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FEA Loads
Can be in a variety of forms -Time Domain or Frequency Domain (or
Probability Domain)
For example,
Force
F
Displacement
Acceleration
p
Velocity
Pressure
Temperature
Loads can be applied to points , surfaces or bodies
They can be constant, or time dependent
G

F
F
t

Loading Types in Design


In many industries, such as the aircraft industry, different levels of loading
have to be accounted for.
Limit Loads
Worst cases used for Limit loads for design.
Greatest actual loads structure expected to be subjected to.

Ultimate Loads
Obtained by applying an factor to the Limit Loads.
For example DEF STAN requirements quote an Factor of 1.5.
Proof Loads
Structure must withstand without detrimental distortion.
Obtained by applying a Proof factor
A typical factors for aircraft design would be 1.125 (depends on spec)

Resultant Load Types in an


FE Model or Test Component
End loads (compression or tension)
Bending moments
Shear forces
Stresses
Torques

Units
Two sets of units are in general use:
Imperial:
Formerly the standard used in the UK , still used in the USA.
SI:
Based on the metric system, now in general use outside USA.


The main (SI) units needed to know are:(m)


lengthmetre
mass
temperature
time
Derived units are
force
stress
moment/torque
stress intensity (K)
work, energy
power
frequency
linear acc
rotational acc
gravity (g)

kilogram
(kg)
kelvin (K) or Celsius (C)
seconds
(s)

newton (N) =kg m s-2


kilonewton (kN)
pascal (Pa) = N/m2
Nm
MPam
joule (J) = kg m2 s-2 =Nm
watt (W) = kg m2 s-3 =J s-1
hertz (Hz) = cycle per second
m/s2
rad/s2
9.81 m/s2

(Imperial equivalents)
inch
(in)
foot
(ft)
slug
(lb s2/ft)
Fahrenheit (F)

0.254 m
0.3048 m

pound (lb)
kilopound (kip)
psi = lb/ in2
lb in
ksiin
in lb

4.448 N
4.448 kN
6895 Pa
0.1130
1.099 MPam
0.1130 J

32.1740 ft/s2

Units
Common SI prefixes are
1012
109
106
103
10-3
10-6
10-9
10-12

tera
giga (G)
mega (M)
kilo (k)
milli (m)
micro ()
nano
pico

Important conversions
Esteel = 30 x 106 lb wt/ in2 = 207 GN/m2
Typical yield stresses of common metallic materials 200 750 MN/m2

Loads

Typical
load history
showing random
loading sequences
in time and
frequency domains

Typical PSD Loadings for a Missile Design

Typical PSD Loadings for a Component


Attached to a Fighter Aircraft
1.0E+00

PSD (g^2/Hz)

1.0E-01
1.0E-02
1.0E-03
1.0E-04
1.0E-05
1

10

100

1000

10000

Frequency (Hz)
Vertical & Lateral

Vertical non-Operational

Lateral non-Operational

F16 POD Vibration Profile


Lateral non-operational
Vertical non-operational
Lateral performance profile
Vertical performance profile

Duration
5 minutes
5 minutes
30 minutes
30 minutes

Aircraft Flight Description


Stress

Stress
Mean stress
Perturbation
(exceedance)

= (in exceedence
diagram?)
t

A flight is divided into stages. Each one is characterized by a mean


stress (steady cases) and several perturbations (ground
manoeuvres,rolling phases,dynamic landing, for example).

A Typical Aircraft g Spectrum


8
7
6
5

G level

4
3
2
1
0
-1

10

100

1000

10000

100000

-2
-3

Exceedances per 1000hours

1000000

10000000

Aircraft Loading: Landing & Ground Loads


Fatigue loading cycles on undercarriages and related structure must
consider a number of effects (for example),
The aircraft descent velocity
Spin up and spring back effects
Braking
Taxiing
Runway conditions
Engine run-up
Ground-Air Ground Cycle

Aircraft Loading: Atmospheric Turbulence


* Its character is the atmosphere itself and is independent of the aircraft.
* It produces the most damaging fatigue loads on subsonic transport/civil aircraft.
* Turbulence loads are produced by the energy from the lateral component of the
turbulence velocity (assumed to be simultaneous over the whole aircraft).

* ESDU 69023 provides methods of quantifying these effects.

F18 Buffet Environment

Fatigue Data Processing


Exceedance Data

G level

8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1
-2

10

102

103

104

105

Exceedances
(Counts per 1000hrs)

Fatigue Data Processing, cont.

G level

7
6
5
4
3

n0

n1

n2

n3

2
1
10

102

103

104

Exceedances
(Counts per 1000hrs)

105

Fatigue Data Processing, cont.


Load Level

Cumulative
Counts

8.0g

Discrete
Counts
n0

n0
7.5g

n1-n0
n1

7.0g

n2-n1
n2

6.5g

n3-n2
n3

.

7.5g load level


paired with -1.0g

G level

8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1
-2

10

102

103

104

105

Exceedances
(Counts per 1000hrs)

Worked Example: Occurrences to Exceedances


A fatigue spectrum has the following occurrences.
G
Level
-3
-2
-1
0
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

OCCUR.
0
592
1172
33735
21781
12096
13850
5994
3424
1043
17

What are the exceedances?


(note previous explanation)

Load Level

Cumulative
Counts

8.0g

Discrete
Counts
n0

n0
7.5g

n1-n0
n1

7.0g

n2-n1
n2

6.5g

n3-n2
n3

.

Worked Example: Occurrences to Exceedances, cont.


If the load levels are now at each g:
Load Level

Exceedances
at 7.5g

Cumulative
Counts

8.0g

Discrete
Counts
17

17
7.0g

1043
1060

6.0g

3424
4484

5.0g

5994
n3

.

Exceed

Occur

Note increment is
mid way in interval

Solution
G
Level
-2.5
-1.5
-0.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
5.5
6.5
7.5

Exceed
0
592
1764
35499
58206
36424
24328
10478
4484
1060
17

Worked Example: Occurrences to Exceedances, cont.


Consider the accumulation of occurrences as
follows and plot the curve.

Cumm
Occur
58206
36424
36424
24328
24328
10478
10478
4484
4484
1060
1060
17
17

Aircraft 'g' level

G
Level
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
6
6
7
7
8

Cummulative Occurrences
Cumulative occurrences
Correct Exceedance Data
Correct
exceedence data
Wrong Exceedance
Data

Wrong exceedence data

1
1

10

100

1000

Exceedances per 1000hrs

10000

100000

A Typical Automotive Application PASCAR Type Analysis


(Modified to Induce Dynamic Behaviour)

Fixed
X

Z
2 no 25Kg
masses

PASCAR Type Analysis


Load Case

Damage (per second)

Passes

Passes in
measured history

Damage
Increment

Steering Lock to Lock

1.49E-07

768

0.00

Figure of Eight

1.30E-06

256

0.00

Cobblestone Slalom

4.40E-03

768

10

0.34

Chatter Bumps

0.00E+00

512

0.00

Resonance Part One

8.00E-05

384

0.01

18" Chuckholes

7.00E-03

640

1.49

Railroad Crossing

6.22E-05

768

0.01

Road 11 to Road 12 Intersection

5.80E-05

448

0.01

Body Twist

2.60E-05

512

0.01

Accel over 5 Bumps

3.00E-04

512

0.05

30" Chuckholes

1.80E-03

512

0.31

Pt B, Road 11 to Postel Rd
Intersection
Postel Road Braking 0.7g

4.10E-05

64

0.00

4.86E-02

64

10

0.31

Road 10, wot to 90 kph, Point B

9.23E-05

64

0.00

Kerb Island Road 6

0.90E-05

80

0.00

Resonance Part 2

3.00E-04

384

0.04

Jounce / Rebound Holes

5.30E-04

512

0.09

Body Twist Slalom

0.00E+00

896

0.00

PASCAR Type Analysis


8.8 Hz

Mode 1

11.2 Hz

26.9 Hz

Mode 4

Mode 2

17.6 Hz

121.4
Hz

Mode 3

Mode 5

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