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Parallel Operation of Two Alternators
We have seen that in case of interconnected systems at power stations number
of alternators are operation in parallel. In fact the electricity demand of a country is
fed by many alternators operating in parallel. There are various advantages of
operating the alternators in parallel. Some of them are listed below.
i) For a given capacity of a generating station, either a single large unit or many
small units may be installed. If there are many small units operating in parallel
instead of single large unit then number of alternators operating at a time can be
changed depending upon electricity requirements or load demands. This will help in
operating the alternator near its full load capacity so that the efficiency will also be
better. Therefore operating cost will be significantly reduced compared to a single
large unit.
ii) A particular unit may be shut down for certain period during the maintenance and
inspection at the power stations. For that period the load can be transferred to other
units if number of units are operating in parallel.
iii) Several power stations are interconnected by a grid which is economical and
advantageous. This will make sure the optimum utility of the alternators.
iv) The continuity and reliability of the supply can be maintained at better level due
to interconnections.
The interconnection of alternators i.e. the process of synchronization is already
discussed in previous sections. Now we will consider how the two alternators will
operate in parallel. What will happen if the driving torque or the excitation or the
excitation for any of the alternator is changed. In practice it is rare to have two
alternators operating in parallel. But the concept of parallel operation of alternators
can be will understood by considering two alternators in parallel.
Consider two identical alternators connected in parallel as shown in the Fig. 1.

Here cylindrical rotor alternators are assumed for simplicity, but the results
obtained are equally applicable to both salient to both salient and nonsalient
machines.
The terminal voltage V is given by,

From the above expression,

Solving equations (1) and (2) simultaneously,

If no load is connected to the alternators only circulating current I SY will flow in

the circuit. This current is given by,

Power Angle Characteristics of Synchronous Generator

We have seen previously,

The relation between Pi and is known as power angle characteristics of the

machine. It is shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Power Angle Characteristics

The maximum power occurs at = 90o . Beyond this point the machine falls
out of step and loses synchronism. The machine can be taken up to P i max only by
gradually increasing the load. This is known as the steady state stability limit of the
machine. The is normally operated at much less than 90o.

Sycnhronizing Current
After proper synchronization of the alternators, they will run in synchronism. A
synchronizing torque will be developed if any of the alternator drops out of
synchronism and will bring it back to the synchronism.

Consider the two alternators shown in the Fig. 1 which are in exact
synchronism. Due to this they are having same terminal p.d. and with reference to
their local circuit they are in exact phase opposition. So there will not be any
circulating current in the local circuit. The e.m.f. E 1 of alternator 1 is in exact phase
opposition to that of alternator E2 .

Fig. 1
With respect to external load, the e.m.f.s of the two alternators are in the same
direction although they are in phase opposition with reference to local circuit. There
will be no resultant voltage in the local circuit.
Now assume that speed of alternator 2 is changed such that its e.m.f. E 2 falls by
an angle . But E1 and E2 are equal in magnitude. The resultant voltage in this case
will cause a current in the local circuit which is called synchronizing current. This
circulating current is given by,
ISY = Er /Zs
where

Zs = Synchronous impedance of winding of alternator

The phase angle of ISY is given by an angle which can be computed as tan =
Xs/Ra where Xs is synchronous reactance and R a is armature resistance. This angle is
almost 90o.

Fig. 2

Thus ISY lags Er by almost 90o and approximately in phase with E 1. This current is
generating current with respect to alternator 1 since it is in the same direction as
that of e.m.f. of alternator 1 while it will be motoring current for alternator 2 as it is
in the opposite direction as that of e.m.f. of alternator 2. This current I SY will produce
a synchronizing torque which will try to retard alternator 1 whereas accelerate the
alternator 2.
The power output of alternator 1 supplies power input to alternator 2 and
copper losses in the local path formed by armatures of two alternators.
Power output of alternator 1 = E1 ISY cos1
This power is approximately equal to E 1 ISY as 1 is small and is almost in phase
with E1. This power is called synchronizing power. Similarly power input to alternator
2 is E2 ISY cos2 which is equal to E2 ISY as 2 is also small.
E1 ISY = E2 ISY + Cu losses in the local circuit
Let
E1 = E2 = E
Let the magnitude of resultant e.m.f. be Er which is given by,

But is small. ... sin /2 = /2

Er = 2 E (/2) = E
The electrical angle is expressed in radians.

............ ( = 90o , sin = 1)

Xs is synchronous reactance of each machine

Now, synchronizing power per phase, PSY = E1 . ISY = E . ISY

If Ra is not assumed as negligible then will not be so the above expression can
be written in exact form as,

For 3 phases, total synchronizing power is given by,

The above expression is valid for two alternators connected in parallel and
operating at no load.
Now let us consider the case of alternator connected to infinite bus bar (the
concept of infinite bus bar is explained later) then the above expression for
synchronizing power is still valid with the changes of reactance of only one
alternators.

...

Er = E

If Ra is neglected,

The exact expression is,

For 3 phases, total synchronizing power

Now assuming that E2 has advanced in phase shown in the Fig. 2(b). The
synchronizing current ISY in this case will be generating current for machine 2 and
motoring current for machine 1. This will again produce a torque which will try to
accelerate alternator 1 and try to retard alternator 2.
Note : Hence if synchronism between the two machines is lost then synchronizing
current will flow in the local circuit which will produce a synchronizing torque.
This torque will tend to accelerate the lagging machine while will try to retard
the leading machine. In case of machines which are loaded this current is
superimposed on the load current

Synchronization by Sycnhronscope
It can be seen that the previous method is not accurate since it requires correct
sense of judgement of the operator. Hence to avoid the personal judgement, the
machines are synchronized by accurate device known as synchroscope.
It consists of a rotating pointer which indicates the exact moment of closing the
synchronizing switch. If the pointer rotates in anticlockwise direction, it indicates
that incoming machine is running slow whereas clockwise rotation of pointer
indicates that incoming machine is running faster. The rotation of pointer is
proportional to the difference in the two frequencies. The pointer should rotate at a
very low speed in the direction of arrow marked fast as shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

When the rotating pointer reaches the vertical position at slow speed, the
switch must be closed. The pointer will oscillate about some mean position instead
of rotating if difference in frequencies is large. In such cases the speed of incoming
machine is adjusted properly.
The connections for synchroscope are shown in Fig. 1. Any two bus bars lines
are connected to its terminals while its other terminals are connected to
corresponding lines of incoming machine. The phase sequence from bus bars and
from machine must be same. It can be checked with the help of phase sequence

indicator. The voltmeter is used to check the equality of voltage of bus bars and
incoming machine. The synchronization procedure is already explained before.
Note : The use of lamps and synchroscope together is a best method of
synchronization.
Now a days automatic synchronizing devices are also available which will
perform the entire process of synchronization automatically without the help of shift
engineer. But such schemes are more complicated and may take larger time than
required by a shift engineer.

Star-Delta Connection of 3-Phase Transformer

In this type of connection, then primary is connected in star fashion while the
secondary is connected in delta fashion as shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

The voltages on primary and secondary sides can be represented on the phasor
diagram as shown in the Fig.2.

Fig. 2

The same type of connection can be represented in another way as shown in

the Fig. 3.

Fig. 3

This type of connection is commonly employed at the substation end of the

transmission line. The main use with this connection is to step down the voltage.
The neutral available on the primary side is grounded. It can be seen that there is
phase difference of 30 between primary and secondary line voltages.
Key point : The delta connection on secondary side allows third harmonic current
to flow which provides a sinusoidal flux.
Let

VL1 = Line voltage on primary side.

VL2 = Line voltage on secondary side.
Vph1 = Phase voltage on primary side.
Vph2 = Phase voltage on secondary side.
K = Transformer ratio.
Vph1 = VL1/3

Now
...

Vph2 /Vph1 = K
Vph2 = K Vph1 = K (VL1/3)
Since secondary is connected in delta.
Vph2 = VL2
VL2 = K (VL1/3) = ( K/3) VL1

The connection suffers no problems due to unbalanced load as secondaries are

connected in delta. This type of transformers are commonly employed at receiving
end.

The advantages and disadvantages of this type of connection can be stated as

follows.
Advantages
1.

The primary side is star connected. Hence fewer number of turns are
required. This makes the connection economical for large high voltage step
down power transformers.

2.

The neutral available on the primary can be earthed to avoid

distortion.

3.

Large unbalanced loads can be handled satisfactory.

Disadvantages
In this type of connection, the secondary voltage is not in phase with the primary.
Hence it is not possible to operate this connection in parallel with star-star or deltadelta connected transformer.

Earthed Neutral System

In this system, the neutral is earthed either directly or through resistance or
reactance depending on the requirement. Thus the system neutral can be grounded
effectively or non-effectively. In effectively grounded system, the neutral is
grounded directly and hence it is called solid grounding. Following methods are
adopted for non-effectively grounded systems.
i) Resistance earthing
ii) Reactance earthing
iii) Arc supression coil or resonant earthing
iv) Voltage transformer earthing
v) Earthing transformer
The advantages of neutral earthing are as follows,
i) The arcing grounds are prevented from occurring by employing suitable
switchgears.
ii) As the neutral point is not shifted in this system, thus the voltages of healthy
phases remains nearly constant.
iii) The static charges which are induced are grounded immediately and are thus
prevented from causing any disturbance.
iv) The faulty part of the system can be isolated from the remaining system with the
help of earth fault relays.
v) The magnitude of transient voltage is small in this system.
vi) The discriminative type fault indicator can be installed on such systems.
vii) This system is more reliable, provides safety to personnel and equipment with
reduced operational and maintenance cost than ungrounded system.

Solid Grounding
In this method of earthing, natural is directly connected to earth by a metallic
connection or a wire of negligible resistance and reactance. The charging currents
flows through the system under normal condition similar to ungrounded system.
Because of the connection of system neutral point to earth, it always remains
at earth potential at all operating conditions and under faulty conditions voltage of
healthy phase will not exceed.
The solid grounding us represented in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Solid earthing

Whenever there is earth fault on any one phase (phase B in this case), the
phase to earth voltage of faulty phase is zero while voltage to earth of the
remaining two healthy phases will be normal phase voltages as neutral in this case
is not shifted. The phasor diagram corresponding to this condition is shown in the
Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 Phasor diagram

Let the capacitive currents flowing in the healthy phases be I R and IY. the
resultant capacitive current is vector sum of I R and IY. The alternator in addition to
capacitive current also provides the fault current. This current flows from fault point
through faulty phase and then return to the alternator through earth and neutral
connection. The resistance of earth fault is negligible. The magnitude of fault
current after the analysis is given by,

This current is mainly dependent on zero sequence impedance of the source of

power and that of phase conductor upto fault point. As the resistive component of
zero sequence impedance is normally negligible, the fault current which is large can
be assumed as lagging the fault phase voltage by 90 o. From the phasor diagram, it
can be seen that If and IC are exactly opposite due to which capacitive current is
neutralized by high fault current which eliminates the possibility of arcing grounds
and overvoltages. The discriminative types of switchgears may be used in this
method.
Followings are disadvantages of this method,

i) Due to high value pf fault currents, the system may become unstable and there
will be greater interference to neighbouring circuits. Thus this method is employed
where system impedance is sufficiently large to limit fault current.
ii) With high values of fault currents, circuit breakers are difficult to handle and
heavy contacts are to be provided in the circuit breakers.
The above disadvantages can be overcome by employing high rupturing
capacity and high speed circuit breakers along with fast operating relays.
This method is used in high voltage systems with voltages below 33 kV with
total capacity not exceeding 5000 KVA for the economic reasons.

Reactance Earthing
In this system, instead of resistance, a reactance is connected between neutral
and earth with ratio of reactance more than 3. The system is represented in the Fig.
1. Let the earth fault occurring on phase B.

Fig. 1

In addition to zero sequence impedance of the source and faulty phase upto
point of fault, the fault current is dependent on reactance. By changing the value of
reactance, the fault current can be varied. In practice this method is employed to
give characteristics similar to solidly earth system.
There is drawback of this system. With increase in reactance, there is increase
in transient voltages resulting from arcing. Hence it is not commonly employed

though it ensures satisfactory relaying, partial grading of equipment insulation, less

interference with neighbouring circuits, and intermediate cost.
For reactance earthing, it is necessary that the magnitude of fault current
should be at least 25% of the three phase fault current. This is higher than the
requirement on resistance earthing and thus it can be seen that the resistance
earthing and the reactance earthing are not similar.

Earthing Transformer
When the transformers or generators are delta connected or if the neutral
points are not accessible then artificially the neutral earthing point can be created
with the use of star connected earthing transformer. Such transformer has no
secondary. Each phase of primary has two equal parts. There are three limbs and
each limb has two windings providing opposite flux during normal condition. Such a
transformer is shown in the Fig.1.

Fig. 1
One set of windings are connected in star providing the neutral point. The other
ends of this set of windings are connected to the second set of windings as shown in
the Fig. 1. The directions of the currents in the two windings on each limb are
opposite to each other. The small exciting current is circulated in the windings
during normal operation. Under faulty condition, the transformer offers a low
impedance path to the flow of zero phase sequence currents. The value of fault
current is limited in some cases by the use of a resistor in series with the neutral
earthing connection. This is necessary in systems with operating voltage between
2.2 KV and 3.3 KV.
The transformers are of short time ratings in the range of 10 seconds to 1
minute. Hence the size of these transformers is small as compared to power
transformers of small rating. If the earthing transformer is not available then a stardelta transformer is used.

Resistance of Grounding Systems

The ground resistance of an electrode system is nothing but the resistance
between the system of electrodes and other infinitely large electrode in the ground
at infinite spacing. The ground resistance is also decided by soil resistivity which is
electro-physical property. The soil resistivity depends on various factors such as

type of soil, moisture content, dissolved salt etc. It is also affected by grain size and
its distribution. The temperature and pressure are the other factors which have
influence on soil resistivity.
In practice it is not possible to have homogeneous soil. The apparent resistivity
is hence defined for an equivalent homogeneous soil.
The moisture content in the soil is also a variable factor which changes with
sensors. With increase in moisture content, resistivity of soil reduces. To overcome
this difficulty, the grounding systems may be installed near to the permanent water
level so that the change in resistivity due to change in seasons is minimized.
With decrease in temperature, the soil resistivity increases and the
discontinuity is observed at freezing point. The quantity of salt dissolved in the
moisture reduces the resistivity appreciably. Various salts have different effects on
the soil resistivity. With finer graining, the resistivity of soil reduces while the large
value of pressure decreases soil resistivity.
The variation of soil resistivity with moisture and salt content is shown in the
Fig. 1(a) and (b).

Fig 1 Variation of soil resistivity with moisture and salt content

Resistance of Grounding point Electrode
Consider a hemispherical electrode buried in the soil as shown in the Fig. 2(a)
which is simplest possible from of electrode.

Fig 2
The total resistance in this case can be divided into three parts which are viz.
i) resistance of conductor ii) contact resistance between the surface of electrode
and main body of earth which is negligible iii) resistance of body of earth
surrounding the electrode which is the main part.
Let I be the current dissipated by the electrode. This current spreads out
radically in the earth. At a distance x from the centre of hemispherical the current
density is given by,

The electric field strength e due to current density i is given by,

The line integral of the field strength e from the surface of sphere of radius R to
the distance x gives the voltage V.

The variation of e, V and i with respect to distance x is shown in the Fig. 2(b).
The voltage between the hemispherical electrode and a point at infinity i.e. x = is
given by,

The earth resistance is therefore given by,

1.1 Generalised Equation

Consider a system with respect two electrodes having their potentials as V 1 and
V2. Let V be the potential at any point in the medium having resistivity as . Let
be electrostatic potential.

Total flow of current from the electrode in the outward direction is,

Here ds is an element of the electrode surface.

If Q is the charge on this electrode then by Gauss theorem.

The total flow of current is given by,

If C is the capacitance between the electrodes in air then

R is the resistance between the electrodes which is given by,

Suppose C is the capacitance of the single electrode with the return electrode
at infinity then R is the resistance of earth for single electrode.

If we consider a sphere of radius S then the capacitance of sphere in air is equal

to radius S.
R = /4S
If this electrode is hemispherical and buried with its lower half in the earth then
the resistance is given by,
R = /2S
In general the equation for any electrode is given by,

Where C is the electrostatic capacity of the electrode along with its image
above the surface of the earth. The combined electrode is considered as in air.

Resistance of Driven Rods

The most simple and cheap from of electrodes is nothing but driven rod. It is
shown in the Fig. 1 with its length as l and diameter s with its image. It can be
considered equivalent to an ellipsoid of revolution with a major axis very much large
as compared to minor axis.

The capacity of rod and its image is

The earthing resistance of driven rod is given by

For the cylindrical rod with hemisphere and the above expression becomes,

An alternative expression for the resistance of driven rod is obtained by using

uniform current disspipation method and is given by,

From the expression for resistance of driven rods, it can be seen that, the
earthing resistance is inversely proportional to length l .
Generally resistance of single rod is not sufficient. Hence number of rods are
connected in parallel. It is necessary to minimize the overlap among the areas of
influence of the rods. This is possible by keeping large distance between the rods. It
is difficult to achieve this in practice and approximate method is used.
In this method, a rod is replaced by hemispherical electrode having same
resistance. If n rods are connected in parallel then their resistance is greater than
(1/n) of that of a single driven rod due to the mutual screening.
The screening coefficient for n electrodes in parallel is defined as,

Grounding Grids
The low ground resistance in case of high voltage substations can be obtained
with the use of interconnected ground grids. In a typical grounding grid system, a
number of interconnected bare soild copper conductors are buried at a depth of 0.3
to 0.6 m and spaced in a grid pattern. It provides common earth for all devices and
metallic structures in the substation.
At each of the junction point, the conductors are bonded together. This system
is usually suported by a number of vertical rods about 3 m long at some joints.
If a is cross-sectional area of copper, in circular miles, t is the fault duration in
seconds, Tm is the maximum allowable temperature and T a is the ambient
temperature then the size of grid conductors required which prevents fusing under
the fault current is given as,

If the grid depth is less than 0.25 m then the earthing resistance of the grid is
given by,

Here R = Grid resistance in ohms

a = Ground area occupied by grid in m2
L = Total length of buried conductors in m
But when the grid depth is greater than 0.25 m then earthing resistance is
given by,

The effective grounding of the equipment is possible through the grid. Also the
voltage gradient at the surface of the earth can be controlled at safe value for
human contacts with the addition of ground rods, the ground resistance further
reduces when soil resistivity in the upper layer is more than the soil underneath.

Design Principles of Substation Grounding System

The most important factor in the substation is the grounding. The system
neutral is connected to the ground through grounding. The discharge path for surge
arrestors and safety of operating personnels can also be achieved through
grounding
The grounding gives low resistance path to earth and reduces rise in ground
potential which is dependent on magnitude of fault current and resistance of
grounding system. The low resistance of substation ground can not be obtained in
deserts and rocky areas.
The convenient way for getting proper ground connection is through grids. If
the ground rods are used in addition then it reduces the ground resistance.
Depending on the size of the substation, nature of soil and the grounding resistance
required, the size of grid and number along with length of driven rods can be
determined.

Under the fault condition, the potential of earth and its gradient over the
surface out from the electrode is dependent on the ground resistance. The systems
with higher values for maximum ground fault current, it is not possible to have
lower values for ground resistance so as to have rise in grounding system potential
to safe value.
The practical solution for grounding at substation yards is through grid or mat.
The grid consists of a number of meshes and connected to several earth electrodes
driven at intervals.
The total number of electrodes required is determined by using the expression.
Number of electrodes = Maximum Fault Current/ 500
The grounding resistance for a grounding grid or mat is calculated from the
following expression,

Here s is resistivity of soil in -m, L is total length of buried conductor in

meters and r is radius of circular plate in meters.
The size of grounding conductor should be appropriate so as to have thermal
stability for ground fault current and it should be mechanically strong. The minimum
cross section for the grounding conductor having required thermal stability is
determined from the following expression,

Where IF is fault current in amperes while t is time in seconds for the operation
of protective relays including circuit breaker tripping time. C is a constant. Its value
is 70 for steel having temperature rise of 400oC while for copper with temperature
rise of 300oC, its value is 165.
The minimum size required for proper mechanical strength in case of steel is 61
mm . for copper it is 107.2 mm2 while in case of aluminium it is 195 mm2.
2

In case of grounding conductors made up of steel, its size should be checked for
corrosion. If the soil is moderately or severely corrosive then the steel strip of
minimum thickness 6 mm and minimum cross section area should be 200 mm 2.
The earthing grid system is normally extended over the total substation yard
and in few cases, several meters beyond it. The grounding conductors should have
low impedance. They should be able to carry prospetcive fault current without

getting fused or damaged. They must take account the future expansion of
connected power system.

Sycnhronization of Three Phase Alternators

The conditions to be satisfied for synchronization of three phase alternators are
same as that for single phase alternators. But instead of saying that voltages must
act in phase opposition, the phase sequence must be same i.e. phase must be
connected in proper order of R, Y, B. Typical setup for synchronization of alternators
is shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Setup for Synchronization of Alternators

In synchronizing three phase alternators, three lamps are connected as shown
in the Fig.2, so that it can be use to indicate whether the incoming machine is
running slow or fast. With symmetrical connection of lamps, they would dark out or
glow up simultaneously provided that phase sequence is same for incoming
machine and bus bar.
Consider the two alternators A and B to be synchronized. The alternator A is
already running at synchronous speed and its excitation is so adjusted that it builds
up the rated voltage. The alternator A is connected to the bus bars of constant
voltage and frequency. The alternator B is to be connected to bus bar i.e. it is to be
synchronized with alternator A. The process or synchronization can be explained as
below :
Step 1 : Start the prime mover of machine. Adjust its speed to a synchronous speed
of machine B. This will rotate the rotor of alternator B. This will rotate the rotor of
alternator B at synchronous speed.
Step 2 : The switch S4 is then closed. By adjusting the rheostat R x the excitation to
the field is adjusted so that induced e.m.f. of B is equal to the induced e.m.f. of A.
This can be verified by voltmeter.
Step 3 : To satisfy remaining conditions, the three lamps pairs are used which are
L1, L2 and L3 as shown in the Fig. 2. These are connected in such a way that pair L 1 is
straight connected while the pairs L2 and L3 are cross connected to understand the
connection, the pairs are again shown in the Fig. 3.

Fig. 2

Fig. 3

Now two supplies are supplying lamp pairs, E RYB i.e. voltage supply of bus bar
while ER'Y'B' i.e. supply generated by alternator B. The switch S 3 is still open.
Let the three bus bar voltages be represented by phasors OR, OY, OB rotating
at angular speed of 1 rad/s. The incoming alternator voltage are represented by
phasors OR', OY', OB' rotating at angular speed of 2 rad/s.
The phasor ERR', joining the tips R and R' is voltage across lamp pair L1.
Similarly EYB , and EBY, are voltages across lamps L2 and L3 respectively.
If there is difference between the two frequencies due to difference in speeds of
the twp alternators, the lamps will become dark and bright in a sequence. This

sequence tells whether incoming alternator frequency is less or greater than

machine A.
The sequence L1, L2, L3 tells that machine B is faster as the voltage star R'Y'B'
will appear to rotate anticlockwise with respect to bus bar voltage RYB at a speed
corresponding to difference between their frequencies shown in the Fig. 4. The
sequence L3, L2, L1 tells that the machine B is slower because voltage star R'Y'B' will
appear to rotate clockwise with respect to bus bar voltage RYB. The prime mover
speed can be adjusted accordingly to match the frequencies.

Fig. 4

The synchronization is done at the moment when lamp L 1 is in the middle of

dark period. If the lamps pair becoming dark and bright simultaneously, it indicates
incorrect phase sequence which can be correct by interchanging any two leads
either of the incoming machine or of bus bars.
Note ; For high voltage alternators it is not possible to use the lamps directly. In
such cases lams are connected through potential transformers.
In this method when lamp L1 is dark the other two lamp pairs L 2 and L3 and equally
bright. So this method of synchronization is called ''Lamps bright and dark'' method.