Mexico

This article is about the country in North America. For fteenth largest nominal GDP and the eleventh largest
other uses, see Mexico (disambiguation).
GDP by purchasing power parity. The economy of Mexico is strongly linked to those of its North American
(NAFTA) partners, especially the
i
Mexico ( /mksko/; Spanish: Mxico [mexiko]), of- Free Trade Agreement
United States.[25][26] Mexico ranks sixth in the world and
cially the United Mexican States (Spanish: Estados
by number of UNESCO World HerUnidos Mexicanos, listen ),[9][10][11][12] is a federal re- rst in the Americas[27][28][29]
with 32,
and in 2010 was the tenth
itage
Sites
public in North America. It is bordered on the north
most
visited
country
in
the
world
with 22.5 million inby the United States; on the south and west by the Pa[30]
ternational
arrivals
per
year.
According
to Goldman
cic Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and
Sachs,
by
2050
Mexico
could
become
the
worlds fth
the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of Mex[31]
largest
economy.
PricewaterhouseCoopers
(PwC) es[13]
ico.
Covering almost two million square kilometres
timated
in
January
2013
that
by
2050
Mexico
could
[12]
(over 760,000 sq mi), Mexico is the fth largest coun[32]
be
the
worlds
seventh
largest
economy.
Mexico
has
try in the Americas by total area and the 13th largest inmembership
in
prominent
institutions
such
as
the
UN,
the
dependent nation in the world. With an estimated popuWTO,
the
G20
and
the
Uniting
for
Consensus.
[14]
lation of over 120 million, it is the eleventh most populous and the most populous Spanish-speaking country in
the world and the second most populous country in Latin
America. Mexico is a federation comprising thirty-one
states and a Federal District, its capital and largest city.

1 Etymology

In pre-Columbian Mexico many Mesoamerican cultures Main article: Name of Mexico

matured into advanced civilizations such as the Olmec, Mxihco is the Nahuatl term for the heartland of the
the Toltec, the Teotihuacan, the Zapotec, the Maya and
the Aztec before rst contact with Europeans. In 1521,
the Spanish Empire conquered and colonized the territory from its base in Mexico-Tenochtitlan, which was administered as the Viceroyalty of New Spain. This territory would eventually become Mexico following recognition of the colonys independence in 1821. The postindependence period was characterized by economic instability, the Mexican-American War that led to the
territorial cession to the United States, the Pastry War,
the Franco-Mexican War, a civil war, two empires and a
domestic dictatorship. The latter led to the Mexican Revolution in 1910, which culminated with the promulgation
of the 1917 Constitution and the emergence of the countrys current political system. In March 1938, through the
Mexican oil expropriation private U.S. and Anglo-Dutch
oil companies were nationalized to create the state-owned
Pemex oil company.
Mexico has one of the worlds largest economies, it is
the tenth largest oil producer in the world, the largest
silver producer in the world and is considered both a
regional power and middle power.[15][16][17][18] In addition, Mexico was the rst Latin American member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation
and Development OECD (since 1994), and considered an upper-middle income country by the World
Bank.[19] Mexico is considered a newly industrialized
country[20][21][22][23] and an emerging power.[24] It has the

Image of Mexico-Tenochtitlan from the Codex Mendoza

Aztec Empire, namely,[33] the Valley of Mexico, and its

people, the Mexica, and surrounding territories which became the future State of Mexico as a division of New
Spain prior to independence (compare Latium). It is gen1

HISTORY

erally considered to be a toponym for the valley which

became the primary ethnonym for the Aztec Triple Alliance as a result, or vice versa. After New Spain won
independence from Spain, it was decided that the new
country would be named after its capital, Mexico City,
which was founded in 1524 on top of the ancient Mexica
capital of Mexico-Tenochtitlan.

ican States. The phrase Repblica Mexicana, Mexican

Republic, was used in the 1836 Constitutional Laws.[40]
On November 22, 2012, president Felipe Caldern sent
to the Mexican Congress a piece of legislation to change
the countrys name ocially to simply Mexico. To go into
eect, the bill would need to be passed by both houses of
Congress, as well as a majority of Mexicos 31 State legTraditionally, its name was thought to come from Nahuatl islatures. As this legislation was proposed just a week
before Caldern turned power over to Enrique Pea Nitetl [tet] (rock) and nchtli [notti] ("prickly pear")
[41]
and is often thought to mean Among the prickly pears eto, Calderns critics saw this as a symbolic gesture.
[growing among] rocks. However, one attestation in the
late 16th-century manuscript known as the Bancroft dialogues suggests the second vowel was short, so that the 2 History
true etymology remains uncertain.[34]
The sux -co is the Nahuatl locative, making the word Main article: History of Mexico
a place name. Beyond that, the etymology is uncertain. It has been suggested that it is derived from Mextli
or Mxihtli, a secret name for the god of war and patron of the Mexicas, Huitzilopochtli, in which case Mxihco means Place where Huitzilopochtli lives.[35] Another hypothesis[36] suggests that Mxihco derives from a
portmanteau of the Nahuatl words for Moon (Mtztli)
and navel (xctli). This meaning (Place at the Center
of the Moon) might then refer to Tenochtitlans position in the middle of Lake Texcoco. The system of interconnected lakes, of which Texcoco formed the center, had the form of a rabbit, which the Mesoamericans
pareidolically associated with the Moon. Still another hypothesis suggests that it is derived from Mctli, the god- Chichen Itza
dess of maguey.[36]
The name of the city-state was transliterated to Spanish
as Mxico with the phonetic value of the letter 'x' in Medieval Spanish, which represented the voiceless postalveolar fricative []. This sound, as well as the voiced
postalveolar fricative [], represented by a 'j', evolved
into a voiceless velar fricative [x] during the 16th century. This led to the use of the variant Mjico in many
publications in Spanish, most notably in Spain, whereas
in Mexico and most other Spanishspeaking countries
Mxico was the preferred spelling. In recent years the
Real Academia Espaola, which regulates the Spanish
language, determined that both variants are acceptable in
Spanish but that the normative recommended spelling is
Mxico.[37] The majority of publications in all Spanishspeaking countries now adhere to the new norm, even
though the alternative variant is still occasionally used. In Cuauhxicalli in the shape of an eagle, from the Templo Mayor
English, the 'x' in Mexico represents neither the original
nor the current sound, but the consonant cluster [ks].
The ocial name of the country has changed as the
form of government has changed. On three occasions
(13251521, 18211823, and 18631867). The country was known as Imperio Mexicano (Mexican Empire).
All three federal constitutions (1824, 1857 and 1917,
the current constitution) used the name Estados Unidos
Mexicanos[38] or the variant Estados-Unidos Mexicanos,[39] all of which have been translated as United Mex-

2.1 Ancient cultures

Main article: Pre-Columbian Mexico
The earliest human remains in Mexico are chips of
stone tools found near campre remains in the Valley
of Mexico and radiocarbon-dated to circa 10,000 years
ago.[42] Mexico is the site of the domestication of maize

2.2

Spanish conquest (1519)

and beans which caused a transition from paleo-Indian

hunter-gatherers to sedentary agricultural villages beginning around 5000 BCE.[43]
In the subsequent formative eras, maize cultivation and
cultural traits such as a complex mythological and religious complex, a vigesimal numeric system, were diffused from the Mexican cultures to the rest of the
Mesoamerican culture area[44] In this period villages
began to become socially stratied and develop into
chiefdoms, and large ceremonial centers developed.[45]
Among the earliest complex civilizations in Mexico was
the Olmec culture which ourished on the Gulf Coast
from around 1500 BCE. Olmec cultural traits diused
through Mexico into other formative-era cultures in Chia- A view from the Tlatelolco markets into Mexico-Tenochtitlan, one
pas, Oaxaca and the Valley of Mexico. The formative pe- of the largest cities in the world at the time.
riod saw the spread of distinct religious and symbolic traditions, as well as artistic and architectural complexes.[46]
recent years.[49]
In the subsequent pre-classical period, the Maya and
Zapotec civilizations developed complex centers at The Aztec empire was an informal or hegemonic empire
Calakmul and Monte Albn respectively. During this pe- because it did not exert supreme authority over the conriod the rst true Mesoamerican writing systems were de- quered lands; it merely expected tributes to be paid. It
veloped in the Epi-Olmec and the Zapotec cultures, and was also a discontinuous empire because not all domithe Mesoamerican writing tradition reached its height in nated territories were connected; for example, the southern peripheral zones of Xoconochco were not in direct
the Classic Maya Hieroglyphic script.[47]
contact with the center. The hegemonic nature of the
In Central Mexico, the height of the classic period saw the
Aztec empire can be seen in the fact that generally local
ascendancy of Teotihuacan, which formed a military and
rulers were restored to their positions once their city-state
commercial empire whose political inuence stretched
was conquered and the Aztecs did not interfere in local
south into the Maya area as well as north. Teotihuacan,
aairs, as long as the tribute payments were made.[50]
with a population of more than 150,000 people, had some
of the largest pyramidal structures in the pre-Columbian The Aztecs of Central Mexico built a tributary empire
[51]
The Aztecs were
Americas.[48] After the collapse of Teotihuacn around covering most of central Mexico.
noted
for
practicing
human
sacrice
on a large scale.
600 CE, competition ensued between several important
Along
with
this
practice
of
delayed
death,
the killing of
political centers in central Mexico such as Xochicalco
enemies
on
the
battleeld
was
avoided;
making
their warand Cholula. At this time, during the Epi-Classic, Nahua
ring
casualty
rate
far
lower
than
their
Spanish
counterpeoples began moving south into Mesoamerica from the
parts
whose
principal
objective
was
immediate
slaughNorth, and became politically and culturally dominant
[52]
ter
during
battle.
This
distinct
Mesoamerican
cultural
in central Mexico, as they displaced speakers of Ototradition ended with the Spanish conquest in the 16th
Manguean languages.
century, and over the next centuries Mexican indigenous cultures were gradually subjected to Spanish colonial rule.[53]
2.1.1 Post-classic period (7001519 AD)
During the early post-classic Central Mexico was dom- 2.2 Spanish conquest (1519)
inated by the Toltec culture, Oaxaca by the Mixtec and
the lowland Maya area had important centers at Chichn Further information: Spanish conquest of Mexico
Itz and Mayapn. Towards the end of the post-Classic The Spanish rst heard of Mexico during the Juan de
period, the Mexica.
Grijalva expedition of 1518, the natives kept repeatAlexander von Humboldt originated the modern usage ing: Colua, Colua, and Mexico, Mexico, but we did not
of "Aztec" as a collective term applied to all the peo- know what Colua or Mexico meant, until encountering
ple linked by trade, custom, religion, and language to the Montezumas Governor at the mouth of the Rio de las
Mexica state and xcn Tlahtlyn, the Triple Alliance. Banderas.[54]:3336 The Spanish conquest of the Aztec
In 1843, with the publication of the work of William H. Empire began in February 1519 when Hernn Corts arPrescott, it was adopted by most of the world, including rived at the port in Veracruz with ca. 500 conquistadores,
19th century Mexican scholars who saw it as a way to dis- and later moved on to the Aztec capital. On his search for
tinguish present-day Mexicans from pre-conquest Mexi- gold and other riches, Corts decided to invade and concans. This usage has been the subject of debate in more quer the Aztec empire.[55]

HISTORY

the Aztecs believed the epidemic was a punishment from

an angry god, but they later accepted their fate and no
longer resisted the Spanish rule.[61] Many of the surviving Aztecs blamed the cause of smallpox to the superiority of the Christian god, which resulted in the acceptance
of Catholicism and yielding to the Spanish rule throughout Mexico.[62]
The territory became part of the Spanish Empire under
the name of New Spain. Mexico City was systematically
rebuilt by Corts following the Fall of Tenochtitlan in
1521. Much of the identity, traditions and architecture
of Mexico were created during the colonial period.[63]

Hernn Corts and La Malinche meet Moctezuma II.

2.3 Colonial period (15191821)

The capture of Tenochtitlan marked the beginning of a
300-year-long colonial period, during which Mexico was
known as "New Spain".
2.3.1 Period of the conquest (15211650)
Contrary to a widespread misconception, Spain did not
conquer all of the Aztec Empire when Cortes took
Tenochtitlan. It required another two centuries to complete the conquest: rebellions broke out within the old
Empire and wars continued with other native peoples.
After the fall of Tenochtitlan, it took decades of sporadic warfare to subdue the rest of Mesoamerica. Particularly erce was the Chichimeca War (15761606) and
the Tepehun Revolt (16161620) in the north.

Storming of the Teocalli by Cortez and his troops. Emanuel

Leutze. Painting, 1848

Economics. The Council of Indies and the mendicant

establishments, which arose in Mesoamerica as early as
1524, labored to generate capital for the crown of Spain
The massacre in the Great Temple was a key incident in and convert the Indian populations to Catholicism. Durthe Spanish conquest of Mexico which occurred on May ing this period and the following Colonial periods the
sponsorship of mendicant friars and a process of re20, 1520.
ligious syncretism combined the Pre-Hispanic cultures
The ruler of the Aztec empire upon the arrival of the with Spanish socio-religious tradition.
Spaniards was Moctezuma II, who was later killed; his
successor and brother Cuitlhuac took control of the
Aztec empire, but was among the rst to fall from the
smallpox epidemic a short time later.[56] Unintentionally introduced by Spanish conquerors, smallpox ravaged
Mesoamerica in the 1520s, killing more than 3 million
Aztecs.[57] Other sources, however, mentioned that the
death toll of the Aztecs might have reached up to 15
million (out of a population of less than 30 million).[58]
Severely weakened, the Aztec empire was easily defeated
by Corts and his forces on his second return.[59]
Smallpox was a devastating and selective diseaseit generally killed Aztecs but not Spaniards, who as Europeans
had already been exposed to it for centuries and were
therefore much more immune to it.[60] The deaths caused
by smallpox are believed to have triggered a rapid growth Equestrian statue of Charles IV in Mexico City, the king was the
of Christianity in Mexico and the Americas. At rst, maximum authority of the Viceroyalty of New Spain

2.3

Colonial period (15191821)

The resulting hodgepodge of culture was a pluriethnic State that relied on the "repartimiento", a system
of peasant Republic of Indians labor that carried out
any necessary work. Thus, the existing feudal system
of pre-Hispanic Mesoamerican culture was replaced by
the encomienda feudal-style system of Spain, probably
adapted to the pre-Hispanic tradition. This in turn was nally replaced by a debt-based inscription of labor that led
to widespread revitalization movements and prompted
the revolution that ended colonial New Spain.

gions in what is now the United States until the end of the
16th century (Santa Fe, 1598).

Evolution of the Race. During the three centuries of colonial rule, less than 700,000 Spaniards, most of them men,
settled in Mexico. The settlers intermarried with indigenous women, fathering the mixed race (mestizo) descendents who today constitute the majority of Mexicos population.

From an economic point of view, New Spain was administered principally for the benet of the Empire and
its military and defensive eorts (Mexico provided more
than half of the Empires taxes and supported the administration of all North and Central America). Competition with Spain was discouraged to the extent that activities like cultivation of grapes and olives, introduced by
Cortez himself, was banned out of fear that these crops
would compete with Spain's.

2.3.2

The colonial period (16501821)

Colonial law with Spanish roots but original native features were introduced, creating a hierarchy between local
jurisdiction (the Cabildos) and the Crown's, whereby upper administrative oces were closed to the natives, even
those of pure Spanish blood. Administration was based
on the racial separation of the population among Republics of Spaniards, Indians and Mestizos, autonomous
and directly dependent on the king himself.

In order to protect Mexico from the attacks of English, French and Dutch pirates, as well as the Crowns
revenue, only two ports were open to foreign trade
Veracruz on the Atlantic and Acapulco on the Pacic.
The pirates attacked, plundered and ravaged several cities
like Campeche (1557), Veracruz (1568) and Alvarado
(1667).
Education was encouraged by the Crown from the very
beginning, and Mexico boasts the rst primary school
(Texcoco, 1523), rst university (1551) and the rst
printing house (1524) of the Americas. Indigenous languages were studied mainly by the religious orders during
the rst centuries, and became ocial languages in the
so-called Republic of Indians, only to be outlawed and
ignored after independence by the prevailing Spanishspeaking creoles.
Mexico produced important cultural achievements during
the colonial period, like the literature of Sor Juana Ins
de la Cruz and Ruiz de Alarcn, as well as cathedrals,
civil monuments, forts and colonial cities such as Puebla,
Mexico City, Quertaro, Zacatecas and others, today part
of Unescos World Heritage.
The syncretism between indigenous and Spanish cultures
in New Spain gave birth to many of todays Mexican
cultural traits like tequila (rst distilled in the 16th cenDuring this period, Mexico was part of the much larger tury), mariachi (18th), jarabe (17th), charros (17th) and
Viceroyalty of New Spain, which included Cuba, Puerto Mexican cuisine a mixture of European and indigenous
Rico, Central America as far south as Costa Rica, Florida, ingredients and techniques.
the southwestern United States and the Philippines. Spain
during the 16th century focused its energies on areas with
dense populations that had produced Pre-Columbian civ- 2.3.3 Independence from Spain (1821)
ilizations, since these areas could provide the settlers with
a disciplined labor force and a population to catechize.
Main article: Mexican War of Independence
Portrait of Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz, oil on canvas, 1772.

Territories populated by nomadic peoples were harder to On September 16, 1810, a loyalist revolt against the
conquer, and though the Spanish did explore a good part ruling Junta was declared by priest Miguel Hidalgo y Cosof North America, seeking the fabled "El Dorado", they tilla, in the small town of Dolores, Guanajuato.[64] The
made no concerted eort to settle the northern desert re- rst insurgent group was formed by Hidalgo, the Span-

HISTORY

The Territorial evolution of Mexico after independence, noting

losses to the US (red, white and orange), Chiapas annexed from
Guatemala (blue), the annexation of the Republic of Yucatan
(red) and the secession of Central America (purple)

ish viceregal army captain Ignacio Allende, the militia

captain Juan Aldama and La Corregidora Josefa Ortiz
de Domnguez. Hidalgo and some of his soldiers were
captured and executed by ring squad in Chihuahua, on
July 31, 1811. Following his death, the leadership was as- Emperor Agustin I
sumed by priest Jos Mara Morelos, who occupied key
southern cities.
In 1813 the Congress of Chilpancingo was convened and,
on November 6, signed the "Solemn Act of the Declaration of Independence of Northern America". Morelos
was captured and executed on December 22, 1815.
In subsequent years, the insurgency was near collapse,
but in 1820 Viceroy Juan Ruiz de Apodaca sent an army
under the criollo general Agustn de Iturbide against the
troops of Vicente Guerrero. Instead, Iturbide approached
Guerrero to join forces, and on August 24, 1821 representatives of the Spanish Crown and Iturbide signed
the "Treaty of Crdoba" and the "Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire", which recognized the
independence of Mexico under the terms of the "Plan of
Iguala".

2.4
2.4.1

Birth of Mexico (1821)

Territorial losses and Jurez reforms (18211876)

Agustn de Iturbide immediately proclaimed himself emperor of the First Mexican Empire. A revolt against him
in 1823 established the United Mexican States. In 1824, a President Benito Jurez
Republican Constitution was drafted and Guadalupe Victoria became the rst president of the newly born country.
In 1829 president Guerrero abolished slavery.[65] The rst economic instability, which led to the Pastry War in 1836,
decades of the post-independence period were marked by and a constant strife between liberales, supporters of a

2.5

Mexican Revolution (19101929)

federal form of government, and conservadores, proposals of a hierarchical form of government.

General Antonio Lpez de Santa Anna, a centralist and
two-time dictator, approved the Siete Leyes in 1836,
a radical amendment that institutionalized the centralized form of government. When he suspended the
1824 Constitution, civil war spread across the country,
and three new governments declared independence: the
Republic of Texas, the Republic of the Rio Grande and
the Republic of Yucatn.
Texas successfully achieved independence and joined the
United States. A border dispute led to the MexicanAmerican War, which began in 1846 and lasted for two
years; the War was settled via the Treaty of Guadalupe
Hidalgo, which forced Mexico to give up over half of its
land to the U.S., including Alta California, New Mexico,
and the disputed parts of Texas. A much smaller transfer
of territory in what is today southern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico the Gadsden Purchase occurred in 1854.[66] The Caste War of Yucatn, the Mayan
uprising that began in 1847,[67] was one of the most successful modern Native American revolts.[68] Maya rebels,
or Cruzob,[69] maintained relatively independent enclaves
until the 1930s.

Francisco I. Madero with Emiliano Zapata, in Cuernavaca during the Mexican Revolution.

U.S. support, Daz and William Howard Taft planned

a summit in El Paso, Texas, and Ciudad Jurez, Mexico, for October 16, 1909, an historic rst meeting between a Mexican and a U.S. president and also the rst
time an American president would cross the border into
Mexico.[70] Both sides agreed that the disputed Chamizal
strip connecting El Paso to Ciudad Jurez would be considered neutral territory with no ags present during the
Dissatisfaction with Santa Annas return to power led to summit, but the meeting focused attention on this territhe liberal "Plan of Ayutla", initiating an era known as tory and resulted in assassination threats and other serious
La Reforma, after which a new Constitution was drafted security concerns.[70]
in 1857 that established a secular state, federalism as the
On the day of the summit, Frederick Russell Burnham,
form of government, and several freedoms. As the conthe celebrated scout, and Private C.R. Moore, a Texas
servadores refused to recognize it, the Reform War began
Ranger, discovered a man holding a concealed palm pisin 1858, during which both groups had their own govtol standing at the El Paso Chamber of Commerce buildernments. The war ended in 1861 with victory by the
ing along the procession route, and they disarmed the asLiberals, led by the Amerindian president Benito Jurez.
sassin within only a few feet of Daz and Taft.[70] Both
In the 1860s Mexico underwent a military occupation by
presidents were unharmed and the summit was held.[70]
France, which established the Second Mexican Empire
Daz was re-elected in 1910, but alleged electoral fraud
under the rule of the Habsburg Archduke Ferdinand Maxforced him into exile in France and sparked the 1910
imilian of Austria with support from the Roman Catholic
Mexican Revolution, initially led by Francisco I. Madero.
clergy and the conservadores, who later switched sides
and joined the liberales. Maximilian surrendered, was Madero was elected president but overthrown and murdered in a coup d'tat two years later directed by consertried on June 14 and was executed on June 19, 1867.
vative general Victoriano Huerta. That event re-ignited
the civil war, involving gures such as Francisco Villa
2.4.2 Porriato (18761910)
and Emiliano Zapata, who formed their own forces. A
third force, the constitutional army led by Venustiano
Porrio Daz, a republican general during the French in- Carranza managed to bring an end to the war, and radtervention, ruled Mexico from 1876 to 1880 and then ically amended the 1857 Constitution to include many of
from 1884 to 1911 in ve consecutive reelections, period the social premises and demands of the revolutionaries
known as the Porriato, characterized by remarkable eco- into what was eventually called the 1917 Constitution. It
nomic achievements, investments in the arts and sciences, is estimated that the war killed 900,000 of the 1910 popbut also of economic inequality and political repression. ulation of 15 million.[71][72]
Assassinated in 1920, Carranza was succeeded by another revolutionary hero, lvaro Obregn, who in turn
was succeeded by Plutarco Elas Calles. Obregn was reFurther information: Mexican Revolution
elected in 1928 but assassinated before he could assume
President Daz announced in 1908 that he would retire power. Although this period is usually referred to as the
in 1911, resulting in the development of new coalitions. Mexican Revolution, it might also be termed a civil war
But then he ran for reelection anyway and in a show of since president Daz (1909) narrowly escaped assassina-

2.5

Mexican Revolution (19101929)

HISTORY

tion and presidents Francisco I. Madero (1913), Venus- Salinas de Gortari the presidency and leading to massive
tiano Carranza (1920), lvaro Obregn (1928), and for- protests in Mexico City.[79]
mer revolutionary leaders Emiliano Zapata (1919) and
Pancho Villa (1923) all were assassinated during this period.
2.5.1

One-party rule (19292000)

In 1929, Calles founded the National Revolutionary Party

(PNR), later renamed the Institutional Revolutionary
Party (PRI), and started a period known as the Maximato,
which ended with the election of Lzaro Crdenas, who
implemented many economic and social reforms. This
included the Mexican oil expropriation in March 1938,
which nationalized the U.S. and Anglo-Dutch oil company known as the Mexican Eagle Petroleum Company.
This movement would result in the creation of the stateowned Mexican oil company known as Pemex. This
sparked a diplomatic crisis with the countries whose citizens had lost businesses by Crdenas radical measure,
but since then the company has played an important role
in the economic development of Mexico.

NAFTA signing ceremony, October 1992. From left to right:

(standing) president Carlos Salinas de Gortari, president George
H. W. Bush (U.S.) and prime minister Brian Mulroney (Canada);
(seated) Jaime Serra Puche, Carla Hills (U.S.) and Michael Wilson (Canada)

Salinas embarked on a program of neoliberal reforms

which xed the exchange rate, controlled ination and
culminated with the signing of the North American Free
Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which came into eect on
January 1, 1994. The same day, the Zapatista Army
of National Liberation (EZLN) started a two-week-long
armed rebellion against the federal government, and has
continued as a non-violent opposition movement against
neoliberalism and globalization.

Students in a burned bus during the protests of 1968.

Between 1940 and 1980, Mexico remained a poor

country but experienced substantial economic growth
that some historians call the "Mexican miracle".[73] Although the economy continued to ourish, social inequality remained a factor of discontent. Moreover, the
PRI rule became increasingly authoritarian and at times
oppressive[74] (see the 1968 Tlatelolco massacre,[75]
which claimed the life of around 30800 protesters).[76]

2.5.2 End of one-party rule (2000present)

In December 1994, a month after Salinas was succeeded
by Ernesto Zedillo, the Mexican economy collapsed, with
a rapid rescue package authorized by the U.S. President,
Bill Clinton, and major macroeconomic reforms started
by President Zedillo, the economy rapidly recovered and
growth peaked at almost 7% by the end of 1999.[80]

Electoral reforms and high oil prices followed the administration of Luis Echeverra,[77][78] mismanagement of
these revenues led to ination and exacerbated the 1982
Crisis. That year, oil prices plunged, interest rates soared,
and the government defaulted on its debt. President
Miguel de la Madrid resorted to currency devaluations
which in turn sparked ination.

In 2000, after 71 years, the PRI lost a presidential election

to Vicente Fox of the opposition National Action Party
(PAN). In the 2006 presidential election, Felipe Caldern
from the PAN was declared the winner, with a very narrow margin over leftist politician Andrs Manuel Lpez
Obrador of the Party of the Democratic Revolution
(PRD). Lpez Obrador, however, contested the election
and pledged to create an alternative government.[81]

In the 1980s the rst cracks emerged in PRIs monopolistic position. In Baja California, Ernesto Ruo Appel was
elected as governor. In 1988, alleged electoral fraud prevented the leftist candidate Cuauhtmoc Crdenas from
winning the national presidential elections, giving Carlos

After twelve years, in 2012, the PRI won the Presidency

again with the election of Enrique Pea Nieto, the governor of the State of Mexico from 2005-2011. However,
he won with only a plurality of about 38%, and did not
have a legislative majority.[82]

3.1

Climate

Geography

9
Jurez to the Pacic Ocean. On its south, Mexico shares
an 871 km (541 mi) border with Guatemala and a 251
km (156 mi) border with Belize.

Main article: Geography of Mexico

Mexico is located between latitudes 14 and 33N, and Mexico is crossed from north to south by two mountain ranges known as Sierra Madre Oriental and Sierra
Madre Occidental, which are the extension of the Rocky
Mountains from northern North America. From east to
west at the center, the country is crossed by the TransMexican Volcanic Belt also known as the Sierra Nevada.
A fourth mountain range, the Sierra Madre del Sur, runs
from Michoacn to Oaxaca.[85]
As such, the majority of the Mexican central and northern territories are located at high altitudes, and the highest
elevations are found at the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt:
Pico de Orizaba (5,700 m or 18,701 ft), Popocatepetl
(5,462 m or 17,920 ft) and Iztaccihuatl (5,286 m or
17,343 ft) and the Nevado de Toluca (4,577 m or 15,016
A topographic map of Mexico.
ft). Three major urban agglomerations are located in the
valleys between these four elevations: Toluca, Greater
longitudes 86 and 119W in the southern portion of
Mexico City and Puebla.[85]
North America. Almost all of Mexico lies in the North
American Plate, with small parts of the Baja California
peninsula on the Pacic and Cocos Plates. Geophysically,
3.1 Climate
some geographers include the territory east of the Isthmus
of Tehuantepec (around 12% of the total) within Central
Main article: Climate of Mexico
America.[83] Geopolitically, however, Mexico is entirely
The Tropic of Cancer eectively divides the country into
considered part of North America, along with Canada
and the United States.[84]

Citlatepetl is the tallest mountain in Mexico at 18,491 feet above

sea level.

Mexicos total area is 1,972,550 km2 (761,606 sq mi),

making it the worlds 14th largest country by total area,
and includes approximately 6,000 km2 (2,317 sq mi)
of islands in the Pacic Ocean (including the remote
Guadalupe Island and the Revillagigedo Islands), Gulf of
Mexico, Caribbean, and Gulf of California. From its farthest land points, Mexico is a little over 2,000 mi (3,219
km) in length.
On its north, Mexico shares a 3,141 km (1,952 mi) border
with the United States. The meandering Ro Bravo del
Norte (known as the Rio Grande in the United States)
denes the border from Ciudad Jurez east to the Gulf of
Mexico. A series of natural and articial markers delineate the United States-Mexican border west from Ciudad

El Puente de Dios (The Bridge of God) in Tamasopo, SLP.

temperate and tropical zones. Land north of the twentyfourth parallel experiences cooler temperatures during
the winter months. South of the twenty-fourth parallel, temperatures are fairly constant year round and vary
solely as a function of elevation. This gives Mexico one
of the worlds most diverse weather systems.
Areas south of the 24th parallel with elevations up to
1,000 m (3,281 ft) (the southern parts of both coastal
plains as well as the Yucatn Peninsula), have a yearly median temperature between 24 to 28 C (75.2 to 82.4 F).
Temperatures here remain high throughout the year, with
only a 5 C (9 F) dierence between winter and summer median temperatures. Both Mexican coasts, except
for the south coast of the Bay of Campeche and northern

10

4 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

Baja, are also vulnerable to serious hurricanes during the

summer and fall. Although low-lying areas north of the
24th parallel are hot and humid during the summer, they
generally have lower yearly temperature averages (from
20 to 24 C or 68.0 to 75.2 F) because of more moderate conditions during the winter.
Many large cities in Mexico are located in the Valley
of Mexico or in adjacent valleys with altitudes generally above 2,000 m (6,562 ft). This gives them a yearround temperate climate with yearly temperature averages (from 16 to 18 C or 60.8 to 64.4 F) and cool nighttime temperatures throughout the year.
Many parts of Mexico, particularly the north, have a dry
climate with sporadic rainfall while parts of the tropical
lowlands in the south average more than 2,000 mm (78.7
in) of annual precipitation. For example, many cities in
the north like Monterrey, Hermosillo, and Mexicali expe- The golden eagle, the national symbol of Mexico
rience temperatures of 40 C (104 F) or more in summer. In the Sonoran Desert temperatures reach 50 C
(122 F) or more.
broaden the peoples knowledge, interest and use of the
In 2012, Mexico passed a comprehensive climate change countrys esteemed biodiversity, through the Comisin
bill, a rst in the developing world, that has set a goal Nacional para el Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversifor the country to generate 35% of its energy from clean dad.
energy sources by 2024, and to cut emissions by 50% by
In Mexico, 170,000 square kilometres (65,637 sq mi)
2050, from the level found in 2000.[86][87]
are considered Protected Natural Areas. These include 34 biosphere reserves (unaltered ecosystems), 67
national parks, 4 natural monuments (protected in per3.2 Biodiversity
petuity for their aesthetic, scientic or historical value),
26 areas of protected ora and fauna, 4 areas for natural resource protection (conservation of soil, hydrological basins and forests) and 17 sanctuaries (zones rich in
diverse species).[88]
The discovery of the Americas brought to the rest of
the world many widely used food crops and edible
plants. Some of Mexicos native culinary ingredients
include: chocolate, avocado, tomato, maize, vanilla,
guava, chayote, epazote, camote, jcama, nopal, zucchini,
tejocote, huitlacoche, sapote, mamey sapote, many varieties of beans, and an even greater variety of chiles, such
as the habanero and the jalapeo. Most of these names
come from indigenous languages like Nahuatl.
The jaguar, a native mammal of Mexico

Mexico is one of the 18 megadiverse countries of the

world. With over 200,000 dierent species, Mexico is
home of 1012% of the worlds biodiversity.[88] Mexico ranks rst in biodiversity in reptiles with 707 known
species, second in mammals with 438 species, fourth in
amphibians with 290 species, and fourth in ora, with
26,000 dierent species.[89] Mexico is also considered
the second country in the world in ecosystems and fourth
in overall species.[90] Approximately 2,500 species are
protected by Mexican legislations.[90]
In 2002, Mexico had the second fastest rate of deforestation in the world, second only to Brazil.[91] The government has taken another initiative in the late 1990s to

Because of its high biodiversity Mexico has also been a

frequent site of bioprospecting by international research
bodies.[92] The rst highly successful instance being the
discovery in 1947 of the tuber "Barbasco" (Dioscorea
composita) which has a high content of diosgenin, revolutionizing the production of synthetic hormones in the
1950s and 1960s and eventually leading to the invention
of combined oral contraceptive pills.[93]

4 Government and politics

4.2

4.1

Politics

11

Government

the commander-in-chief of the Mexican military forces.

The President also appoints the Cabinet and other ocers. The President is responsible for executing and enMain article: Federal government of Mexico
The United Mexican States are a federation whose forcing the law, and has the power to veto bills.[98]

Site of the Supreme Court of Justice

Enrique Pea Nieto, President of Mexico.

The highest organ of the judicial branch of government is

the Supreme Court of Justice, the national supreme court,
which has eleven judges appointed by the President and
approved by the Senate. The Supreme Court of Justice
interprets laws and judges cases of federal competency.
Other institutions of the judiciary are the Federal Electoral Tribunal, collegiate, unitary and district tribunals,
and the Council of the Federal Judiciary.[99]

government is representative, democratic and republican

based on a presidential system according to the 1917
Constitution. The constitution establishes three levels of
government: the federal Union, the state governments
and the municipal governments. According to the constitution, all constituent states of the federation must
have a republican form of government composed of three
branches: the executive, represented by a governor and
an appointed cabinet, the legislative branch constituted 4.2 Politics
by a unicameral congress and the judiciary, which will
include called state Supreme Court of Justice. They also Main article: Politics of Mexico
have their own civil and judicial codes.
The legislature is the bicameral Congress of the Union,
composed of the Senate of the Republic and the Chamber
of Deputies. The Congress makes federal law, declares war, imposes taxes, approves the national budget and international treaties, and raties diplomatic
appointments.[94]
The federal Congress, as well as the state legislatures, are
elected by a system of parallel voting that includes plurality and proportional representation.[95] The Chamber of
Deputies has 500 deputies. Of these, 300 are elected by
plurality vote in single-member districts (the federal electoral districts) and 200 are elected by proportional representation with closed party lists[96] for which the country
is divided into ve electoral constituencies.[97] The Senate is made up of 128 senators. Of these, 64 senators
(two for each state and two for the Federal District) are
elected by plurality vote in pairs; 32 senators are the rst
minority or rst-runner up (one for each state and one for
the Federal District), and 32 are elected by proportional
representation from national closed party lists.[96]

Three parties have historically been the dominant parties

in Mexican politics: the National Action Party: a rightwing conservative party founded in 1939 and belonging to
the Christian Democrat Organization of America;[100] the
Institutional Revolutionary Party, a center-left party and
member of Socialist International[101] that was founded in
1929 to unite all the factions of the Mexican Revolution
and held an almost hegemonic power in Mexican politics
since then; the Party of the Democratic Revolution: a leftwing party,[102] founded in 1989 as the successor of the
coalition of socialists and liberal parties.

4.3 Law enforcement

Main article: Law enforcement in Mexico

Public security is enacted at the three levels of government, each of which has dierent prerogatives and responsibilities. Local and state police departments are
primarily in charge of law enforcement, whereas the
Mexican Federal Police are in charge of specialized duThe executive is the President of the United Mexican ties. All levels report to the Secretara de Seguridad
States, who is the head of state and government, as well as Pblica (Secretary of Public Security). The General At-

12

4 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

ally reported by the citizens.[106] The Global Integrity Index which measures the existence and eectiveness of national anti-corruption mechanisms rated Mexico 31st behind Kenya, Thailand, and Russia.[108] In 2008, president
Caldern proposed a major reform of the judicial system, which was approved by the Congress of the Union,
which included oral trials, the presumption of innocence
for defendants, the authority of local police to investigate
crimeuntil then a prerogative of special police units
and several other changes intended to speed up trials.[109]
4.3.1 Crime
Main articles: Crime in Mexico and Mexican Drug War
According to an OECD study in 2012, 15% of Mexicans
report having been a victim of crime in the past year,
a gure which among OECD countries is only higher in
South Africa.[110] In 2010 Mexicos homicide rate was 18
per 100,000 inhabitants;[111] the world average is 6.9 per
100,000 inhabitants.[112] Drug-trac and narco-related
activities are a major concern in Mexico.[113] Mexicos
drug war has left over 60,000 dead and perhaps another
20,000 missing.[114] The Mexican drug cartels have as
many as 100,000 members.[115] The Mexican governments National Geography and Statistics Institute estimated that there were 41, 563 crimes per 100,000 residents in 2012.[116]

Federal Police headquarters in Mexico City

President Felipe Caldern made abating organized crime

one of the top priorities of his administration by deploying military personnel to cities where drug cartels operate. This move was criticized by the opposition parties
and the National Human Rights Commission for escalating the violence, but its eects have been positively evaluated by the US State Departments Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Aairs as having
obtained unprecedented results with many important
successes.[117]

torneys Oce (Procuradura General de la Repblica,

PGR) is the executive power's agency in charge of investigating and prosecuting crimes at the federal level, mainly
those related to drug and arms tracking,[103] espionage,
and bank robberies.[104] The PGR operates the Federal Since President Felipe Caldern launched a crackdown
Investigations Agency (Agencia Federal de Investigacin, against cartels in 2006, more than 28,000 alleged crimAFI) an investigative and preventive agency.[105]
inals have been killed.[118][119] Of the total drug-related
While the government generally respects the human violence 4% are innocent people,[120] mostly by-passers
rights of its citizens, serious abuses of power have been and people trapped in between shootings; 90% accounts
reported in security operations in the southern part of the for criminals and 6% for military personnel and police
country and in indigenous communities and poor urban ocers.[120] In October 2007, President Caldern and US
neighborhoods.[106] The National Human Rights Com- president George W. Bush announced the Mrida Initiamission has had little impact in reversing this trend, en- tive, a plan of law enforcement cooperation between the
gaging mostly in documentation but failing to use its pow- two countries.[121]
ers to issue public condemnations to the ocials who
ignore its recommendations.[107] By law, all defendants
have the rights that assure them fair trials and human 4.4 Foreign relations
treatment; however, the system is overburdened and overMain article: Foreign relations of Mexico
whelmed with several problems.[106]
Despite the eorts of the authorities to ght crime and
fraud, most Mexicans have low condence in the police The foreign relations of Mexico are directed by the
or the judicial system, and therefore, few crimes are actu- President of Mexico[122] and managed through the

4.5

Military

13

4.5 Military
Main article: Mexican Armed Forces
The Mexican Armed Forces have two branches:

Prime Minister Stephen Harper, and Presidents Barack Obama

and Felipe Caldern at the 2009 North American Leaders Summit in Guadalajara

Ministry of Foreign Aairs.[123] The principles of the

foreign policy are constitutionally recognized in the
Article 89, Section 10, which include: respect for
international law and legal equality of states, their
sovereignty and independence, non-intervention in the
domestic aairs of other countries, peaceful resolution of
conicts, and promotion of collective security through active participation in international organizations.[122] Since
the 1930s, the Estrada Doctrine has served as a crucial
complement to these principles.[124]
Mexico is one of the founding members of several
international organizations, most notably the United
Nations,[125] the Organization of American States,[126]
the Organization of Ibero-American States,[127] the
OPANAL[128] and the Rio Group.[129] In 2008, Mexico contributed over 40 million dollars to the United Nations regular budget.[130] In addition, it was the only Latin
American member of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development since it joined in 1994 until
Chile gained full membership in 2010.[131][132]
Mexico is considered a regional power[133][134] hence its
presence in major economic groups such as the G8+5 and
the G-20. In addition, since the 1990s Mexico has sought
a reform of the United Nations Security Council and its
working methods[135] with the support of Canada, Italy,
Pakistan and other nine countries, which form a group
informally called the Coee Club.[136]

A Mexican Navy Eurocopter.

the Mexican Army (which includes the Mexican Air

Force), and the Mexican Navy. The Mexican Armed
Forces maintain signicant infrastructure, including facilities for design, research, and testing of weapons,
vehicles, aircraft, naval vessels, defense systems and
electronics;[143][144] military industry manufacturing centers for building such systems, and advanced naval dockyards that build heavy military vessels and advanced missile technologies.[145]
In recent years, Mexico has improved its training techniques, military command and information structures and
has taken steps to becoming more self-reliant in supplying its military by designing as well as manufacturing its own arms,[146] missiles,[144] aircraft,[147] vehicles,
heavy weaponry, electronics,[143] defense systems,[143]
armor, heavy military industrial equipment and heavy
naval vessels.[148] Since the 1990s, when the military
escalated its role in the war on drugs, increasing importance has been placed on acquiring airborne surveillance platforms, aircraft, helicopters, digital war-ghting
technologies,[143] urban warfare equipment and rapid
troop transport.[149]

After the War of Independence, the relations of Mexico were focused primarily on the United States, its
northern neighbor, largest trading partner,[137] and the
most powerful actor in hemispheric and world aairs.[138]
Mexico supported the Cuban government since its establishment in the early 1960s,[139] the Sandinista revolution
in Nicaragua during the late 1970s,[140] and leftist revolutionary groups in El Salvador during the 1980s.[141] Mexico has the capabilities to manufacture nuclear
Felipe Caldern's administration put a greater emphasis weapons, but abandoned this possibility with the Treaty
on relations with Latin America and the Caribbean.[142] of Tlatelolco in 1968 and pledged to only use its nuclear

14

5 ECONOMY

technology for peaceful purposes.[150] In 1970, Mexicos

national institute for nuclear research successfully rened
weapons grade uranium[151] which is used in the manufacture of nuclear weapons but in April 2010, Mexico
agreed to turn over its weapons grade uranium to the
United States.[152][153]

Gulf of
Mexico
Pacic
Ocean
Central
America
United States
Federal
District
AG
Baja
California
Baja
California
Sur
Campeche
Chiapas
Chihuahua
Coahuila
Colima
Durango
Guanajuato
Guerrero
HD
Jalisco
EM
Michoacn
MO
Nayarit
Nuevo
Len
Oaxaca
PB
QU
Quintana
Roo
SLP
Sinaloa
Sonora
Tabasco
Tamaulipas
TL
Veracruz
Yucatn
Zacatecas

Historically, Mexico has remained neutral in international

conicts,[154] with the exception of World War II. However, in recent years some political parties have proposed
an amendment of the Constitution in order to allow the
Mexican Army, Air Force or Navy to collaborate with
the United Nations in peacekeeping missions, or to provide military help to countries that ocially ask for it.[155]

4.6

Administrative divisions

Main article: Political divisions of Mexico

The United Mexican States are a federation of 31 free
and sovereign states, which form a union that exercises a
degree of jurisdiction over the Federal District and other
territories.
Each state has its own constitution, congress, and a judiciary, and its citizens elect by direct voting a governor
for a six-year term, and representatives to their respective
unicameral state congresses for three-year terms.[156]
The Federal District is a special political division that belongs to the federation as a whole and not to a particular
state, and as such, has more limited local rule than the
nations states.[157]
The states are divided into municipalities, the smallest administrative political entity in the country, governed by
a mayor or municipal president (presidente municipal),
elected by its residents by plurality.[158]

5 Economy
Main article: Economy of Mexico
Mexico has the 15th largest nominal GDP and the 11th
largest by purchasing power parity. GDP annual average
growth for the period of 19952002 was 5.1%.[78] Mexicos Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in purchasing power
parity (PPP) was estimated at US $2.2602 trillion in
2015, and $1.3673 trillion in nominal exchange rates.[159]
Mexicos GDP in PPP per capita was US $18,714.05.
The World Bank reported in 2009 that the countrys

15
From the late 1990s onwards, the majority of the population has been part of the growing middle class.[164] But
from 2004 to 2008 the portion of the population who received less than half of the median income has risen from
17% to 21% and the absolute levels of poverty rose from
2006 to 2010, with a rise in persons living in extreme
or moderate poverty rising from 35 to 46% (52 million
persons).[110][165] This is also reected by the fact that infant mortality in Mexico is three times higher than the
average among OECD nations, and the literacy levels are
in the median range of OECD nations. Nevertheless, according to Goldman Sachs, by 2050 Mexico will have the
5th largest economy in the world.[166]
A proportional representation of Mexicos exports.

The GDP per capita of Mexican States in USD, 2012.

Among the OECD countries, Mexico has the second

highest degree of economic disparity between the extremely poor and extremely rich, after Chile although
it has been falling over the last decade, being only one of
few countries in which this is the case.[167] The bottom
ten percent in the income hierarchy disposes of 1.36%
of the countrys resources, whereas the upper ten percent
dispose of almost 36%. OECD also notes that Mexicos
budgeted expenses for poverty alleviation and social development is only about a third of the OECD average
both in absolute and relative numbers.[110]
According to a 2008 UN report the average income in a
typical urbanized area of Mexico was $26,654, while the
average income in rural areas just miles away was only
$8,403.[168] Daily minimum wages are set annually by law
and determined by zone; $67.29 Mexican pesos ($5.13
USD) in Zone A and $63.77 Mexican pesos ($4.86 USD)
in Zone B.[169]

Paseo de la Reforma, the CBD of Mexico City.

A tablet PC and touch screen computer / television made by Mexican Meebox.

Gross National Income in market exchange rates was

the second highest in Latin America, after Brazil at US
$1,830.392 billion,[160] which lead to the highest income
per capita in the region at $14,400.[161] Mexico is now
rmly established as an upper middle-income country.
After the slowdown of 2001 the country has recovered
and has grown 4.2, 3.0 and 4.8 percent in 2004, 2005
and 2006,[162] even though it is considered to be well
below Mexicos potential growth.[163] Furthermore, after
the 2008-2009 recession, the economy grew an average
of 3.32 percent per year from 2010 to 2014.

The electronics industry of Mexico has grown enormously within the last decade. Mexico has the sixth
largest electronics industry in the world after China,
United States, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan. Mexico is the second largest exporter of electronics to the
United States where it exported $71.4 billion worth of
electronics in 2011.[170] The Mexican electronics industry is dominated by the manufacture and OEM design
of televisions, displays, computers, mobile phones, circuit boards, semiconductors, electronic appliances, communications equipment and LCD modules. The Mex-

16
ican electronics industry grew 20% between 2010 and
2011, up from its constant growth rate of 17% between
2003 and 2009.[170] Currently electronics represent 30%
of Mexicos exports.[170]
Mexico produces the most automobiles of any North
American nation.[171] The industry produces technologically complex components and engages in some research
and development activities.[172] The Big Three (General
Motors, Ford and Chrysler) have been operating in Mexico since the 1930s, while Volkswagen and Nissan built
their plants in the 1960s.[173] In Puebla alone, 70 industrial part-makers cluster around Volkswagen.[172] In the
2010s expansion of the sector was surging. In 2014 alone,
more than $10 billion in investment was committed. Kia
Motors in August 2014 announced plans for a $1 billion factory in Nuevo Len. At the time Mercedes-Benz
and Nissan were already building a $1.4 billion plant near
Puebla, while BMW was planning a $1-billion assembly
plant in San Luis Potos. Additionally, Audi began building a $1.3 billion factory near Puebla in 2013.[174]

5 ECONOMY
per capita is low compared to other Latin American countries, at 40 percent; however, 82% of Mexicans over the
age of 14 own a mobile phone. Mobile telephony has the
advantage of reaching all areas at a lower cost, and the
total number of mobile lines is almost two times that of
landlines, with an estimation of 63 million lines.[184] The
telecommunication industry is regulated by the government through Cofetel (Comisin Federal de Telecomunicaciones).

The Mexican satellite system is domestic and operates

120 earth stations. There is also extensive microwave
radio relay network and considerable use of ber-optic
and coaxial cable.[184] Mexican satellites are operated by
Satlites Mexicanos (Satmex), a private company, leader
in Latin America and servicing both North and South
America.[185] It oers broadcast, telephone and telecommunication services to 37 countries in the Americas, from
Canada to Argentina. Through business partnerships Satmex provides high-speed connectivity to ISPs and Digital
Broadcast Services.[186] Satmex maintains its own satelThe domestic car industry is represented by DINA S.A., lite eet with most of the eet being designed and built in
which has built buses and trucks since 1962,[175] and the Mexico.
new Mastretta company that builds the high-performance The use of radio, television, and Internet in Mexico
Mastretta MXT sports car.[176] In 2006, trade with the is prevalent.[187] There are approximately 1,410 radio
United States and Canada accounted for almost 50% of broadcast stations and 236 television stations (excluding
Mexicos exports and 45% of its imports.[12] During the repeaters).[184] Major players in the broadcasting industry
rst three quarters of 2010, the United States had a $46.0 are Televisathe largest media company in the Spanishbillion trade decit with Mexico.[177] In August 2010 speaking world[183] and TV Azteca.
Mexico surpassed France to became the 9th largest holder
of US debt.[178] The commercial and nancial dependence on the US is a cause for concern.[179]
5.2 Energy
The remittances from Mexican citizens working in the
United States account for 0.2% of Mexicos GDP[180]
which was equal to US$20 billion per year in 2004 and
is the tenth largest source of foreign income after oil, industrial exports, manufactured goods, electronics, heavy
industry, automobiles, construction, food, banking and nancial services.[181] According to Mexicos central bank,
remittances in 2008 amounted to $25bn.[182]

See also: Electricity sector in Mexico

Energy production in Mexico is managed by state-owned
companies: the Federal Commission of Electricity and
Pemex.

Pemex, the public company in charge of exploration, extraction, transportation and marketing of crude oil and
natural gas, as well as the rening and distribution of
Major players in the broadcasting industry are Televisa, petroleum products and petrochemicals, is one of the
the largest Spanish media company in the Spanish- largest companies in the world by revenue, making US
speaking world,[183] and TV Azteca.
$86 billion in sales a year.[188][189][190] Mexico is the
sixth-largest oil producer in the world, with 3.7 million
barrels per day.[191] In 1980 oil exports accounted for
61.6% of total exports; by 2000 it was only 7.3%.[172]
5.1 Communications
The largest hydro plant in Mexico is the 2,400 MW
Manuel Moreno Torres Dam in Chicoasn, Chiapas, in
the Grijalva River. This is the worlds fourth most pro[192]
The telecommunications industry is mostly dominated by ductive hydroelectric plant.
Telmex (Telfonos de Mxico), privatized in 1990. By Mexico is the country with the worlds third largest so2006, Telmex had expanded its operations to Colom- lar potential.[193] The countrys gross solar potential is
bia, Peru, Chile, Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay and the estimated at 5kWh/m2 daily, which corresponds to 50
United States. Other players in the domestic industry are times national electricity generation.[194] Currently, there
Axtel and Maxcom. Because of Mexican orography, pro- is over 1 million square meters of solar thermal panels[195]
viding a landline telephone service at remote mountain- installed in Mexico, while in 2005, there were 115,000
ous areas is expensive, and the penetration of line-phones square meters of solar PV (photo-voltaic). It is expected
Main article: Telecommunications in Mexico

5.4

Tourism

A Pemex oil platform.

17

The Large Millimeter Telescope

that in 2012 there will be 1,8 million square meters of In 1995, the Mexican chemist Mario J. Molina shared
the Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Paul J. Crutzen and F.
installed solar thermal panels.[195]
Sherwood Rowland for their work in atmospheric chemThe project named SEGH-CFE 1, located in Puerto Libistry, particularly concerning the formation and decomertad, Sonora, Northwest of Mexico, will have capacity
position of ozone.[202] Molina, an alumnus of UNAM,
of 46.8 MW from an array of 187,200 solar panels when
became the rst Mexican citizen to win the Nobel Prize
complete in 2013.[196] All of the electricity will be sold
in science.[203]
directly to the CFE and absorbed into the utilitys transmission system for distribution throughout their existing In recent years, the largest scientic project being develnetwork. At an installed capacity of 46.8 MWp, when oped in Mexico was the construction of the Large Milcomplete in 2013, the project will be the rst utility scale limeter Telescope (Gran Telescopio Milimtrico, GMT),
project of its kind in Mexico and the largest solar project the worlds largest and most sensitive single-aperture telescope in its frequency range.[204] It was designed to obof any kind in Latin America.
serve regions of space obscured by stellar dust.

5.3

Science and technology

Main article: History of science and technology in Mexico

The National Autonomous University of Mexico was ofcially established in 1910,[197] and the university become one of the most important institutes of higher
learning in Mexico.[198] UNAM provides world class
education in science, medicine, and engineering.[199]
Many scientic institutes and new institutes of higher
learning, such as National Polytechnic Institute (founded
in 1936),[200] were established during the rst half of
the 20th century. Most of the new research institutes
were created within UNAM. Twelve institutes were integrated into UNAM from 1929 to 1973.[201] In 1959, the
Mexican Academy of Sciences was created to coordinate
scientic eorts between academics.

5.4 Tourism
Main article: Tourism in Mexico
Mexico has been traditionally among the most visited
countries in the world according to the World Tourism
Organization and it is the most visited country in the
Americas, after the United States. The most notable
attractions are the Meso-American ruins, cultural festivals, colonial cities, nature reserves and the beach resorts.
The nations temperate climate and unique culture a
fusion of the European and the Meso-American make
Mexico an attractive destination. The peak tourism seasons in the country are during December and the midSummer, with brief surges during the week before Easter
and Spring break, when many of the beach resort sites become popular destinations for college students from the

18

5 ECONOMY
the beaches have become crowded and the shores are now
home to many multi-story hotels and vendors. Acapulco
is home to renowned cli divers: trained divers who leap
from the side of a vertical cli into the surf below.
At the southern tip of the Baja California peninsula is
the resort town of Cabo San Lucas, a town noted for its
beaches and marlin shing.[208] Further north along the
Sea of Corts is the Baha de La Concepcin, another
beach town known for its sports shing. Closer to the
United States border is the weekend draw of San Felipe,
Baja California.

The Chapultepec Castle is one of the most popular tourist destinations in Mexico

5.5 Transportation

United States.

Main article: Transportation in Mexico

The roadway network in Mexico is extensive and all areas

Mexico has the 23rd highest income from tourism in the

world, and the highest in Latin America.[205] The vast
majority of tourists come to Mexico from the United
States and Canada followed by Europe and Asia. A
smaller number also come from other Latin American
countries.[206] In the 2011 Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index report, Mexico was ranked 43rd in the
world, which was 4th in the Americas .[207]
The coastlines of Mexico harbor many stretches of
beaches that are frequented by sun bathers and other visitors. On the Yucatn peninsula, one of the most popular beach destinations is the resort town of Cancn, especially among university students during spring break.
Just oshore is the beach island of Isla Mujeres, and to
the east is the Isla Holbox. To the south of Cancun is
the coastal strip called Riviera Maya which includes the
beach town of Playa del Carmen and the ecological parks
of Xcaret and Xel-H. A day trip to the south of Cancn
is the historic port of Tulum. In addition to its beaches,
the town of Tulum is notable for its cli-side Mayan ruins.

Baluarte Bridge is the longest cable-stayed bridge in Latin America, the highest cable-stayed bridge in the world and the highest
bridge in the Americas.

in the country are covered by it.[209] The roadway network

in Mexico has an extent of 366,095 km (227,481 mi),[210]
of which 116,802 km (72,577 mi) are paved,[210] making it the largest paved-roadway network in Latin America.[211] Of these, 10,474 km (6,508 mi) are multi-lane
expressways: 9,544 km (5,930 mi) are four-lane highways and the rest have 6 or more lanes.[210]

Mexico was one of the rst Latin American countries to

promote railway development,[106] and the network covers 30,952 km (19,233 mi).[187] The Secretary of Communications and Transport of Mexico proposed a highspeed rail link that will transport its passengers from
Mexico City to Guadalajara, Jalisco.[212][213] The train,
which will travel at 300 kilometers per hour,[214] will allow passengers to travel from Mexico City to Guadalajara in just 2 hours.[214] The whole project was projected
to cost 240 billion pesos, or about 25 billion US$[212]
and is being paid for jointly by the Mexican government
El Tajn is one of the largest and most important cities of the and the local private sector including the wealthiest man
Classic era of Mesoamerica
in the world, Mexicos billionaire business tycoon Carlos
Slim.[215] The government of the state of Yucatn is also
On the Pacic coast is the notable tourist destination of funding the construction of a high speed line connecting
Acapulco. Once the destination for the rich and famous, the cities of Cozumel to Mrida and Chichen Itza and

6.1

Mestizo

Cancn.[216]

19
nous language,[227] and a person with a very low percentage of indigenous genetic heritage would be considered
fully indigenous either by speaking an indigenous language or by identifying with a particular indigenous cultural heritage.[228][229][230]

Mexico has 233 airports with paved runways; of these, 35

carry 97% of the passenger trac.[187] The Mexico City
International Airport remains the largest in Latin America and the 44th largest in the world[217] transporting 21
million passengers a year.[218]
The term mestizo itself, albeit often used in literature
about Mexican social identities, carries a variety of sociocultural, economic, racial and biological meanings. For
this reason it has been deemed too imprecise to be used
6 Demographics
for ethnic classication and has been abandoned in Mexican censuses.[106][231]
Main article: Demographics of Mexico
The recently conducted 2010 Census[221] showed a The category of indgena (indigenous) can be dened
narrowly according to linguistic criteria including only
speakers of one of Mexicos 62 indigenous languages or
people who self-identify as having an indigenous cultural
background. According to the National Commission for
the Development of Indigenous Peoples, in 2005 there
were 10.1 million Mexicans who spoke an indigenous
language and claimed indigenous heritage, representing
9.8% of the total population.[232] Another source, the
2010 census, found that 14.86% of the population selfidentied as indigenous.[233]

Mexicos population (1961-2003).

population of 112,336,538, making it the most populous Spanish-speaking country in the world.[222] Between
2005 and 2010, the Mexican population grew at an average of 1.70% per year, up from 1.16% per year between
2000 and 2005.

Mexico is home to the largest number of U.S. citizens

abroad (estimated at one million in 1999).[234] The Argentine community is considered to be the second-largest
foreign community in the country (estimated somewhere
between 30,000 and 150,000).[235][236] Mexico also has
a large Lebanese community, now numbering around
400,000.[237] In October 2008, Mexico agreed to deport Cubans using the country as an entry point to the
US.[238] Large numbers of Central American migrants
who have crossed Guatemalas western border into Mexico are deported every year.[239][240] Small numbers of
illegal immigrants come from Ecuador, Cuba, China,
South Africa, and Pakistan.[241] Mexico is the largest
source of immigration to the United States.[242] 11.6 million Americans listed their ancestry as Mexican as of
2014.[243]

Mexico is ethnically diverse; the various indigenous peoples and European immigrants are united under a single
national identity.[223] The core part of Mexican national
identity is formed on the basis of a synthesis of European
culture with Indigenous cultures in a process known as
mestizaje, alluding to the mixed biological origins of the
majority of Mexicans.[223][224] Mexican politicians and
reformers such as Jos Vasconcelos and Manuel Gamio
were instrumental in building a Mexican national identity 6.1
on the concept of mestizaje.[225]
Since the mestizo identity promoted by the government
is more of a cultural identity than a biological one it has
achieved a strong inuence in the country, with a good
number of biologically white people identifying with it,
leading to being considered mestizos in Mexicos demographic investigations and censuses due the ethnic criteria having its base on cultural traits rather than biological ones.[226] A similar situation occurs regarding the distinctions between indigenous peoples and mestizos: while
the term mestizo is sometimes used in English with the
meaning of a person with mixed indigenous and European blood, this usage does not conform to the Mexican
social reality where a person of pure indigenous genetic
heritage would be considered Mestizo either by rejecting his indigenous culture or by not speaking an indige-

Mestizo

A large majority of Mexicans have been classied as

Mestizos, meaning in modern Mexican usage that they
identify fully neither with any indigenous culture nor with
a particular non-Mexican heritage, but rather identify
as having cultural traits and heritage incorporating elements from indigenous and European traditions. By
the deliberate eorts of post-revolutionary governments
the Mestizo identity was constructed as the base of
the modern Mexican national identity, through a process
of cultural synthesis referred to as mestizaje. Mexican
politicians and reformers such as Jos Vasconcelos and
Manuel Gamio were instrumental in building a Mexican national identity on the concept of mestizaje.[244][245]
Cultural policies in early post-revolutionary Mexico were
paternalistic towards the indigenous people, with eorts

20

6 DEMOGRAPHICS
late 19th century those Maya who did not join the rebellion were classied as mestizos.[247] In Chiapas the word
Ladino is used instead of mestizo.[248]

6.2 Indigenous peoples

Main article: Indigenous peoples of Mexico
According to the National Commission for the Develop-

Two young Mixtec people dancing a jarabe.

President Porrio Diaz was of Mestizo descent

designed to help indigenous peoples achieve the same

level of progress as the rest of society, eventually assimilating indigenous peoples completely to Mestizo Mexican
culture, working toward the goal of eventually solving the
Indian problem by transforming indigenous communities into mestizo communities.[246]
In terms of the average Mexican Mestizo, INMEGEN
found the following: for Nuclear DNA, 1.2% Asian contribution, 3.3% African, 40.2% European and 55.3%
'American' (indigenous); for Mitochondrial DNA, 3.3%
African, 5.7% Euoropean and 91% American; for the
Y Chromosome, 2% Asian, 5% African, 60% European and 33% American. The mtDNA (inherited from
mother) and Y Chromosome (inherited if male) results
lends some credence to the belief that the Mexican Mestizo is the result of the male Conquistador and the female
native. However, the Mexican Mestizo population can
better be described as resulting from relations between
mestizos rather than continued procreation between unmixed racial groups.
The term Mestizo is not in wide use in Mexican society today and has been dropped as a category in population censuses; it is, however, still used in social and
cultural studies when referring to the non-indigenous part
of the Mexican population. The word has somewhat pejorative connotations and most of the Mexican citizens
who would be dened as mestizos in the sociological literature would probably self-identify primarily as Mexicans. In the Yucatn peninsula the word Mestizo is even
used about Maya-speaking populations living in traditional communities, because during the caste war of the

ment of Indigenous Peoples (Comisin Nacional para el

Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indgenas, or CDI in Spanish)
and the INEGI (ocial census institute), there are 15.7
million indigenous people in Mexico,[249] of many dierent ethnic groups,[232] which constitute 14.9% of the population in the country. The number of indigenous Mexicans is judged using the political criteria found in the 2nd
article of the Mexican constitution. The Mexican census does not report racial-ethnicity but only the culturalethnicity of indigenous communities that preserve their
indigenous languages, traditions, beliefs, and cultures.
The absolute indigenous population is growing, but at a
slower rate than the rest of the population so that the percentage of indigenous peoples is nonetheless falling.[250]
In 2011 a large scale mitochondrial sequencing in Mexican Americans revealed 85 to 90% of mtDNA lineages of
Native American origin, with the remainder having European (57%) or African ancestry (35%). Thus the observed frequency of Native American mtDNA in Mexican/Mexican Americans is higher than was expected on
the basis of autosomal estimates of Native American admixture for these populations i.e. ~ 3046%[251]
The category of indigena (indigenous) can be dened
narrowly according to linguistic criteria including only
persons that speak one of Mexicos 62 indigenous languages, this is the categorization used by the National
Mexican Institute of Statistics. It can also be dened
broadly to include all persons who seldentify as having
an indigenous cultural background, whether or not they
speak the language of the indigenous group they identify with. This means that the percentage of the Mexican population dened as indigenous varies according
to the denition applied, cultural activists have referred

6.3

Mexicans of European descent

21

to the usage of the narrow denition of the term for census purposes as statistical genocide.[252][253]
The majority of the indigenous population is concentrated in the central and southern states. These states are
generally the least developed, and the majority of the indigenous population live in rural areas. Some indigenous
communities have a degree of autonomy under the legislation of usos y costumbres, which allows them to regulate some internal issues under customary law.
According to the CDI, the states with the greatest proportion of indigenous residents are:[254] Yucatn, at 59%,
Quintana Roo 39% and Campeche 27%, chiey Maya;
Oaxaca with 48% of the population, the most numerous
groups being the Mixtec and Zapotec peoples; Chiapas
at 28%, the majority being Tzeltal and Tzotzil Maya;
Hidalgo 24%, the majority being Otomi; Puebla 19%,
and Guerrero 17%, mostly Nahua people and the states
of San Luis Potos and Veracruz both home to a population that is 15% indigenous, mostly from the Totonac,
Nahua and Teenek (Huastec) groups.[255]

Girls from Zapopan, in the state of Jalisco. fair-skinned Mexicans are colloquially known as 'geros (fem. geras)

pean admixture in Mestizos. Genetic variation is largely

based upon where in the country an individual is from.
This is true because Native Mexicans are concentrated
the
All of the indices of social development for the indige- in the South and Central part of the country, whilst
[259][260]
white
population
is
concentrated
in
the
north.
).
nous population are considerably lower than the national
average. In all states indigenous people have higher In another study, Mexicos National Institute of Genomic
infant mortality, in some states almost double of the non- Medicine issued a report on a genomic study of mestiindigenous populations. Literacy rates are also much zos from the states of Guerrero, Sonora, Veracruz, Yulower, with 27% of indigenous children between 6 and 14 catn, Zacatecas, and Guanajuato. The study found that
being illiterate compared to a national average of 12%. the Mestizo population of these Mexican states were on
The indigenous population participate in the workforce average 55% of indigenous ancestry followed by 41.8%
longer than the national average, starting earlier and con- of European, 1.8% of African, and 1.2% of East Asian
tinuing longer. However, 55% of the indigenous popu- ancestry. The study also noted that whereas Mestizo indilation receive less than a minimum salary, compared to viduals from the southern state of Guerrero showed on av20% for the national average. Many practice subsistence erage 66% of indigenous ancestry, those from the northagriculture and receive no salaries. Indigenous people ern state of Sonora displayed about 61.6% European analso have less access to health care and a lower quality cestry. The study found that there was an increase in inof housing.[255]
digenous ancestry as one traveled towards to the Southern
states in Mexico, while the indigenous ancestry declined
as one traveled to the Northern states in the country, such
6.3 Mexicans of European descent
as Sonora.
Main article: Mexicans of European descent
European Mexicans are Mexican citizens of European
descent.[256] Despite that Mexico does not have a racial
census, estimations from dierent international organizations regarding the number of this ethnic group within
the countrys population range from 9% according to The
World Factbook, to as high as 20% (approximately onefth) according to Encyclopdia Britannica. Another
group in Mexico, the "mestizos", also include people with
varying amounts of European ancestry, with some having a European admixture higher than 90%.[257] Although
it must be considered that the criteria to dene mestizo
might be dierent from study to study, and that in Mexico a good number of white people has been historically
classied as mestizos, because the Mexican government
denes ethnicity on cultural standards as opposed to racial
ones.[258]

Europeans began arriving in Mexico with the Spanish

conquest of the Aztec Empire, with the descendents of
the conquistadors, along with new arrivals from Spain
formed an elite but were a small minority of the population. Most white immigrants however intermixed with
the Mestizo and indigenous populations.[261]
While most of European migration into Mexico was
Spanish during the colonial period, in the 19th and 20th
centuries European and European derived populations
from North and South America did immigrate to the
country. However, at its height, the total immigrant
population in Mexico never exceeded ten percent of the
total.[256] Many of these immigrants came with money
to invest and/or ties to allow them to become prominent
in business and other aspects of Mexican society. However, due to government restrictions many of them left
the country in the early 20th century.

Genetic studies in Mexico show a varying degree of Euro- Mexicos northern regions have the greatest European

22

6 DEMOGRAPHICS

population and admixture. In the northwest, the majority of the relatively small indigenous communities remain
isolated from the rest of the population, and as for the
northeast, the indigenous population was eliminated by
early European and Mestizo settlers, becoming the region
with the highest proportion of whites during the Spanish
colonial period. However, recent immigrants from southern Mexico have been changing, to some degree, its demographic trends.[262] According to the last racial census Mexico took, which was in 1921,[220] there were no
states in Mexico that had a majority white population,
and in virtually every state in the north Mestizos were
the largest population group.[220] The only state where
whites outnumbered Mestizos was Sonora, in which
whites composed 41.85% of the population, and Mestizos 40.38%.[220]

6.4

Population genetics

European, 31.05% Asian (Amerindian), and 10.03%

African. Sonora shows the highest European contribution
(70.63%) and Guerrero the lowest (51.98%) which also
has the highest Asian contribution (37.17%). African
contribution ranges from 2.8% in Sonora to 11.13% in
Veracruz. 80% of the Mexican population was classed
as mestizo (dened as being racially mixed in some
degree).[265]
In May 2009, Mexicos National Institute of Genomic
Medicine issued a report on a genomic study of 300 mestizos from the states of Guerrero, Sonora, Veracruz, Yucatn, Zacatecas, and Guanajuato. The study found that
the Mestizo population of these Mexican states were on
average 55% of indigenous ancestry followed by 41.8%
of European, 1.8% of African, and 1.2% of East Asian
ancestry.[266]
The study also noted that whereas Mestizo individuals
from the southern state of Guerrero showed on average 66% of indigenous ancestry, those from the northern state of Sonora displayed about 61.6% European ancestry. The study found that there was an increase in indigenous ancestry as one traveled towards to the Southern
states in Mexico, while the indigenous ancestry declined
as one traveled to the Northern states in the country, such
as Sonora.[266]

6.5 Languages
Main article: Languages of Mexico
The country has the largest Spanish-speaking popula-

An 18th-century casta painting show an indigenous woman with

her Spanish husband and their Mestizo child.

A 2012 study published by the Journal of Human Genetics found the ancestry of the Mexican mestizo population to be predominately European (65%), followed by
Native American (31%) and African (4%). The European ancestry was prevalent in the north and west (66.7
95%) and Native American ancestry increased in the center and southeast (3750%), the African ancestry was
low and relatively homogeneous (08.8%).[259] The states
that participated in this study were Aguascalientes, ChiA map showing the distribution of speakers of Mexicos main inapas, Chihuahua, Durango, Guerrero, Jalisco, Oaxaca,
digenous languages
Sinaloa, Veracruz and Yucatan.[263]
The largest amount of chromosomes found were identied as belonging to the haplogroups from Western Europe, East Europe and Euroasia, Siberia and the Americas and Northern Europe with relatively smaller traces of
haplogroups from Central Asia, South-east Asia, Southcentral Asia, Western Asia, The Caucasus, North Africa,
Near East, East Asia, North-east Asia, South-west Asia
and The Middle East.[264]

tion in the world with almost a third of all Spanish native

speakers.[222][267]

Mexico is home to a large number of indigenous languages, spoken by some 5.4% of the population 1.2% of
the population are monolingual speakers of an indigenous
language.[268] The indigenous languages with most speakers are Nahuatl, spoken by approximately 1.45 million
people,[269] Yukatek Maya spoken by some 750,000 peoA study by the National Institute of Genomic Medicine, ple and the Mixtec[270] and Zapotec languages[271] each
Mexico reported that Mestizo Mexicans are 58.96% spoken by more than 400,000 people.

6.8

Women

The National Institute of Indigenous Languages INALI

recognizes 68 linguistic groups and some 364 dierent
specic varieties of indigenous languages.[272] Since the
promulgation of the Law of Indigenous Linguistic Rights
in 2003, these languages have had status as national languages, with equal validity with Spanish in all the areas
and contexts in which they are spoken.[273]

23
Guadalupe, the patron saint of Mexico, is celebrated on
December 12 and is regarded by many Mexicans as the
most important religious holiday of their country.[278]

The 2010 census reported 314,932 members of The

Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints,[275] though
the church in 2009 claimed to have over one million registered members.[279] About 25% of registered members
In addition to the indigenous languages, other minority attend a weekly sacrament service although this can uclanguages are spoken by immigrant populations, such as tuate up and down.[280]
the 80,000 German-speaking Mennonites in Mexico,[274] The presence of Jews in Mexico dates back to 1521,
and 5,000 the Chipilo dialect of the Venetian language when Hernn Corts conquered the Aztecs, accompanied
spoken in Chipilo, Puebla.
by several Conversos.[281] According to the 2010 census,

6.6

Urban areas

Main article: Metropolitan areas of Mexico

The top 10 urban areas in Mexico.

there are 67,476 Jews in Mexico.[275] Islam in Mexico is

practiced by a small population in the city of Torren,
Coahuila, and there are an estimated 300 Muslims in the
San Cristbal de las Casas area in Chiapas.[282][283] In
the 2010 census 18,185 Mexicans reported belonging to
an Eastern religion,[275] a category which includes a tiny
Buddhist population.

6.8 Women
Further information: Women in Mexico

The Mexico City metropolitan area is home to over 20 million

people.

6.7

Religion

See also: Religion in Mexico

The 2010 census by the Instituto Nacional de Estadstica
y Geografa (National Institute of Statistics and Geography) gave Roman Catholicism as the main religion, with
83% of the population, while 10% (10,924,103) belong
to other Christian denominations, including Evangelicals
(5%); Pentecostals (1.6%); other Protestant or Reformed
(0.7%); Jehovahs Witnesses (1.4%); Seventh-day Adventists (0.6%); and members of The Church of Jesus
Christ of Latter-day Saints (0.3%).[275] 172,891 (or less
than 0.2% of the total) belonged to other, non-Christian
religions; 4.7% declared having no religion; 2.7% were
unspecied.[275]
The 92,924,489[275] Catholics of Mexico constitute in absolute terms the second largest Catholic community in
the world, after Brazil's.[276] 47% percent of them attend
church services weekly.[277] The feast day of Our Lady of

Until the twentieth century, Mexico was an overwhelmingly rural country, with rural womens status dened
within the context of the family and local community.
With urbanization beginning in the sixteenth century, following the Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire, cities
have provided economic and social opportunities not possible within rural villages. Roman Catholicism in Mexico
has shaped societal attitudes about womens social role,
emphasizing the role of women as nurturers of the family,
with the Virgin Mary as a model. Marianismo has been an
ideal, with womens role as being within the family under
the authority of men. In the twentieth century, Mexican
women made great strides toward towards a more equal
legal and social status. In 1953 women in Mexico were
granted the vote in national elections.
Mexican women face discrimination and at times harassment from the machismo population. Although women
in Mexico are making big advancements they are faced
with the traditional expectations of being the head of
the household. Researcher Margarita Valds noted that
while there are few inequalities enforced by law or policy
in Mexico, there are gender inequalities perpetuated by
social structures and Mexican cultural expectations that
limit the capabilities of Mexican women.[284]
As of 2014, Mexico has the 16th highest rate of homicides committed against women in the world.[285] The
prevalence of domestic violence against women in Mexican marital relationships varies at between 30 and 60
percent of relationships.[286] According to a 1997 study,
domestic abuse in Mexican culture is embedded in gender and marital relations fostered in Mexican womens

24

7 CULTURE

dependence on their spouses for subsistence and for self- 7.1 Literature
esteem, sustained by ideologies of romantic love, by family structure and residential arrangements.[287]
Main articles: Mexican literature and Mesoamerican
literature
Mexican literature has its antecedents in the literatures
of the indigenous settlements of Mesoamerica. The most
7 Culture
well known prehispanic poet is Nezahualcoyotl. Modern Mexican literature was inuenced by the concepts of
Main article: Culture of Mexico
the Spanish colonialization of Mesoamerica. Outstanding
Mexican culture reects the complexity of the countrys colonial writers and poets include Juan Ruiz de Alarcn
and Juana Ins de la Cruz.
Other writers include Alfonso Reyes, Jos Joaqun Fernndez de Lizardi, Ignacio Manuel Altamirano, Carlos
Fuentes, Octavio Paz (Nobel Laureate), Renato Leduc,
Carlos Monsivis, Elena Poniatowska, Mariano Azuela
(Los de abajo) and Juan Rulfo (Pedro Pramo).
Bruno Traven wrote Canasta de cuentos mexicanos
(Mexican tales basket), El tesoro de la Sierra Madre
(Treasure of the Sierra Madre).

7.2 Visual arts

See also: Mexican art
Post-revolutionary art in Mexico had its expression in

Frida Kahlo with Diego Rivera in 1932.

history through the blending of indigenous cultures and

the culture of Spain, imparted during Spains 300-year
colonization of Mexico. Exogenous cultural elements
have been incorporated into Mexican culture as time has The Palace of Fine Arts in Mexico City.
passed.
The Porrian era (el Porriato), in the last quarter of the the works of renowned artists such as David Alfaro
19th century and the rst decade of the 20th century, Siqueiros, Federico Cant Garza, Frida Kahlo, Juan
was marked by economic progress and peace. After four O'Gorman, Jos Clemente Orozco, Diego Rivera, and
decades of civil unrest and war, Mexico saw the devel- Runo Tamayo. Diego Rivera, the most well-known gopment of philosophy and the arts, promoted by Presi- ure of Mexican muralism, painted the Man at the Crossdent Daz himself. Since that time, as accentuated dur- roads at the Rockefeller Center in New York City, a
ing the Mexican Revolution, cultural identity has had its huge mural that was destroyed the next year because of
of a portrait of Russian communist leader
foundation in the mestizaje, of which the indigenous (i.e. the inclusion
[289]
Lenin.
Some
of Riveras murals are displayed at the
Amerindian) element is the core. In light of the various
Mexican
National
Palace and the Palace of Fine Arts.
ethnicities that formed the Mexican people, Jos Vasconcelos in his publication La Raza Csmica (The Cosmic
Race) (1925) dened Mexico to be the melting pot of all
races (thus extending the denition of the mestizo) not
only biologically but culturally as well.[288]

Mesoamerican architecture is mostly noted for its pyramids which are the largest such structures outside of Ancient Egypt. Spanish Colonial architecture is marked by
the contrast between the simple, solid construction de-

7.5

Music

25

manded by the new environment and the Baroque orna- 7.5 Music
mentation exported from Spain. Mexico, as the center
of New Spain has some of the most renowned buildings
Main article: Music of Mexico
built in this style.
Mexican society enjoys a vast array of music genres,

7.3

Cinema

Main article: Cinema of Mexico

Mexican lms from the Golden Age in the 1940s and
1950s are the greatest examples of Latin American cinema, with a huge industry comparable to the Hollywood
of those years. Mexican lms were exported and exhibited in all of Latin America and Europe. Maria Candelaria (1944) by Emilio Fernndez, was one of the rst
lms awarded a Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival
in 1946, the rst time the event was held after World War
II. The famous Spanish-born director Luis Buuel realized in Mexico, between 1947 to 1965 some of him master pieces like Los Olvidados (1949), Viridiana (1961)
and El angel exterminador (1963). Famous actors and
actresses from this period include Mara Flix, Pedro Infante, Dolores del Ro, Jorge Negrete and the comedian
Cantinas.
More recently, lms such as Como agua para chocolate (1992), Cronos (1993), Y tu mam tambin (2001),
and Pans Labyrinth (2006) have been successful in
creating universal stories about contemporary subjects,
and were internationally recognised, as in the prestigious Cannes Film Festival. Mexican directors Alejandro
Gonzlez Irritu (Amores perros, Babel), Alfonso
Cuarn (Children of Men, Harry Potter and the Prisoner
of Azkaban), Guillermo del Toro, Carlos Carrera (The
Crime of Father Amaro), and screenwriter Guillermo Arriaga are some of the most known present-day lm makers.

7.4

Media

Further information: Mexican television and List of

newspapers in Mexico
Two of the major television networks based in Mexico are Televisa and TV Azteca. Televisa is also the
largest producer of Spanish-language content in the world
and also the worlds largest Spanish-language media
network.[290] Grupo Multimedios is another media conglomerate with Spanish-language broadcasting in Mexico, Spain, and the United States. The telenovelas are
very traditional in Mexico and are translated to many languages and seen all over the world with renowned names
like Vernica Castro, Luca Mndez, Lucero, and Thala.

Mariachi at the Festival del Mariachi, Charrera y Tequila in San

Juan de los Lagos, Mexico.

showing the diversity of Mexican culture. Traditional

music includes mariachi, banda, norteo, ranchera and
corridos; on an everyday basis most Mexicans listen to
contemporary music such as pop, rock, etc. in both English and Spanish. Mexico has the largest media industry
in Latin America, producing Mexican artists who are famous in Central and South America and parts of Europe,
especially Spain.
Some well-known Mexican singers are Thala, Lynda
Thomas, Luis Miguel, Juan Gabriel, Alejandro Fernndez, Julieta Venegas, Jose Jose and Paulina Rubio. Mexican singers of traditional music are: Lila Downs, Susana
Harp, Jaramar, GEO Meneses and Alejandra Robles.
Popular groups are Caf Tacuba, Caifanes, Molotov and
Man, among others. Since the early years of the 2000s
(decade), Mexican rock has seen widespread growth both
domestically and internationally.
According to the Sistema Nacional de Fomento Musical,
there are between 120 and 140 youth orchestras aliated
to this federal agency from all federal states. Some states,
through their state agencies in charge of culture and the
artsMinistry or Secretary or Institute or Council of
Culture, or in some cases the Secretary of Education or
the State Universitysponsor the activities of a professional symphony orchestra or philharmonic crchestra so
all citizens can have access to this artistic expression from
the eld of classical music. Mexico City is the most intense hub of this activity, hosting 12 professional orchestras sponsored by dierent agencies such as the National
Institute of Fine Arts, the Secretary of Culture of the Federal District, The National University, the National Polytechnic Institute, a Delegacin Poltica (Coyoacn) and
private ventures.

26

7.6

7 CULTURE

Cuisine

The most internationally recognized dishes include

chocolate, tacos, quesadillas, enchiladas, burritos,
tamales and mole among others. Regional dishes inMain article: Mexican cuisine
Mexican cuisine is known for its intense and varied a- clude mole poblano, chiles en nogada and chalupas from
Puebla; cabrito and machaca from Monterrey, cochinita
pibil from Yucatn, Tlayudas from Oaxaca, as well as
barbacoa, chilaquiles, milanesas, and many others.

7.7 Sports
Main article: Sport in Mexico
Mexico City hosted the XIX Olympic Games in 1968,

Tacos, Mexicos most well known national dish.

vors, colorful decoration, and variety of spices. Most of

todays Mexican food is based on pre-Columbian traditions, including Aztec and Maya, combined with culinary
trends introduced by Spanish colonists.
The conquistadores eventually combined their imported
diet of rice, beef, pork, chicken, wine, garlic and onions
with the native pre-Columbian food, including maize,
tomato, vanilla, avocado, guava, papaya, pineapple, chili
pepper, beans, squash, sweet potato, peanut, and turkey.

The Estadio Azteca (Aztec Stadium), the sixth largest stadium in

the world.

mented with vinegar, habanero and chipotle peppers

Bullghting is a popular sport in the country, and almost

making it the rst Latin American city to do so.[291] The

country has also hosted the FIFA World Cup twice, in
[292]
Mexican food varies by region, because of local climate 1970 and 1986.
and geography and ethnic dierences among the indige- Mexicos most popular sport is association football (socnous inhabitants and because these dierent populations cer). It is commonly believed that football was introwere inuenced by the Spaniards in varying degrees. The duced in Mexico by Cornish miners at the end of the
north of Mexico is known for its beef, goat and ostrich 19th century. By 1902 a ve-team league had emerged
production and meat dishes, in particular the well-known with a strong British inuence.[293][294] Mexicos top clubs
Arrachera cut.
are Amrica with 12 championships, Guadalajara with
[295]
Antonio Carbajal was the
Central Mexicos cuisine is largely made up of inuences 11, and Toluca with 10.
rst
player
to
appear
in
ve
World
Cups,[296] and Hugo
from the rest of the country, but also has its authentics,
Snchez
was
named
best
CONCACAF
player of the 20th
such as barbacoa, pozole, menudo, tamales, and carnitas.
century by IFFHS.[297]
Southeastern Mexico, on the other hand, is known for its
spicy vegetable and chicken-based dishes. The cuisine of The Mexican professional baseball league is named the
Southeastern Mexico also has quite a bit of Caribbean Liga Mexicana de Beisbol. While usually not as strong
inuence, given its geographical location. Veal is com- as the United States, the Caribbean countries and Japan,
mon in the Yucatan. Seafood is commonly prepared in Mexico has nonetheless achieved several international
the states that border the Pacic Ocean or the Gulf of baseball titles. Mexico has had several players signed
Mexico, the latter having a famous reputation for its sh by Major League teams, the most famous of them being
Dodgers pitcher Fernando Valenzuela.
dishes, in particular la veracruzana.
In modern times, other cuisines of the world have become In 2013, Mexicos basketball team won the Americas
very popular in Mexico, thus adopting a Mexican fusion. Basketball Championship and qualied for the 2014 BasFor example, sushi in Mexico is often made with a vari- ketball World Cup where it reached the playos. Because
ety of sauces based on mango or tamarind, and very often of these achievements the country earned the hosting
[298]
served with serrano-chili-blended soy sauce, or comple- rights for the 2015 FIBA Americas Championship.

27
all large cities have bullrings. Plaza Mxico in Mexico City, is the largest bullring in the world, which seats
55,000 people. Professional wrestling (or Lucha libre in
Spanish) is a major crowd draw with national promotions
such as AAA, LLL, CMLL and others.
Mexico is an international power in professional boxing (at the amateur level, several Olympic boxing medals
have also been won by Mexico). Vicente Saldivar, Rubn
Olivares, Salvador Snchez, Julio Csar Chvez, Ricardo
Lopez and Erik Morales are but a few Mexican ghters
who have been ranked among the best of all time.[299]
Notable Mexican athletes include golfer Lorena Ochoa,
who was ranked rst in the LPGA world rankings prior to
her retirement,[300] Ana Guevara, former world champion The National Autonomous University of Mexico.
of the 400 metres (1,300 ft) and Olympic subchampion in
Athens 2004, and Fernando Platas, a numerous Olympic
Mexico at the 24th place in the world rank according to
medal winning diver.
UNESCO.[307]

Health

Main article: Health care in Mexico

Since the early 1990s, Mexico entered a transitional stage
in the health of its population and some indicators such
as mortality patterns are identical to those found in highly
developed countries like Germany or Japan.[301] Mexicos
medical infrastructure is highly rated for the most part
and is usually excellent in major cities,[302][303] but rural communities still lack equipment for advanced medical procedures, forcing patients in those locations to
travel to the closest urban areas to get specialized medical care.[106] Social determinants of health can be used
to evaluate the state of health in Mexico.
State-funded institutions such as Mexican Social Security
Institute (IMSS) and the Institute for Social Security and
Services for State Workers (ISSSTE) play a major role in
health and social security. Private health services are also
very important and account for 13% of all medical units
in the country.[304]
Medical training is done mostly at public universities
with much specializations done in vocational or internship settings. Some public universities in Mexico, such
as the University of Guadalajara, have signed agreements
with the U.S. to receive and train American students in
Medicine. Health care costs in private institutions and
prescription drugs in Mexico are on average lower than
that of its North American economic partners.[302]

Education

Main article: Education in Mexico

In 2004, the literacy rate was at 97%[305] for youth under
the age of 14 and 91% for people over 15,[306] placing

The National Autonomous University of Mexico ranks

190th place in the Top 200 World University Ranking
published by The Times Higher Education Supplement
in 2009.[308] Private business schools also stand out in international rankings. IPADE and EGADE, the business
schools of Universidad Panamericana and of Monterrey
Institute of Technology and Higher Education respectively, were ranked in the top 10 in a survey conducted
by The Wall Street Journal among recruiters outside the
United States.[309]

10 See also
Index of Mexico-related articles
Outline of Mexico
Visa policy of Mexico
Mexico Wikipedia book

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Social policy, informality, and economic growth in
Mexico (Brookings Institution Press, 2010)
Meyer, Michael C., William L. Sherman, and Susan
M. Deeds. The Course of Mexican History (7th ed.
Oxford U.P., 2002) online edition
Russell, Philip (2010). The history of Mexico: from
pre-conquest to present. Routledge. ISBN 978-0415-87237-9. Retrieved July 9, 2010.
Tannenbaum, Frank. Mexico: the struggle for peace
and bread (2013)
Werner, Michael S. ed. Encyclopedia of Mexico:
History, Society & Culture (2 vol 1997) 1440pp
online edition
Werner, Michael S. ed. Concise Encyclopedia
of Mexico (2001) 850pp; a selection of unrevised articles

13 External links
The Presidency of Mexico
Mexico Tourism Ocial Website | VisitMexico
Mexico entry at The World Factbook
Mexico from UCB Libraries GovPubs
Mexico at DMOZ
Mexico from the BBC News
Mexico at Encyclopdia Britannica
Wikimedia Atlas of Mexico
Mexico travel guide from Wikivoyage
Key Development Forecasts for Mexico from
International Futures
Mexico by World Painters.

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Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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hero, Tigersmith12345, Onichivi, Purplepickle10, HkCaGu, The Evil Spartan, LibStar, JD554, Arbor to SJ, Ventur, LaHaine, Edoggy,
Jilplo Haggins, Wombatcat, Screamo pablito kudaii, Oxymoron83, H0ttamale2, Mattl2001, Targeman, Totonaco, JaneBlain, Lightmouse,
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Monopoly31121993, StradBot, Johnsc1234, Ditttti, Razesuds, Starebube, Aergas, Bammie73, Reranian, Cig344, Unocha.visual, Madere,

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Images

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Julietdeltalima, TexanAzteca, Alakzi, SandKitty256, Tepehuan, MoreTomorrow, Aldiazmo, SantiagoFrancoRamos, Ivan Perez Garcia 8,
KasparBot, Mr.Bob.298, TheRealSingapore, HipHopVisionary, Supersnack, Robert92107, Joshwond, Jdude5 and Anonymous: 1749

14.2

Images

File:2012_Mexico_Products_Export_Treemap.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/2012_Mexico_

Products_Export_Treemap.png License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Gordon.silvermanaz
File:Azteca_entrance.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Azteca_entrance.jpg License: CC BY 2.0
Contributors: estadio azteca Original artist: Ramss Reyes from Mxico DF, Mxico
File:BenitoJuarez.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/BenitoJuarez.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Biblioteca_Central_de_la_UNAM_.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Biblioteca_Central_de_
la_UNAM_.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/roblesr/4625415384 Original artist: Roberto Robles
File:Carnitas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Carnitas.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: originally posted to Flickr as carnitas Original artist: Mike McCune
File:Castillo_de_Chapultepec.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e0/Castillo_de_Chapultepec.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/lion05/4998444375/sizes/o/in/faves-83466550@N06/ Original artist:
lion05
File:Ciudad.de.Mexico.City.Distrito.Federal.DF.Paseo.Reforma.Skyline.jpg Source:
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commons/d/d7/Ciudad.de.Mexico.City.Distrito.Federal.DF.Paseo.Reforma.Skyline.jpg License:
CC BY 2.0 Contributors:
http://www.flickr.com/photos/99299995@N02/9355469268/ Original artist: Alejandro Islas Photograph AC
File:Coat_of_arms_of_Mexico.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/Coat_of_arms_of_Mexico.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorised from File:Mexico coat of arms.png by Alex Covarrubias Original artist:
Vectorisation by Alex Covarrubias
File:CodexMendoza01.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/CodexMendoza01.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: English Wikipedia Original artist: Unknown
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unknown Tlaxcalan artists
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File:El_Castillo_Stitch_2008_Edit_2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/El_Castillo_Stitch_2008_
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kroningsportret.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Wikipedia [1] Original artist: Unknown
File:Enrique_Pea_Nieto_-_World_Economic_Forum_on_Latin_America_2010.jpg Source:
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2.0 Contributors: Copyright originally posted to Flickr as Enrique Pea Nieto - World Economic Forum on Latin America 2010. Photo by
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File:Estudiantes_sobre_cammin_quemado_(A68).JPG
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Public domain Contributors: my personal archive

File:FederalPoliceDF.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/FederalPoliceDF.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0

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Contributors: This vector image was created with Inkscape. Original artist: Alex Covarrubias, 9 April 2006
File:Frida_Kahlo_Diego_Rivera_1932.jpg Source:
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Contributors: Own work Original artist: Luyten
File:GoldenEagle-Nova.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/GoldenEagle-Nova.jpg License: CC BYSA 2.0 Contributors: en.wikipedia Original artist: J. Glover (AUTiger). Please attribute to J. Glover - Atlanta, Georgia in usage outside
of Wikimedia Foundation Projects.

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TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Gulf_Offshore_Platform.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Gulf_Offshore_Platform.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Flickr.com - image description page Original artist: Chad Teer from Coquitlam, France
File:Himno_Nacional_Mexicano_instrumental.ogg Source:
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Nacional_Mexicano_instrumental.ogg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Jarabe_Mixteco.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/Jarabe_Mixteco.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0
Contributors: grupo Centotl - Mixteca 4 Original artist: Oaxaca Profundo
File:Location_North_America.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Location_North_America.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Bosonic dressing
File:Loudspeaker.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg License: Public domain Contributors: New version of Image:Loudspeaker.png, by AzaToth and compressed by Hautala Original artist: Nethac DIU, waves corrected by
Zoid
File:MEX_orthographic.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/MEX_orthographic.svg License: CC BYSA 3.0 Contributors: Own work with Natural Earth Data Original artist: Addicted04
File:Madero_en_Cuernavaca.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Madero_en_Cuernavaca.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: Transferred from es.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was Ruiz at Spanish
Wikipedia
File:Map_of_the_languages_of_Mexico.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Map_of_the_languages_
of_Mexico.png License: CC0 Contributors: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mapa_de_lenguas_de_M%C3%A9xico_%2B_100_
000.png Original artist: The original uploader was User:Yavidaxiu
File:MariachiFestivalSanJuanLagos.jpg
Source:
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File:Marina-Panther-Unitasgold2009.jpg
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0III0I1241205996.jpg Original artist: Mass Communication Specialist Seaman Patrick Grieco
File:Meebox_electronics.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Meebox_electronics.PNG License: CC0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Foxxygrandpa
File:Mestizo.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/Mestizo.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http:
//www.emory.edu/COLLEGE/CULPEPER/BAKEWELL/period.html Original artist: ?
File:Mexican_Girls.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Mexican_Girls.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work by uploader/self-made Original artist: MisterC87
File:Mexico{}s_Territorial_Evolution.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/Mexico%27s_Territorial_
Evolution.png License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Hpav7
File:Mexico-demography.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Mexico-demography.png License: CC
BY 2.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Mexico_GDP_per_capita_2012.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Mexico_GDP_per_capita_
2012.png License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Cig344
File:Mexico_UNOCHA.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Mexico_UNOCHA.png License: CC BY
3.0 Contributors: Based on OCHA map, however the logo was removed to be able to include in article. Original artist: UN Oce for the
Coordination of Humanitarian Aairs (OCHA) (Original) SantiagoFrancoRamos (Edited)
File:Mexico_relief_location_map.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Mexico_relief_location_map.jpg
License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work, using map data from administrative map by NordNordWest. The relief was created from
SRTM-30 relief data Original artist: Carport
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License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: originally posted to Flickr as Mighty Eagle Original artist: Tobias Boyd
File:Murales_Rivera_-_Markt_in_Tlatelolco_3.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/Murales_Rivera_
-_Markt_in_Tlatelolco_3.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Wolfgang Sauber
File:Nafta.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Nafta.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: George
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File:Palacio_de_las_Bellas_Artes_(Mexico_City).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Palacio_de_
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File:Pico_Orizaba1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Pico_Orizaba1.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors: M. Klber Fotograe Original artist: Mg-k
File:Polanco_Skyline_Mexico_City_DF.jpg Source:
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Mexico_City_DF.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/rutlo/5446310652/sizes/l/in/faves-83466550@
N06/ Original artist: rutlo
File:Porfirio_Diaz_in_uniform.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Porfirio_Diaz_in_uniform.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Source: Mexico: Its Ancient and Modern Civilisation Original artist: Charles Reginald
File:President_Barack_Obama_with_Stephen_Harper_and_Felipe_Caldern.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
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File:Puente_Baluarte_03.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Puente_Baluarte_03.jpg License: CC0

Contributors: Grupo Tradeco Original artist: Fotrogafo Especial
File:Sor_Juana_Ins_de_la_Cruz_(1772).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Sor_Juana_In%C3%
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