Reaffirming African American Cultural Values:

T\ipac Shakur's Greatest Hits as a Musical

Autobiography
TIMOTHY J. BROWNWEST CHESTER UNIVERSITY
Abstract
This paper analyzes Tupac Shakur's Greatest Hits (1998) to reveal: 1) Shakur's rhetoric employs three African American
cultural values (the oral tradition, a diunital orientation, and spirituality), which further defines the unique characteristics that
comprise African American discourse; 2) when interpreting Shakur's message through the lens of African American cultural
values, his Greatest Hits functions as a musical autobiography that constructs identity and provides a voice for the Black youth
culture. Given these two findings, Shakur extends the cultural values that underlie African American rhetoric to construct a
message that is more complex, enlightened, and introspective than what tends to characterize the public criticism ofgangsta
rap. A rhetorical criticism of Shakur's Greatest Hits also highlights how using cultural values as a theoretical framework is a
way for rhetorical scholars to demonstrate a more complete understanding of the cultural meaning of texts that are created and
consumed in the African American community.

Gangst Rap: The Interconnection of Capitatism,

Controversy, and Culture
Since the first successful commercial rap song,
"Rapper's Delight" by the Sugar Hill Gang was released
in 1979, rap music has evolved into a multi-billion dollar industry that has been appropriated by corporate
America to advertise a variety of products from soda to
shoes. Although the growth of rap music and hip-hop
culture has elevated the genre and its African American artists to icon status, rap's growth has not occurred
without controversy. One genre of rap music, gangsta
rap, has endured harsh criticism for lyrics that glamorize a gangster lifestyle, which Boyd (1997) has argued
places ultimate value on the excesses of our capitalistic culture: materialism, power, machismo, sexism, and

violence. By emphasizing the excesses of capitalism,

gangsta rap has taken the idea of "getting paid" to the
most extreme form. Due to gangsta rap's explicit lyrics, there has been widespread criticism from all points
on the political spectrum. A discussion of the congressional hearings into gangsta rap is provided by Kitwana
(1994), Ramsey (2003), and Wong (2001).
The denouncing of gangsta rap has also been common among portions of the African American community. During Benjamin Chavis' tenure as Executive Director of the NAACP, he caused internal conflicts between himself and the Executive Board by attempting
to embrace gangsta rap as a Black art form (Brown &
Rahoi-Gilchrest, 1999). The ultimate rejection of
gangsta rap by the NAACP was echoed by many middle
class African Americans and African American femi-

Timothy J. Brown is an Associate Professor of Communication at West Chester University. He is a

rhetorical scholar with research interests in African American culture and communication, popular culture,
and political communication. Recent publications include: "Black Masculinity in the Hip-Hop Generation:
Allen Iverson and The New Black Ae.sthetics as a Cultural Site of Struggle," in the Journal of Intci'cultural
Communication Research, and "Deconstructing the Dialectical Tensions in The Horse Whisperer; How
Myths Represent Competing Cultural Values," in the Journal of Popular Culture. He is also the co-author
of the textbook. Public Speaking for Success: Strategies for Diverse Audiences and Occasions. Furthermore,
Dr Brown serves as the coordinator of the department'? general education courses and as the chairman of
the Frederick Douglass Institute. He holds a B.A. and M.A. from West Chester University, and a Ph.D. from
Ohio University.

558

The Western Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 29, No. 1, 2005

nist groups (Kelley, 1996). Furthermore, an Urban

League poll revealed that 67% of African Americans
perceived rap artists as inappropriate role models (Holland, 2001).
Compounding these negative opinions of rap music were the highly publicized incidents between
gangsta rappers and law enforcement. Many gangsta
rappers have been caught up in the imagery and the
bravado of their lyrics as the distinction between art
and life are often blurred. One rapper turned actor,
whose career and life exemplified this tension was
Tupac Shakur. After surviving a shooting in 1994 and
time in prison in 1995 for sexual assault, Shakur was a
victim of a drive by shooting in Las Vegas in 1996. The
artist, who rose quickly in gangsta rap by selling six
million albums, died according to the "Thug Life" he
rapped about in many of his songs. Upon his death
Newsweek reported that hip-hop had lost "the most articulate voice of intelligent black male anger" (Samuels
& Leland, 1996). Despite receiving accolades from
some scholars and many of his followers, Tupac Shakur
and the genre of gangsta rap continues to be widely
perceived by critics as a type of music that advocates
lawlessness, nihilism and has little redeeming cultural
value (Kelley, 1996; Ogbar, 1999). T. Boyd (1997) and
M. Dyson (2001) provide an explanation of the primary
criticisms directed at gangsta rap.
However, to simply dismiss gangsta rap or a
gangsta rapper such as Tupac Shakur as a "thug" whose
music has contributed to the "moral decline" of American culture would be too simplistic a statement to explain the messages contained in his music. In contrast
to the negative criticisms of gangsta rap, some scholarship has illustrated the multifaceted messages of the
genre and Shakur's legacy as an intellectual, political
figure, and an urban folk hero. A recent symposium
held by the Institute for Afro-American Research at
Harvard university in 2003 explored and discussed
Shakur's cultural impact.
Through common experiences groups of people
share cultural values that comprise their social reality.
I will draw upon research from scholars who have analyzed various aspects of African American culture, have
identified common experiences individuals used in response to their reality and have identified many cultural values from the experiences of African Americans.
These common experiences also form the basis of what
scholars label the African American community (or
composite culture) and/or the African American experience. See Hecht, Jackson, & Ribeau (2003);
Smitherman (2000), and Jackson (1999) for a more in-

depth discussion of African American cultural values.

This paper will provide a textual analysis of Tupac
Shakur's Greatest Hits to make two arguments: 1)
Shakur's rhetoric employs three African American cultural values (the oral tradition, a diunital orientation,
and spirituality), which further defines the unique characteristics that comprise African American discourse
and are representative of Black protest music; 2) when
interpreting Shakur's message through the lens of African American cultural values, his Greatest Hits functions as a musical autobiography that constructs identity and provides a voice for the new Black youth culture. The new Black youth culture is the term Kitwana
(2002) uses to label the post-civil rights generation.
According to Kitwana the new Black youth culture is
defined by its defiant attitudes and dispositions, through
"hood" films, hip-hop magazines, and youth-oriented
television programming such as MTV, and activism that
is in opposition to both mainstream politics and oldergeneration African American activists. Kitwana explains all these characteristics are influenced by rap
music and that rap music has the greatest impact on the
new Black youth culture.
Given these two findings, Shakur extends the cultural values that underlie African American rhetoric to
construct a message that is more complex, enlightened,
and introspective than what usually characterizes the
public criticism of gangsta rap. This rhetorical analysis
fulfills the need in the discipline of communication for
studies that use an African American cultural approach
to understand how African American rhetoric is influenced by cultural practices that inform the style, meaning, and rhetorical choices made by African American
rhetors (Asante, 1980; Asante &Abarry, 1996;Atwater,
1984; Morrison 2004).
Significance of Study
Tupac Shakur's Greatest Hits (1998) is a significant cultural text for analysis because Shakur has greatly
impacted rap music, hip-hop culture, and Black culture. Shakur's impact is clearly evident in two ways.
First, through his music Shakur illustrates that he is a
social critic and a good example of Black protest music. At its core. Black protest music is characterized by
the expression of resistance and the articulation of the
heartache and pain that Blacks have endured throughout history (Ellison, 1989; Neal, 2002; Floyd, 1995).
Likewise, Shakur as a social critic conveys through his
music the despair, anger, and resentment that resonates
with many African Americans. Shakur's ability to ar-

The Western Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 29, No. 1, 2005 559

ticulate these strong feelings and emotions in words is

a further characteristic of Black protest music, which
according to Ellison (1989) expresses personal emotions and the most intense communal fears. Furthermore, Shakur's message focuses upon struggle and fulfillment which underscore another recurring theme in
Black protest music (Floyd, 1995).
Second, Shakur's Greatest Hits are worthy of study
due to the mythic construction of his life, music, and
legacy. It is the mythos surrounding Shakur that separates him from other rappers such as 50 Cent, Snoop
Dog, or Ice Cube. In death, Shakur gained immorality
as singles and CDs were released after his death. In
fact, Shakur's popularity increased after his death, as
his record sales grew, while his life became the subject
of books, college courses, television documentaries, and
films. Also, academic conferences have been held on
Shakur to address his social impact and legacy as a
public intellectual (Kitwana, 2003). Due to Shakur's
popularity, he is often referred to "the Black Elvis" as
rumors of sightings and urban legends about him faking his death abound.
The mythical construction of Shakur is further
magnified by his connection to the "golden era" for
Black protest musicthe civil rights movement and
the growth of Black Nationalism. During the 1960s,
the Black Panther Movement grew in large part to an
increasing frustration by some African Americans with
the traditional civil rights movement (Neal, 2002).
Shakur's mother was a Black Panther, which provides
Shakur with a legitimacy to "the struggle" that few rappers can match. His association with the Black Panthers contributes to a mythos that through his music,
Shakur carries on a legacy (and militancy) of the Black
Panthers.
These examples illustrate how Shakur continues
to be an important source for understanding Black culture in the post-civil rights era (Neal, 2003). Furthermore, fans continue to create thousands of tribute sites
that are found on the Internet. As actor, Larenz Tate,
stated, "He [Shakur] has definitely etched his mark in
hip-hop culture. But he was also able to transcend the
hip-hop culture into the pop world, to film and television and all kinds of media. For him to still be as big
now as he was when he was alive is amazing" (qtd. in
Dyson, 2001, p. 5).
Given the cultural significance of Tupac Shakur, a
textual analysis of his Greatest Hits will provide a further
understanding of African American discourse and Black
protest music. Before an analysis is made, it will be
appropriate to review the literature of gangster rap.
560

Gangsta Rap as Cultural Expression

Guthrie Ramsey (2003) argued that we are now
living in the Age of Hip-Hop as rap music and hip-hop
culture have greatly impacted American society and the
global community. Due to its growth and development,
many scholars have examined rap music and hip-hop
culture to discuss the various influences it has made on
American culture. For example. Rose (1994) provided
a comprehensive and thorough analysis of rap's lyrics,
music, culture, style, and social context to explain the
interplay of racial and sexual domination, the technological and cultural practices, and the popular resistance
to rap music.
Meanwhile, Kitwana (1994) discussed the development of rap music and its commercialization. One
argument Kitwana made is artists not only need to create rap music that is true to hardcore rap, but rap music
that encourages struggle, activism, and respect for Black
life. Ramsey (2003) also discussed the commercialization of rap music, but within the contexts of film and
gospel music. Ramsey argued that hip-hop films through
the use of rap music form an important component in
the narratives of the films, which audiences can identify with. Furthermore, gospel artists such as Kirk
Franklin mimic rap music's practice of borrowing from
different musical genres while also critiquing secularism, sacredness, and commercialism.
Ogbar (1999) examined the complexity of the political "culture wars" over acceptable standards from
the center of the hip-hop community. Ogbar (1999) illustrated how the hip-hop community contains a diversity of thought as various hip-hop artists have both defended their music, denounced other artists who are
hypermaterialistic, and attacked critics who attempted
to pander to the fear and ignorance of the average individual. Neal (1999) reinforced this point, by explaining that various artists in hip-hop have issued critiques
of hip-hop to challenge the widespread glamorization
of violence, misogyny, and fast money schemes. In fact,
Neal (1999) explained that no other genre is more selfconsciously critical of itself as hip-hop. In addition,
Dyson (1996) argued that the social criticism and commentary of gangsta rap forces Whites and Blacks to
confront societal issues that are often ignored.
In a comprehensive examination of the influence
of gangsta rap on Black popular culture, Boyd (1997)
discussed the underlying impact politics, popular culture, and consumption has had in the evolution of
gangsta rap. Boyd (1997) argued that gangsta rap, rejects a political agenda and assimilation into the main-

The Western Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 29, No. 1, 2005

stream (although it is already absorbed by it) in order

to project a nihilistic attitude toward free expression
and every day life. This point is supported by Kelley
(1996) who explained that when gangsta rap evolved it
was reduced to hard-core gangsta rap that articulated
nihilism for nihilism's sake. Meanwhile, Allen (1996)
analyzed message (political) rap to argue that message
rap died out as a genre of rap music because there was
no political movement to support its message. According to Allen (1996), without a mass following, the genre
did not produce enough revenue for the record companies to continue to produce message rap.
Furthermore, Watts (1997) argued that what has
been pushed by record companies is gangsta rap that is
manufactured as an overdose of commercialized reality. Watts (1997) explained that at the heart of rap's
commercialized reality are the obscene excesses of pop
culture and the tension between "street" vs. "decent"
values. Watts (1997) further argued that consumerism
also symbolically reproduces the street code, commodifying it into an acceptable package for audience consumption.
One means in which rap music is commodified into
an acceptable package for audience consumption is
through rap fanzines (teen magazines that cover popular artists). Forman (1995) explained that rap is made
more acceptable by following the conventional teen
magazine format, which glosses over social and political issues contained in rap music. More specifically,
social and pohtical controversies such as sexism contained in rap are obscured in these fanzines by articles
that focus upon trivial topics such as style and fashion.
By negotiating the complexities of raps' various genres,
these magazines help construct images for the audience
that are acceptable for consumption.
The scholarship mentioned highlights the dialogue
that is taking place about rap music and hip-hop culture as it provides an understanding of the creation and
evolution of rap music and hip-hop culture. A few of
the studies about gangsta rap, however, imply that
gangsta rap represents values that are contrary to African Americans' traditional cultural values. In using IceT's "Cop Killer" as an example. Watts (1997) argued
that gangsta rap illustrates, "a reckless 'street' orientation that undermines traditional black folk sources of
authority" (p. 53). Watts (1997), however, makes this
claim without identifying the values that comprise Black
culture or the authorities that define values for African
Americans. A few studies illustrate African American
communication practices such as the dozens, call and

response, toasts, and signifying that are present in rap

music but these studies do not address how the African
American communication practices are based upon
cultural values that shape rap music. For example,
Smitherman (2000) provides a broad rhetorical analysis of some communication and linguistic practices
found in rap music. Yet, it is not a comprehensive single
speaker textual analysis that analyzes cultural values.
Other works that provide brief references to some communication practices in rap music include Kitwana
(1994), Rose (1994), and Kelley (1996). Therefore, this
examination will begin by defining three cultural values from the African American culture that serve as the
theoretical framework for the analysis of Shakur's
Greatest Hits.
Afiican American Cultural Values
Historically, African American culture has been
shaped by political, social, and economic conditions
and how African Americans have responded to these
circumstances. The struggle against oppression has produced African American neighborhoods, churches, social groups, and schools which have helped construct
African American identity and culture. As a result, African American discourse is underlined by cultural values that are expressed in a unique set of rules, norms,
and strategies. Several studies have identified and categorized these communication characteristics that are
common to the African American culture.
Communication scholars have argued that in order to understand African American communication
completely, the focus of the analysis needs to be upon
the underlying cultural values that shape African American rhetoric (Asante, 1980; 1987; Asante & Abarry,
1996; Atwater, 1984; Cummings & Daniel, 1997).
When rhetorical criticism does not take into account
the cultural values of an African American speaker the
analysis misses the opportunity to provide a more complete understanding of the cultural meaning of the text
(Asante, 1980; 1987; Asante & Abarry, 1996; Atwater,
1984; Cummings & Daniel, 1997). Therefore, this paper will take an African American cultural perspective
by illuminating three African American cultural values
found in Tupac Shakur's Greatest Hits. These three
cultural values include: the oral tradition, a diunital orientation, and spirituality. Although these cultural values are presented separately these concepts are interconnected and function interdependently.

The Western Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 29, No. 1, 2005 561

The Oral Tradition

The oral tradition is a fundamental value that defines African American culture (Hecht et al., 2003;
Smitherman, 1998; 2000). As Smitherman (1998) explained:
The African-American oral tradition is rooted in
the belief in the power of the word. The African
concept of 'Nommo' 'the word' is believed to be the
force of life itself. To speak is to make something
come into being (p. 208).

African American culture has always been one that relied on the power of the spoken word to motivate, persuade, and pass down history from generation to generation (Smitherman, 1998). Moreover, the oral tradition was further relied upon due to American laws that
prevented slaves from being taught how to read and
write (Gates, 1991). Without a written language it was
easier for Whites to control Blacks. Without a written
language there was no repetition of memory, history,
or self. As a result, those who could speak well earned
the respect, praise, and leadership of the African American community (Smitherman, 2000).
Given the importance the culture has placed on the
spoken word, conversation is not only a means for understanding reality, but a means for achieving group
approval and recognition. As Smitherman (2000) explained, "We're talking, then, about a tradition in the
black experience in which verbal performance becomes
both a way of establishing 'yo rep' as well as a teaching and socializing force" (p. 204). Therefore, ritualized verbal interactions such as playing the dozens and
verbal strategies such as braggadocio, image-making,
and indirection play a powerful role in teaching, socializing, and perpetuating the oral tradition in the African American community (Morgan, 1998; Smitherman, 2000).
A Diunital Orientation
A diunital orientation means reality consists of
complementary opposites (such as good/bad, right/
wrong, comedy/tragedy, concrete/abstract) which are
interdependent and function to form a dual identity
(Bell, 1994; Pennington, 1990; Richards, 1990; Rose,
1982/83; Smitherman, 2000). Therefore, a diunital orientation rejects the western perspective that reality is
absolute. Instead, a diunital orientation explains why
the African American culture is more apt to perceive
issues, concepts, or entities as complementary oppo562

sites (perceiving the world as both good and bad simultaneously) rather than in absolutes (perceiving the
world as being either good or bad) (Hecht et al., 2003;
Pennington, 1990; Richards, 1990). A diunital orientation can best be understood from W.E.B. Du Bois'
(1903/1990) articulation of double consciousnessthat
African Americans experience dual and often conflicting realities simultaneously.
According to Richards (1990), African Americans'
diunital orientation is based upon an African worldview
that survived the middle passage, the slave experience,
and other oppression African Americans overcame in
America. A diunital orientation is the result of the African worldview's emphasis on harmony, where complementary opposites are interdependent and function dynamically to create a unified reality. Smitherman (2000)
further explained that with the African worldview:
Harmony in nature and the universe is provided by
the complementary, interdependent, synergic interaction between the spiritual and the material. Thus
we have a paradigm for the way in which 'opposites'function. That is, 'opposites'constitute interdependent, interacting forces which are necessary
for producing a given reality (p. 201).

With a diunital orientation, the dynamic interdependence of opposites provides balance and rhythm to life.
It also provides a viewpoint that is able to perceive the
fluid and complex nature of reality that is not fixed, but
dynamic and ever evolving.
Spirituality
Spirituality is the means that enables individuals
to be in touch with their soul (Richards, 1990;
Smitherman, 2000). Spirituality stems from the cultural
behef that humans are comprised of the psychological
(the mind), the physical (the body), and the immaterial
(the soul). The culture acknowledges that we are all
spiritual beings who respond to a physical and spiritual
reality (Smitherman, 2000). The cultural value of spirituality does not separate the physical from the spiritual
world. Rather, both realities are experienced simultaneously. As Smitherman (2000) argued, African Americans "beUeve that soul, feeling, emotion, and spirit serve
as guides to understanding life and their fellows. All
people are moved by spirit forces, and there is no attempt to deny or intellectualize away that fact" (p. 215).
One of the contexts in which spirituality has been
studied is in the traditional African American church.
Smitherman (1998) explained that this African Ameri-

The Western Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 29, No. 1, 2005

can cultural value was the product of how African

Americans "Africanized" Christianity when they
adopted Christianity as their religion. African religions
were based on many spirits and when African Americans were converted to Christianity, they evolved the
practice of worshiping many spirits to worshiping one
spirit (the Holy Spirit) to experience God's presence.
When God is experienced through the Holy Spirit, it
brings individuals in touch with their soul (Churches
that practice experiencing God's presence through the
Holy Spirit are often referred to as spiritfilledchurches).
This explains why traditional African American church
services are participatory services where people experience the Holy Spirit through song, ritual, music, and
dance (Richards, 1990). Characterizing the traditional
African American church as being spirit filled does not
imply that non-traditional African American churches
lack spirituality. The brief discussion of spirituality in
this essay simply identifies the origins of the cultural
value of spirituality and its significance within African
American culture. Richards (1990) explained how spirituality is enacted during the praise and worship part of
a church service where members are able to experience
God's presence through the Holy Spirit:
There is no closer bond that a group ofblack people
can feel than that which comes from the experience of feeling and expressing our deepest emotions together. The group becomes a sacred community once again, and so its members gain strength
from communal experience. The ritual becomes an
affirmation of their communal identity, (p. 220)

Although spirituality as a cultural value is best understood as the means to experience God's presence
through the Holy Spirit, the concept itself is not synonymous with experiencing the Holy Spirit. Experiencing the Holy Spirit through a church service is just one
example of how spirituality is a means to be in touch
with one's soul. With spirituality, what becomes real is
what touches the soul (Richards, 1998). Richards further explained that outside the traditional African American church, spirituahty is enacted in black music where
lyrics, song, and singers create melodies that touch the
souls of black audiences. In fact, spirituality enables
individuals to express deep felt emotions and it also
defines the moral and emotional fiber of the culture.
Given the significance of spirituality as a cultural value,
Richards (1998), argued that spirituality is a cultural
value that defines the essence of the culture's ethnic
identity.
In summation, spirituality is a means for being in

touch with one's soul. When something resonates with

the soul, then it becomes meaningful. This is true,
whether a choir sings a song that brings tears to church
members' eyes during praise and worship or when an
individual is deeply moved by someone reading poetry, or whether musical lyrics an individual is listening to resonates with his or her soul; they are all examples of how spirituality is a means to experience what
is real, but what is unseen and immeasurable.
The cultural values of the oral tradition, a diunital
orientation, and spirituality, while presented separately
are actually interconnected and function interdependently. For example, the power of the spoken word (the
oral tradition) is how one can experience and be in touch
with one's soul (spirituality), which is based upon on a
diunital orientation (experiencing complementary opposites simultaneously). These cultural values will be
illustrated through a rhetorical analysis of Tupac
Shakur's Greatest Hits.
Tupac Shakur's Greatest Hits;
Reaffirming Cultural Values
Tupac Shakur's Greatest Hits is a double CD collection that contains twenty-five rap songs from six
previously recorded CDs that span from 1991 to 1996.
In addition, Shakur's Greatest Hits contains the previously unreleased song "Changes." An analysis of these
songs demonstrates how the cultural values of the oral
tradition, a diunital orientation, and spirituality shape
Shakur's message.
The Oral Tradition
Effective speakers have excellent verbal skills to
construct a narrative that gains the audience's attention, builds identification with the audience, elicits
empathy, and conveys logical and emotional appeals.
This is especially true with oral cultures, where the
speaker has to have a delivery style that is as impressive as the content of the message (Smitherman, 2000).
In his Greatest Hits, Shakur builds identification with
his audience by clearly and concisely reconstructing
the social context of his youth, the circumstances he
endured, and the obstacles he faced. Shakur conveys
his story through a powerful narrative that addresses
the issues of his generation and offers insightful perspective. For example, in songs such as "So Many
Tears," "Unconditional Love," "Brenda's Got a Baby,"^
and "Dear Mama" Shakur reconstructs the difficult and

The Western Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 29, No. 1, 2005 563

drastic conditions of his youth. In "Dear Mama," Shakur

explains how he was the child of a teenage mother:
When I was younger and my mama had to be seventeen years old, kicked out on the street/ though
back at the time I never thought I'd never see her
face/ ain 't a woman alive that can take my mama's
place.

Furthermore, Shakur states:

I finally understand for a woman it ain't easy trying to raise a man/ You were always committed/ a
poor single mother on welfare, tell me how you did
it.

Shakur's upbringing resonates with many, especially those who have experienced or are experiencing
growing up in a single headed household, which recent
statistics indicate 69% of all Black children are raised
in single-parent homes (Rosenthal, 2004). Shakur further constructs his narrative in "Dear Mama" by explaining he didn't know his father and when his father
died, he did not cry at the funeral since he didn't know
him. For Shakur, not having a father led him to seek
acceptance in other places. The desire to be connected
with others, and especially the need to have a father
figure is a human need that most individuals can identify with. Driven by the need for connection, Shakur
explains in "So Many Tears" how he became involved
in gang life:
Back in elementary/1 thrived on misery/left alone
I grew up among a dying breed/In my mind, couldn 't
find a place to rest/ until I got that 'thug life' tattooed on my chest.

Furthermore, he explains in "Dear Mama:"

/ hung around with the thugs/and even though they
sold drugs/they showed a young brother love.

By listening to these songs, the listener gains an understanding of the harsh realities that shaped Shakur's identity and the obstacles he faced. These circumstances
also inform Shakur's perspective on life, shape his understanding of the world, and his place in it.
Another aspect of the oral tradition has been to
speak out on the injustices that African Americans face
in this country. Speakers have used their verbal skills
to voice an African American position that is often
marginalized by society. Shakur also voiced his opinion on many social issues such as pohce brutality, discrimination in the criminal justice system, abortion,
violence, single parenthood, and politics. In address564

ing these issues, Shakur demonstrated that he is more

multi-dimensional on social issues than what critics
acknowledge when discussing gangsta rap. In "Changes" Shakur commented on many social issues that he
beheved should be pursued to improve the conditions
of African Americans. For example, Shakur addressed
police brutality as he explained how an African
American's life is of little value to society as cops are
allowed to use excessive force and society shows little
compassion for African Americans:
Cops give a damn about a Negro/ pull a trigger,
kill a nigger, he's a hero/ Give it back to the kids,
who the hell cares?/ one less mouth on welfare/
First, ship 'em dope and let 'em deal with brothers/give 'em guns, step back, watch 'em kill each
other.

Furthermore in "Trapped," Shakur calls attention to the

practice of racial profiling:
They got me trapped/ can barely walk the city
streets, without a cop harassing me/searching me/
then askin' my identity/ hands up, throw me up
against the wall/didn 't do a thing at all/tellin 'you
one day these suckers got to fall.

Another issue that Shakur comments on is the disparity in the criminal justice system and specifically,
the disproportionate number of African Americans who
are in prison. The latest statistics report that one in five
African American men in their twenties is in prison, on
probation, or parole (Rosenthal, 2004). In songs such
as "Changes," Shakur shows his concern for African
Americans:
And it ain't a secret, though concealed as fact/ the
penitentiary is packed and it is filled with blacks.

Shakur contends that the criminal justice system is biased toward blacks by handing out mandatory sentences
for the possession of drugs such as crack cocaine (which
was part of the crack epidemic that infiltrated many
poor urban African American communities during the
80s and early 90s), whereas the powder form of the
drug (which is popular among whites) does not carry
mandatory sentences. The criminal justice's double standard is illustrated in "God Bless the Dead:"
Why the hell am I locked in jail?/ they let those
white boys free, you'll be shocked as hell!/ In my
mind I can see it comin '/and all the time it's a plot
to keep a nigga runnin'!

In addition to perceiving the criminal justice system as

The Western Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 29, No. 1, 2005

a plot to keep African Americans in bondage, Shakur

explains how prison does not rehabilitate individuals,
it only makes them hardened criminals. Shakur states
in "Trapped:"
Too many brothers daily headed for the big pen/
Niggas come out worst off then when they went in.

Finally, two brief examples show how Shakur takes on

the issue of abortion and violence. In "Keep Ya Head
Up," Shakur states:
Since a man can't make one/he has no right to tell
a woman when and where to create one/ So where
do real men get up?/1 know you 're fed up ladies,
keep your head up.

In "2 of Amerika's Most Wanted" with Snoop Dog,

Shakur explained how critics should not blame gangsta
rap for violence. Instead, Shakur argued that violence
had been occurring in America long before rap music
and violence had already been glamorized in films and
television before gangsta rap. He states:
Now follow as we ride/ two of the best from the
west side/And I can make you famous/ Niggas been
dying for years, so how can they blame us!

These examples demonstrate how Shakur draws

upon the oral tradition to tell his own story, which enables him to construct his own selfhood and identity
(of living in a single parent household) and to voice his
opinion on issues he sees facing Black youth culture.
How Shakur interrogates these issues illustrates Woods
(1998) argument that critics have to look beyond the
explicit lyrics to hear the deeper meanings that are communicated in gangsta rap such as injustice and discrimination. It also reaffirms the oral tradition, as Shakur
performs the contemporary role of "disturbing the
peace" in order to provide a voice for those who are
muted in today's society.
A Diunital Orientation
An analysis of Shakur's Greatest Hits also demonstrates a diunital orientation, which explains why his
rhetoric contains complementary opposites such as being positive and negative at the same time. Interestingly, scholars like Dyson (2001), Kitwana (1997),
Medina (1997), Morrison (2003), and Williams (1997)
identify Shakur's internal battles and the inherent contradictions in his rhetoric, but none explain how these
contradictions are characteristic of the African American cultural value of a diunital orientation. For brevity.

I will focus on how a diunital orientation underlies two

inherent contradictions in Shakur's Greatest Hits: his
perception of women and violence.
Sexism has been a common criticism of gangsta
rap. Shakur's rhetoric contains plenty of examples of
sexism, but he also articulates a positive image of
women. In his Greatest Hits, Shakur both celebrates
and degrades women. In songs such as "Dear Mama,"
"Keep Ya Head Up," and "Unconditional Love," Shakur
celebrates, encourages, and supports African American
women. In "Keep Ya Head Up" Shakur states:
Don't cry, dry your eyes, never let up/forgive but
don't forget, girl keep your head up/ And when he
tells you, 'you ain't nothin,' don't believe 'em/and
if he can't learn to love you, you should leave 'em/
cause sister you don Y need him.

Furthermore, in this song he says:

/ wonder why we take from our women/time to heal
our women/be real to our women/1 think it's time
to kill for our women/ time to heal our women/be
real to our women.

In "Dear Mama," Shakur is grateful for the nurturing he received from his mother and he appreciates the
sacrifices his mother has made:
When it seems that I'm hopeless/ you can say the
words that can get me back in focus/ When I was
sick as a little kid/to keep me happy there's no limit
to the things you did/And all my childhood memories/ are full of all the sweet things you did for me/
And even though I act crazy/1 got to thank the Lord
that you made me.

Moreover, he explains:
There are no words that can express how Ifeel/You
never kept a secret, you alway stayed real. And I
appreciate how you raised me/And all the extra love
that you gave me.

These examples along with brief examples in the

song "Unconditional Love" demonstrate that Shakur
constructs a positive image of women. The examples
also illustrate how Shakur has a "softer" side to his
"Thug Life" image. For this reason, some label Shakur
a feminist agent who communicates a passionate identification with women (Neal, 2003).
Despite articulating a positive image of women in
certain songs, these sentiments are contrasted by how
Shakur degrades women in other songs such as "I get
around," "All about U," "Temptations," "Toss it Up,"

The Western Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 29, No. 1, 2005 565

and "How Do You Want It." In most of these songs

Shakur only sees women as sex objects. This can be
seen in the song "How Do You Want It:"
Positions on the floor, it's erotic/ ironic/ cause I'm
somewhat psychotic/I'm hittin' switches on bitches,
like I wouldfix hydraulics/ Up and down like a roller
coaster/I'm not quittin' until the show is over/In
and out like a robbery/ I'll probably be a freak and
let you get on top of me.

Shakur is very encouraging to Black youth culture as

he asks them to overcome their circumstances. In
"Changes" Shakur advocates abandoning old ways and
accepting new ways to live by accepting one another
as friends:
I've got love for my brother/ but we can never go
nowhere unless we share with each other/ We got
to start making some changes/ learn to see me as a
brother instead of two distant strangers.

In the song, "I get around" Shakur proclaims his player

lifestyle by saying:

In the song, "Me Against the World" Shakur speaks

directly to the listener at the end of the song by saying:

There ain't no need in being greedy/ you want to

see me, dial my beeper number baby when you need
me!/And I'll be there in a jiffy/don't be picky, just
be happy with this quickie/ When will you learn,
you can't tie me down/ check it out, I get around.

/ know it seems hard sometimes but remember one

thing, through every dark night there is a bright
day after that. So no matter how hard it gets, stick
your chest out, keep your head up, and handle it.

How do we account for these contradictions? A

diunital perspective suggests that Shakur's rhetorical
construction of women is not an either/or but both. A
diunital perspective forces us to analyze the totality of
what Shakur is saying, how he is saying it, and to whom
it is directed. From his Greatest Hits, it's apparent he is
not labeling all women one way or the other, instead it
is a selective construction that invites the listener to
see his perspective towards women as a complex
complementary opposite that reflects a reality of Shakur
being part of a patriarchal society, yet being raised by a
strong Black woman. Dyson (2001) notes that Shakur's
contradictory perspective towards women reflects a
masculine ideology found in hip-hop that accepts
women as long as women are in their "place," which
creates acceptable and unacceptable categories for
women. If a woman is a wife or mother, then she is
expected to act accordingly and provide a stable domestic environment. If a woman is promiscuous, however, she is seen as a sex object and treated accordingly. Therefore, categorizing women into acceptable
and unacceptable roles explains how men can be close
to some women, while also degrading other women. It
is, nevertheless, a contradiction that reflects a dynamic
dialectic that is not resolved his Greatest Hits or in society.
Similarly, Shakur's rhetoric reflects the diunital
orientation when he raps about his lifestyle. Throughout his songs, Shakur articulates both a positive lifestyle
that embraces hope and determination and a gangsta
lifestyle that promotes violence. For example, in songs
such as "Changes," "Keep Ya Head Up," "Dear Mama,"
"Me Against the World," and "Unconditional Love,"
566

In "Unconditional Love" Shakur explains that he wants

to encourage the youth and help them transcend their
circumstances for a better future:
My mission/is to be more than just a rap musician/
The elevation of today's generation, if I can make
them listen.

Finally, in "Changes" Shakur in the middle of his song

urges listeners to make positive changes in their
lifestyle. He states:
We gotta make a change. It's time for us as a people
to start making some changes. Let's change the way
we eat, let's change the way we live, let's change
the way we treat each other. You see, the old way
wasn 't working so its on us to do what we got to do
to survive.

These examples support how Shakur encourages

listeners to better themselves as he constructs a positive outlook on life. In essence, his rhetoric suggests
that people can overcome their circumstances if they
maintain a positive attitude. At the same time, however, Shakur articulates a message that advocates a
"Thug Lifestyle." Shakur's message embraces violence
as he defends what Claude Brown (1965/1971) described as a person's reputation, which includes his
money, his woman, and/or his manhood. Shakur defends his reputation and espouses a gangsta lifestyle in
songs such as "Hit 'em Up," "Troublesome '96,"
"Changes," "2 of Amerika's Most Wanted," and "Picture Me Rollin."
In the song, "Troublesome '96" Shakur espouses
the gangsta lifestyle as he articulates bravado and swagger:

The Western Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 29, No. 1, 2005

Say my name like Candyman/ bet I'll roll on your

ass like an avalanche/ Sole survivor, leam to get
high and pull drive bys/murder my foes, can't control my nine/ Hearin' thoughts of my enemies
pleadin' please/bust their ass, motherfuckers tried
to flee.

Another example occurs in the song "Hit 'em Up:"

I'm a self made millionaire/thug livin 'out of prison,
pistols in the air!/Now it's all about Versace, you
copied my style/five shots couldn't drop me, I took
it and smiled!/ Now I'm about to set the record
straight/with myA.K., I'm the thug that you love to
hate!

Also, in the song, "Changes," Shakur articulates that

he is not ready to give up the "Thug Life:"
As long as I stay black/1 got to stay strapped/and
I never get to lay back/ because I always have to
worry about a buck I roughed up from way back.

Shakur in constructing both a positive and negative lifestyle reinforces the cultural value of a diunital
orientation. According to Schusterman (1995), rap inherently reflects these contradictions because artists are
driven by conflicting needs. The artist needs to succeed commercially, while not "selling out" by being
too commercial. Therefore, Schusterman argues that all
genres within rap articulate contradictory themes.
Schusterman's (1995) argument is supported by Watts
(1997) who identified the tension in gangsta rap between "street" vs. "decent" values. However, neither
Schusterman nor Watts hnks this tension to the African
American cultural value of a diunital orientation. Both
authors assume that the tension has to be one or the
other, which is a western perspective, not an African
American perspective. Instead, linking the tension to
the cultural value of a diunital orientation reveals a
greater understanding of how the culture perceives issues as complementary opposites.
Not only does a diunital orientation explain
Shakur's rhetoric but it also reflects the tension between
'Tupac the artist" (as a commodified performance) and
"Tupac Amaru Shakur" (the human being). Shakur represented an internal tension between performer and
person that underlined the message in many of his songs
(Medina, 1997; Strange, 1996). As Medina (1997)
wrote.
What is most telling about Tupac Shakur is that he,
more than anyone embodied DuBois' profile of the
dualistic black pscyche in white America, and de-

rails it into the 21" Century with the on-going problem of the color line. (Ill)

The tension between performer and person added to

the blurring between reality and fiction which contributed to his popularity with his fans who perceived him
as an authentic Black man for "keeping it real." As one
seventeen-year old high school senior explained:
The mothafucka was me. He lived what I live. Even
when he got paid, he still had to worry about the
bullshityou know what I'm sayin'. He wasn't no
fake nigga talkin' about he was from the 'hood
that nigga lived what I live . . . that nigga got shot
livin' what I live. So, hell yeah, Tupac meant a lot
to me. (qtd. in Gilber, 1997, pp. 66-67).

Tupac, as one of the symbolic leaders in the younger

generation's articulation of its frustrations, aspirations,
and desires, not only saw the inherent contradictions
that existed in America, but his career reflected them.
As a result, his rhetoric highlights these contradictions
which have been exaggerated in the post-civil rights
era.
Spirituality
Another criticism of gangsta rap is it undermines
the traditional forms of authority in the African American community, most notably the African American
church. Historically, the African American church has
been the bedrock in the African American struggle for
freedom, equality, and opportunity. The African American church had been the primary context in which individuals would experience and be in touch with their
soul through the Holy Spirit. However, some of the
younger generation believe the church has lost touch
with them (Leland, 2004) Since some of the younger
generation believe the church is no longer in touch with
them, they tum to rap music (for their spirituality) which
uses exphcit language that captures, the anger, frustration, and injustice they feel toward their life. As Ramsey
(2003) explained, contemporary gospel music has embraced the stylistic features of rap music to innovate
gospel music making it more appealing to younger
members.
Although Shakur uses explicit lyrics to describe
his condition, he has not abandoned his spirituality
(Dyson, 2001). As Rapper Big Tray Dee said of Shakur,
"I knew he was a real spiritual person, maybe not as far
as proclaiming it, but you can hear it in his songs, in his
art. He is looking for an answer, trying to find it with

The Western Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 29, No. 1, 2005 567

his people, through his music" (qtd. in Dyson, 2001,

pp. 207-208). Shakur uses spirituality to tap his inner
most being to create a message that constructs a common reality that elicits identification with his listeners.
As pastor Reverend Willie Wilson stated during a memorial service for Shakur in Washington, D.C:
Hip-hop artists in many instances are the preachers of their generation, preaching a message which,
too often, those who have been given the charge to
preach prophetic words to the people have not
given. He [Shakur] was their preacher, if you will,
who brought a message that [young people] can
identify with, related to what was real, that spoke
to the reality of the circumstances, situations [and]
environments they have to deal with every day. (qtd.
in Dyson, 2001, p. 202)

While Shakur's rhetoric does articulate the frustration

and anger of a disillusioned generation, he does realize
that he is a spiritual being who has a soul. According to
Shakur's mentor, Lelia Steinberg, Shakur was always
interested in spiritual matters and he studied spiritual
teachers because he wanted people to think about sin
and how there is a spiritual element in life (Dyson,
2001). Shakur understood that his soul is part of a spiritual realm that is governed by God's moral authority.
Therefore, throughout his Greatest Hits, despite the
articulation of hopelessness and despair, the one hope
in Shakur's life is God. In Shakur's Greatest Hits, he
taps into his spirituality for moral direction and for
God's forgiveness in order to be accepted into His kingdom in the afterlife. For example, Shakur states in "Unconditional Love:"
How many caskets can we witness/ before we see
it's hard to live this life without God, so we ask for
forgiveness.

In addition, Shakur states in the refrain of the song "Life

Goes On:"
How many brothers fell victim to the streets?/Rest
in peace young nigga, there's a heaven for a G.

These examples highlight how Shakur does acknowledge spirituality by articulating how God is the
ultimate authority and power in one's life. Also, a further analysis of spirituality in Shakur's Greatest Hits
shows that the artist is attempting to negotiate between
a "street" and "spiritual" orientation. It is a struggle
others in his generation can identity with: the need to
defend your "rep" on the street, while also living a spiritual life that pleases God (this tension also demonstrates
568

a diunital orientation). In this struggle, Shakur contemplates his own spirituality as he faces the prospects of
death and the afterlife. Likewise, Shakur also ponders
his fate as he attempts to reconcile his life with God. In
"So Many Tears:" Shakur states:
And fuck the world, because I'm cursed/ I'm having visions of leaving here in a Hearst/ God can
you feel me?/ Take me away from all the pressure
and all the pain/ show me some happiness again/
I'm going blind/I've spent my time in this cell/ain 't
livin' well/1 know my destiny is hell/ Where did I
fail?

In "Life Goes On" Shakur explains:

Give me a paper, a pen/so I can write about my life
of sin/A couple of bottles of gin/in case I don't get
in/ Tell all my people I'm a rider/ No body cries
when we die/ we outlaws, let me ride/ Until I get
free/1 live in the fast lane, got police chasing me.

Shakur contemplates how long he has left in "Picture

Me RoUin:"
Now that I'm released, how long will I live?/Will
God forgive me for all the dirt a nigga did?

Finally, Shakur comments in "Shed So Many Tears:"

Will I survive until the mornin' to see the sun?/
Please Lord forgive me for my sins, cause here I
come.

In trying to reconcile his life with God, Shakur

demonstrates a common human desire to make peace
with God before judgment day. This reconciliation also
shows that Shakur is caught up in a lifestyle that despite his willingness to change, his environment contains too many negative influences to complete his transformation. The struggle to reconcile with God in a negative environment that does not encourage positive
change is a tension that underlines many of Shakur's
songs. Shakur consistently relies on his spirituality for
moral direction. In "How Long Will They Mourn Me"
he states:
It's kind of hard to be optimistic/ when your homie 's
laying dead on the pavement twisted/ Y'all don't
hear me though/I'm tryin' hard to make amends/
hut I'm losing all my motherfucking friends/Damn,
they should have shot me when I was born/ now
I'm trapped in the motherfucking storm.

In "Shed So Many Tears" Shakur says:

Lord knows, I tried/been witness to homicide/drive

The Western Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 29, No. 1, 2005

by, taking lives, little kids die/ Wonder why as I walk

by/ broken hearted as I glance at the chalkline,
getting' high/ This ain't the life for me/1 want to
change, hut there ain't no future right for me/ I'm
stuck in the game.

A final example comes from the song, "Hail Mary:"

On a one way trip to prison, sellin 'drugs/we 're all
wrapped up in this livin', life as thugs/ Catch me
Father please, cause I'mfallin', in the liquor store/
that's the Henessey I hear callin,' can I get some
more?

Shakur's spirituality reflects an internal struggle

between trying to reconcile with God to gain eternal
life in heaven and being stuck in an environment that
makes change difficult. In the process, Shakur questions his place in society and whether he is worthy to
receive God's forgiveness. Shakur's spirituality and his
struggle for moral direction also reflect what Rickford
and Rickford (2000) considers to be a unifying characteristic of all Black music; the journey to reach the
"Other Side." (p. 80). For African American artists, the
"other side" represented an idealistic place such as a
trouble-free afterlife, an earthly life of liberation, or a
destination free from racism, poverty, and disease,
where individuals can construct their own identity and
reach their highest human potential.
Tupac Shakur's Greatest Hits as
a Musical Autobiography
The cultural values that shape Shakur's message
in his Greatest Hits also function in another wayas a
musical autobiography that constructs identity and provides a voice for Black youth culture. As Dyson (2001)
explained:
Tupac identified with the legions of hurting, beleaguered black youth whose only option appeared to
be to 'ride or die,' to blast or be blasted into
oblivion. His identification may have been self-destructive, wrongheaded, and morbidbut it was
thorough and heartfelt. As a result, millions ofyouth
have identified with him, with his swaggering courage, with his sexy defiance and splenetic rebellion,
with his pain and vulnerability, with his hunger for
the end even as he clung, like they cling, fiercely to
life. (p. 265-266).

Although Shakur's Greatest Hits were constructed

posthumously, it is appropriate to define this text as an

autobiography because contemporary criticism assumes

that all texts are interrelated to other texts. As a result,
texts have endless meanings and constructions which
make it difficult if not impossible to define the "originator" of a text (Bnimmett, 1994). Therefore, autobiographies and Shakur's Greatest Hits have multiple
constructions that contribute to the creation of the work.
The comparison made between autobiographies and
Shakur' Greatest Hits focuses on the shared functions
and not necessarily whether a text is (or to what extent)
is constructed by the "originator." Like an autobiography, Shakur enacts the oral tradition, a diunital orientation, and spirituality to tell his story but he uses the
vehicle of rap music to convey it, which explains why
his Greatest Hits can be defined as a musical autobiography. The fusion of autobiography and rap reflects
hybridity (the mixing of different cultural practices) that
Ramsey (2003) argued has long been part of African
American culture. As a musical autobiography, Shakur's
Greatest Hits symbolizes the connection between rap
music and the cultural values that can be found in other
forms of African American expression such as literature, music, poetry, and comedy. In fact, Rickford &
Rickford (2000) argue that all forms of African American communication such as literature, song, poetry, and
conversation are all interrelated and share common
communication practices that evolved from the African American culture and lived experience.
Denied the most fundamental rights such as literacy, citizenship, selfhood, or even possessing a collective history as a people, the African American autobiography tradition (starting with the slave narratives)
allowed individuals to construct their own selfhood and
identity, while also serving as a means to articulate the
collective history of the race. As Gates (1991) stated:
If the individual black self could not exist before
the law, it could, and would be forged in language,
as a testimony at once to the supposed integrity of
the black self and against the social and political
evils that delimited individual and group equality
for all African Americans, (p. 4)

According to Gates, African American autobiographies

function to: enable writers to construct their own self
and personal identity, to define the collective cultural
identity for African Americans, to articulate resistance
to an oppressive society, and to document African
American history. Furthermore, at the heart of all autobiographies is the narrative as writers must be skillful
storytellers who use language effectively to appeal to
their audience (Rickford and Rickford, 2000). All these

The Western Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 29, No. 1, 2005 569

functions of African American autobiographies have

produced a body of work that has enlightened, challenged, and motivated individuals who have read these
culturally significant stories. These narratives articulate a story that most be told. Although the autobiography is never new, it always must be heard because it
reconstructs a reality, which forms a collective history
that serves as a light in the darkness of humanity.
Likewise, rap music also continues the autobiographical tradition by enhghtening, challenging, and
motivating individuals who listen to its messages (Boyd,
1997; Kelley 1996; Morrison; Smitherman, 2000). As
a musical autobiography, Shakur's Greatest Hits tells a
story that must be heard in order for others to understand the despair of those who are less privileged and
to document their experiences to prevent their stories
from being overlooked by society. In fact, the documenting of experiences clearly unites African American autobiographies with rap music. As Smitherman
(1998) explained, the rapper is a postmodern African
griot who is a gifted storyteller, who is fluent in using
the language, and who "testifies" to what is going on
(p. 269). The cultural values that link the African American autobiography (starting with the slave narratives)
to rap music (the narratives of postindustrial urban life)
perpetuate a practice that begun when Africans were
brought to America. The continuation of these cultural
values demonstrates a link between two forms of Black
expression that represents a commonahty among generations that is often missed.
Tupac Shakur's Greatest Hits further demonstrates
the same functions as the African American autobiography in the following ways: Shakur constructs his own
selfhood and identity, which Black youth can identify
with; his Greatest Hits contributes to the collective cultural identityespecially Black male identity that is
persuasive in Hip-Hop culture; it is a form of resistance
to the White and Black estabhshment to call attention
to the oppressive conditions that affect poor urban
youth; and it forms a collective history of postindustrial
culture from a hip-hop perspective. Through his Greatest Hits, Shakur articulates a powerful narrative (the
oral tradition) that points out the contradictions in contemporary society (a diunital orientation) and employs
spirituality to motivate individuals to discover their true
self, their relationship to God, and their place in humanity.

570

Conclusion
My life in particular never has stayed fixed in one
position for very long. You have seen how throughout my life, I have often known unexpected drastic
changes. (X, 1965, p. 385).

This statement by Malcolm X (1965) toward the

end of his autobiography can also be apphed to the
musical autobiography of Tupac Shakur. Shakur's
Greatest Hits reveals his struggle to change in an impoverished environment that provided few positive
opportunities for a lasting transformation. It is the expression of struggle that makes Shakur's Greatest Hits
an example of Black Protest music. This struggle also
reveals the contradictions of contemporary societya
society of great wealth and great poverty, a society of
the privileged and the underprivileged, and a society of
the just and unjust. Shakur's musical autobiography
gives voice to those left out and left behind, those who
are at the bottom of the socio-economic level. It is
Shakur's complex and introspective message that captures some of the sentiments of today's disillusioned
youth from gang-bangers to college students. At the time
of Shakur's tragic death, Malcolm Hill, a sixteen-yearold explained, "Tupac said the things I thought and felt
a lot of times. It's like sometimes I feel I am really bad
and can't nobody do nothing to me. And then sometimes I think I am fed" (qtd. in Samuels and Leland,
1996, p. 73). Shakur's Greatest Hits spoke to a generation who identified with these contradictions.
Arhetorical criticism of Shakur's Greatest Hits also
highlights how focusing on cultural values can provide
a greater understanding of the cultural meaning of a
text. Using cultural values as a theoretical framework
is a way for rhetorical scholars to demonstrate what
Atwater (1984) argued for long agoto develop new
rhetorical tools that are true to the heritage of African
Americans that provide a deeper meaning to the communication that is articulated and consumed in the African American community. Employing an African
American cultural perspective illustrates how Shakur's
rhetoric reflects the underlining African American cultural values that shape African Americans rhetorical
strategies, choices, means, and style. As a result, this
rhetorical criticism further defines an African American cultural perspective that communication scholars
can use to interpret and to understand African Ameri-

The Western Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 29, No. 1, 2005

can discourse such as Black protest music. In this case,

analyzing African American cultural values provides
an alternative perspective for understanding gangsta
rapan understanding that links gangsta rap to other
African American cultural forms of expression such as
the autobiography. Illustrating the cultural values that
are common to both texts is a way to connect two different generations and stimulate dialogue between
voices in the African American community that are often disconnected (Dyson, 2001; Ramsey, 2003).
As rhetorical scholars discover and employ new

rhetorical methods that are developed from an African

American perspective, their criticism will produce a
more comprehensive understanding of the cultural
meanings conveyed by African American texts. By
understanding how Shakur's rhetoric is informed by
and employs cultural values that have defined other
forms of Black expression, it is clear that Shakur's
Greatest Hits repeats a story that has been told. It does
so, however, on its own terms, by transforming the cultural values to achieve what Frederick Douglass articulated long ago: agitate! agitate! agitate!

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