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JAR 66 CATEGORY B1 MODULE 11.04 AIR CONDITIONING AND CABIN
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4.3 COOLING
When bleed air is used as the air supply, the air tapped off the engine
compressor can reach a temperature in excess of 300 degrees Celsius.
This is obviously far too hot to be fed directly into the air-conditioned areas,
so it must first be cooled down to around 20 degrees Celsius.
There are two main methods of cooling;
Air Cycle and Vapour Cycle cooling systems.
4.3.1 Air Cycle Cooling
Air cycle cooling relies on three basic principles; surface heat exchange,
expansion and energy conversion.
Surface heat exchange, provides cooling by passing the air tapped from
the engine compressor (charge air) across some form of heat exchanger.
The charge air is subjected to the effect of a colder cross flow, normally
ambient air, scooped by an intake and passed across the heat exchanger
as the aircraft moves forward (ram air). Although 90% of heat is given up in
this way, the charge air temperature can never be reduced below the ram
air temperature by this method alone.
Expansion, provides cooling when the pressure of the charge air is reduced
by increasing its velocity and expanding it across the turbine of a so-called
Air Cycle Machine (ACM) or Cold Air Unit (CAU). In this way, the
temperature of the charge air can be rapidly lowered to zero degrees
Celsius, irrespective of the ram air temperature
Energy Conversion, cools by making the hot air do work. This is achieved
by using the charge air to drive a turbine, which is connected by a shaft to
the compressor or fan within the cold air unit, thus converting heat energy
into kinetic energy. This method will also help to reduce the charge air to
zero degrees Celsius. Issue 1 - 20 March 2001 Page 4-5
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1 MODULE 11.04 AIR CONDITIONING AND CABIN
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TEMPERATURECONTROL VALVECOMPRESSOR
TURBINESECONDARY HEAT EXCHANGERRAM AIRTOCABINMIXER
UNITPRIMARYHEATEXCHANGERHOT AIR INLETWATER SEPARATOR
Turbo Compressor
Figure 3
4.3.1.1 HEAT EXCHANGERS
These are components within the air conditioning system that transfer heat
from one gas stream to another. Ram air is used as the cooling medium to
cool the very hot charge air ducted from the engine compressor or the
gearbox mounted air compressor or blower.
Depending on where they are placed within the air conditioning system,
heat exchangers are often described as;
A Pre-cooler or Primary Heat Exchanger
An Inter-cooler or Secondary Heat Exchanger
The basic construction is a sealed unit containing a series of cooling
passages; through which the charge air flows and over which the ram air is
directed. Between these passages are thin corrugated strips, that also
serve to dissipate heat as the ram air passes over them. Pag e 4-6 B1 Mod
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JAR 66 CATEGORY B MODULE 11.04 AIR CONDITIONING AND CABIN
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The turbine wheel revolves within a nozzle ring and the compressor wheel
rotates within a diffuser ring. The very hot charge air from the engine
compressor bleed and routed via the pre-cooler, enters the eye of the
ACM/CAU compressor. It becomes compressed on passing through the
diffuser ring, increasing its temperature and energy.
From the compressor, the hot air is directed across the inter-cooler matrix
over which ram air passes and is then directed into the turbine volute
nozzle ring, where it drives the turbine. The resultant expansion and energy
conversion, rapidly lowers the air pressure and temperature.
It is then directed towards the passenger cabin. (See Fig 3)
The ACM/CAU compressor and turbine wheels rotate at extremely high
speeds, often in excess of 80,000 rpm, so efficient bearing lubrication is
essential to ensure smooth and trouble-free running.
Two lubrication methods are used; Integral wet sump arrangements, or
pressurised air bearings that need no oil lubrication.
The wet sump type normally has a sump containing oil and a means of
metering it to the bearings usually by the use of integral wicks or with an
oil slinger that pumps an optimum oil/air mix to the bearings. This ensures
the correct amount of oil at the bearings at all times. Oil replenishment is
critical however, as too much oil will lead to the charge air being oil
contaminated and too little oil, may result in a premature seizure of the
rotating shaft.
The air bearing type uses a pressurised air supply to support the shaft in a
similar manner to the hovercraft principal. As the rotor floats on a thin
layer of air, it is essential that this type is kept clean and dry and completely
free from oil and grease. RAM AIRTOCABINMIXERUNITHEAT
EXCHANGERCONTROL VALVEAMBIENT AIR
INLETCOMPRESSORTURBINEBLEEDAIRAMBIENT AIR OUTLET
Brake Turbine Cold Air Unit
Figure 5 Pag e 4-8 B1 Mod 11.04 Issue 30 Jan 2003
JAR 66 CATEGORY B MODULE 11.04 AIR CONDITIONING AND CABIN
PRESSURISATION uk engineering
The brake-turbine type of ACM/CAU, has its charge air routed directly from
the pre-cooler to drive the turbine. The air expands across the turbine as
before, resulting in a large temperature and pressure drop. Since this
layout dispenses with the need for an inter-cooler, it results in a greater
efficiency due to weight saving. To safeguard against the turbine rotating
too fast, it is coupled with a compressor, which rotates in ambient air and
consequently acts as a braking medium. Additionally, the slower rotation of
the shaft further improves turbine output efficiency. (See Fig 5) MIXER
UNITBLEED AIRRAMAIRHEATEXCHANGERCONTROL VALVELARGE
FANTURBINERAM AIR OUTLETTO CABINTURBO UNITTURBO FAN
COLD AIR UNIT
Turbo Fan Cold Air Unit
Figure 6
The turbo-fan type is mechanically similar to the brake-turbine
arrangement. In this case however, the turbine drives a large centrifugal fan
instead of a normal compressor. The fan is draws a large quantity of
ambient air over the pre-cooler, which cools the incoming charge air.
The major advantage of this type over the other two, is that with the faninduced airflow over the pre-cooler, it can be used with the aircraft
stationary on the ground with the aircraft engines running. It does not need
to rely solely on ram air as the cooling medium for the pre-cooler. Issue 1 20 March 2001 Page 4-9
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1 MODULE 11.04 AIR CONDITIONING AND CABIN
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4.4 HEATING
Un-pressurised aircraft use a ram-air system for ventilation. At altitude, the
ram-air passing through the cabin would be very cold, so a heating system
is required.
Heating systems can be generally divided into two types:
Exhaust heating systems
Combustion heating systems
4.4.1 Exhaust Heating Systems
In its simplest form, this type of heating system employs a heater muff that
surrounds the exhaust pipes coming from a piston engine, or the jet pipe of
a turbo-jet. A ram air scoop at the forward end of the heater muff allows
some of the cold air to go to directly to a mixing valve.
The remainder, enters the muff and surrounds the exhaust/jet pipes. Heat
from the pipes is transferred into the ram air and carried to the mixing
valve. The heated air joins the cold air at the mixing valve and the
combined flow is directed into the passenger cabin.
Some form of control lever, operated from within the aircraft and connected
to the mixing valve, allows the proportion of hot and cold air to be
modulated in order to suit the cabin heating requirements.
To cater for the possibility of the ventilation air becoming contaminated from
the exhaust pipes, some aircraft will be fitted with carbon monoxide
detectors within the cabin area. These are indicators filled with brightly
coloured crystals, which turn black if exposed to dangerous levels of
carbon monoxide.
Exhaust System Heater
Figure 9 Pag e 4-12 B1 Mod 11.04 Issue 30 Jan 2003
JAR 66 CATEGORY B MODULE 11.04 AIR CONDITIONING AND CABIN
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Air is exhausted from the passenger cabin through grills and outflow valves
in the sidewalls above the floor. This air can then be directed around the
cargo compartment walls where it assists in compartment temperature
control. Some air then flows to the cargo heat distribution duct under the
compartment floor and is then discharged overboard through the outflow
valves. WINDOW DEMISTER FLOOR EXHAUST VENTS WALL FEEDER
DUCTS DISTRIBUTION BOXES DISTRIBUTION DUCT
Sidewall Ducting
Figure 20
Below each floor air exhaust outlet is a flotation check valve. This valve is a
plastic ball held in a cage. If the cargo compartments become flooded the
balls float up the cage and seals off the floor to help prevent water from
entering the cabin. SILENCER FAN ASSY FAN ASSY PRESSURE
SWITCH COOLING FANS FLIGHT DECK TEMPERATURE SENSOR AIR
VENT CABIN TEMPERATURE SENSOR
Cockpit Air Distribution
Figure 21 Issue 1 - 20 March 2001 Page 4-23
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1 MODULE 11.04 AIR CONDITIONING AND CABIN
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Aircraft may be separated into zones each with its own air conditioning
system and controls for that zone located in a distribution bay. Some areas
may have a remote heat exchanger and fan assembly in the vapour cycle
system, to allow cooling to specific areas such as avionics bays, fed from
one of the zone packs.
4.8.1 Re-circulation Air System
To improve cabin ventilation and supplement airflow the cabin air is
recirculated back to the main distribution manifold where it is mixed with
conditioned air form the cooling packs. The use of re-circulated air
improves airflow and offloads the air supply system. This off loading of the
air conditioning packs is converted into a fuel saving.
The re-circulation fan will draw air from the cabin area, through a check
valve and filter assembly to remove any smoke and noxious odours before
passing it to the mixer unit for re-distribution. The check valve prevents any
reverse flow through the fan and ducting when the fan is not in use.
4.9 PRESSURISATION SYSTEMS
As aircraft became capable of obtaining altitudes above that at which flight
crews could operate efficiently, a need developed for complete
environmental systems to allow these aircraft to carry passengers. Air
conditioning could provide the proper temperature and supplemental
oxygen could provide sufficient breathable air.
The problem was that not enough atmospheric pressure exists at high
altitude to aid breathing in and even at lower altitudes the body must work
harder to absorb sufficient oxygen, through the lungs, to operate at the
same level of efficiency as at sea level. This problem is overcome by
pressurising the cockpit/ cabin area. Cabin pressurisation is a means of
adding pressure to the cabin of an aircraft to create an artificial atmosphere
that when flying at high altitudes it provides gives an environment
equivalent to that below 10000 feet. The minimum quantity of fresh air
supplied to each person on board must be at least 0.5lb/ minute.
Aircraft are pressurised by sealing off a strengthened portion of the
fuselage. This is usually called the pressure vessel and will normally
include cabin, cockpit and possibly cargo areas. Air is pumped into this
pressure vessel and is controlled by an outflow valve located at the rear of
the vessel.
Sealing of the pressure vessel is accomplished by the use of seals around
tubing, ducting, bolts, rivets, and other hardware that pass through or
pierce the pressure tight area. All panels and large structural components
are assembled with sealing compounds. Access and removable doors and
hatches have integral seals. Some have inflatable seals. Pag e 4-24 B1
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JAR 66 CATEGORY B MODULE 11.04 AIR CONDITIONING AND CABIN
PRESSURISATION uk engineering
Jet Pump
Figure 24
4.9.1 Control And Indication
There are 3 modes of pressurisation, un-pressurised, the isobaric mode
and the constantdifferential pressure mode. In the un-pressurised mode
the cabin altitude remains the same as the flight altitude. In the isobaric
mode the cabin altitude remains constant as the flight altitude changes and
in the constant-differential pressure mode, the cabin pressure is maintained
at a constant amount above the outside ambient air pressure.
The amount of differential pressure is determined by the structural strength
of the aircraft. The stronger the aircraft structure the higher the differential
pressure and the higher is the aircrafts operating ceiling.
4.9.2 The Un-Pressurised Mode
In this mode the outflow valve remains open and the cabin pressure is the
same as the outside ambient air pressure. This mode is usually from sea
level up to 5000` but does vary from aircraft to aircraft. Issue 1 - 20 March
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Outflow Valve
Figure 30
4.10.4 Inward and Outward Safety Relief Valves
Fuselage frames are designed to accept tensile loads associated with and
outward force from within the pressure cell. Their ability to withstand
compression loads that would occur if the pressure outside the aircraft
were higher than within the pressure cell is poor. Therefore an inward relief
valve will open and equalise the pressure if the inward or negative
differential exceeds about 0.5 psid.
Two outward relief valves are fitted to prevent the maximum outward
differential pressure from exceeding the structural limit. This will typically be
around 8.5psid.
Even though the main pressure control is electronic, the safety relief valves
are mechanical operated and are completely independent of any automatic
control system.
Pressurisation System Valves
Figure 31 Issue 1 - 20 March 2001 Page 4-35
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The differential pressure gauge (Figure 34) reads the difference between
the cabin and the outside air pressures. This differential pressure is
normally controlled and maintained to a structural limitation around 7psid.
This depends on the aircraft type and the operating ceiling of the aircraft.
The differential pressure gauge may be combined with the cabin altitude
(Figure 35). 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 DIFF PX PSI
Differential Pressure Gauge Dual Gauge
Figure 34 Figure 35
4.12 SAFETY AND WARNING DEVICES
To ground test the pressurisation system with the engines running, at least
three men are required inside the aircraft for safety reasons.
Both air conditioning and pressurisation systems use safety and warning
devices to protect the aircraft from possible catastrophic failures. Some of
the protection devices may be inhibited in certain stages of flight; landing or
take off where the extra distractions caused by such warnings may be too
much for the crews to deal with safely.
With the air conditioning system the main concerns are with overheating of
the air conditioning packs and extraction and ventilation fans, as well as hot
air leaks from ducting which could damage surrounding structure or
components.
4.12.1 Overheating
Most packs systems are protected from overheating by a thermal switch
downstream of the pack outlet. If the outlet temperature reaches a pre
determined figure the switch will operate causing the pack valves to shut,
preventing air from getting to the packs, as well as sending a warning
signal to the cockpit central warning panel with associated caution/warning
lights and aural chimes and to illuminate a fault light on the pack selector
switch. Issue 1 - 20 March 2001 Page 4-37
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Once the system has cooled down sufficiently the crew may have an option
to reselect the overheated system. The overheat may have been caused by
a fault in the automatic temperature control system in which case the pilot
may be able to control the system manually via a manual selector switch on
the cockpit controller.
Extraction or ventilation fans will be protected in much the same way. An
overheat will signal the central warning panel with associated
caution/warning lights and aural chimes. The fan may be isolated
automatically or manually. Once the fan has cooled down it may be
possible to re-select if required. Fans may also be protected from over or
under speeding, which will also have an effect on the system temperatures.
Speed sensors on the fan will indicate a fault when over or under speed
limits are reached and a warning signal is sent to the cockpit central
warning panel with associated caution/warning lights and aural chimes.
4.12.2 Duct Hot Air Leakage
Any ducting that includes joints is liable to leak under abnormal conditions.
A duct protection system will include fire-wire elements around the hot
zones such as engine air bleeds, air conditioning packs and auxiliary power
units if fitted.
The sensing elements will be the thermistor type. As the temperature
around the wire increases the resistance decreases until an electrical
circuit is made. When the circuit is made a warning signal is sent to the
cockpit central warning panel with associated caution/warning lights and
aural chimes. The leaking duct may be isolated automatically or may
require the pilot to take action to close off the air valves. The faulty system
will then remain out of use.
4.12.3 Excess Cabin Altitude
If the cabin altitude was allowed to increase unchecked the crew and
passengers could unknowingly suffer the effects of hypoxia. This
dangerous condition is obviously undesirable especially for the aircrew.
Most aircraft give a warning on the CWP with associated audio and visual
warnings when the cabin altitude reaches 10000`.
4.12.4 Smoke Detection
Smoke detectors may be fitted within the cabin; avionics bay and cargo
areas to monitor systems, which if become faulty may generate smoke on
overheating, or are may be liable to catch fire. These detectors will send a
signal to the CWP with associated lights and audio warnings. They may
also automatically switch on extractor fans, which will remove the smoke
overboard and away form the cabin and cockpit areas. In this event, the
pilot may have a switch or control lever to operate a valve to isolate the
cockpit air conditioning ducting from the rest of the aircraft to prevent any
smoke from getting to the cockpit. Pag e 4-38 B1 Mod 11.04 Issue 30 Jan
2003
JAR 66 CATEGORY B MODULE 11.04 AIR CONDITIONING AND CABIN
PRESSURISATION uk engineering
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