.
Assembler

Reducer
Solver

Output data

Apply B.C.

Solve for [ug]

u
ij
ij

Mesh geometry
Element type
Boundary condition
Applied load
Symmetry

The Finite-Element Solution Process

A truss element is a bar loaded in tension or compression and is of
constant cross-sectional area A, length l, and elastic modulus E.
A truss element can be modeled as a simple linear spring with a spring
rate
Assuming all forces f and displacements u directed toward the right as
positive, the forces at each node can be written as

Consider a two-spring system, the total force at each node is the

external force.

FEM in Design: Free Body Diagram

Example

 We combine the two stiffness matrices into the

global matrix.

 Now that the displacement at u2 has been obtained, the end forces and
stress values can be obtained by reverting back to the individual
element stiffness matrices
For the stress, you only need to look at the individual node of the
stiffness equation

Reactions

Element Forces

Element Stresses

Softwares
ANSYS
Abaqus
I-DEAS
LS-DYNA