Crusher Fines Surface Trails

Extreme Hazard Zones

Extreme hazard zones are specific instances from the above list where trail usage is either very high or
conditions are particularly adverse. These zones should be widened even more. See the table below for the
increased trail widths in hazard zones.

Width Change Zone

Upon entering and leaving hazard zones, the changes in trail width should not be sudden or even noticeable
by users. The width can change over any distance that makes sense at that location; typically this will be
from 3 to 15 feet.

Side Clearance for Pedestrian Only

Standard side clearance for pedestrian trails is 3’ on each side.

Side clearance exceptions

The edge of the crusher fines can, if necessary, extend to the edge of significant objects such as occasional
tree trunks, slow-growing trees and shrubs, boulders, and retaining walls. These occasional exceptions to
side clearance tend to make the trail more interesting as long as the exception is clearly necessary and
appropriate. Clearance exceptions should not pose a safety hazard.

Trail width changes with extended low side clearance

If side clearance is limited on one or both sides for 5 or more running feet, the section with low clearance
should be treated as a hazard zone. The trail need not change width in passing discrete and limited low
clearance points as long as the length of the clearance exception is less than 5 continuous feet. See the
table below for the increases in trail width.

Hazard zones and low side clearance zones

The values given are the number of feet to add to the normal trail width in the given cases. “Low clearance on one side” and “Low
clearance on both sides” are for cases where side clearance is restricted for 10 or more continuous feet.

Extreme Low Clearance Low Clearance Length of Width

Path type Hazard Zone†
Hazard Zone† on One Side* on Both sides* Change Zone
Pedestrian
with bike or +1-2’ +2-4’ +1’ +2’ 3-15’
wheelchair

†See definition of hazard zone, above.

*Applies only where clearance is restricted for 10 or more continuous feet.

3-22 Trails Design and Management Planning Handbook

 Crusher Fines Surface Trails

Vertical Clearance for Pedestrian Only

Vertical clearance should be 10’ if equestrians are not permitted or 12’ if the trail is open to equestrians.
Trails used for cross-country skiing may require additional clearance (up to 16’ depending on expected snow
depth).

Crusher Fines Trail Cross Sections

The cross section to use depends on the width of the crusher fines surface, the cross slope, and (in some
cases) the trail grade. In all cross sections, the goal is to blend the trail into the site as well as possible while
protecting the crusher fines from erosive drainage. Also see Crusher Fines Trail Drainage, p. 3-28.

Minimal Cross Slope

To provide for drainage on minimal cross slopes, the trail surface should never be the lowest place around. If
there is absolutely no cross slope, raise the trail surface slightly above ground level. When there is any cross
slope, the surface pitch of the trail should be in the same direction as the slope so that sheet drainage from
uphill can continue unobstructed downhill across the trail. This preserves the natural drainage of the site and
eliminates the need for side swales. On bike trails, note that superelevation (banking of curves) takes
precedence over the normal surface pitch where applicable. See Superelevation and Crusher Fines Trail
Drainage, p. 3-28. Side swales are required if a moderate to large amount of water is likely to wash down
from above. Side swales should also be used where runoff from above is likely to deposit silt and debris on
the trail surface.

3-23 Trails Design and Management Planning Handbook

 Crusher Fines Surface Trails

Cut/Fill Construction
Cut and fill construction can be used on cross slopes up to 30% in areas where all three following conditions
are met:

• Soils are stable enough to use as fill and the fill can be adequately compacted
• The prospects of revegetation are good
• Vegetation disturbed by the cut and fill is easily replaced

Cut and fill sections can be alternated with full bench sections where trailside vegetation needs to be
preserved (see “Full Bench Construction,” following).

Cut and fill slopes should mimic natural landforms along the trail and should vary whenever it makes sense to
vary.

Where superelevation pitches the trail surface inward or moderate runoff is expected from above, provide a
side swale on the inside edge. See Superelevation and Crusher Fines Trail Drainage, p. 3-28.

Grading Specifications

Topsoil, which covers areas to be cut or filled, shall be removed and stockpiled for site restoration.

Suitable material removed from the excavations shall be used as far as practicable for embankments and
backfilling. Excavated materials that are considered unsuitable and any surplus of excavated material not
required for embankments or the Contractor shall dispose of backfill.

Fills and Embankments

Fills and embankments shall be constructed by depositing, placing and compacting materials of acceptable
quality above the natural ground in accordance with the specifications below. Clearing, tree removal, and
topsoil removal shall be performed before any embankment is placed.

3-24 Trails Design and Management Planning Handbook

 Crusher Fines Surface Trails

3-24 Trails Design and Management Planning Handbook

 Crusher Fines Surface Trails

• Remove and dispose of obstructions and rubbish to a minimum depth of 12” below subgrade
elevation
• Remove trees and stumps to a minimum depth of 8” below subgrade elevation
• Remove sod to a minimum depth of 6”

Geotextile should be used between the crusher fines layer and the top of any fill or embankment.

Site Restoration
Topsoil shall be replaced on all fill surfaces and on cut surfaces where possible. See Site Preservation,
Restoration, and Revegetation, p. 2-103.

3-25 Trails Design and Management Planning Handbook

 Crusher Fines Surface Trails

3-26 Trails Design and Management Planning Handbook

 Crusher Fines Surface Trails

Full Bench Construction

Full bench construction is to be used on any cross slope with one or more of the following conditions:

• Cross slope exceeds 30%

• Soils are not stable enough to use as fill
• The prospects of revegetation are poor
• Vegetation which would be disturbed by a cut and fill is difficult to replace (i.e., mature trees,
fragile or unresilient vegetation)

Full bench sections can be alternated with cut and fill sections where conditions permit (see previous page).
Remove and stockpile at least the top 6” of topsoil before excavating.
Provide a minimum 12” shoulder at the outside edge of the crusher fines surface (24” on bike paths).

Where superelevation pitches the trail surface inward or moderate runoff is expected from above, provide a
side swale on the inside edge. See Superelevation and Crusher Fines Trail Drainage, p. 3-28.

3-27 Trails Design and Management Planning Handbook

 Crusher Fines Surface Trails

Crusher Fines Trail Drainage

For overall drainage guidelines, see also Crusher Fines Type 1: Bike Paths, p. 3-9, Crusher Fines Type 2:
Primarily Pedestrian with Bicycle and/or Wheelchair Access, p. 3-14, and Crusher Fines Type 3: Pedestrian
Only, p. 3-19.

Concentrated water and insufficient drainage can quickly destroy a crusher fines trail - if the surface washes
out, the fines are carried into nearby water channels (leaving a clear signature of deposited fines and
discolored water), and the fines then have to be replaced in the trail only to be washed out again by the next
heavy runoff. All of this can be prevented through design and construction that takes drainage into account at
every step.

Three goals and one key to drainage

Crusher fines trail drainage consists of a variety of methods that work together to:

• Keep crusher fines from becoming or remaining saturated with water,

• Prevent concentrated flows of site runoff from reaching crusher fines surfaces, and
• Quickly and efficiently drain crusher fines surfaces before water can form a concentrated flow
across the fines.

Those are the goals, and the key to attaining them is very simple:

All trail drainage is designed to give water a lower place to flow than the trail itself.

The following pages specify various methods of giving water a lower place to go. These methods are
designed for use singly and in combination on the trail types as given.

Outslope
Outslope, also called pitch, is slanting the trail surface such that water on the surface flows off to the side.
The term outslope is used because trails are usually traversing a cross slope and the water should drain
toward the outer, or down slope, side of the trail.

3-27 Trails Design and Management Planning Handbook

 Crusher Fines Surface Trails

Where to use outslope

Every inch of a trail should use either outslope, crowning, or superelevation to drain the trail surface. On trails
graded mechanically, outslope is easier to form than crowning, but crowning should be used instead of
outslope on crusher fines surfaces with a grade of 6% or more. For trails designed for wheelchair users, the
amount of outslope has to be minimized to 2% to help prevent wheelchairs from rolling toward the side of the
trail.

If superelevation is to be used in a given situation, it replaces outslope.

Crowning
Crowning is raising the center of the trail so that water is continually drained toward both sides. Crowning
can only be used when both sides have someplace to drain.

Where to use crowning

Crowning should be used on all trails when the grade on crusher fines surface is 6% or more. For trails
designed for wheelchair users, the amount of crowning has to be minimized to 2% to help prevent
wheelchairs from rolling toward the sides of the trail. If superelevation is to be used in a given situation, it
replaces crowning.

3-29 Trails Design and Management Planning Handbook

 Crusher Fines Surface Trails

Superelevation
Where to use superelevation
Superelevation (banking of curves) is used only on bike paths on curves of less than a specified radius in
moderate to high speed zones (see “Superelevation” in Crusher Fines Type 1: Bike Paths, p. 3-12).

Where superelevation is specified, it replaces both outslope and crowning. If superelevation causes the trail
to be insloped (opposite of outslope), an inside swale or other means of adequate drainage must be provided
to drain the trail.

Side Swales and Culverts

Side swales (broad shallow ditches parallel to a trail) protect trails from runoff water from elsewhere on the
site and give water on the trail surface a lower place to drain. Swales can either empty into natural drainages
(preferred) or be drained at intervals by culverts under the trail.

Where to use an inside swale

A swale on the uphill side of a trail protects the trail from concentrated water flowing from above. On a
superelevated or crowned path, an inside swale may also drain water draining from the trail surface itself.

Where to use swales on both sides

Swales are specified for both sides of the trail when there is very little cross slope and one or more additional
conditions:

• a moderate to heavy amount of water but little cross slope (rendering outslope
ineffective)
• trail grades are approaching or exceeding the cross slope (a situation that causes
water to readily flow down the trail).

Outslope and crowning are preferred over swales

Because of the higher initial construction expense and continual maintenance expense of swales and
culverts, outslope and crowning are the preferred methods of providing continual trail drainage. Locating
crusher fines trails in drier sites with grades not exceeding 5% can minimize use of swales.

3-30 Trails Design and Management Planning Handbook

 Crusher Fines Surface Trails

Grade Breaks
Grade breaks are reversals in trail grade, which create low points along the trail. These low points are fail-
safe drainage features - any water that has not been drained from the trail by other means is guaranteed to
flow off the trail in these low points.

In bike paths (Type 1) where use of surface drainage features is limited, grade breaks are one of the primary
means of ensuring that large sections of the trail do not wash out. On primarily pedestrian (Type 2) and
pedestrian only (Type 3) trails, grade breaks are a last-resort drainage feature if all other features fail or are
overwhelmed by extraordinary amounts of water. On all trail types, grade breaks which are sensitively
designed into the site and alignment can add to user comfort by breaking long grades.

Grade breaks have to be designed into the alignment from the start
Grade breaks are as much alignment features as drainage features. They can be elegantly and simply
included in a trail only if they are located in natural drainage crossings and other logical locations along the
trail. Each grade break should, as much as possible, look like a logical response to topography or to an
obvious site constraint. The resulting trail will have a gently rolling profile that is comfortable for users and
stable against large-scale washouts.

Where to use grade breaks

The standards for each trail type specify the spacing between grade breaks for different trail grades. The
given spacing is an approximation - use the topography, site conditions, and site drainage to make the final
determination. Whenever possible, use natural drainage as grade breaks.

On Type 2 and Type 3 trails, the use of grade breaks is optional. While grade breaks are preferred, they can
be replaced with drainage dips if additional intermediate drainage dips are used as specified.

3-31 Trails Design and Management Planning Handbook

 Crusher Fines Surface Trails

■ Grade breaks constructed in other than natural drainage

If site topography or alignment does not create the opportunity for a grade break where one is needed, aligning a short
and shallow grade reversal into the trail can create a grade break. The grade break should be long and gently rolling -
not abrupt in any way and with no sudden or sharp edges. The critical difference between a grade break and a drainage
dip is that, in a grade break, the trail, shoulders, and swales all reach a low point in the bottom of the break so that no
water can possibly continue down the trail past the break. This fail-safe quality is the main advantage of grade breaks.

■ Drainage grade breaks

If swales empty into the break, the water should enter drain under the trail via a culvert, across the trail surface via a
constructed swale crossing (see “Swale Crossings”) or, if the expected water is minimal or grades very slight, across the
surface of the crusher fines without any additional structures. If the grade break receives only water flowing down the
trail surface, a swale crossing can be used or, if expected water is minimal, water can flow across the fines in the bottom
of the break.

3-32 Trails Design and Management Planning Handbook

 Crusher Fines Surface Trails

Drainage Dips
Drainage dips are small-scale grade breaks that create a small low point in the trail surface, which catches
water flowing down the trail and diverts it off. Like grade breaks, drainage dips serve as a backup to outslope
and crowning - the dips catch water that may be flowing down the trail in a heavy flow or because of adverse
trail surface conditions. Unlike grade breaks, however, drainage dips typically are a small break in the trail
surface only, not in the shoulders or swales (except for the outside shoulder on a significant cross slope).

Drainage dips are much smaller and easier to construct than grade breaks and can be used more frequently.
While they do not have to be planned into the alignment like grade breaks, advance planning can be very
beneficial to overall user comfort and physical stability of the trail. The major disadvantage of drainage dips is
that they can be abrupt and severe for high speed users such as bicyclists, and locally steep for wheelchair
users.

On outsloped trails, drainage dips drain toward the outside. On trails with very little cross slope which are
crowned and/or have swales on either sides or neither side, dips drain toward both sides of the trail.

Where to use drainage dips

Drainage dips can be used on Type 2 and Type 3 trails. Frequency of use varies with trail type and grade -
see the tables for these trail types for specifications. While these specifications are good approximations,
actual site conditions dictate exact placement. Study trail topography to locate dips where they do the most
good, (i.e.) on grades where water is likely to be flowing down the trail. Drainage dips at the very top and
bottoms of grades serve no purpose.

Use drainage dips above structures and steep grades

In addition to the locations given in the above-mentioned tables, use drainage dips in the trail just above 1)
significant structures such as steps, retaining walls, etc., and 2) just above the point where a grade becomes
significantly steeper. Placement at these locations protects structures and steep grades from water flowing
down the trail from above.

3-33 Trails Design and Management Planning Handbook

 Crusher Fines Surface Trails

3-33 Trails Design and Management Planning Handbook

 Crusher Fines Surface Trails

Swale Crossings
Swale crossings are controlled means of allowing site runoff to cross the trail surface. Where water flows are
minimal, swale crossings are an alternative to culverts and other channel crossings. Swale crossings can
also be used to cross flood-prone channels that rarely have water but need to flow unobstructed in case of
flood.

The swale crossing usually involves constructing a reinforced surface such as concrete or stone in a low
point in a drainage crossing. Crusher fines trail Type 1 and Type 2 are limited in possible swale crossing
designs because of the need to accommodate bicycles and/or wheelchairs. Type 3 (pedestrian only) trails
can have many designs, some of which create interesting and artful trail features for users.

Where to use swale crossings

The main criteria for whether or not to use a swale crossing are 1) the amount of water and 2) how long the
water flows. Swale crossings should only be used for crossing drainage that carries a minimal flow only
during and immediately after a precipitation event or at a very low level during spring snowmelt. Usually the
swales are very small and can be stepped across or at most jumped across. If water flows across the trail at
more than a depth of 1/4” for a distance too far to step or jump over, the trail is effectively closed to
pedestrians. Do not create swale crossings that exceed those parameters unless provision is made for a way
for pedestrians to cross when wet.

Swale crossings can also be used across flood-prone channels that are usually dry. Usually used in desert-
like conditions where flash floods dry up quickly, these swales are made of reinforced concrete to withstand
flood damage. If water flow continues after precipitation ends, a low water crossing (a low causeway with
multiple smaller culverts) or other means should be used instead.

3-35 Trails Design and Management Planning Handbook

 Crusher Fines Surface Trails

3-36 Trails Design and Management Planning Handbook

 Crusher Fines Surface Trails

Causeway and Channelization

Causeways can be used as a way to cross some occasionally wet or damp areas without installing
boardwalk or concrete. The principal intended use for causeways is to elevate crusher fines above
seasonally damp areas that become saturated with water in spring but remain dry for most of the year.

On pedestrian-only trails, channelization provides an aesthetic way for small amounts of slow-moving water
to flow through low causeways without the use of culverts or bridges.

Conditions for using causeways

A causeway should not alter water flows in ways that disturb nearby ecosystems, nor should it block or
channel water in floodplains. Also, the ground and soil beneath a causeway must be dry enough and stable
enough to support the weight of the causeway. Causeways longer than 15’ should be considered hazard
zones and widened accordingly.

Where not to use causeways

Causeways should not be used to bridge areas with wetland ecology (regardless of their official wetland
designation). Crossed areas should not be subject to more flooding than the trail itself, nor to more than
small amounts of openly-flowing water during major rainstorms or runoff periods.

Conditions for using channelization

Channelization is intended only for occasional use in pedestrian-only causeways with a trail surface level no
more than 8” above undisturbed ground. If the causeway is higher than 8”, culverts, bridge, or a boardwalk
should be used instead.

3-37 Trails Design and Management Planning Handbook

 Crusher Fines Surface Trails

Stepping Stones
Where to use stepping stones
Stepping stones can be used on low-traffic pedestrian-only paths as a way to cross wet yet stable areas.
When correctly installed, stepping stones are an environmentally neutral way of crossing some low-flow
drainage and wet areas without culverts, bridges, or boardwalks.

In order to be useful, stepping stones should be evenly spaced one pace apart, and each stone should be
large enough (and flat enough on top) to be comfortable to step on. The ground beneath each stone must be
stable enough to bear the weight of the stone and users. If the area is wet only occasionally, a bypass path
of coarse gravel can be installed alongside the stepping stones as an easier-to-use path in dry conditions.

For user comfort, the total running length of a set of stepping stones should not exceed 25’.

3-37 Trails Design and Management Planning Handbook

 Crusher Fines Surface Trails

Steps
Steps can and should be used in pedestrian-only trails to reduce steeper grades and thereby help prevent
trail washouts. A few steps can eliminate a whole series of awkward drainage dips and grade breaks on
steeper grades.

Steps can be made of either stone or timber. Stone is much preferred for its longevity and aesthetic qualities,
but treated timbers can be used where stone is unavailable or inappropriate. If stone is appropriate but
cannot be found onsite, consider importing it.

Where to use steps

On pedestrian-only trails, use steps to avoid creating grades exceeding 6% on crusher fines surfaces. Steps
are also used to help prevent washouts on trails with alignments near the fall line of site drainage. See
Crusher Fines Type 3: Pedestrian Only, p. 3-19, for details on where to use steps.

For trails with winter use, the use of steps that face north is discouraged because of snow and ice
accumulation. Steps that face south and west will often be dry even in winter, while steps that face east will
dry more slowly.

See specifications for steps on the next page.

3-37 Trails Design and Management Planning Handbook

 Crusher Fines Surface Trails

3-40 Trails Design and Management Planning Handbook