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Contents

Preface to the rst edition

Preface to the second edition
Preface to the third edition
Author
1 T he n ture of wind stor s nd wind-indu ed d
1.1
1.2

1.3

1.4
1.5

1.6

1.7
1.8
1.9

xv
xvii
xix
xxi
ge

Introduction 1
Meteorological aspects 1
1.2.1 Pressure gradient 2
1.2.2 Coriolis force 2
1.2.3 G eostrophic wind 4
1.2.4 G radient wind 4
1.2.5 Frictional effects 5
Types of wind storms 6
1.3.1 G ales from large depressions 6
1.3.2 Tropical cyclones 7
1.3.3 Thunderstorms 10
1.3.4 Tornadoes 11
1.3.5 D ownbursts 12
1.3.6 D ownslope winds 13
Wind damage 13
1.4.1 Recent history of wind loss and damage 15
Wind-generated debris 17
1.5.1 Threshold of ight 17
1.5.2 Trajectories of compact objects 19
1.5.3 Trajectories of sheet and rod objects 20
1.5.4 Standardised missile-testing criteria 21
Wind storm damage and loss prediction 22
1.6.1 H azard models 22
1.6.2 Vulnerability curves 23
1.6.3 D amage produced by ying debris 25
H urricane-damage modelling 27
Predicted effects of climate change 28
Summary 28
v

vi

Content s

1.10 The following chapters and appendices 29

References 29

2 Predi tion of design wind speeds nd stru tur l s fety

33

2.1
2.2

Introduction and historical background 33

Principles of extreme value analysis 34
2.2.1 The G EV D istribution 34
2.2.2 Return period 35
2.2.3 Separation by storm type 35
2.2.4 Simulation methods for tropical cyclone wind speeds 36
2.2.5 Compositing data from several stations 36
2.2.6 Correction for gust duration 36
2.2.7 Wind direction effects and wind direction multipliers 37
2.3 Extreme wind estimation by the Type I D istribution 39
2.3.1 G umbels method 39
2.3.2 G ringortens method 40
2.3.3 Method of Moments 40
2.3.4 Example of tting the Type I D istribution to annual maxima 41
2.3.5 G eneral penultimate distribution 41
2.4 The peaks-over-threshold approach 45
2.4.1 Example of the use of the peaks over threshold method 46
2.4.2 Extreme winds by direction sector 48
2.5 Parent wind distributions 48
2.6 Wind loads and structural safety 49
2.6.1 Limit states design 50
2.6.2 Probability of failure and the safety index 50
2.6.3 N ominal return period for design wind speeds 52
2.6.4 Uncertainties in wind load speci cations 53
2.7 Wind load factors 54
2.8 Summary 55
References 55

3 Strong wind h r
3.1
3.2

3.3

teristi s nd turbulen e

Introduction 57
Mean wind speed pro les 58
3.2.1 The Logarithmic Law 58
3.2.2 The Power Law 60
3.2.3 Mean wind pro les over the ocean 60
3.2.4 Relationship between upper level and surface winds 62
3.2.5 Mean wind pro les in tropical cyclones 62
3.2.6 Wind pro les in thunderstorm winds 63
3.2.7 Wind pro les in tornadoes 63
Turbulence 6 4
3.3.1 Turbulence intensities 65
3.3.2 Probability density 66

57

Content s vii

3.3.3 G ust wind speeds and gust factors 67

3.3.4 Wind spectra 69
3.3.5 Correlation 70
3.3.6 Co-spectrum and coherence 71
3.3.7 Turbulence in a downdraft 72
3.4 Modi cation of wind ow by topography 73
3.4.1 G eneral effects of topography 74
3.4.2 Topographic multipliers 75
3.4.3 Shallow hills 75
3.4.4 Steep hills, cliffs and escarpments 76
3.4.5 Effect of topography on tropical cyclones and thunderstorm winds 77
3.5 Change of terrain 78
3.6 Weakening of a tropical cyclone after a coast crossing 79
3.7 O ther sources 80
3.8 Summary 80
References 81

4 B si bluff-body erodyn
4.1
4.2

i s

Flow around bluff bodies 83

Pressure and force coef cients 83
4.2.1 Bernoullis equation 83
4.2.2 Force coef cients 85
4.2.3 D ependence of pressure and force coef cients 85
4.2.4 Reynolds N umber 86
4.3 Flat plates and walls 87
4.3.1 Flat plates and walls normal to the ow 87
4.3.2 Flat plates and walls inclined to the ow 90
4.4 Rectangular prismatic shapes 92
4.4.1 D rag on two-dimensional rectangular prismatic shapes 92
4.4.2 Effect of aspect ratio 92
4.4.3 Effect of turbulence 93
4.4.4 D rag and pressures on a cube and nite-height prisms 95
4.4.5 Jensen N umber 97
4.5 Circular cylinders 97
4.5.1 Effects of Reynolds N umber and surface roughness 97
4.5.2 Effect of aspect ratio 101
4.6 Fluctuating forces and pressures 102
4.6.1 Introduction 102
4.6.2 The Q uasi-steady assumption 102
4.6.3 Body-induced pressure uctuations and vortex-shedding forces 103
4.6.4 Fluctuating pressure and force coef cients 105
4.6.5 Correlation length 107
4.6.6 Total uctuating forces on a slender body 108
4.7 Summary 110
References 111

83