Chess - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

03/09/2015
ChessWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Chess
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
ThisarticleisabouttheWesternboardgame.Forotherchessgamesorotheruses,seeChess
(disambiguation).
Chessisatwoplayerstrategyboardgameplayedon
achessboard,acheckeredgameboardwith64squares
arrangedinaneightbyeightgrid.Chessisplayedby
millionsofpeopleworldwideinhomes,urbanparks,
clubs,online,correspondence,andintournaments.In
recentyears,chesshasbecomepartofsomeschool
curricula.
Eachplayerbeginsthegamewith16pieces:oneking,
onequeen,tworooks,twoknights,twobishops,and
eightpawns.Eachofthesixpiecetypesmoves
differently.Themostpowerfulpieceisthequeenand
theleastpowerfulpieceisthepawn.Theobjectiveis
to'checkmate'theopponent'skingbyplacingitunder
aninescapablethreatofcapture.Tothisend,a
player'spiecesareusedtoattackandcapturethe
opponent'spieces,whilesupportingtheirown.In
additiontocheckmate,thegamecanbewonby
voluntaryresignationbytheopponent,which
typicallyoccurswhentoomuchmaterialislost,orif
checkmateappearsunavoidable.Agamemayalso
resultinadrawinseveralways.
Chess
PartofaStauntonchessset(fromlefttoright):a
whiteking,ablackrook,ablackqueen,awhite
pawn,ablackknight,andawhitebishop
Years
active
c.6thcenturyIndiatopresent
Genre(s)
Boardgame
Abstractstrategygame
Players
2
ChessisbelievedtohaveoriginatedinIndia,some
timebeforethe7thCenturytheIndiangameof
Setuptime 1minute
chaturangaisalsothelikelyancestorofxiangqiand
Playing
Casualgamesusuallylast10to60
shogi.Thepiecestookontheircurrentpowersin
time
minutestournamentgameslast
Spaininthelate15thCenturytheruleswerefinally
anywherefromabouttenminutes
standardizedinthe19thCentury.Thefirstofficial
(blitzchess)tosixhoursormore.
WorldChessChampion,WilhelmSteinitz,claimed
histitlein1886thecurrentWorldChampionisthe
Random
None
NorwegianMagnusCarlsen.InadditiontotheWorld
chance
Championship,therearetheWomen'sWorld
Skill(s)
Strategy,tactics
Championship,theJuniorWorldChampionship,the
required
WorldSeniorChampionship,theCorrespondence
ChessWorldChampionship,theWorldComputer
Synonym(s) Westernchess,internationalchess
ChessChampionship,andBlitzandRapidWorld
Championships.TheChessOlympiadisapopular
competitionamongteamsfromdifferentnations.Onlinechesshasopenedamateurandprofessional
competitiontoawideandvariedgroupofplayers.ChessisarecognizedsportoftheInternational
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chess
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OlympicCommitteeandinternationalchesscompetitionissanctionedbyFIDE,chess'sinternational
governingbody.Therearealsomanychessvariants,withdifferentrules,differentpieces,anddifferent
boards.
Sincethesecondhalfofthe20thcentury,computershavebeenprogrammedtoplaychesswith
increasingsuccess,tothepointwherethestrongesthomecomputersplaychessatahigherlevelthanthe
besthumanplayers.Inthepasttwodecadescomputeranalysishascontributedsignificantlytochess
theory,particularlyintheendgame.ThecomputerDeepBluewasthefirstmachinetoovercomea
reigningWorldChessChampioninamatchwhenitdefeatedGarryKasparovin1997.
Contents
1Rules
1.1Setup
1.2Movement
1.3Castling
1.4Enpassant
1.5Promotion
1.6Check
1.7Endofthegame
1.7.1Win
1.7.2Draw
1.8Timecontrol
2Notationforrecordingmoves
3Strategyandtactics
3.1Fundamentalsoftactics
3.2Fundamentalsofstrategy
4Phases
4.1Opening
4.2Middlegame
4.3Endgame
5History
5.1Predecessors
5.2Originsofthemoderngame(10001850)
5.3Birthofasport(18501945)
5.4Postwarera(1945andlater)
6Placeinculture
6.1Premodern
6.2Modern
7Composition
7.1Example
8Competitiveplay
8.1Organizationofcompetitions
8.2Titlesandrankings
9Publications
10Mathematicsandcomputers
11Psychology
11.1Chessandintelligence
12Variants
13Gametheory
14Seealso
15References
16Furtherreading
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16Furtherreading
17Externallinks
Rules
Mainarticle:Rulesofchess
Setupatthestartofagame
Setup
Theofficialrulesofchess
aremaintainedbyFIDE
(FdrationInternationale
deschecs),chess's
internationalgoverning
body.Alongwith
informationonofficial
chesstournaments,the
rulesaredescribedinthe
FIDEHandbook,Lawsof
Chesssection.[1]
1
a
Initialposition,firstrow:rook,
knight,bishop,queen,king,bishop,
knight,androoksecondrow:
pawns
Chessisplayedonasquareboardofeightrows(calledranksand
denotedwithnumbers1to8)andeightcolumns(calledfilesanddenotedwithlettersatoh)ofsquares.
Thecolorsofthe64squaresalternateandarereferredtoas"light"and"dark"squares.Thechessboardis
placedwithalightsquareattherighthandendoftheranknearesttoeachplayer,andthepiecesareset
outasshowninthediagramandphoto,witheachqueenonasquareofitsowncolor.
Byconvention,thegamepiecesaredividedintowhiteandblacksets,andtheplayersarereferredtoas
"White"and"Black"respectively.Eachplayerbeginsthegamewith16piecesofthespecifiedcolor,
whichconsistofoneking,onequeen,tworooks,twobishops,twoknights,andeightpawns.
Movement
The"white"playersalwaysmovesfirst.Afterthefirstmove,playersalternatelymoveonepieceperturn
(exceptforcastling,whentwopiecesaremoved).Piecesaremovedtoeitheranunoccupiedsquareor
oneoccupiedbyanopponent'spiece,whichiscapturedandremovedfromplay.Withthesoleexception
ofenpassant,allpiecescapturebymovingtothesquarethattheopponent'spieceoccupies.Aplayer
maynotmakeanymovethatwouldputorleavehisorherkingunderattack.Aplayercannot"pass"at
eachturntheyhavetomakealegalmove(thisisthebasisforthefinessecalledzugzwang).Iftheplayer
tomovehasnolegalmoves,thegameisoveritiseitheracheckmate(alossfortheplayerwithnolegal
moves)ifthekingisunderattack,orastalemate(adraw)ifthekingisnot.
Eachchesspiecehasitsownstyleofmoving.Inthediagrams,thedotsmarkthesquareswherethepiece
canmoveifnootherpieces(includingone'sownpiece)areonthesquaresbetweenthepiece'sinitial
positionanditsdestination.
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Movesofaking
b
Movesofarook
h
Movesofaqueen
b
Movesofabishop
Movesofaknight
h
Movesofapawn
h
Thekingmovesonesquareinanydirection.Thekinghasalsoaspecialmovewhichiscalled
castlingandinvolvesalsomovingarook.
Therookcanmoveanynumberofsquaresalonganyrankorfile,butmaynotleapoverother
pieces.Alongwiththeking,therookisinvolvedduringtheking'scastlingmove.
Thebishopcanmoveanynumberofsquaresdiagonally,butmaynotleapoverotherpieces.
Thequeencombinesthepoweroftherookandbishopandcanmoveanynumberofsquaresalong
rank,file,ordiagonal,butitmaynotleapoverotherpieces.
Theknightmovestoanyoftheclosestsquaresthatarenotonthesamerank,file,ordiagonal,thus
themoveformsan"L"shape:twosquaresverticallyandonesquarehorizontally,ortwosquares
horizontallyandonesquarevertically.Theknightistheonlypiecethatcanleapoverotherpieces.
Thepawnmaymoveforwardtotheunoccupiedsquareimmediatelyinfrontofitonthesamefile,
oronitsfirstmoveitmayadvancetwosquaresalongthesamefileprovidedbothsquaresare
unoccupied(black""sinthediagram)orthepawnmaycaptureanopponent'spieceonasquare
diagonallyinfrontofitonanadjacentfile,bymovingtothatsquare(black"x"s).Thepawnhas
twospecialmoves:theenpassantcaptureandpawnpromotion.
Castling
Mainarticle:Castling
Onceineverygame,eachkingisallowedtomakeaspecialmove,knownascastling.Castlingconsists
ofmovingthekingtwosquaresalongthefirstranktowardarook(whichisontheplayer'sfirst
rank[note1])andthenplacingtherookonthelastsquarethekinghasjustcrossed.Castlingispermissible
underthefollowingconditions:[2]
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Neitherthekingnortherookmayhavebeenpreviouslymovedduringthegame.
Theremustbenopiecesbetweenthekingandtherook.
Thekingmaynotbeincheck,normaythekingpassthroughsquaresthatareunderattackby
enemypieces,normovetoasquarewhereitisincheck.
Notethatcastlingispermissibleiftherookisattacked,oriftherookcrossesasquarethatisattacked.
ViktorKorchnoiaskedthearbiterforclarificationonthispointduringhis1974matchwithAnatoly
Karpov.[3]
Enpassant
Mainarticle:Enpassant
Whenapawnadvancestwosquaresfromitsstartingpositionand
thereisanopponent'spawnonanadjacentfilenexttoits
destinationsquare,thentheopponent'spawncancaptureiten
passant(inpassing),andmovetothesquarethepawnpassedover.
However,thiscanonlybedoneontheverynextmove,otherwise
therighttodosoisforfeit.Forexample,iftheblackpawnhasjust
advancedtwosquaresfromg7(initialstartingposition)tog5,then
thewhitepawnonf5maytakeitviaenpassantong6(butonlyon
white'snextmove).
Examplesofcastling
Promotion
Mainarticle:Promotion(chess)
Whenapawnadvancestotheeighthrank,asapartofthemoveit
ispromotedandmustbeexchangedfortheplayer'schoiceof
queen,rook,bishop,orknightofthesamecolor.Usually,thepawn
ischosentobepromotedtoaqueen,butinsomecasesanother
pieceischosenthisiscalledunderpromotion.Inthediagramon
theright,thepawnonc7canbeadvancedtotheeighthrankandbe
promotedtoanallowedpiece.Thereisnorestrictionplacedonthe
piecethatischosenonpromotion,soitispossibletohavemore
piecesofthesametypethanatthestartofthegame(forexample,
twoqueens).
Examplesofpawnmoves:
promotion(left)andenpassant
(right)
Check
Mainarticle:Check(chess)
Whenakingisunderimmediateattackbyoneortwooftheopponent'spieces,itissaidtobeincheck.
Aresponsetoacheckisalegalmoveifitresultsinapositionwherethekingisnolongerunderdirect
attack(thatis,notincheck).Thiscaninvolvecapturingthecheckingpieceinterposingapiecebetween
thecheckingpieceandtheking(whichispossibleonlyiftheattackingpieceisaqueen,rook,orbishop
andthereisasquarebetweenitandtheking)ormovingthekingtoasquarewhereitisnotunder
attack.Castlingisnotapermissibleresponsetoacheck.Theobjectofthegameistocheckmatethe
opponentthisoccurswhentheopponent'skingisincheck,andthereisnolegalwaytoremoveitfrom
attack.Itisillegalforaplayertomakeamovethatwouldputorleavehisownkingincheck.
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Incasualgamesitiscommontoannounce"check"whenputting
theopponent'skingincheck,howeverthisisnotrequiredbythe
rulesofthegame,andisnotusuallydoneintournaments.
1
a
Black'skingisincheckfromthe
rook.
Endofthegame
Win
Gamesmaybewoninthe
followingways:
Checkmate
2
2
2
2
Resignationeither
1
1
1
1
playerresign,
concedingthegame
a b c d e f g h
a b c d e f g h
totheother
Whiteisincheckmate,beingunable
StalemateifitisBlacktomove.It
[4]
player. Itis
toescapefrombeingattackedbythe
isnotcheckmate,andsinceBlack
usuallyconsidered
Blackkingandbishops.
cannotmove,thegameisadraw.
pooretiquetteto
playoninatruly
hopelessposition,andforthisreasonhighlevelgamesrarelyendwithacheckmate.
LossontimeIngameswithatimecontrol,aplayermayalsolosebyrunningoutoftime,even
withamuchsuperiorposition.
Forfeitaplayerwhocheats,orviolatesthelawsofthegame,orviolatestherulesspecifiedfor
theparticulartournamentmaybeforfeited.Inhighleveltournaments,playershavebeenforfeited
forsuchthingsasarrivinglateforthegame(evenbyamatterofseconds),receivingacallortext
onone'scellphone,refusingtoundergoadrugtest,refusingtoundergoabodysearchfor
electronicdevicesandunsportingbehaviour(suchasrefusingtoshaketheopponent'shand).
Draw
Gamesmayendinadrawinseveralways:
Drawbyagreementdrawsaremostcommonlyreachedbymutualagreementbetweenthe
players.Thecorrectprocedureistoverballyofferthedraw,makeamove,thenstartthe
opponent'sclock.Traditionallyplayershavebeenallowedtoagreeadrawatanytimeinthegame,
occasionallyevenwithoutplayingamoveinrecentyearseffortshavebeenmadetodiscourage
shortdraws,forexamplebyforbiddingdrawoffersbeforemovethirty.
Stalematetheplayerwhoseturnitistomoveisnotincheck,buthasnolegalmove.
Threefoldrepetitionofapositionthismostcommonlyoccurswhenneithersideisabletoavoid
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repeatingmoveswithoutincurringadisadvantage.Thethreeoccurrencesofthepositionneednot
occuronconsecutivemovesforaclaimtobevalid.FIDErulesmakenomentionofperpetual
checkthisismerelyaspecifictypeofdrawbythreefoldrepetition.
Thefiftymoveruleifduringtheprevious50movesnopawnhasbeenmovedandnocapturehas
beenmade,eitherplayermayclaimadrawthisrequirestheplayerstokeepavalidwrittenrecord
ofthegamesothattheclaimmaybeverifiedbythearbiterifchallenged.Thereareinfactseveral
knownendgameswhereitistheoreticallypossibletoforceamatebutwhichrequiremorethan50
movesbeforethepawnmoveorcaptureismadeexamplesincludesomeendgameswithtwo
knightsagainstapawnandsomepawnlessendgamessuchasqueenagainsttwobishops.These
endingsarerare,however,andfewplayersstudythemindetail,sothefiftymoveruleis
consideredpracticalforovertheboardplay.Somecorrespondencechessorganizationsallow
exceptionstothefiftymoverule.[note2]
Insufficientmaterialaplayermayclaimadrawiftheiropponenthasinsufficientmaterialto
checkmate,forexampleiftheplayerhasonlythekingleftandtheopponenthasonlythekingand
abishop.Suchaclaimisonlyvalidifcheckmateisimpossible.
Timecontrol
Amoderndigitalchessclock
Chessgamesmayalsobeplayedwithatimecontrol,mostlyby
clubandprofessionalplayers.Ifaplayer'stimerunsoutbefore
thegameiscompleted,thegameisautomaticallylost(provided
hisopponenthasenoughpieceslefttodelivercheckmate).The
durationofagamerangesfromlonggamesplayeduptoseven
hourstoshorterrapidchessgames,usuallylasting30minutesor
onehourpergame.Evenshorterisblitzchess,withatime
controlofthreeto15minutesforeachplayer,andbulletchess
(underthreeminutes).Intournamentplay,timeiscontrolled
usingagameclockthathastwodisplays,oneforeachplayer's
remainingtime.
Notationforrecordingmoves
Mainarticle:Chessnotation
Chessgamesandpositionsarerecordedusingaspecial
notation,mostoftenalgebraicchessnotation.[6]Abbreviated
(orshort)algebraicnotationgenerallyrecordsmovesinthe
format"abbreviationofthepiecemovedfilewhereit
movedrankwhereitmoved".Forexample,Qg5means
"queenmovestothegfileand5thrank"(thatis,tothesquare
g5).Iftherearetwopiecesofthesametypethatcanmoveto
thesamesquare,onemoreletterornumberisaddedto
indicatethefileorrankfromwhichthepiecemoved,e.g.
Ngf3means"knightfromthegfilemovestothesquaref3".
TheletterPindicatingapawnisnotused,sothate4means
"pawnmovestothesquaree4".
Ifthepiecemakesacapture,"x"isinsertedbeforethe
destinationsquare.ThusBxf3means"bishopcapturesonf3".
Whenapawnmakesacapture,thefilefromwhichthepawn
Namingthesquaresinalgebraicchess
notation
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departedisusedinplaceofapieceinitial,andranksmaybeomittedifunambiguous.Forexample,exd5
(pawnontheefilecapturesthepieceond5)orexd(pawnontheefilecapturesapiecesomewhereon
thedfile).
Ifapawnmovestoitslastrank,achievingpromotion,the
piecechosenisindicatedafterthemove,forexamplee1Qor
e1=Q.Castlingisindicatedbythespecialnotations00for
kingsidecastlingand000forqueensidecastling.Anen
passantcaptureissometimesmarkedwiththenotation"e.p."
Amovethatplacestheopponent'skingincheckusuallyhas
thenotation"+"added.(Thenotation"++"foradouble
checkisconsideredobsolete).Checkmatecanbeindicatedby
"#".Attheendofthegame,"10"means"Whitewon","0
1"means"Blackwon",and""indicatesadraw.[7]
"Scholar'smate"
Chessmovescanbeannotatedwithpunctuationmarksand
othersymbols.Forexample"!"indicatesagoodmove,"!!"
anexcellentmove,"?"amistake,"??"ablunder,"!?"an
interestingmovethatmaynotbebest,or"?!"adubiousmove
noteasilyrefuted.[8]
Forexample,onevariantofasimpletrapknownastheScholar'smate(seeanimateddiagram)canbe
recorded:
1.e4e5
2.Qh5?!Nc6
3.Bc4Nf6??
4.Qxf7#10
Untilabout1980,themajorityofEnglishlanguagechessliteratureusedaformofdescriptivenotation,
wherebyfilesarenamedaccordingtothepiecewhichoccupiesthebackrankatthestartofthegame,
andeachsquarehastwodifferentnamesdependingonwhetheritisfromWhite'sorBlack'spointof
view.Forexample,thesquareknownas"e3"inalgebraicnotationis"K3"(King's3rd)fromWhite's
pointofview,and"K6"(King's6th)fromBlack'spointofview.The"Scholar'smate"isrenderedthusin
descriptivenotation:
1.PK4PK4
2.QR5?!NQB3
3.BB4NB3??
4.QxBP#10
Afewmostlyolderplayersstillpreferdescriptivenotation,howeveritisnolongerrecognizedbyFIDE.
Strategyandtactics
Chessstrategyconsistsofsettingandachievinglongtermpositioningadvantagesduringthegamefor
example,wheretoplacedifferentpieceswhiletacticsconcentrateonimmediatemaneuver.Thesetwo
partsofthechessplayingprocesscannotbecompletelyseparated,becausestrategicgoalsaremostly
achievedthroughtactics,whilethetacticalopportunitiesarebasedonthepreviousstrategyofplay.A
gameofchessisnormallydividedintothreephases:opening,typicallythefirst10moves,whenplayers
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movetheirpiecestousefulpositionsforthecomingbattlethenmiddlegameandlasttheendgame,
whenmostofthepiecesaregone,kingstypicallytakeamoreactivepartinthestruggle,andpawn
promotionisoftendecisive.
Fundamentalsoftactics
Botvinnikvs.Yudovich,1933[9]
a
Mainarticle:Chesstactics
Inchess,tacticsingeneralconcentrateonshorttermactions
soshorttermthattheycanbecalculatedinadvancebya
humanplayerorbyacomputer.Thepossibledepthof
calculationdependsontheplayer'sability.Inquietpositions
withmanypossibilitiesonbothsides,adeepcalculationis
moredifficultandmaynotbepractical,whilein"tactical"
positionswithalimitednumberofforcedvariations,strong
playerscancalculatelongsequencesofmoves.
Simpleonemoveortwomovetacticalactionsthreats,
exchangesofmaterial,anddoubleattackscanbecombined
intomorecomplicatedcombinations,sequencesoftactical
maneuversthatareoftenforcedfromthepointofviewofone
orbothplayers.[10]Theoreticiansdescribemanyelementary
tacticalmethodsandtypicalmaneuversforexample,pins,
forks,skewers,batteries,discoveredattacks(especially
discoveredchecks),zwischenzugs,deflections,decoys,
sacrifices,underminings,overloadings,andinterferences.[11]
Aforcedvariationthatinvolvesasacrificeandusuallyresults
inatangiblegainiscalledacombination.[10]Brilliant
combinationssuchasthoseintheImmortalGameare
consideredbeautifulandareadmiredbychesslovers.A
commontypeofchessexercise,aimedatdevelopingplayers'
skills,isshowingplayersapositionwhereadecisive
combinationisavailableandchallengingthemtofindit.[12]
Aftersacrificingapieceto
exposeBlack'sking,Botvinnik
played1.Bh5+andYudovich
resigned,asmateisinevitable.
1.Bh5+
1...Kxh52.Ng3+Kh43.Qe4+Rf4
4.Qxf4#
1...Kf52.g4#
1...Kh72.Nf6+(doublecheck)
Kh83.Qh7#
Fundamentalsofstrategy
Mainarticle:Chessstrategy
Chessstrategyisconcernedwithevaluationofchesspositionsandwithsettingupgoalsandlongterm
plansforthefutureplay.Duringtheevaluation,playersmusttakeintoaccountnumerousfactorssuchas
thevalueofthepiecesontheboard,controlofthecenterandcentralization,thepawnstructure,king
safety,andthecontrolofkeysquaresorgroupsofsquares(forexample,diagonals,openfiles,anddark
orlightsquares).
Themostbasicstepin
evaluatingapositionisto
countthetotalvalueof
piecesofbothsides.[14]
Thepointvaluesusedfor
thispurposearebasedon
Exampleofunderlyingpawnstructure
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experienceusuallypawns
Blacktomove
Whitetomove
areconsideredworthone
a b c d e f g h
a b c d e f g h
point,knightsandbishops
8
8
8
8
aboutthreepointseach,
7
7
7
7
rooksaboutfivepoints
6
6
6
6
(thevaluedifference
5
5
5
5
betweenarookanda
bishoporknightbeing
4
4
4
4
knownastheexchange),
3
3
3
3
andqueensaboutnine
2
2
2
2
points.Thekingismore
1
1
1
1
valuablethanallofthe
a b c d e f g h
a b c d e f g h
otherpiecescombined,
After12...Re8inTarrasch
...anditspawnskeleton(the"Rauzer
sinceitscheckmateloses
formation")
Euwe[13]...
thegame.Butinpractical
terms,intheendgamethe
kingasafightingpieceis
generallymorepowerfulthanabishoporknightbutlesspowerfulthanarook.[15]Thesebasicvaluesare
thenmodifiedbyotherfactorslikepositionofthepiece(forexample,advancedpawnsareusuallymore
valuablethanthoseontheirinitialsquares),coordinationbetweenpieces(forexample,apairofbishops
usuallycoordinatebetterthanabishopandaknight),orthetypeofposition(knightsaregenerallybetter
inclosedpositionswithmanypawnswhilebishopsaremorepowerfulinopenpositions).[16]
Anotherimportantfactorintheevaluationofchesspositionsisthepawnstructure(sometimesknownas
thepawnskeleton),ortheconfigurationofpawnsonthechessboard.[17]Sincepawnsaretheleast
mobileofthechesspieces,thepawnstructureisrelativelystaticandlargelydeterminesthestrategic
natureoftheposition.Weaknessesinthepawnstructure,suchasisolated,doubled,orbackwardpawns
andholes,oncecreated,areoftenpermanent.Caremustthereforebetakentoavoidtheseweaknesses
unlesstheyarecompensatedbyanothervaluableasset(forexample,bythepossibilityofdevelopingan
attack).[18]
Phases
Opening
Mainarticle:Chessopening
Achessopeningisthegroupofinitialmovesofagame(the"openingmoves").Recognizedsequences
ofopeningmovesarereferredtoasopeningsandhavebeengivennamessuchastheRuyLopezor
SicilianDefence.TheyarecataloguedinreferenceworkssuchastheEncyclopaediaofChessOpenings.
Therearedozensofdifferentopenings,varyingwidelyincharacterfromquietpositionalplay(for
example,theRtiOpening)toveryaggressive(theLatvianGambit).Insomeopeninglines,theexact
sequenceconsideredbestforbothsideshasbeenworkedouttomorethan30moves.[19]Professional
playersspendyearsstudyingopeningsandcontinuedoingsothroughouttheircareers,asopeningtheory
continuestoevolve.
Thefundamentalstrategicaimsofmostopeningsaresimilar:[20]
Development:Thisisthetechniqueofplacingthepieces(particularlybishopsandknights)on
usefulsquareswheretheywillhaveanoptimalimpactonthegame.
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Controlofthecenter:Controlofthecentralsquaresallowspiecestobemovedtoanypartofthe
boardrelativelyeasily,andcanalsohaveacrampingeffectontheopponent.
Kingsafety:Itiscriticaltokeepthekingsafefromdangerouspossibilities.Acorrectlytimed
castlingcanoftenenhancethis.
Pawnstructure:Playersstrivetoavoidthecreationofpawnweaknessessuchasisolated,doubled,
orbackwardpawns,andpawnislandsandtoforcesuchweaknessesintheopponent'sposition.
MostplayersandtheoreticiansconsiderthatWhite,byvirtueofthefirstmove,beginsthegamewitha
smalladvantage.ThisinitiallygivesWhitetheinitiative.[21]BlackusuallystrivestoneutralizeWhite's
advantageandachieveequality,ortodevelopdynamiccounterplayinanunbalancedposition.
Middlegame
Mainarticle:Chessmiddlegame
Themiddlegameisthepartofthegamewhichstartsaftertheopening.Thereisnoclearlinebetweenthe
openingandthemiddlegame,buttypicallythemiddlegamewillstartwhenmostpieceshavebeen
developed.(Similarly,thereisnocleartransitionfromthemiddlegametotheendgameseestartofthe
endgame.)Becausetheopeningtheoryhasended,playershavetoformplansbasedonthefeaturesof
theposition,andatthesametimetakeintoaccountthetacticalpossibilitiesoftheposition.[22]The
middlegameisthephaseinwhichmostcombinationsoccur.Combinationsareaseriesoftacticalmoves
executedtoachievesomegain.Middlegamecombinationsareoftenconnectedwithanattackagainstthe
opponent'skingsometypicalpatternshavetheirownnamesforexample,theBoden'sMateorthe
LaskerBauercombination.[23]
Specificplansorstrategicthemeswilloftenarisefromparticulargroupsofopeningswhichresultina
specifictypeofpawnstructure.Anexampleistheminorityattack,whichistheattackofqueenside
pawnsagainstanopponentwhohasmorepawnsonthequeenside.Thestudyofopeningsistherefore
connectedtothepreparationofplansthataretypicaloftheresultingmiddlegames.[24]
Anotherimportantstrategicquestioninthemiddlegameiswhetherandhowtoreducematerialand
transitionintoanendgame(i.e.simplify).Minormaterialadvantagescangenerallybetransformedinto
victoryonlyinanendgame,andthereforethestrongersidemustchooseanappropriatewaytoachieve
anending.Noteveryreductionofmaterialisgoodforthispurposeforexample,ifonesidekeepsa
lightsquaredbishopandtheopponenthasadarksquaredone,thetransformationintoabishopsand
pawnsendingisusuallyadvantageousfortheweakersideonly,becauseanendgamewithbishopson
oppositecolorsislikelytobeadraw,evenwithanadvantageofapawn,orsometimesevenwithatwo
pawnadvantage.[25]
Endgame
Mainarticle:Chessendgame
Theendgame(orendgameorending)isthestageofthegamewhentherearefewpiecesleftonthe
board.Therearethreemainstrategicdifferencesbetweenearlierstagesofthegameandendgame:[26]
Duringtheendgame,pawnsbecomemoreimportantendgamesoftenrevolvearoundattempting
topromoteapawnbyadvancingittotheeighthrank.
Theking,whichhastobeprotectedinthemiddlegameowingtothethreatofcheckmate,becomes
astrongpieceintheendgame.Itisoftenbroughttothecenteroftheboardwhereitcanprotectits
ownpawns,attackthepawnsofoppositecolor,andhindermovementoftheopponent'sking.
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Zugzwang,adisadvantagebecausetheplayerhastomakea
move,isoftenafactorinendgamesbutrarelyinother
stagesofthegame.Forexample,thediagramontherightis
zugzwangforbothsides,aswithBlacktomovehemust
play1...Kb7andletWhitepromoteapawnafter2.Kd7and
withWhitetomovehemustallowadrawby1.Kc6
stalemateorlosehislastpawnbyanyotherlegalmove.
Endgamescanbeclassifiedaccordingtothetypeofpiecesthat
3
3
remainonboard.Basiccheckmatesarepositionsinwhichone
2
2
sidehasonlyakingandtheothersidehasoneortwopiecesand
1
1
cancheckmatetheopposingking,withthepiecesworking
a b c d e f g h
togetherwiththeirking.Forexample,kingandpawnendgames
Anexampleofzugzwang:theside
involveonlykingsandpawnsononeorbothsidesandthetaskof
havingtomoveisatadisadvantage.
thestrongersideistopromoteoneofthepawns.Othermore
complicatedendingsareclassifiedaccordingtothepieceson
boardotherthankings,suchasthe"rookandpawnversusrookendgame".
History
Mainarticle:Historyofchess
Predecessors
8
8
ChessisbelievedtohaveoriginatedinEasternIndia,c.280
7
7
550CE,[27]intheGuptaEmpire,[28][29][30][31]whereits
6
6
earlyforminthe6thcenturywasknownaschaturaga
(Sanskrit:
),literallyfourdivisions[ofthemilitary]
5
5
infantry,cavalry,elephants,andchariotry,representedby
4
4
thepiecesthatwouldevolveintothemodernpawn,knight,
3
3
bishop,androok,respectively.Theearliestevidenceof
chessisfoundinthenearbySassanidPersiaaround600,
2
2
wherethegamecametobeknownbythenamechatrang.
1
1
ChatrangisevokedinthreeepicromanceswritteninPahlavi
a b c d e f g h
(MiddlePersian).ChatrangwastakenupbytheMuslim
worldaftertheIslamicconquestofPersia(63344),whereit
Ashtpada,theuncheckered8x8
wasthennamedshatranj,withthepieceslargelyretaining
board,sometimeswithspecialmarks,
theirPersiannames.InSpanish"shatranj"wasrenderedas
onwhichchaturangawasplayed
ajedrez("alshatranj"),inPortugueseasxadrez,andin
Greekas(zatrikion,whichcomesdirectlyfrom
thePersianchatrang),[32]butintherestofEuropeitwasreplacedbyversionsofthePersianshh
("king"),whichwasfamiliarasanexclamationandbecametheEnglishwords"check"and
"chess".[note3]MurraytheorizedthatMuslimtraderscametoEuropeanseaportswithornamentalchess
kingsascuriosbeforetheybroughtthegameofchess.[30]
ThegamereachedWesternEuropeandRussiabyatleastthreeroutes,theearliestbeinginthe9th
century.Bytheyear1000ithadspreadthroughoutEurope.[33]IntroducedintotheIberianPeninsulaby
theMoorsinthe10thcentury,itwasdescribedinafamous13thcenturymanuscriptcoveringshatranj,
backgammon,anddicenamedtheLibrodelosjuegos.Anothertheorycontendsthatchessarosefrom
thegamexiangqi(Chinesechess)oroneofitspredecessors,[34]althoughthishasbeencontested.[35]
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Originsofthemoderngame(10001850)
Around1200,therulesofshatranjstartedtobemodifiedin
southernEurope,andaround1475,severalmajorchangesmade
thegameessentiallyasitisknowntoday.[33]Thesemodernrules
forthebasicmoveshadbeenadoptedinItalyandSpain.[36][37]
Pawnsgainedtheoptionofadvancingtwosquaresontheirfirst
move,whilebishopsandqueensacquiredtheirmodernabilities.
Thequeenreplacedtheearliervizierchesspiecetowardstheend
ofthe10thcenturyandbythe15thcenturyhadbecomethemost
KnightsTemplarplayingchess,Libro
[38]
powerfulpiece consequentlymodernchesswasreferredtoas
delosjuegos,1283
[39]
"Queen'sChess"or"MadQueenChess". Thesenewrules
quicklyspreadthroughoutwesternEurope.Therulesconcerningstalematewerefinalizedintheearly
19thcentury.Alsointhe19thcentury,theconventionthatWhitemovesfirstwasestablished(formerly
eitherWhiteorBlackcouldmovefirst).Finallytherulesaroundcastlingwerestandardizedvariations
inthecastlingruleshadpersistedinItalyuntilthelate19thcentury.Theresultingstandardgameis
sometimesreferredtoasWesternchess[40]orinternationalchess[41]inordertodistinguishitfromits
predecessorsaswellasregionalversionsofchessthatevolveddifferently.Sincethe19thcentury,the
onlyrulechangeshavebeentechnicalinnature,forexampleestablishingthecorrectprocedurefor
claimingadrawbyrepetition.
Writingsaboutthetheoryofhowtoplaychessbegantoappearinthe15th
century.TheRepeticindeAmoresyArtedeAjedrez(RepetitionofLove
andtheArtofPlayingChess)bySpanishchurchmanLuisRamirezde
LucenawaspublishedinSalamancain1497.[37]Lucenaandlatermasters
likePortuguesePedroDamiano,ItaliansGiovanniLeonardoDiBona,
GiulioCesarePolerioandGioachinoGreco,andSpanishbishopRuyLpez
deSeguradevelopedelementsofopeningsandstartedtoanalyzesimple
endgames.
Inthe18thcentury,thecenterof
Europeanchesslifemovedfromthe
SouthernEuropeancountriestoFrance.
ThetwomostimportantFrenchmasters
Atacticalpuzzlefrom
wereFranoisAndrDanicanPhilidor,a
Lucena's1497book
musicianbyprofession,whodiscovered
theimportanceofpawnsforchess
strategy,andlaterLouisCharlesMahdeLaBourdonnais,whowona
famousseriesofmatcheswiththeIrishmasterAlexanderMcDonnell
in1834.[42]Centersofchessactivityinthisperiodwerecoffeehouses
inbigEuropeancitieslikeCafdelaRgenceinParisandSimpson's
DivaninLondon.[43][44]
FranoisAndrDanican
Philidor,18thcenturyFrench
chessmaster
Asthe19thcenturyprogressed,chessorganizationdevelopedquickly.
Manychessclubs,chessbooks,andchessjournalsappeared.There
werecorrespondencematchesbetweencitiesforexample,theLondonChessClubplayedagainstthe
EdinburghChessClubin1824.[45]Chessproblemsbecamearegularpartof19thcenturynewspapers
BernhardHorwitz,JosefKling,andSamuelLoydcomposedsomeofthemostinfluentialproblems.In
1843,vonderLasapublishedhisandBilguer'sHandbuchdesSchachspiels(HandbookofChess),the
firstcomprehensivemanualofchesstheory.
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Birthofasport(18501945)
ThefirstmodernchesstournamentwasorganizedbyHoward
Staunton,aleadingEnglishchessplayer,andwasheldin
Londonin1851.ItwaswonbytheGermanAdolfAnderssen,
whowashailedastheleadingchessmaster.Hisbrilliant,
energeticattackingstylewastypicalforthetime.[46][47]
SparklinggameslikeAnderssen'sImmortalgameand
EvergreengameorMorphy'sOperagamewereregardedas
thehighestpossiblesummitofthechessart.[48]
Deeperinsightintothenatureofchesscamewithtwo
youngerplayers.AmericanPaulMorphy,anextraordinary
chessprodigy,wonagainstallimportantcompetitors(except
HowardStaunton,whorefusedtoplay),includingAnderssen,
duringhisshortchesscareerbetween1857and1863.
The"ImmortalGame",Anderssen
Morphy'ssuccessstemmedfromacombinationofbrilliant
Kieseritzky,1851
attacksandsoundstrategyheintuitivelyknewhowto
prepareattacks.[49]PraguebornWilhelmSteinitzlater
describedhowtoavoidweaknessesinone'sownpositionandhowtocreateandexploitsuchweaknesses
intheopponent'sposition.[50]ThescientificapproachandpositionalunderstandingofSteinitz
revolutionizedthegame.Steinitzwasthefirsttobreakapositiondownintoitscomponents.[51]Before
Steinitz,playersbroughttheirqueenoutearly,didnotcompletelydeveloptheirotherpieces,and
mountedaquickattackontheopposingking,whicheithersucceededorfailed.Thelevelofdefensewas
poorandplayersdidnotformanydeepplan.[52]Inadditiontohistheoreticalachievements,Steinitz
foundedanimportanttradition:histriumphovertheleadingGermanmasterJohannesZukertortin1886
isregardedasthefirstofficialWorldChessChampionship.Steinitzlosthiscrownin1894toamuch
youngerplayer,theGermanmathematicianEmanuelLasker,whomaintainedthistitlefor27years,the
longesttenureofallWorldChampions.[53]
Aftertheendofthe19thcentury,thenumberofmaster
tournamentsandmatchesheldannuallyquicklygrew.Some
sourcesstatethatin1914thetitleofchessGrandmasterwasfirst
formallyconferredbyTsarNicholasIIofRussiatoLasker,
Capablanca,Alekhine,Tarrasch,andMarshall,butthisisa
disputedclaim.[note4]Thetraditionofawardingsuchtitleswas
continuedbytheWorldChessFederation(FIDE),foundedin
1924inParis.In1927,theWomen'sWorldChessChampionship
wasestablishedthefirsttoholdthetitlewasCzechEnglish
masterVeraMenchik.[54]IttookaprodigyfromCuba,JosRal
Capablanca(WorldChampion192127),wholovedsimple
positionsandendgames,toendtheGermanspeakingdominance
inchesshewasundefeatedintournamentplayforeightyears,
until1924.HissuccessorwasRussianFrenchAlexander
Alekhine,astrongattackingplayerwhodiedastheWorld
championin1946.HebrieflylostthetitletoDutchplayerMax
Euwein1935andregainedittwoyearslater.[55]
ChessPlayersinlate19thCentury
Istanbul,byStanisawChlebowski
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Betweentheworldwars,chesswasrevolutionizedbythenewtheoreticalschoolofsocalled
hypermodernistslikeAronNimzowitschandRichardRti.Theyadvocatedcontrollingthecenterofthe
boardwithdistantpiecesratherthanwithpawns,whichinvitedopponentstooccupythecenterwith
pawns,whichbecomeobjectsofattack.[56]
Postwarera(1945andlater)
AfterthedeathofAlekhine,anewWorldChampionwassought.FIDE,whichhascontrolledthetitle
sincethen(exceptforoneinterruption),ranatournamentofeliteplayers.Thewinnerofthe1948
tournament,RussianMikhailBotvinnik,startedaneraofSovietdominanceinthechessworld.Untilthe
endoftheSovietUnion,therewasonlyonenonSovietchampion,AmericanBobbyFischer(champion
197275).[57]Botvinnikrevolutionizedopeningtheory.PreviouslyBlackstroveforequality,to
neutralizeWhite'sfirstmoveadvantage.AsBlack,Botvinnikstrovefortheinitiativefromthe
beginning.[58]InthepreviousinformalsystemofWorldChampionships,thecurrentchampiondecided
whichchallengerhewouldplayforthetitleandthechallengerwasforcedtoseeksponsorsforthe
match.FIDEsetupanewsystemofqualifyingtournamentsandmatches.Theworld'sstrongestplayers
wereseededintoInterzonaltournaments,wheretheywerejoinedbyplayerswhohadqualifiedfrom
Zonaltournaments.TheleadingfinishersintheseInterzonalswouldgoonthe"Candidates"stage,which
wasinitiallyatournament,andlateraseriesofknockoutmatches.ThewinneroftheCandidateswould
thenplaythereigningchampionforthetitle.Achampiondefeatedinamatchhadarighttoplaya
rematchayearlater.Thissystemoperatedonathreeyearcycle.Botvinnikparticipatedinchampionship
matchesoveraperiodoffifteenyears.Hewontheworldchampionshiptournamentin1948andretained
thetitleintiedmatchesin1951and1954.In1957,helosttoVasilySmyslov,butregainedthetitleina
rematchin1958.In1960,helostthetitletothe23yearoldLatvianprodigyMikhailTal,an
accomplishedtacticianandattackingplayer.Botvinnikagainregainedthetitleinarematchin1961.
Followingthe1961event,FIDEabolishedtheautomaticrightofadeposedchampiontoarematch,and
thenextchampion,ArmenianTigranPetrosian,aplayerrenownedforhisdefensiveandpositional
skills,heldthetitlefortwocycles,196369.Hissuccessor,BorisSpasskyfromRussia(champion
196972),wongamesinbothpositionalandsharptacticalstyle.[59]Thenextchampionship,theso
calledMatchoftheCentury,sawthefirstnonSovietchallengersinceWorldWarII,AmericanBobby
Fischer,whodefeatedhisCandidatesopponentsbyunheardofmarginsandclearlywontheworld
championshipmatch.In1975,however,FischerrefusedtodefendhistitleagainstSovietAnatoly
KarpovwhenFIDEdidnotmeethisdemands,andKarpovobtainedthetitlebydefault.[60]Fischer
modernizedmanyaspectsofchess,especiallybyextensivelypreparingopenings.[61]
KarpovdefendedhistitletwiceagainstViktorKorchnoianddominatedthe1970sandearly1980swith
astringoftournamentsuccesses.[62]Karpov'sreignfinallyendedin1985atthehandsofGarry
Kasparov,anotherSovietplayerfromBaku,Azerbaijan.KasparovandKarpovcontestedfiveworldtitle
matchesbetween1984and1990Karpovneverwonhistitleback.[63]In1993,GarryKasparovand
NigelShortbrokewithFIDEtoorganizetheirownmatchforthetitleandformedacompeting
ProfessionalChessAssociation(PCA).Fromthenuntil2006,thereweretwosimultaneousWorld
ChampionsandWorldChampionships:thePCAorClassicalchampionextendingtheSteinitzian
traditioninwhichthecurrentchampionplaysachallengerinaseriesofmanygames,andtheother
followingFIDE'snewformatofmanyplayerscompetinginatournamenttodeterminethechampion.
KasparovlosthisClassicaltitlein2000toVladimirKramnikofRussia.[64]TheWorldChess
Championship2006,inwhichKramnikbeattheFIDEWorldChampionVeselinTopalov,reunifiedthe
titlesandmadeKramniktheundisputedWorldChessChampion.[65]InSeptember2007,helostthetitle
toViswanathanAnandofIndia,whowonthechampionshiptournamentinMexicoCity.Anand
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defendedhistitleintherevengematchof2008,[66]2010and2012.In2013,MagnusCarlsenbeatAnand
inthe2013WorldChessChampionship.[67]Hedefendedhistitlethefollowingyear,againagainst
Anand,andisthereigningworldchampion.
Placeinculture
Mainarticle:Chessintheartsandliterature
Premodern
IntheMiddleAgesandduringtheRenaissance,chesswasapartof
noblecultureitwasusedtoteachwarstrategyandwasdubbedthe
"King'sGame".[68]Gentlemenare"tobemeanlyseeneintheplayat
Chestes",saystheoverviewatthebeginningofBaldassareCastiglione's
TheBookoftheCourtier(1528,English1561bySirThomasHoby),but
chessshouldnotbeagentleman'smainpassion.Castiglioneexplainsit
further:
Andwhatsayyoutothegameatchestes?Itistruelyan
honestkyndeofenterteynmenteandwittie,quothSyr
Friderick.Butmethinkithathafault,whicheis,thataman
maybetocouningatit,forwhoeverwillbeexcellentinthe
playeofchestes,Ibeleavehemustbeestowemuchtyme
aboutit,andapplieitwithsomuchstudy,thatamanmay
assoonelearnesomenoblescyence,orcompaseanyother
matterofimportaunce,andyetintheendeinbeestowingall
thatlaboure,heknowethnomorebutagame.Therforein
thisIbeleavetherehappenethaveryrarething,namely,that
themeaneismorecommendable,thentheexcellency.[69]
Noblechessplayers,
Germany,c.1320
Manyoftheelaboratechesssetsusedbythearistocracyhave
beenlost,butotherspartiallysurvive,suchastheLewis
chessmen.
Chesswasoftenusedasabasisofsermonsonmorality.An
exampleisLiberdemoribushominumetofficiisnobiliumsive
superludoscacchorum('Bookofthecustomsofmenandthe
dutiesofnoblesortheBookofChess'),writtenbyanItalian
DominicanmonkJacobusdeCessolisc.1300.Thisbookwas
Twokingsandtwoqueensfromthe
oneofthemostpopularoftheMiddleAges.[70]Theworkwas
Lewischessmen(BritishMuseum)
translatedintomanyotherlanguages(thefirstprintededition
waspublishedatUtrechtin1473)andwasthebasisforWilliam
Caxton'sTheGameandPlayeoftheChesse(1474),oneofthefirstbooksprintedinEnglish.[71]
Differentchesspieceswereusedasmetaphorsfordifferentclassesofpeople,andhumandutieswere
derivedfromtherulesofthegameorfromvisualpropertiesofthechesspieces:[72]
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Theknyghtoughttobemadeallearmeduponanhorsinsuchewysethathehaueanhelme
onhisheedandaspereinhisryghthande/andcouerydwythhissheld/aswerdeandamace
onhislyftsyde/Claddwythanhawberkandplatestoforehisbreste/leggeharnoysonhis
legges/Sporesonhisheelisonhishandeshisgauntelettes/hishorswellbrokenandtaught
andaptetobataylleandcoueridwithhisarmes/whantheknyghtesbenmaadtheyben
baynedorbathed/thatisthesignethattheysholdledeanewelyfandnewemaners/also
theywakeallethenyghtinprayersandorysonsvntogodthathewyllegyuehemgracethat
theymaygetethatthyngethattheymaynotgetebynature/Thekyngeorpryncegyrdetha
boutethemaswerdeinsigne/thattheysholdabydeandkepehymofwhomtheytaketheyr
dispensesanddignyte.[73]
Knowninthecirclesofclerics,students,andmerchants,chessentered
intothepopularcultureofMiddleAges.Anexampleisthe209thsongof
CarminaBuranafromthe13thcentury,whichstartswiththenamesof
chesspieces,Roch,pedites,regina...[74]
Modern
DuringtheAgeofEnlightenment,chesswasviewedasameansofself
improvement.BenjaminFranklin,inhisarticle"TheMoralsofChess"
(1750),wrote:
TheGameofChessisnotmerelyanidleamusement
severalveryvaluablequalitiesofthemind,usefulinthe
courseofhumanlife,aretobeacquiredandstrengthenedby
it,soastobecomehabitsreadyonalloccasionsforlifeisa
kindofChess,inwhichwehaveoftenpointstogain,and
competitorsoradversariestocontendwith,andinwhich
thereisavastvarietyofgoodandillevents,thatare,in
somedegree,theeffectofprudence,orthewantofit.By
playingatChessthen,wemaylearn:
19thcenturydecorative
chesspawns,China(National
MuseuminWarsaw)
I.Foresight,whichlooksalittleintofuturity,andconsiders
theconsequencesthatmayattendanaction[...]
II.Circumspection,whichsurveysthewholeChessboard,
orsceneofaction:therelationoftheseveralPieces,and
theirsituations[...]
III.Caution,nottomakeourmovestoohastily[...][75]
Withtheseorsimilarhopes,chessistaughttochildreninschoolsaroundtheworldtoday.Manyschools
hostchessclubs,andtherearemanyscholastictournamentsspecificallyforchildren.Tournamentsare
heldregularlyinmanycountries,hostedbyorganizationssuchastheUnitedStatesChessFederation
andtheNationalScholasticChessFoundation.[76]
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ChessisoftendepictedintheartssignificantworkswherechessplaysakeyrolerangefromThomas
Middleton'sAGameatChesstoThroughtheLookingGlassbyLewisCarrolltoTheRoyalGameby
StefanZweigandVladimirNabokov'sTheDefense.ThethrillerfilmKnightMovesisaboutachess
grandmasterwhoisaccusedofbeingaserialkiller.ChessisfeaturedinfilmslikeIngmarBergman'sThe
SeventhSealandSatyajitRay'sTheChessPlayers.Chessisalsopresentinthecontemporarypopular
culture.Forexample,J.K.Rowling'sHarryPotterplays"Wizard'sChess",whilethecharactersofStar
Trekprefer"TriDimensionalChess".TheheroofSearchingforBobbyFischerstrugglesagainst
adoptingtheaggressive
andmisanthropicviews
ofaworldchess
champion.[77]Chesshas
beenusedasthecore
themeofamusical,
Chess,byTimRice,
BjrnUlvaeus,and
BennyAndersson.
ThroughtheLookingGlass:theRed
Kingissnoring.IllustrationbyJohn
Tenniel
LargechesssetinFranklinSquare,
Tasmania
Composition
Mainarticle:Chessproblem
Chesscompositionistheartofcreatingchessproblems(theproblemsthemselvesaresometimesalso
calledchesscompositions).Apersonwhocreatessuchproblemsisknownasachesscomposer.[78]
Therearemanytypesofchessproblems.Thetwomostimportantare:
Directmates:whitetomovefirstandcheckmateblackwithinaspecifiednumberofmoves
againstanydefense.Theseareoftenreferredtoas"mateinn"forexample"mateinthree"(a
threemover)twoandthreemoveproblemsarethemostcommon.Theseusuallyinvolve
positionswhichwouldbehighlyunlikelytooccurinanactualgame,andareintendedtoillustrate
aparticular"theme",usuallyrequiringasurprisingorcounterintuitive"keymove".[79]
Studies:orthodoxproblemsinwhichthestipulationisthatwhitetoplaymustwinordraw.
Almostallstudiesareendgamepositions.[80]
Chesscompositionisadistinctbranchofchesssport,andtournaments(ortourneys)existforboththe
compositionandsolvingofchessproblems.[81]
Example
Mainarticle:Rtiendgamestudy
ThisisoneofthemostfamouschessstudiesitwaspublishedbyRichardRtiin1921.Itseems
impossibletocatchtheadvancedblackpawn,whiletheblackkingcaneasilystopthewhitepawn.The
solutionisadiagonaladvance,whichbringsthekingtobothpawnssimultaneously:
1.Kg7!h42.Kf6!Kb6
Or2...h33.Ke7andthewhitekingcansupportitspawn.
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3.Ke5!!
Nowthewhitekingcomesjustintimetosupporthis
pawn,orcatchtheblackone.
3...h34.Kd6draw[82]
RichardRti
OstrauerMorgenzeitung,4Dec.1921
a
1
a
Whitetomoveanddraw
Competitiveplay
Organizationofcompetitions
Contemporarychessisanorganizedsportwithstructuredinternationalandnationalleagues,
tournaments,andcongresses.Chess'sinternationalgoverningbodyisFIDE(FdrationInternationale
deschecs).Mostcountrieshaveanationalchessorganizationaswell(suchastheUSChessFederation
andEnglishChessFederation)whichinturnisamemberofFIDE.FIDEisamemberofthe
InternationalOlympicCommittee,[83]butthegameofchesshasneverbeenpartoftheOlympicGames
chessdoeshaveitsownOlympiad,heldeverytwoyearsasateamevent.
ThecurrentWorldChessChampionisMagnusCarlsenof
Norway.[84]ThereigningWomen'sWorldChampionisHou
YifanfromChina.[85]Theworld'shighestratedfemaleplayer,
JuditPolgr,hasneverparticipatedintheWomen'sWorldChess
Championship,insteadpreferringtocompetewiththeleading
menandmaintainingarankingamongthetopmaleplayers.[86]
OthercompetitionsforindividualsincludetheWorldJunior
ChessChampionship,theEuropeanIndividualChess
Championship,andtheNationalChessChampionships.
Invitationonlytournamentsregularlyattracttheworld'sstrongest
players.ExamplesincludeSpain'sLinaresevent,MonteCarlo's
MelodyAmbertournament,theDortmundSparkassenmeeting,
Sofia'sMtelMasters,andWijkaanZee'sTataSteeltournament.
TheformerWorldChessChampion
ViswanathanAnand(left)playing
chessagainsthispredecessorVladimir
Kramnik
RegularteamchesseventsincludetheChessOlympiadandtheEuropeanTeamChessChampionship.
TheWorldChessSolvingChampionshipandWorldCorrespondenceChessChampionshipsincludeboth
teamandindividualevents.
Besidestheseprestigiouscompetitions,therearethousandsofotherchesstournaments,matches,and
festivalsheldaroundtheworldeveryyearcateringtoplayersofalllevels.Chessispromotedasa"mind
sport"bytheMindSportsOrganisation,alongsideothermentalskillgamessuchasContractBridge,Go,
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andScrabble.
Titlesandrankings
Mainarticle:Chesstitles
Thebestplayerscanbeawardedspecificlifetimetitlesbytheworld
chessorganizationFIDE:[87]
Grandmaster(shortenedasGMsometimesInternational
GrandmasterorIGMisused)isawardedtoworldclasschess
masters.ApartfromWorldChampion,Grandmasteristhehighest
titleachessplayercanattain.BeforeFIDEwillconferthetitleon
aplayer,theplayermusthaveanElochessrating(seebelow)ofat
least2500atonetimeandthreefavorableresults(callednorms)in
tournamentsinvolvingothergrandmasters,includingsomefrom
countriesotherthantheapplicant's.Thereareothermilestonesa
playercanachievetoattainthetitle,suchaswinningtheWorld
JuniorChampionship.
InternationalMaster(shortenedasIM).Theconditionsaresimilar
toGM,butlessdemanding.TheminimumratingfortheIMtitleis
2400.
FIDEMaster(shortenedasFM).Theusualwayforaplayerto
qualifyfortheFIDEMastertitleisbyachievingaFIDEratingof
2300ormore.
CandidateMaster(shortenedasCM).SimilartoFM,butwitha
FIDEratingofatleast2200.
GrandmasterGarry
Kasparov,formerWorld
ChessChampion,is
consideredbymanytobethe
greatestchessplayerofall
time.
Allthetitlesareopentomenandwomen.Separatewomenonlytitles,suchasWomanGrandmaster
(WGM),areavailable.BeginningwithNonaGaprindashviliin1978,anumberofwomenhaveearned
theGMtitle,andmostofthetoptenwomenin2006holdtheunrestrictedGMtitle.[note5]
AsofAugust2011,thereare1363activegrandmastersand3153internationalmastersintheworld.Top
threecountrieswiththelargestnumbersofgrandmastersareRussia,Ukraine,andGermany,with208,
78,and76.ThecountrywithmostgrandmasterspercapitaisIceland,with11GMsand13IMsamong
thepopulationof310,000.[88]
Internationaltitlesareawardedtocomposersandsolversofchessproblemsandtocorrespondencechess
players(bytheInternationalCorrespondenceChessFederation).Nationalchessorganizationsmayalso
awardtitles,usuallytotheadvancedplayersstillunderthelevelneededforinternationaltitlesan
exampleistheChessexperttitleusedintheUnitedStates.
Inordertorankplayers,FIDE,ICCF,andnationalchessorganizationsusetheEloratingsystem
developedbyArpadElo.Eloisastatisticalsystembasedontheassumptionthatthechessperformance
ofeachplayerintheirgamesisarandomvariable.ArpadElothoughtofaplayer'strueskillasthe
averageofthatplayer'sperformancerandomvariable,andshowedhowtoestimatetheaveragefrom
resultsofplayer'sgames.TheUSChessFederationimplementedElo'ssuggestionsin1960,andthe
systemquicklygainedrecognitionasbeingbothfairerandmoreaccuratethanoldersystemsitwas
adoptedbyFIDEin1970.[note6]ThehighestFIDEratingofalltime,2881,wasachievedbyMagnus
CarlsenontheMarch2014FIDEratinglist.[89]
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Publications
Mainarticles:Chesslibraries,ListofchessbooksandListofchessperiodicals
Chesshasaveryextensiveliterature.In1913,thechesshistorianH.J.R.Murrayestimatedthetotal
numberofbooks,magazines,andchesscolumnsinnewspaperstobeabout5,000.[90][91]B.H.Wood
estimatedthenumber,asof1949,tobeabout20,000.[91]DavidHooperandKennethWhyldwritethat,
"Sincethentherehasbeenasteadyincreaseyearbyyearofthenumberofnewchesspublications.No
oneknowshowmanyhavebeenprinted."[91]Therearetwosignificantpublicchesslibraries:theJohn
G.WhiteChessandCheckersCollectionatClevelandPublicLibrary,withover32,000chessbooksand
over6,000boundvolumesofchessperiodicals[92]andtheChess&DraughtscollectionattheNational
LibraryoftheNetherlands,withabout30,000books.[93]GrandmasterLotharSchmidownedtheworld's
largestprivatecollectionofchessbooksandmemorabilia.[94]DavidDeLucia'schesslibrarycontains
7,000to8,000chessbooks,asimilarnumberofautographs(letters,scoresheets,manuscripts),and
about1,000itemsof"ephemera".[95]DirkJantenGeuzendamopinesthatDeLucia'scollection"is
arguablythefinestchesscollectionintheworld".[96]
Mathematicsandcomputers
Seealso:Computerchess,Listofmathematicianswhostudiedchess,Humancomputerchess
matches,DeepBlueversusGarryKasparovandChessengine
Thegamestructureandnatureofchessisrelatedtoseveral
branchesofmathematics.Manycombinatoricalandtopological
problemsconnectedtochesswereknownofforhundredsof
years.In1913,ErnstZermelousedchessasabasisforhistheory
ofgamestrategies,whichisconsideredasoneofthe
predecessorsofgametheory.[97]
Thenumberoflegalpositionsinchessisestimatedtobebetween
1043and1047(aprovableupperbound[98][99]),withagametree
complexityofapproximately10123.Thegametreecomplexityof
chesswasfirstcalculatedbyClaudeShannonas10120,anumber
knownastheShannonnumber.[100]Typicallyanaverage
positionhasthirtytofortypossiblemoves,buttheremaybeas
fewaszero(inthecaseofcheckmateorstalemate)orasmanyas
218.[101]
MathematiciansEuler,Legendre,de
Moivre,andVandermondestudied
theknight'stour.
Oneofthemostimportantmathematicalchallengesofchessisthedevelopmentofalgorithmsthatcan
playchess.Theideaofcreatingachessplayingmachinedatestothe18thcenturyaround1769,the
chessplayingautomatoncalledTheTurkbecamefamousbeforebeingexposedasahoax.[102]Serious
trialsbasedonautomatons,suchasElAjedrecista,weretoocomplexandlimitedtobeuseful.
Sincetheadventofthedigitalcomputerinthe1950s,chessenthusiasts,computerengineersand
computerscientistshavebuilt,withincreasingdegreesofseriousnessandsuccess,chessplaying
machinesandcomputerprograms.[103]Thegroundbreakingpaperoncomputerchess,"Programminga
ComputerforPlayingChess",waspublishedin1950byShannon.[note7]Hewrote:
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Thechessmachineisanidealonetostartwith,since:(1)theproblemissharplydefined
bothinallowedoperations(themoves)andintheultimategoal(checkmate)(2)itisneither
sosimpleastobetrivialnortoodifficultforsatisfactorysolution(3)chessisgenerally
consideredtorequire"thinking"forskillfulplayasolutionofthisproblemwillforceus
eithertoadmitthepossibilityofamechanizedthinkingortofurtherrestrictourconceptof
"thinking"(4)thediscretestructureofchessfitswellintothedigitalnatureofmodern
computers.[105]
TheAssociationforComputingMachinery(ACM)heldthefirst
majorchesstournamentforcomputers,theNorthAmerican
ComputerChessChampionship,inSeptember1970.CHESS3.0,
achessprogramfromNorthwesternUniversity,wonthe
championship.Nowadays,chessprogramscompeteintheWorld
ComputerChessChampionship,heldannuallysince1974.At
firstconsideredonlyacuriosity,thebestchessplayingprograms,
forexampleRybka,havebecomeextremelystrong.In1997,a
computerwonachessmatchagainstareigningWorldChampion
1990schessplayingcomputer
forthefirsttime:IBM'sDeepBluebeatGarryKasparov32
(itscoredtwowins,oneloss,andthreedraws).[106][107]In2009,
amobilephonewonacategory6tournamentwithaperformancerating2898:chessengineHiarcs13
runningonthemobilephoneHTCTouchHDwontheCopaMercosurtournamentwithninewinsand
onedraw.[108]Thebestchessprogramsarenowabletobeatthestrongesthumanplayers.
Withhugedatabasesofpastgamesandhighanalyticalability,computerscanhelpplayerstolearnchess
andprepareformatches.InternetChessServersallowpeopletofindandplayopponentsalloverthe
world.Thepresenceofcomputersandmoderncommunicationtoolshaveraisedconcernsregarding
cheatingduringgames,mostnotablythe"bathroomcontroversy"duringthe2006World
Championship.[109]
Zermelo'stheoremstatesthatitispossibletosolvechess,i.e.todeterminewithcertaintytheoutcomeof
aperfectlyplayedgame(eitherwhitecanforceawin,orblackcanforceawin,orbothsidescanforceat
leastadraw).[110]However,accordingtoClaudeShannon,thereare1043legalpositionsinchess,and
thetimeframerequiredtocomputeaperfectgameputsthispossibilitybeyondthelimitsofanyfeasible
technology.[111]
Psychology
Thereisanextensivescientificliteratureonchesspsychology.[note8][note9][113][114][115][116]AlfredBinet
andothersshowedthatknowledgeandverbal,ratherthanvisuospatial,abilityliesatthecoreof
expertise.[117][118]Inhisdoctoralthesis,AdriaandeGrootshowedthatchessmasterscanrapidly
perceivethekeyfeaturesofaposition.[119]AccordingtodeGroot,thisperception,madepossibleby
yearsofpracticeandstudy,ismoreimportantthanthesheerabilitytoanticipatemoves.DeGroot
showedthatchessmasterscanmemorizepositionsshownforafewsecondsalmostperfectly.Theability
tomemorizedoesnotaloneaccountforchessplayingskill,sincemastersandnovices,whenfacedwith
randomarrangementsofchesspieces,hadequivalentrecall(abouthalfadozenpositionsineachcase).
Rather,itistheabilitytorecognizepatterns,whicharethenmemorized,whichdistinguishedtheskilled
playersfromthenovices.Whenthepositionsofthepiecesweretakenfromanactualgame,themasters
hadalmosttotalpositionalrecall.[120]
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Morerecentresearchhasfocusedonchessasmentaltrainingtherespectiverolesofknowledgeand
lookaheadsearchbrainimagingstudiesofchessmastersandnovicesblindfoldchesstheroleof
personalityandintelligenceinchessskillgenderdifferencesandcomputationalmodelsofchess
expertise.Theroleofpracticeandtalentinthedevelopmentofchessandotherdomainsofexpertisehas
ledtoalotofresearchrecently.Ericssonandcolleagueshavearguedthatdeliberatepracticeissufficient
forreachinghighlevelsofexpertiseinchess.[121]Recentresearchindicatesthatfactorsotherthan
practicearealsoimportant.Forexample,FernandGobetandcolleagueshaveshownthatstronger
playersstartedplayingchessatayoungageandthatexpertsbornintheNorthernHemispherearemore
likelytohavebeenborninlatewinterandearlyspring.Chessplayersaremorelikelytobenonright
handed,thoughtheyfoundnocorrelationbetweenhandednessandskill.[122]
Chessandintelligence
Althoughthelinkbetweenperformanceinchessandgeneral
intelligenceisoftenassumed,researchershavelargelyfailedto
confirmitsexistence.[123]Forexample,a2006studyfoundno
differencesinfluidintelligence,asmeasuredbyRaven's
ProgressiveMatrices,betweenstrongadultchessplayersand
regularpeople.[124]Thereissomeevidencetowardsacorrelation
betweenperformanceinchessandintelligenceamongbeginning
players.However,performanceinchessalsoreliessubstantially
onone'sexperienceplayingthegame,andtheroleofexperience
mayoverwhelmtheroleofintelligence.Chessexpertsare
estimatedtohaveinexcessof10,000andpossiblyasmanyas
300,000positionpatternsstoredintheirmemorylongtrainingis
necessarytoacquirethatamountofdata.[125]
A2007studyofyoungchessplayersintheUnitedKingdom
foundthatstrongplayerstendedtohaveaboveaverageIQ
scores,but,withinthatgroup,thecorrelationbetweenchessskill
Achildren'schesstournamentinthe
andIQwasmoderatelynegative,meaningthatsmarterchildren
UnitedStates
tendedtoachievealowerlevelofchessskill.Thisresultwas
explainedbyanegativecorrelationbetweenintelligenceand
practiceintheelitesubsample,andbypracticehavingahigherinfluenceonchessskill.[125]
Variants
Mainarticle:Chessvariant
Therearemorethantwothousandpublishedchessvariants,[126]mostofthemofrelativelyrecentorigin.
Variantscaninclude,butarenotlimitedto:
directpredecessorsofchesssuchaschaturangaandshatranj
traditionalnationalorregionalgameswhichsharecommonancestorswithWesternchesssuchas
xiangqi,shogi,janggi,makruk,andsittuyin
modernvariationsemployingdifferentrules(e.g.Losingchess),ordifferentforces(e.g.
Dunsany'schess),ornonstandardpieces(e.g.GrandChess),ordifferentboardgeometries(e.g.
hexagonalchess).OneofthemostpopularmodernvariantsisChess960,wherethestarting
positionisselectedrandomly,renderingtheuseofpreparedopeninglinesimpracticable.[127]
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Gametheory
Mainarticle:Gametheory
The11category,gametheoreticaltaxonomyofchessincludes:twoplayer,nochance,combinatorial,
Markovstate(presentstateisallaplayerneedstomovealthoughpaststateleduptothatpoint,
knowledgeofthesequenceofpastmovesisnotrequiredtomakethenextmove),zerosum,symmetric,
perfectinformation,noncooperative,discrete,extensiveform(treedecisions,notpayoffmatrices),
sequential.[128]
Seealso
Referenceaids
Outlineofchess(subjectwidetableofcontents)
Glossaryofchess
Indexofchessarticles
Lists
Listofchessbooks
Listofchessgames
Listofchessplayers
Listofchessworldchampionshipmatches
Listofstrongchesstournaments
Gliski'shexagonalchess.Threebishopsper
playerarethenormforhexagonalvariants.
References
Notes
1. Withoutthisadditionalrestriction,whichwasaddedtotheFIDErulesin1972,itwouldbepossibleto
promoteapawnontheefiletoarookandthencastleverticallyacrosstheboard(aslongastheother
conditionsaremet).Thiswayofcastlingwas"discovered"byMaxPamandusedbyTimKrabbinachess
puzzlebeforetheruleswereamendedtodisallowit.SeeChessCuriositiesbyKrabb.Seealsode:Pam
KrabbRochadeforthediagramsonline.
2. The50moveruleisnotappliedatFICGS.[5]
3. AtthattimetheSpanishwordwouldhavebeenwrittenaxedrez.TheSpanish"x"waspronouncedasEnglish
"sh",asthePortuguese"x"stillistoday.ThespellingofajedrezchangedafterSpanishlostthe"sh"sound.
4. ThisisstatedinTheEncyclopaediaofChess(1970,p.223)byAnneSunnucks,butisdisputedbyEdward
Winter(chesshistorian)inhisChessNotes5144and5152
(http://www.chesshistory.com/winter/winter38.html).
5. CurrentFIDElistsoftopplayerswiththeirtitlesareonlineat"WorldTopChessplayers"
(http://ratings.fide.com/toplist.phtml).FIDE.Retrieved20100720.
6. Fortheofficialprocesssee"02.FIDERatingRegulations(QualificationCommission)"
(http://www.fide.com/component/handbook/?id=11&view=category).FIDE.Retrieved20081129.
7. AlanTuringmadeanattemptin1953.[104]
8. AsurveyisgiveninMarkJeays,"Abriefsurveyofpsychologicalstudiesofchess"
24/31
03/09/2015
8. AsurveyisgiveninMarkJeays,"Abriefsurveyofpsychologicalstudiesofchess"
(http://jeays.net/files/psychchess.htm).
9. Chessisevencalledthe"drosophila"ofcognitivepsychologyandartificialintelligence(AI)studies,because
itrepresentsthedomaininwhichexpertperformancehasbeenmostintensivelystudiedandmeasured.[112]
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Furtherreading
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Dunnington,Angus(2003).ChessPsychology:ApproachingthePsychologicalBattleBothonandOffthe
Board.EverymanChess.ISBN9781857443264.
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Externallinks
Chess(https://www.dmoz.org/Games/Board_Games/Abstract/Battle_Games/Chess/)atDMOZ
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FIDE(http://www.fide.com/)WorldChessFederation
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