Contents

Preface
Visual Walkthrough

xii
xv

1.

Trigonometric Levelling
Introduction 1
1.1 Correction for Curvature and Refraction 2
1.2 Axis Signal Correction 3
1.3 Difference of Elevation of Two Stations by
Single Observation 6
1.4 Difference of Elevation of Two Stations by
Reciprocal Observations 11
1.5 Determination of Coefficient of Refraction 12
Exercises 16
Objective-type Questions 18

2.

Triangulation
Introduction 20
2.1 Triangulation Figures or Systems 21
2.2 System of Framework 29
2.3 Classification 30
2.4 Station Marks, Signals and Towers 32
2.5 Reconnaissance 37
2.6 Base Line Measurement 43
2.7 Base Measurement by Rigid Bars 44
2.8 Base Measurement by Flexible Apparatus 45
2.9 Tape Corrections 47
2.10 Radar Ranging 55
2.11 Electromagnetic Distance Measurement 58

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2.12
2.13
2.14
2.15
2.16
2.17
2.18

3.

4.

Problems in Base Measurement 69

Measurement of Angles 71
Satellite Station and Reduction to Centre
Field Checks in Triangulation 74
Trilateration
Flare Triangulation 76
Floating Triangulation 76
Exercises 77
Objective-type Questions 81

71

Theory of Errors and Triangulation Adjustment

Introduction 88
3.1 Definitions 89
3.2 Laws of Weight 90
3.3 Laws of Accidental Errors 92
3.4 Principle of Least Squares 99
3.5 Distribution of Error to the Field Measurement 103
3.6 Normal Equations 105
3.7 Method of Correlates 107
3.8 Triangulation Adjustment 110
3.9 Angle Adjustment 110
3.10 Station Adjustment 111
3.11 Figure Adjustment 113
3.12 Adjustment of a Triangle 113
3.13 Spherical Excess 116
3.14 Adjustment of a Geodetic Quadrilateral 116
3.15 Adjustment of Quadrilateral with Central Station 119
3.16 Method of Equal Shifts 123
3.17 Method of Least Squares by Matrices 126
Exercises 132
Objective-type Questions 135
Hydrography
Introduction 139
4.1 Tides 140
4.2 Mean Sea Level as a Datum Plane 141
4.3 Tide Gauges 142
4.4 Soundings 143
4.5 Sounding Equipment 143
4.6 Locating Sounding 145
4.7 Reduction of Soundings 151
4.8 Plotting the Soundings 151
4.9 Stream Measurements 153
Exercises 164
Objective-type Questions 165

88

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ix

5.

Aerial Survey
Introduction 167
5.1 Terrestrial Stereophotography 169
5.2 Aerial Photograph 172
5.3 Definitions 173
5.4 Scale of Vertical Photograph 174
5.5 Scale of Tilted Photograph 177
5.6 Displacements and Errors in Aerial Photogrammetry 180
5.7 Procedure of Aerial Survey 188
5.8 Ground Control 188
5.9 Flight Planning 189
5.10 Photo-Interpretation 197
5.11 Basic Photo-Interpretation Equipment 199
5.12 Parallax 203
5.13 Measurement of Parallax 208
5.14 Working up Data From the Photographs 210
5.15 Plotting the Details 211
5.16 Rectification 213
5.17 Fiducial Marks 214
5.18 Photogrametric Products 214
5.19 Comparison of Products of Aerial Photography 217
5.20 Errors 217
5.21 Mistakes 218
Exercises 218
Objective-type Questions 220

167

6.

Remote Sensing
Introduction 228
6.1 Electromagnetic Energy 229
6.2 Electromagnetic Spectrum 230
6.3 Interaction of Electromagnetic Energy with Matter 233
6.4 Effect of Atmosphere on Electromagnetic Radiation 234
6.5 Energy Interaction with Earth Surface Features 236
6.6 Remote-Sensing Sensor Systems 238
6.7 Platforms 240
6.8 Ideal and Real Remote-Sensing Systems 241
6.9 Data Acquisition and Interpretation 243
6.10 Resolution Concept in Remote Sensing 246
6.11 Applications of Remote Sensing 249
6.12 Land Use/Land Cover Analysis 251
6.13 Methodology for Land Use/Land Cover Mapping 256
6.14 Remote Sensing in India 257
Exercises 262
Objective-type Questions 263

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7.

Geographic Information System (GIS)

Introduction 265
7.1 Subsystems of GIS 267
7.2 Hardware of GIS 268
7.3 Data for GIS 270
7.4 Representation of Features 270
7.5 Data Structure for GIS 272
7.6 Vector Data Structure 273
7.7 Raster Data Structure 275
7.8 Vector vs Raster Data Structures 277
7.9 Data Format Conversions 278
7.10 Capabilities/Functionalities of GIS 281
7.11 Neighbourhood Functions 283
7.12 Map Overlay Analysis 284
7.13 Data Quality 290
7.14 Sources of Errors in GIS 292
7.15 Applications of GIS 295
7.16 Selective GIS Softwares 296
7.17 Remote Sensing and GIS 302
Exercises 303
Objective-type Questions 304

265

8.

Global Positioning System

Introduction 306
8.1 GPS Overview 308
8.2 Satellite Constellation 308
8.3 Operational Control Segment (OCS) 310
8.4 Equipment Segment 311
8.5 Principle of Position Determination via
Satellite Generated Ranging Signals 312
8.6 Determining Satellite-to-User Range 314
8.7 Calculation of User Position 316
8.8 GPS SYSTEM Time 319
8.9 GPS Surveying Techniques 319
8.10 GPS Accuracy 329
8.11 Uses and Applications of GPS 330
Exercises 333
Objective-type Questions 334

306

9.

Field Astronomy
Introduction 336
9.1 The Earth 337
9.2 Celestial Sphere 338
9.3 Solar System 339
9.4 Definitions 342

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9.5
9.6
9.7
9.8
9.9
9.10
9.11
9.12
9.13
9.14
9.15
9.16
9.17
9.18
9.19

xi

Position of a Celestial Body 348

Relationship between Coordinates 350
Spherical Trigonometry and Spherical Triangle 352
The Astronomical Triangle 355
Time 366
Conversion of Time 371
Astronomical Corrections 380
Determination of Time 385
Determination of True Meridian 386
Determination of Azimuth 388
Determination of Latitude 398
Determination of Longitude 402
Sextant 403
Theodolite Attachments 408
Zenith Telescope 414
Exercises 416
Objective-type Questions 419

Appendix I

Conversion Tables

427

Appendix II

Physical Laws Governing EMR

428

Appendix III

Topology

430

Appendix IV

Pseudo-random Codes

431

Appendix V

Digital Terrain Model

433

Appendix VI

Orbits of Planets

435

Appendix VII

Physical Characteristics of the Sun,

Moon and the Planets

436

Physical Characteristics of the Satellites

of the Planets

437

Astronomical Constants

439

Appendix VIII
Appendix IX
Index

441