INTRODUCTION

At the core of every language is the system of regular patterns which make up the
grammatical system of that language. It is this system that enables speakers to create an
infinite variety of utterances, in speech or in writing, which express the meanings they
wish to communicate. One of the wonders of human language is precisely this capacity
for rule-governed creativity: although the system of rules itself is limited, there is no
limit to the number of sentences that it can create or, therefore, to the number of meanings
that it can convey.
The present book deals with the verb trying to unravel some important aspects.
The Verb is that part of speech by means of which we make an assertion or ask a
question: "The wind is blowing. Is the wind blowing?"(G, Curme,"English Grammar")
G. Galateanu and E. Comisel (Gramatica limbii engleze pentru uz scolar") give
the following definition: the Verb is a major part of speech which must be defined
according to three criteria: the semantic criterion, the morphological criterion and the
syntactic criterion.
From the semantic point of view the class of verbs includes words expressing
action or states perceived as processes.
From the morphological point of view, the Verb displays the grammatical
categories of person and number and also the grammatical categories of tense, mood, aspect
and voice which do not characterize any part of speech.
From the syntactic point of view, the Verb (the finite) discharges the syntactic
function of predicate.
A) From the point of view of composition and derivation Verbs may be divided
into:
a) Simple Verbs: go, come, get etc.
b) Compound verbs: to blackmail etc.
c) Complex Verbs /Phrasal Verbs: to put off, to go on etc.
d)
Verbal phrases: to take a walk, to come to light, to kill time etc.
B) According to the function within the verb place (lexical meaning or content),
Verbs may be divided into:
1. Full Verbs
From the morphological point of view this class of verbs (called "ordinary"
Verbs by some linguists such as Thomson and Martinet) can be divided into regular and
irregular verbs. R. Quirk ('A Grammar of Contemporary English") finds five forms
for the regular English verb: the BASE , the -s Form , the Past, the -ING PARTICIPLE ,
and the -ED PARTICIPLE . Regular lexical verbs have the same -ed inflection for both
the past and the past participle ("cal1ed"). Irregular lexical verbs vary from three (put,
puts ,putting) to eight (be, am, is, are, was, were, being, been)
2. Auxiliary verbs
According to G. Galateanu and L. Levitchi, we have to mention three smaller groups of
verbs: Copulative Verbs, Auxiliary Verbs , Semi-Auxiliary (Modal Verbs).
The so-called Copulative Verbs" are represented by the verb "be" and according to the
traditional grammar there are other verbs that belong to this group : appear , seem , look ,
turn , become , get , grow, remain , stay.
e.g. He seems ill.
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3. Semi-Auxiliary (Modal) Verbs

The modal verbs are never used as main verbs .The modal verbs: can, may ,must, should ,
would are a group of heterogeneous nature because some of them were originally the Past
Tense of the Indicative /Subjunctive Mood.
There are certain formal characteristics:
a) they are uninflected (all persons have the same form ,they do not get -s )
b) the interrogative and negative pattern is made without the auxiliary "do"
c) there are gaps in the tense-aspect-mood system : no forms of infinitive and noing forms
d) they have incomplete predication
There are certain semantic characteristics these items make up a system specialized
for expressing the speaker's attitude towards the action; they are polysemantic verbs, each
modal verb has at least two meanings.
The Category of Person and Number
The English verb has only one formal indicator to mark these categories, namely the-s for
the 3'd person" singular Indicative Mood Present Tense (Modal Verbs do not get -s for the
3'" person singular).
The Category of Mood
The verb category of mood serves to express the way in which the speaker considers the
action .By means of this category, the speaker can present the action in two ways:
as being real, factual, existing in fact (in reality).
as being non-factual, hypothetical, possible, probable, necessary , desirable.
The problem concerning the number of moods is not solved because moods can be studied
from the point of their meaning and from the point of view of the forms. There are two
criteria :
l.Traditional grammars speak of four finite moods : the Indicative , the Subjunctive , the
Conditional, the Imperative.
2.Moderm grammars speak of only two finite moods :the Indicative and the Subjunctive .
The Conditional is interpreted as being a subtype of the Subjonctive .
Grammar learning is not an end in itself, but an indispensable means for the
acquisition of the foreign language. Without understanding the value of theoretical
grammar, its contribution to linguistic culture and to the development of important
faculties of thinking, we cant comprehend the role of grammar learning in the practical
acquisition of the language. Learning a second language means first of all acquiring the
basic patterns of the language. Learning grammar means learning the basic morphosyntactical patterns of the language up to the point of productive mastery, i.e. until they
become a set of habits for active use.
Theory and practice should be combined in order to help students understand
English grammar .
In fact learning a foreign language gives the learner the ability to step inside the mind and
context of other cultures. Without the ability to communicate and understand a culture on
its own terms, true access to that culture is barred.

CHAPTER I
MODAL VERBS

Modal verbs are special verbs which behave very differently from normal verbs.
The following verbs are called modal verbs: shall, should, will, would, may, might, can,
could, must ought to and dare.
These verbs have some common characteristics:
they dont have Long infinitives
they dont have ing forms
they dont have forms for all the tenses
they are followed by Short infinitives
they are uninflected
the interrogative is formed by inversion
MAY
Use :
May is used to express:

formal pemission

e.g. May I go out ?

Yes, you may .

He may come here.

You may go now.

possibility
e.g. It may rain in the afternoon .

May in wishes and hopes

May is used in formal expressions of wishes and hopes. May often comes at the beginning
of the sentence.
May God bless you!
May you both be very happy!
May the devil take him!
Might is used :

to express permission connected to the past

e.g. I understood that he might go out of the room whenever he wanted .

to express present/future/past possibility .

e.g. Your cousin might be in the garden.
Granny might arrive on Tuesday.
The foreigner thought he might find the way to the museum by himself.

May and might both express possibility or uncertainty. May is more common in
formal language.
e.g. The peace conference may find a solution to the problem
May/might as well
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This describes the only thing left to do, something which the speaker is not
enthusiastic about.
e.g . Nobody else is going to turn up now for the lesson, so you may as well go
home.
There is an idiomatic expression with try, using may for present reference, and might
for past reference.
e.g. Try as I might, I could not pass my driving test.
(This means although I tried hard, 1 could not pass my driving test.
May versus Can
Both can and may can be used to talk about possibility. But there is some difference
between them.

Can is used to talk about theoretical possibility.

May is used to talk about factual possibility.

The road may be blocked due to the procession. (Factual possibility.)
Any road can be blocked. (Theoretical possibility - It is possible to block any road.)
There may be a strike next week. (It is possible that there will be a strike next week.)
Strikes can happen any time. (It is possible for strikes to happen any time.)
If you drive carelessly, you may have an accident. (Factual possibility)
Accidents can happen any time. (Theoretical possibility)
When we talk about possibility, could often means the same as may or might.
You may/might/could be right.

CAN
Use:

to talk about theoretical possibility - to say that

situations and events are possible theoretically.
Glass can be blown. (It is theoretically possible to blow glass.)
Wars can break out any time. (It is theoretically possible for wars to break out any time.)
Smoking can cause cancer.
Noise can be quite a problem when you are living in a city.

we do not use can to talk about future probability to say that something
will
happen in future. We express this idea with may or might.
It may rain this evening. (NOT It can rain )
Might expresses a less definite possibility than may. Could is also used with the same
value.
It could rain this evening. (= It might rain this evening.)

to talk about possibility

Can is often used in questions and negatives to talk about the logical possibility that
something is true.
There is the doorbell? Who can it be?
We use could, may or might in affirmative clauses, not can.
Where is John? He could/may/might be in the garden. (NOT He can be in the garden.)
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to talk about ability
We can use can to talk about present or general ability to say that we are capable of doing
something.
I can speak 10 languages.
She can cook well.
If you are not satisfied with this product, you can send it back.
or talk about ability during a specific event
To be able to can often be used with similar meanings.
He is able to support her. (= He can support her.)
They were able to catch the thief. (= They could catch the thief.)

we do not use can to talk about future ability. Instead, we use will be able to
or other words.
Someday scientists will be able to find a cure for cancer. (NOT Someday scientists will can
find a cure
for cancer.)

to ask for or give permission informal English

You can go out and play after you have finished your homework.
You can park on either side of the road here.
Can I go to the movies, mom?
We can also use could to ask for permission. It is a more polite form of can.
Could I speak to Mr. John, please?
Could I have look at your newspaper?
Cannot is used to refuse permission.
Can I go to the movies, mom? No, you cant.

to make requests and offers

Can is used in polite requests and offers of help .
Can you give me a lift to school?
Could is a more polite way of making requests and offers.
Could you help me with my homework?
Could you lend me some money?

COULD
Use :

to talk about past ability in general

Could is often used to say that somebody was able to do something in the past. However,
could refers to the past only when the context makes the time clear.
My father could walk without help when he was 95.
When we were children, we could watch TV whenever we wanted to.
Could not (also couldn't) shows past inability.
She spoke in such a low voice that most of us could not hear her.
We do not normally use could to say that somebody managed to do something on one
occasion. But with certain verbs like see, hear, taste, feel, smell, understand, remember
5

etc., could can be used for particular occasions as well.

Suddenly I could hear a loud noise.
I could smell something burning.

to make polite requests or offers

Could is often used to make a request or offer sound more polite.
Could I have a glass of water, please?
Could you help me with these bags?

to express possibility or uncertainty

You could get a better job if you spoke English. (=You would be able to get a better job if
you spoke English.)
You could do it if you tried hard. (=You would be able to do it)
If only I had some working capital, I could start a new business. (=I would be able to
start a new business.)
The structure could have + past participle can be used to criticize people for not doing
things. It can also be used to talk about past events that did not happen.
I have been waiting since morning - you could have said that you weren't coming.
Why did you drive so carelessly? You could have killed yourself.
MUST
Must indicates that it is necessary or very important that something happens. If you say
that you must do something, you mean that you have a definite intention to do something
in future.
I must get my hair cut.
I must stop smoking.
Usage :

to express that something is certain or highly possible.

If A is bigger than B, and B is bigger than C, then A must be bigger than C.
There is the doorbell. That must be the postman.
In questions we use can to express certainty, not must.
Somebody is knocking at the door. Who can it be? (NOT Who must it be?)
In negative clauses we generally use cannot/cant to say that something is certainly not the
case.
It cant be your mother. She is in New York.
However, mustnt is normal in question tags.
It must be nice to be a bird, mustnt it?

to express necessity
Must is often used in affirmative sentences to say what is necessary, and to give strong
advice and orders to ourselves and other people.
We must get up early and start on our way.
Must not or mustnt is used to say that things should not be done, or tell people not to do
things.
You must not open this parcel until Christmas day.
You must not lie.
Must and have to can be used to express that something is probable. Have to is
more common in American English.
He must be mad to do this. (OR He has to be mad to do this.
You must be joking. (You have got to be joking.)
1. Must and have to can both be used to talk about necessity.
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We must/have to build up a strong army to defend the country.

2. Both must and have to can be used to talk about obligation. In American English have
to is the normal form .British English often makes a distinction between them:

must is used mostly to talk about the feelings and wishes of the speaker and
hearer.

have (got) to is used mostly to talk about obligations that come from
outside external obligations for example from laws, regulations, agreements
and other peoples orders.
I must stop smoking. (= I want to stop smoking.)
I have to stop smoking. (= Doctor has asked me to stop smoking.)
You really must go to church next Sunday. (I am telling you to.)
Catholics have to go to church on Sundays. (Their religion tells them to.)
3. Had to is used to talk about past obligation. Must is used with the perfect infinitive (have
+ past participle) to express certainty about the past.
Mary isnt in her office. She had to go home. (= It was necessary for her to go home.)
Mary isnt in her office. She must have gone home. (= It seems certain that she has gone
home.)
4. Must not and do not have to/ have not got to have quite different meanings. Must not is
used to tell people not to do things; do not have to/ have not got to is used to say that there
is no obligation.
You must not tell him. (= Dont tell him.)
You dont have to tell him. (= You can if you like but it is not necessary.)
WILL
When will is used in the first person it can express willingness, a promise, a
threat, determination.
I will help you.
I will be there in your wedding.
Will/ won't can be used emphatically to tell someone of the speaker's
intention or to forbid an action, in response to a will expression.
e.g.I wont make such a mistake again.
I will not allow him to go.
I will not miss this opportunity.

WOULD
We use would :

to make polite offers and requests

Would is often used in polite requests and offers. It is a softer, less definite form of will.
Would you mind moving a bit?
Would you mind sharing a room?
I would like to meet the manager.

would can also be used to express an opinion in a more polite way without
being forceful.
This is not what we would expect from a professional service.

to talk about past habits

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Would can be used to talk about past events that happened often or always.
He would always bring us nice gifts without telling why.
The old man would recline in a corner and sleep most of the time.
After dinner we would sit in a common room and chat for a while.

would is often used to suggest that what happens is expected because it is

typical, especially of a person's behaviour.
She would always trust the wrong the person.
Ann rang to say that she was too busy to come.' 'She would - she always has an excuse.'

to talk about willingness and determination

He said he would try his best to help me. (Willingness)
He would bet on that horse, though I asked him not to. (Determination)
She would have her own way.

wouldn't shows unwillingness.

I asked him to move his car, but he said he wouldn't.

to talk about imaginary situations

Would is sometimes used to refer to a situation that you can imagine happening.
I would hate to miss the show.
I would go myself but I am too busy.
It would have been quite boring to sit through the entire speech.
Would versus Used to

both would and used to can refer to repeated actions and events in the past.
She would/used to always carry an umbrella.
Used to can refer to past states; would cannot.
I used to have an old Rolls Royce. (NOT I would have )
Would rather

would rather expresses choice or preference.

She would rather die than marry him.
They would rather go to jail than pay the fine.
Would versus Will

would is a softer, less definite form of will. It is used in polite requests and
offers.
I would like to meet him.

would can act as the past of will in indirect speech.

She said, I will not live here anymore.
She said that she would not live there anymore.
SHALL
When shall is used in the second or third person it has the force of a command, a
promise, determination, certainty.
Shall can be used with all persons to emphasize something which the speaker feels is
certain to happen or wants to happen.
e.g. I shall definitely give up smoking this year.
We shall win! (shall is stressed in this sentence).
8

Similarly, shall is used in formal rules and regulations.

e.g. No player shall knowingly pick up or move the ball of another player.
You shall not go out without my permission.
He shall get my help.
She shall be punished for his mistake.
He shall apologize for his behavior.
No man shall take this way .
SHOULD
Use:

to express obligation
Should is often used to talk about duty or obligation. It can also be used to
say or ask what the correct or best thing to do is.
You should tell the truth.
If you are not feeling well, you should consult a doctor. There should be an investigation
into the cause of the accident.
Should is not as strong as must.

in questions, should is used to ask for advice or instructions.

It is rather cold here. Should I turn the heating on?
What should we do now?
Should I seek his opinion?
Should we talk to him?

to express probability
You should find this grammar book helpful.
He should be here soon he left home at six.
Granny will be staying with us for a couple of months. That should be nice.
Mount Everest should be visible from Tiger Hill if the sky is clear.
Should have + past participle

the structure should have + past participle can be used to talk about past
events which did not happen.
I should have sent the money this morning, but I forgot.
This structure can also be used to talk about past events which may or may not have
happened.
They should have reached home by now. It is 10 oclock.

we can use should not have + past participle to refer to unwanted or

unnecessary things that happened.
You shouldnt have said things like that to her.
It is very kind of you, but you shouldnt have bothered.
Should versus Would
In British English, both would and should can be used after first person pronouns (I and
we). There is no difference in meaning.
I would/should like some sweets before I go to bed.
We would/should be happy to receive them at the airport.
1. Should after why
Should can be used after why to suggest surprise.
Why should anyone want to buy something so useless?
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Why shouldnt she buy it if she can afford it?

I dont see why we should have to pay for your mistakes.
2. Should in subordinate clauses .
Should can be used after certain adjectives expressing personal judgments and reactions.
Examples are: odd, strange, sad, unfair etc.
It is strange that she should find old men attractive.
It is odd that she should want to trust him again.
It is unfair that she should have died so young.
This also happens after adjectives and nouns(necessary, important, essential, vital, eager
etc ) expressing the importance of an action.
It is important that the meeting should be a success.
It is necessary that she should be told.
3. Should can used after so that, in order that, for fear that, in case and lest to show the
purpose of an action.
He took an umbrella so that he shouldnt get wet.
He ran lest he should miss the train.
He took his umbrella in case it should rain.
4. Should in conditional clauses
Should is used in conditional clauses expressing possibilities, suppositions etc.
If he should come, ask him to wait.
Should it rain, there will be no picnic today.
If he should come indicates less likelihood of his coming than if he comes. The sentence
means something like this: There is not much chance of his coming. But if he turns up, ask
him to wait.
OUGHT TO
Use :
ought to expresses moral obligation .
You ought to respect our parents.
We ought to help the poor.
You ought to love your country, ought not you? (NOTought not you to.)
Ought is rarely used in questions and negatives; should is generally used instead.
ought to expresses duty, necessity.. It is often used to advise people to tell them
that they have a duty to do things. The meaning is similar to should
You ought to attend office regularly. (Duty)
We ought to buy some furniture. (Necessity)
Ought is not as forceful as must.
Ought to have + past participle
When ought refers to past time, it is followed by the perfect infinitive. This structure can
be used to talk about things which were supposed to happen but did not.
I ought to have written to my parents, but I forgot.
You ought to have invited her to your party.
This structure can also be used to make guesses.
It is ten oclock. He ought to have reached home.
Ought not to have can be used to talk about things that happened unnecessarily.
We ought not to have wasted so much time over it.
We have done things that we ought not to have done.
We have left undone things that we ought to have done.
10

NEED
1. Need may be a full verb and may be followed by a direct object .
My brother needs a new pair of shoes.
In this case, need behaves like a common, normal verb and the interrogative and negative
are made up with the help of do and did.
Did she need her umbrella ?
2. Need is a modal auxiliary , meaning to have to .
Need she get up early ? Yes, she must.
Absence of necessity and obligation is expressed with the help of didnt need to and
neednt have + Past Participle. There is a slight difference between the two
constructions. The first one shows that the action was not necessary and it was not
performed while the second construction expresses that the action was not necessary
but it was, nevertheless, performed.
I didnt need to knock at the door since it was open (so,I didnt ).
I neednt have knocked at the door since, in this way, I awoke the baby( but I
knocked ).
DARE
When this verb is used in the affirmative sentences, it is an ordinary,normal verb.
She dares to invite me there.
But when it occurs in interrogative and negative sentences, it may be conjugated :
a) either like a normal verb :
Does he dare to come ?
b) or like a modal verb
Dare he come ?
Daresay/dare say is used with the first person singular only , having two meanings
I daresay= I suppose
My brother has not arrived yet, but I daresay he will come soon.
I daresay = I accept what you say.
Young man :I am a member of this club
The door keeper : I daresay you are, however you must show me your identity card.
How dare(d) you/he/she/they ? expresses indignation .
How dare you interrupt me ?

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GRAMMAR PRACTICE

1. Choose the sentence A or B that is closest in meaning to the sentence given.

a ) It's possible that we'll know the answers
tomorrow....
A We may know the answers tomorrow.
B We should know the answers tomorrow.
b) I don't think you should ring him now. It's rather late.
A You might not ring him now. It's rather late.
B You'd better not ring him now. It's rather late.
c) You needn't come if you don't want to
A You won't come if you don't want to.
B You don't have to come if you don't want to.
d) I think it's wrong for you to work so hard
A You don't have to work so hard.
B You shouldn't work so hard.
e) Perhaps these are the keys
A These might be the keys.
B These must be the keys.
f} It would be wrong for us to lock the cat in the house for a
week
A. We'd better not lock the cat in the house for a week,
B We can't lock the cat in the house for a week.
g) It's possible that the decision will te announced next
week..
A The decision might be announced next week.
B The decision will be announced next week.
h) Although I try hard, I can never solve The Times' crossword
A Try as I may, 1 can never solve 'The Times' crossword.
B Try as J can, I may never solve The Times'
crossword.
i) I know. Why don't we go out to eat instead?
A I know. We must go out to eat instead
B I know. We could go out to eat instead.
2. Fill in the blanks with the required modal verbs :
12

1. I__________ be at the meeting by 10:00. I will probably__________ take a taxi if I

want
to
be
on
time.
2. You__________ submit the application if it has not been completely filled out. Check
that
the name, address, and background information are correct. If the form is not accurate and
complete, you will be rejected and you will__________ reapply at a later date.
3. Tina: Look at these flowers - they're beautiful! But, there's no card. Who could have sent
them?
Stephanie: It__________ have been David. He's the only one who would send you flowers.
4. You__________ forget to pay the rent tomorrow. The landlord is very strict about paying
on
time.
5. You__________ be so rude! Why don't you try saying "please" once in a while.
6. If you are over 18 in California, you__________ take a driver training course to get a
driver's license. You can have a friend or a family member teach you instead. But
remember,
you__________
still
get
your
permit
before
you
start
practicing.
7. You__________ be rich to be a success. Some of the most successful people I know
haven't
got
a
penny
to
their
name.
8. Ed: My car broke down in Death Valley last week. I__________ have it towed more
than
a
hundred
miles
to
the
nearest
mechanic.
Lilly:
That__________
have
cost
a
fortune!
9. While hiking in Alaska, you__________ keep an eye out for bears. If you see one, you
__________ approach it. They are beautiful animals; however, they are wild and
unpredictable
in nature. You__________ be afraid of them, but educating yourself about the dangers can
help
keep
you
safe.
10. I__________ go to work tomorrow because it is Memorial Day. The best thing about a
day off from work is that I__________ get up at 6:00; I can sleep in till noon if I want to.
11. Yesterday, I__________ cram all day for my French final. I didn't get to sleep until
after
midnight.
12. Nate : Oh no! I completely forgot we were supposed to pick Jenny up at the airport.
Barbara: She__________ still be sitting there waiting for us.
13. Ingrid received a scholarship to Yale University which will cover 100% of the tuition.
She
__________ worry at all about the increasing cost of education.
14. When I was a child my grandmother was continually correcting our manners. She
always
used to say, "One__________ eat with one's mouth open." Or, she would correct us by
saying,
"One__________ rest one's elbows on the table." And every time I wanted to leave the
table,
she
would
say,
"One__________
ask
to
be
excused."
15. I've redone this math problem at least twenty times, but my answer is wrong according
to
the answer key. The answer in the book__________ be wrong!
13

3. Fill in the blanks with modal verbs :

1. Nancy said you didn't need to buy her anything for her birthday, but I really think you
__________ at least get her some flowers or a nice bottle of wine.
2. Debbie said she was really busy this week, but I think she__________ show up at the
party
if
she
doesn't
have
to
work
overtime
on
Friday.
3. Nina said she would come over right after work, so she__________ be here by 6:00.
4. Oh my God, he's unconscious. Don't move him - he__________ have internal injuries.
Somebody
call
an
ambulance.
5.
You__________
be
kidding!
That
can't
be
true.
6. Dan: Where's the remote control? I want to change the channel.
Fiona: I don't know. It__________ be under the couch. Or, perhaps I absent-mindedly took
it
into
the
kitchen.
I'll
check
in
there.
7. For most people, learning a language is a challenging undertaking. Experts agree that to
make the most of your language learning experience, you__________ practice the
language
regularly and push yourself to maintain old vocabulary while acquiring new words and
expressions.
8. New research suggests that exercise can reduce the chance of heart disease as well as
cancer. That's why I told my father that he__________ start walking once a day.
9. We should invite Sally and her husband to come to the picnic on Saturday. We haven't
seen
them in weeks, and they__________ really enjoy a nice day at the beach.
10. Tim: While I was a student, I spent a year and a half studying Pygmy culture in the
Central
African Republic. My research focused on unique aspects of the their social structure and
religion.
Simona:
That__________
have
been
absolutely
fascinating!
11. We had better call Tony to see if he's at home before we go over to his house. He
__________ be there and we don't want to drive all the way over there for nothing.
12. At first, my boss didn't want to hire Sam. But, because I had previously worked with
Sam,
I told my boss that he__________ take another look at his resume and reconsider him for
the
position.
13. You__________ worry so much. It doesn't do you any good. Either you get the job, or
you
don't. If you don't, just apply for another one. Eventually, you will find work.
14. I would love to go on the cruise to Tahiti with Robin and Michelle. But such a
luxurious trip__________ cost a fortune. I doubt I could afford something like that.
4. Correct the sentences:
14

1 I won't be in the country when you two are

getting married.
2 How much longer do you think that noise will
be going on?
3 I don't mind I shall be able to join you until 8.30.
4 Shall I look OK if I wear this?
5 You shall have to put two first-class stamps on
my envelope.
6 I think a weekend away would be a good idea.
7 Presumably we would be laughed at if we tried it
in public.
8 If he maintains his current rate of progress, he
should sail through the exam.
9 Looking like that, he should compare
unfavourably with the other candidates.
10According to statistics, smokers shouldn't live as long as non-smokers.

5. Rephrase the following sentences. Do not change the word given.

1 Just recently, there has been a need for us to
reduce, our spending.
cut
Just recently we ............ on our spending.
2 Why have I never met your partner?
introduce
You really..............to your partner.
3 There is growing pressure on the government to
break their promise on health spending.
back
The government may find.................. on their
promise on health spending.
4 I didn't take a difficult job because it would have meant
doing a 50-hour week.
put
I didn't take the job because I would.....................in 50
hours a week.
5 You don't need to take out this insurance.
under
You.............to take out this insurance.
6 I wouldn't have thought there's much chance of
the package being here before Friday.
doubt
I............here before Friday.
15

7 I don't think we could expect that much of him.

asking
I think............much of him.
8 I suppose it's possible that she will break the
world record at the next meeting.
conceivably
I suppose.............break the world record at the
next meeting.
6. Tick (/) the sentences in which the speakers are optimistic about :
1I must confess that I have a few reservations concerning
the ultimate success of the project.
2I have my doubts as to the wisdom of going ahead
with such a project.
3There's every chance that the doubts being
expressed about the project will be unfounded.
4The odds are against such a project getting off the
ground.
5It's odds on that the project will fall flat on its
face.
6I do believe that, contrary to public opinion, the
project has every chance of success,
7There's no way this project is going to see the light of day, I assure you..
7. Complete the second sentence so that It has a similar meaning to the first sentence,
using the word given. Do not change the word given. You must use between three
and eight words, including the word given.
1. The only explanation for him being so late is that there was a
lot of traffic.
held
He............or he wouldn't be so late.
2. They think It's more than likely, the comet will be visible to the naked eye.
distinct
They think................the comet will be visible to the naked eye.
3. It's not impossible that the looming crisis wont ever actually materialize .
bounds
It's not beyond..............the looming crisis won't ever actually materialize.
4. You can't escape your responsibilities so easily, you know.
wriggle
You can't..............your responsibilities so easily, you know,
5. Nobody is forcing you to take up the offer.
obligation
You are.............. take up the offer.
6. You can't just tell people what to do.
lay
You can't just..............to people,
16

7. You don't have to have the leather seating if you don't want to.
optional
Leather seating..............extra.
8. Only people who have, been given authority are allowed in.
restricted
Entry............personnel.

CHAPTER II

THE CONDITIONAL CLAUSE

There is a variety of types of conditional sentences in English; they are used to talk about
possible or imaginary situations. A "Condition" is a "situation or circumstance".
For example: If a certain condition is true, then a particular result happens.
There are four basic conditionals:

Zero Conditional
First Conditional

Second Conditional

Third Conditional

Zero Conditional: Certainty

The Zero conditional is used for things that are always true as long as the condition is met.
IF

If

If

Condition

Result

present simple

present simple

you heat water to 100 degrees Celsius,

it boils.

present simple

present simple

I drink coffee,

I get a headache.

Situation

Fact - universal

fact- personal

In these examples, the result will always occur if the condition is met, so the time is not
important. First Conditional: A real possibility in the future.
A First Conditional sentence is one connecting two future actions, where one must take
place before the second is possible. Take a student who wants to go to university but
hasn't got the results of their exams yet. They cannot go to university until they have
received their results. In the case of a good student who is expected to get good
grades, then there is a good possibility of achieving the marks required to get to
university, so the following sentence could be used:
IF

Condition

Result
17

If

present simple

WILL + base verb

she gets good grades,

she will go to university.

We are talking about the future, but we use a present tense for the condition and will for
the result. In this case, the person is sure about going to university. We can use other modal
verbs in the result part of the sentence:

IF

Condition

Result

Possibility

If

she gets good

grades,

she will go to
university.

If the condition is met, then she definitely

will go

If

he gets good
grades,

he may go to
university.

He is not sure about going to university.

If

she gets good

grades,

she should go to
university.

The speaker is expressing his or her

opinion, giving advice.

If

he gets good
grades,

he can go to
university.

This means that it is possible.

If

she gets good

grades,

she could go to
university.

This means that it is possible, but not that

likely.

If

he gets good
grades,

he might go to
university.

This means that it is possible, but not that

likely.

We can also use different present forms in the condition part of the sentence:
IF

Condition
present simple

If

If

an unfinished present action

I'll go home.
a future arrangement

they are going,

present perfect

If

I'll ask her about it.

they are still

working,
present progressive

you have finished

Result

an action in the future

I see her,
present progressive

If

Reason for tense

I'll stay at home.

a finished action related to now
I'll clear away the
18

your meal,

plates.

WILL + base verb

If

WILL + base verb

you will work late

today,
WILL + base verb

If

making an agreement

I will let you have

Friday off.
expressing displeasure because someone
insists on doing something

you will drive too

fast,

WILL + base verb

the police will stop
you.

Second Conditional: Imaginary Present or Unlikely Future

The Second Conditional can be used used to talk about imaginary present situations, where
we are imagining something different from what is really the case. We can also use it to
talk about things in the future that are unlikely to happen, as the condition is unlikely to be
met. We use the past tense in the condition part and would for the result.
IF

If

Condition

Time

Result

Possibility

past simple

present

WOULD + base
verb

impossible

I would learn
Italian.

I don't have the time, so I'm not going

to learn Italian.

WOULD + base
verb

unlikely

I would travel
around the world.

There's a very small chance of winning

the lottery, so the trip is unlikely

I had the
time,
past simple

If

future

I won the
lottery

We can use other modal verbs in the past tense in the result part of the sentence:
IF

Condition

Result

Certainty

past simple

WOULD + base
verb

If

I had the
time,

I would learn
Italian.

Although unlikely to happen, the speaker is sure

that they would do it given the opportunity.

If

I had more
time,

I might learn
Spanish.

Although unlikely to happen, it is only a

possibility anyway.

If

I had more
time,

I should learn some

more about IT.

Although unlikely to happen, the speaker is

saying that it would be a good idea, but is not
committed to it.

If

I had more

I could learn Hindi.

Although unlikely to happen, it is only a

19

time

possibility anyway.

With the verb to be, there are two forms that can be used with I, he, she & it:
IF

Condition

I, he, she, it

Were

If

I were you,

I, he, she, it

Was

If

I was you,

Result

I'd marry her.

I'd marry her.

Third Conditional: Imaginary Past

The third conditional is used when we are talking about the past and imagining something
different from what actually happened :

If

IF

Condition

Result

Past Perfect

WOULD HAVE + Past Participle

I had known,

I would have helped.

Condition

Result

What actually happened

I didn't know and didn't help.

Certainty

past perfect

WOULD HAVE+ past

participle

If

I had known,

I would have helped.

Although this didn't happen, the speaker is

sure about the result.

If

I had known,

I could have helped.

Although this didn't happen, the result is

only a possibility.

If

I had known,

I might have helped.

Although this didn't happen, the result is

only a possibility.

If

you had
known,

you should have

helped.

Although this didn't happen, it is only a

good suggestion or piece of advice.

20

Other ways of making a conditional sentence

1 Supposing, otherwise
Supposing or suppose can replace if, mainly in everyday speech.
Supposing you won the football pool, what would you do ?
Otherwise means 'or if not'. It can go at the beginning or end of the sentence.
If you hadnt given us directions, we wouldn't have found the house.
Thanks for your directions to the house. We wouldn't have found it otherwise.

2 But for
This can replace if not. It is used in formal language, and must be followed by a noun form.
If you hadn't helped us, we would have been in trouble.
But for your help, we would have been in trouble.
3 If so/If not
These can refer to a sentence understood but not stated.
There is a possibility that Jack will be late. If so, I will take his place.
4 Colloquial omission of if
An imperative can be used instead of an if instead of an if clause in everyday speech.
Sit down, and I'll make you a cup of tea. (If you sit down...)

5 If and adjectives
In expressions such as if it is necesary/possible, it is possible to omit the verb be.
If interested, apply within.
If necessary, take a taxi

6 Formally if can mean although, usually as if + adjective

The room was well-furnished, if a little badly decorated.

21

GRAMMAR PRACTICE

1. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tenses:

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

If I had a typewriter I (type) it myself.

If I (know) his address I'd give it to you.
He (look) a lot better if he shaved more often.
If you (play) for lower stakes you wouldn't lose so much.
If he worked more slowly he (not make) so many mistakes.
I shouldn't drink that wine if I (be) you.
More tourists would come to this country if it (have) a better
climate.
8 If I were sent to prison you (visit) me?
9 If someone (give) you a helicopter what would you do with it?
10 I (buy) shares in that company if I had some money.
11If he (clean) his windscreen he'd be able to see where he was going.
12 If you drove your car into the river you (be able) to get out?
13 If you (not belong) to a union you couldn't get a job.
14 If I (win) a big prize in a lottery I'd give up my job.
15 What you (do) if you found a burglar in your house?
16 I could tell you what this means if I (know) Greek.
17 If everybody (give) 1 we would have enough.
18 He might get fat if he (stop) smoking.
19 If he knew that it was dangerous he (not come).
20 If you (see) someone drowning what would you do?
21 I (be) ruined if I bought her everything she asked for.
22 If you slept under a mosquito net you (not be) bitten so often.
23 I could get a job easily if I (have) a degree.
24 If she (do) her hair differently she might look quite nice.
25 If we had more rain our crops (grow) faster.
26 The whole machine would fall to pieces if you (remove) that screw.
27 I (keep) a horse if I could afford it.
28 I'd go and see him more often if he (live) on a bus route.
29 If they (ban) the sale of alcohol at football matches there might be
less violence.
30 I (offer) to help if I thought I'd be any use.
31What would you do if the lift (get) stuck between two floors?
32If you (paint) the walls white the room would be much brighter.
33If you (change) your job would it affect your pension?
31If you knew you had only six weeks to live how you (spend) those
six weeks?
32You wouldn't have so much trouble with your car if you (have) it
serviced regularly.
33I'd climb over the wall if there (not be) so much broken glass on top
of it.

22

2. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tenses:

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

If I had known that you were in hospital I (visit) you.

The ground was very soft. But for that, my horse (win).
If you (arrive) ten minutes earlier you would have got a seat.
You would have seen my garden at its best if you (be) here last
week.
But for his quickness I (be) killed.
I shouldn't have believed it if I (not see) it with my own eyes.
If he had slipped he (fall) 500 metres.
If he had asked you, you (accept)?
If I (had) a map 1 would have been all right.

10If I (know) that you were coming I'd have baked a cake.
11I (offer) to help him if I had realized that he was ill.
12If you had left that wasp alone it (not sting) you.
13If I (realize) what a bad driver you were 1 wouldn't have come with
you.
14If I had realized that the traffic lights were red I (stop).
15But for the fog we (reach) our destination ages ago.
16If you had told me that he never paid his debts I (not lend) him the
money.
17If you (not sneeze) he wouldn't have known that we were there.
18If you (put) some mustard in the sandwiches they would have tasted
better.
19The hens (not get) into the house if you had shut the door.
20If he had known that the river was dangerous he (not try) to swim
across it.
21If you (speak) more slowly he might have understood you.
22If he had known the whole story he (not be) so angry.
23 I shouldn't have eaten it if I (know) that there was ginger in it.
24If I (try) again I think that I would have succeeded.
25You (not get) into trouble if you had obeyed my instructions.
26If you hadn't been in such a hurry you (not put) sugar into the sauce
instead of salt.
27If I (be) ready when he called he would have taken me with him.
28She had a headache; otherwise she (come) with us.
29If she had listened to my directions she (not turn) down the wrong
street.
30If you (look) at the engine for a moment you would have seen what
was missing.
31Rome (be captured) by her enemies if the geese hadn't cackled.
32He would have been arrested if he (try) to leave the country.
33I (take) a taxi if I had realized that it was such a long way.
34You (save) me a lot of trouble if you had told me where you were
going.
35 They would have forced their way into the house if I (not call) for
help.
36 If he had put out his pipe before putting it in his pocket he (not burn)
a hole in his coat.
37 If he were in he (answer) the phone.
38 The ship would have run aground if the pilot (make) one mistake.
39 I shouldn't have taken your umbrella if I (know) that it was the only
one you had.

3. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tenses:

1 If you (find) a skeleton in the cellar don't mention it to anyone.
2 If you pass your examination we (have) a celebration.
23

3
4
5
1

What (happen) if I press this button?

I should have voted for her if I (have) a vote then.
If you go to Paris where you (stay)?
If someone offered to buy you one of those rings, which you
(choose)?
6 The flight may be cancelled if the fog (get) thick.
7 If the milkman (come) tell him to leave two pints.
8 Someone (sit) on your glasses if you leave them there.
10 You would play better bridge if you (not talk) so much.
11What I (do) if I hear the burglar alarm?
12 If you (read) the instructions carefully you wouldn't have answered
the wrong question.
13 I could repair the roof myself if I (have) a long ladder.
14 Unless they turn that radio off I (go) mad.
15 If you were made redundant what you (do)?
16 We'll have a long way to walk if we (run) out of petrol here.
17 If you shake that bottle of port it (not be) fit to drink.
18 I'll probably get lost unless he (come) with me.
19 You (not have) so many accidents if you drove more slowly.
20 If you (wear) a false beard nobody would have recognized you.
21 If she (leave) the fish there the car will get it.
22 Unless they leave a lamp beside that hole in the road somebody (fall)
into it.
23 You'll get pneumonia if you (not change) your wet clothes.
24 If I had known that you couldn't eat octopus I (not buy) it.
25 If they (hang) that picture lower people would be able to see it.
26 She (be able) to walk faster if her shoes hadn't such high heels.
27 I (bring) you some beer if I had known that you were thirsty.
28 If you had touched that electric cable you (be) electrocuted.
29 If the story hadn't been true the newspaper (not print) it.
30 I (not buy) things on the installment system if I were you.
31 Dial 999 if you (want) Police, Ambulance, or Fire Brigade.
32 You (not be) any use to me unless you learn to type.
33 If anyone attacked me, my dog (jump) at his throat.
4. Finish these sentences, paying attention to the use of tenses:
1 If he had taken my advice . . .
2 If you ate less . . .
3 We'll send for the doctor if ...
4 If she practised more . . .
5 If there isn't enough wine in that bottle . . .
6 If you had checked the petrol before we started . . .
7 This clock wouldn't have run down if ...
8 Try on the blue one if ...
9 If these gates are locked . . .
10If we leave before breakfast . . .
11If the river rises any higher . . .
12 Her life might have been saved if ...
13 If the volcano starts erupting . . .
14 The grass would look better if ...
15 Unless it is a nice day . . .
16 If you don't put enough stamps on a letter, the person who
gets it ...
17 He would lend it to you if ...
18 Unless this hotel gets another cook . . .
19 If the storm becomes worse . . .
20 If your uncle sees you . . .
21 If you tried to climb it without a guide . . .
22If you didn't shake the camera so much, your photographs .
23I'd have brought my coat . . .
24If ( = as) you don't like the picture . . .
24

25He would have given her diamonds if...

26If you had asked his permission . . .
27If the fire had been noticed earlier . . .
28If you had any sense . . .
29 You would have been angry if ...
30 If he had put the flowers into water at once . . .
31 I should have ordered more coal if ...
32If you leave the gate open . . .
33You will have to go to the dentist if...
34He would have been drowned if...
35 If I'd had a car ...
36If Tom rings while I'm out . . .
5. Decide whether each sentence is grammatically possible or not :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

If you haven't received a letter yet, you haven't got the job?
If it isn't for David, we are missing the bus.
If it's raining, we go to the pub on the corner instead.
If you didn't lend us the money, we would have gone to the bank.
If you should happen to change your mind, drop me a line.
If it wasn't for the rain, we would have been home by now.
If you will drive so fast, no wonder the police keep stopping
you.
If I knew you were coming, I would have met you at the
airport.
8. But for you helped us, we would have taken much longer.
9. If jack joins the team, I'm leaving right now .
6. Write the correct form of the verbs in blanks:
1. If the question (be) difficult, we can ask the teacher.
2. Lee will go to the Disneyland if he (save) enough money.
3. If I (buy) a lottery ticket, I might win the lottery.
4. My friend usually walks to school if he (have) enough time.
5. If the movie (start) at eight, we will be late!
6. We can go water-skiing if Jeffs boat (have) gas.
7. The class will have party if the students all (pass) their tests.
8. If there (be) milk in the refrigerator, Ill have milk with my cake.
9. If my sister (eat) all of the cake, I will get angry.
10. My mother always punishes my sister if she (tell) a lie.
7. Practice inversion in the if-clause:
1. If I were you I would make a little more effort to save some money.
Were.
2.If they had known the truth, they wouldnt have been so upset.
Had.
3. If you should happen to be in town, call on us.
Should...
4. If I were you, Id take up German lessons.
Were..
5. If the tourists need further information, they can ask the receptionist.
Should...
6. If the weather is fine, we shall go swimming.
Should...
7. If someone had phoned the police earlier, the thief would have been caught.
25

Had
8. If you had been more careful, you wouldnt have lost your credit card.
Had...
9. If you had told me about your debt, I could have helped you.
Had
10.If you change your mind, well go together to the party.
Should..

8. Practice the structural conversion:

1. If she were a successful actress, she would be often interviewed.
Were..
2. Suppose you lost an erring while walking in the park, what would you do?
If
3. If the taxi had come on time, we wouldnt miss the flight.
Had
4. Suppose your boyfriend gave you some flowers, what would tell him?
If
5. If I hadnt been for my teachers help, I wouldnt have finished the paper.
But for...
6. Since he hadnt studied much, he didnt pass the entrance examination.
If
7. Children had better take their parents advice.
Children.
8. If you dont go on a strict diet, you wont loose weight.
Unless you.
9. If they hadnt stolen the car, they wouldnt be in trouble now.

9. Put the verbs in the brackets into the right tense:

1. If I go to London, I (see) the Houses of Parliament and the Town Bridge.
2. Many employees would be fired if that factory (close) down.
3. If the weather is fine The Browns (spend) the weekend in the mountains.
4. If you (not like) tennis, you will find the match boring.
5. If Susan (be) offered that job in a pub, she would take it.
6. If the bus (arrive) on time, I (meet) my friend at the bus-station.
7. The cat (scratch Mother gave me that pen. She (be) very upset if I lose it.
8. If there (be) enough snow tomorrow, we (make) a huge snowman.
9. If I (buy) a lottery ticket, I (could win) the lottery.
10. If Ben (give) somebody his word, he keep it.
11. If you (call) me, I (come). -supposition
12. If more mad cows (be found) many hitchers (lose) their jobs.
13. If the Stock Exchange (crash), people (lose) their money.
14. If guns (be abolished) we (feel) much safer.
15. If I (win) the lottery, I (go) on vacation to Paris.
16. If I (know) before that Athens was such a beautiful place, I (spend) two weeks
there.
26

17. If computers had existed 500 years ago, we (have) Shakespeares file.
18. If I (not invest) all my money in shares, I (be) a poor man now.
19. ) you if you pull its tail.
20. If they sold their old cottage they (not get) a lot of money for it.
10. Rewrite the following sentences using unless:
1. If the students dont write their homework, they will get bad marks.
2. If we dont hurry, well miss the train.
3. If I dont take my umbrella, Ill get wet.
4. If it isnt fine tomorrow, we wont go for a ride.
5. If the employer doesnt give him a pay rise, he will resign.
6. If he hadnt got bad news, he wouldnt be so upset.
7. He wouldnt have gone to the party if they hadnt invited him.
8. She could become a famous singer if she took music lessons.
9. They wouldnt invest their money if they werent sure about the profit.
10. I wouldnt have invited you at the cinema if I had seen the film before.

11. Put the verb in brackets into the right tense:

Its the middle of January: New Years resolutions are wobbling; the weather is
depressing; and youre probably too broken to go anywhere until payday, which cannot
come fast enough. If that (1)(sound) like you, it (2)(be) the perfect time to plan for a
brighter future, by setting up a regular savings plan. The January blues (3)(chase) away if
you (4)(think) of a holiday in the sun or a new wardrobe of spring clothes.
Most peoples biggest financial regret at the end of a year is that if they (5)(save)
enough, they (6)(afford) buying new properties or spending vacation at the seaside. If
people (7)(not open) more savings accounts, less money (8)(be stashed).
The independent financial advisers network IFA Promotion has worked out that if
one (9)(cut) back the going for a drink after work two evenings a week, he (10)(can save)
260 a year. If this sum (11)(be invested) wisely, it (12)(bring) you a nice profit.

12. Match the two columns:

1. We are only prepared to accept your offer
2. I should be very much obliged..
3. If there is any way in which we may help.
4. If I can be of any further help....
5. If you have any suggestion to make..
6. Had your invitation reached me a little earlier..
7. If this suggestion meets your approval.
8. If this magazine is of interests to you
9. If reprints are available.
10. I should be very glad to know.
a) if you could let me have fell details of
27

b) please do not hesitate to write to us.

c) kindly write to us at once.
d) I should have been happy to come to your country.
e) you will reduce the price.
f) I shall appreciate it immediately.
g) kindly let us know.
h) would you be so kind as to send us a few copies.
i) please send back to us the enclosed reader card.
j) if you can provide us with information about.
CHAPTER III
PASSIVE VOICE

Sentences can be active or passive. Therefore, tenses have "active forms" and "passive
forms. Passive voice is used when the focus is on the action.
The verbs which can accept the passive voice are transitive verbs and some prepositional
verbs such as: to account for, to attend to, to look at, to look after, to send for, to speak to,
etc.
There are some transitive verbs which cannot accept the passive voice such as: to have, to
hold, to possess, to resemble, etc.
The passive of an active tense is formed by putting the verb to be into the same tense as
the active verb and adding the past participle of the active verb. The subject of the active
verb becomes the agent of the passive verb.
In colloquial English get is sometimes used instead of be.
e.g. The eggs got (=were) broken
Active Form
In active sentences, the thing doing the action is the subject of the sentence and the thing
receiving the action is the object. Most sentences are active.
[Thing doing action] + [verb] + [thing receiving action]
Examples:
The teacher teaches the students
Passive Form
In passive sentences, the thing receiving the action is the subject of the sentence and the
thing doing the action is optionally included near the end of the sentence. You can use the
passive form if you think that :

the thing receiving the action is more important and should be emphasized.
if you do not know who is doing the action

if you do not want to mention who is doing the action.

28

[Thing receiving action] + [be] + [past participle of verb] + [by] + [thing doing action]

Examples: The students are taught by the teacher

Active versus Passive
Active

Passive

Simple Present

Once a week, Tom cleans the

house.

Once a week, the house is cleaned

by Tom.

Present
Continuous

Right now, Sarah is writing the

letter.

Right now, the letter is being

written by Sarah.

Simple Past

Sam repaired the car.

The car was repaired by Sam.

Past
Continuous

The salesman was helping the

customer when the thief came
into the store.

The customer was being helped by

the salesman when the thief came
into the store.

Present Perfect

Many tourists have visited that

castle.

That castle has been visited by

many tourists.

Present Perfect
Continuous

Recently, John has been doing

the work.

Recently, the work has been being

done by John.

Past Perfect

George had repaired many cars

before he received his mechanic's
license.

Many cars had been repaired by

George before he received his
mechanic's license.

Past Perfect
Continuous

Chef Jones had been preparing

the restaurant's fantastic dinners
for two years before he moved to
Paris.

The restaurant's fantastic dinners

had been being prepared by Chef
Jones for two years before he
moved to Paris.

Simple Future

Someone will finish the work by

5:00 PM.

The work will be finished by 5:00

PM.

BE GOING TO

Sally is going to make a beautiful

dinner tonight.

A beautiful dinner is going to be

made by Sally tonight.

Future
Continuous

At 8:00 PM tonight, John will be

washing the dishes.

At 8:00 PM tonight, the dishes will

be being washed by John.

At 8:00 PM tonight, John is

going to be washing the dishes.

At 8:00 PM tonight, the dishes are

going to be being washed by John.

WILL

Simple Future

WILL

Future
Continuous

29

BE GOING TO

Future Perfect

They will have completed the

project before the deadline.

The project will have been

completed before the deadline.

They are going to have

completed the project before the
deadline.

The project is going to have been

completed before the deadline.

The famous artist will have been

painting the mural for over six
months by the time it is finished.

The mural will have been being

painted by the famous artist for
over six months by the time it is
finished.

The famous artist is going to

have been painting the mural for
over six months by the time it is
finished.

The mural is going to have been

being painted by the famous artist
for over six months by the time it is
finished.

Used to

Jerry used to pay the bills.

The bills used to be paid by Jerry.

Would Always

My mother would always make

the pies.

The pies would always be made by

my mother.

Future in the
Past
WOULD

I knew John would finish the

work by 5:00 PM.

I knew the work would be finished

by 5:00 PM.

Future in the
Past
WAS GOING TO

I thought Sally was going to

make a beautiful dinner tonight.

I thought a beautiful dinner was

going to be made by Sally tonight.

WILL

Future Perfect
BE GOING TO

Future Perfect
Continuous
WILL

Future Perfect
Continuous
BE GOING TO

Agent and instrument

The person who performs an action in a passive sentence is called the agent, and it is
introduced by by The agent may or may not be mentioned.
My purse was found by one of the cleaners.
A new road has been built ..
An object which causes something to happen is called an instrument and it is
introduced by with.
He was hit on the head with a hammer.
A. Unknown agent The agent is not mentioned if unknown.
My work has been taken. In this case, there is no point in adding an agent: 'by
somebody'.
30

B. Generalised agent If the subject Is 'people in general' or 'you' the agent is not
mentioned.
Bicycles are widely used in the city instead of public transport.
C. Obvious agent If the agent is obvious or has already been referred to, it is not
mentioned. Linda has been arrested! (we assume by the police) The company agreed to
our request and a new car park was opened.
D. Unimportant agent If the agent is not important to the meaning of the sentence it
is not mentioned.
I was advised to obtain a visa in advance.

Verbs with two objects

Verbs which have two objects can be made passive in two ways.
I was handed a note.
A note was handed to me.
Other common verbs of this type are: bring, give, (end, pass, pay,
promise, sell, send, show, tell .
Verbs with object and complement
Some verbs have a noun or adjective which describes their object.
We elected Jim class representative.
Everyone considered him a failure.
When these are made passive, the complement goes directly after the verb,
Jim was elected class representative.
He was considered a failure .

31

GRAMMAR PRACTICE

1. Fill in the sentences with the correct form of the passive:

1 Please wait in the lounge while your room ________(clean).
2 From next week, you ________ (expect) to arrive at work on time.
3 Too much money ________ (spend) last year on personal expenses.
4 Most of the pollution in city centers ________ (cause) by traffic jams.
5 Around 500,000 ________ (steal) from a bank in London this afternoon.
6 Next year over 2,000,000 mobile phones ________ (make) in China.
7 Kill Bill ________ (direct) by Quentin Tarantino.
7III

2. Complete the jokes by putting the verbs in brackets in the correct

passive:
1. A teacher asked her class to write an essay about a football match. A minute later all
the students were writing except one boy. The teacher looked at his paper. It said, The
game .. (stop) in the first minute by rain.
2. Why ..the tennis player .(give) a cigarette lighter at the end of the
competition?
I dont know
Because he had lost all his matches
3. Mum, do all fairy tales begin with <Once upon a time>?
No, darling. Some start with : < Sorry Im so late, darling, I (detain)
at the office>
3. Complete these jokes by putting the verbs given in the correct perfect
passive form:
1. Why are you putting a bandage over your pay cheque?
Because my salary just. (cut)
2. A man went to a hospital for a new brain. He was given a choice between two
brains an engineers for 30,000 $ or a politicians for 600,000 $.
Does that mean the politicians brain is much better?
32

 Not exactly, said the doctor. The politicians brain never ..(use).
3. I ..(ask) to get married hundreds of times.
Oh! Who by?
My parents
4. A man was visiting his friend in hospital.
You ..(miss) by everybody at the factory.
Thats nice
Yes. Yesterday the boss came to me and said:<Whats happened to whats-hisname?>

4. Rewrite the sentences, putting the verbs in the passive

1. We clean the garages every day.
The garages
2. We check every car engine very carefully.
Every car engine
3. We export this computer to 70 different countries.
This computer
4. They send 2 million books to America every year.
million books..
5. The machine wraps the bread automatically.
The bread.
6. The police arrested 200 people.
200 people
7 We opened the factory at 9 oclock.
The factory..
8. They posted all the letters yesterday.
All the letters
9. They paid a lot of money to do the job.
A lot of money
10. Fortunately, they didnt damage the machinery.
Fortunately, the machinery..
5. Underline any uses of the agent which are unnecessary.
1. My jewellery has been stolen by a thief!
2. It has been decided by the authorities that Wednesday will be a school
holiday.
3. Harry was pushed over by someone standing next to him in the queue.
4. The goods are transported by rail to our warehouse in the Midlands.
5. I was told by someone that you have a vacancy for a computer operator.
6. Sue has been picked by the selectors for the national event.
7. The letter was sent by post on the 21 of October.
8. The larger portrait was painted by a little-known artist,
9. It has been agreed by everyone that no smoking should he allowed.
10. As I arrived at the conference a note was handed to me by one of the
delegates.
6. Put each verb in brackets into an appropriate passive verb form
33

1. As

our new furniture....................................(deliver) on Monday

morning I'll have to stay at home to check that it
........................................ (not/damage) during transit.
2. The
new
Alhambra
hatchback,
which
in
this
country
........................................(sell) under the name'Challenger'.
................... (fit) with electric windows as standard.
3 .For the past few days I...................................(work) in Jack's office, as
my own office.....................................(redecorate).
4 It ........................................(announce) that the proposed new office
block.......................................(now/not/build) because of the current
economic situation.
5. A major new deposit of oil.................................. (discover) in the
North Sea. It......................................(think) to be nearly twice the size
of the largest existing field.
6. Pictures of the surface of the planet Venus
{receive) yesterday from the space probe 'Explorer' which
(launch) last year
7. A large sum.................................... (raise) for the Fund by a recent
charity concert but the target of 250,000..............................(still/
not/reach).
8. No decision......................................(make) about any future
appointment until all suitable candidates
(interview).

7. Rewrite each sentence in a more formal style so that it contains a passive

form of the word given in capitals :

The police are grilling Harry down at the station.

QUESTION

They've found the remains of an old Roman v i l l a nearby .

DISCOVER

You'll get a rise in salary after six

months .

RISK

They stopped playing the match after half

an hour

ABANDO
N

They stopped traffic from using the

centre.

HAN

They took Chris to court for dangerous driving

PROSECUTE

34

8. Put each verb in brackets into a suitable active or passive verb form :
According to our information, you .(ask)
(2)........................................(answer) a telephone survey last month, as a
result of which your name (3).................................(enter) in the
holiday draw. Now our computer (4)................................(choose) your
name, so you and your family (5).................................
(invite) to spend
a week in a European destination of your choice. This offer
(6)........................................ (make) on the condition that you attend a
special promotions day with other lucky families in your region who
(7).............................. (offer) a similar deal. You
{8)........................................(ask) to attend on any Saturday next month at
the Royal Hotel, Manchester. If you (9)..............................(interest) in
attending and taking up this offer, please (10)....................................
(detach) the slip below and return it to us as soon as possible.
9. Put the following into the passive voice. The agent should not be
mentioned except in numbers 11 and 28.
1 You should open the wine about three hours before you use it.
2 Previous climbers had cut steps in the ice.
3 Somebody had cleaned my shoes and brushed my suit.
4 We use this room only on special occasions.
5 You must not hammer nails into the walls without permission.
6 In some districts farmers use pigs to find truffles.
7 Someone switched on a light and opened the door.
8 Somebody had slashed the picture with a knife.
9 They are pulling down the old theatre.
10 Why didn't they mend the roof before it fell in?
11 The mob broke all the shop windows in recent riots.
10 The librarian said that they were starting a new system because
people were not returning books.
11 The police asked each of us about his movements on the night of the
crime.
14 Someone will serve refreshments.
15 People must not leave bicycles in the hall.
16 Members may keep books for three weeks. After that they must
return them.
17 The burglars had cut an enormous hole in the steel door.
18 I've bought a harp. They are delivering it this afternoon. (Do not
change the first sentence.)
19 Someone has already told him to report for duty at six.
20 They rang the church bells as a flood warning.
21 No one can do anything unless someone gives us more information.
22 People are spending far more money on food now than they spent
ten years ago.
23 The organizers will exhibit the paintings till the end of the month.
24 They will say nothing more about the matter if someone returns the
stolen gun.
25 It is high time someone told him to stop behaving like a child.
26 A thief stole my dog and brought him back only when I offered 20
reward for him.
27 The judge gave him two weeks in which to pay the fine.
28 They make these artificial flowers of silk.

10. Put the following into the passive, mentioning the agent where
35

necessary.
They gave her a clock.
She was given a clock.
The gerund after certain verbs is replaced in the passive by should be + past
participle:
They advised employing part-time workers.
They advised that part-time workers should be employed.
1 They feed the seals at the zoo twice a day.
2 Who wrote it?
3 Compare clothes which we have washed with clothes which any
other laundry has washed.
4 He expected us to offer him the job.
5 They showed her the easiest way to do it.
6 Lightning struck the old oak.
7 Titian couldn't have painted it as people didn't wear that style of
dress till after his death.
8 A jellyfish stung her.
9 The author has written a special edition for children.
10 Judges used to carry sweet herbs as a protection against jail-fever.
11 What did he write it with? ~
He wrote it with a match stick dipped in blood.
12 An uneasy silence succeeded the shot.
13 Did the idea interest you?
14 The lawyer gave him the details of his uncle's will.
15 Beavers make these dams.
16 They used to start these engines by hand. Now they start them by
electricity.
17 Most people opposed this.
18 Students are doing a lot of the work.
19 The Prime Minister was to have opened the dry dock.
20 They recommended opening new factories in the depressed area.
(Use should.)
21 The closure of the workshops will make a lot of men redundant.
22 Anyone with the smallest intelligence could understand these
instructions.
23 We will not admit children under sixteen.
24 Boys of sixteen to eighteen are to man this training ship.
25 A rainstorm flooded the gypsies' camp.
26 The howling of wolves kept him awake all night.
27 They suggested making the tests easier. (Use should.)
28 Children couldn't have done all this damage.
11. Turn the following sentences into the active voice. Where no agent is
mentioned one must be supplied.
1. This speed limit is to be introduced gradually.
2. The runways are being lengthened at all the main airports.
3. It is now 6 a.m. and at most of the hospitals in the country patients
are being wakened with cups of tea.
4. Byron is said to have lived on vinegar and potatoes.
5. By tradition, any sturgeon that are caught by British ships must be
offered to the Queen.
6. This notice has been altered.
7. The owners went away last March and since then their houseboat
has been used continuously by squatters. (Use a continuous tense and
omit continuously.)
8. The damaged ship was being towed into harbour when the tow-line
broke.
9. Have a lift put in and then you won't have to climb up all these
36

stairs.
10. Last year a profit of two million pounds was made in the first six
months but this was cancelled by a loss of seventeen million pounds
which was made in the second six months.
11. Evening dress will be worn.
12. The ship was put into quarantine and passengers and crew were
forbidden to land.
13. Someone will have to be found to take her place.
14. He was made to surrender his passport.
15. This rumour must have been started by our opponents.
16. My paintings are to be exhibited for the first time by New Arts
Gallery.
17. This scientific theory has now been proved to be false.
18. The car which was blown over the cliff yesterday is to be salvaged
today.
19. The house where the dead man was found is being guarded by the
police to prevent it from being entered and the evidence interfered
with.
20. Why wasn't the car either locked or put into the garage?
21. It is being said that too little money is being spent by the
government on roads.
22. Your money could be put to good use instead of being left idle in the
bank.
23. For a long time the earth was believed to be flat.
24. Carrier pigeons are said to have been used by early Egyptian and
Greek sailors.

37

CHAPTER IV
THE INFINITIVE

The INFINITIVE form of a verb is the form which follows to:

to ask
to believe
to cry
to go

to protect
to sing
to talk
to wish

Infinitives with to are referred to specifically as TO-INFINITIVES, in order to distinguish

them from BARE INFINITIVES, in which to: is absent:

To-infinitive

Bare infinitive

Help me to open the gate Help me open the gate

OTHER FORMS
The infinitive can have the following forms:
1. The Present Infinitive
Examples:
to go, to swim
2. The Perfect Infinitive
to have + past participle
For example: to have broken, to have seen, to have saved.
This form is most commonly found in Type 3 conditional sentences, using the conditional
perfect.
Examples:
a. If I had known you were coming I would have baked a cake.
b. Someone must have broken the window and climbed in.
c. I would like to have seen the Taj Mahal when I was in India.

d. He pretended to have seen the film.

e. If I'd seen the ball I would have caught it.

3. The Continuous Infinitive

to be + present participle
For example: to be swimming, to be joking, to be waiting
Examples:
f. I'd really like to be swimming in a nice cool pool right now. You must be joking!
g. I happened to be waiting for the bus when the accident happened.
4. The Perfect Continuous Infinitive
to have been + present participle
Examples: to have been crying, to have been waiting, to have been painting
Examples:
a. The woman seemed to have been crying.
b. You must have been waiting for hours!
c. He pretended to have been painting all day.

5. The Passive Infinitive

to be + past participle
For example: to be given, to be shut, to be opened
Examples: a) I am expecting to be given a pay-rise next month.
Regarding the present infinitive, there are situations where the "to" is omitted.
Examples :
a) He claimed to be an expert.
b) I managed to reach the top of the hill.
c) Don't pretend that you know the answer.
She failed to explain the problem clearly.
The customs man demanded to search our luggage.

I can't afford to go out tonight.

The Infinitive without to is used :

after modal verbs ;
She can speak English .
after verbs of perception : to see, to hear, to make, to let.
She saw me leave the room .
after the expressions : had best, had better, had/would rather , had/would sooner ,
cannot but, need hardly .
She had best admit her fault.
The Infinitive with to is used in expressions like Ac + Infinitive and N + Infinitive .
Acusative + Infinitive is used :

after verbs of perception : to hear, to feel, to notice, to perceive, to see, to watch and
after to let, to have ( to experience, to cause ), to have known .
I saw her shut the door .
after verbs expressing volition : to want , to desire, to forbid, to intend, to demand, to
wish
I want them to understand.
after verbs expressing mental activities : to believe, to consider, to expect , to imagine,
to know, to suppose, to trust etc.
She imagined him to be right.
after verbs expressing permission or command : to allow, to command, to compel, to
force, to oblige, to order, to permit .
She allowed us to sit down .
. The Nominative + Infinitive is used :

after verbs in the Passive Voice : to believe, to expect, to feel, to find, to hear, to
imagine, to know, to notice, to suppose etc.
Jane was known to be a great painter.
with the following verbs in the Active Voice : to appear, to chance, to happen, to turn
out etc.
with such constructions : to be lucky / unlucky / unfortunate /to be certain/ positive/,
to be likely.

The Infinitive can have the following functions:

1. it can be used as the subject of the verb.
Examples:
To swim is good for health.
To eat too much makes one fat.
To go for walk early in the morning is advised by the doctors.
To read means to grow.

2..it can be used as the object of the verb.

Examples:
I forget to tell you an important matter.
All of you begin to work.
The doctor has come to check you up for blood-pressure.

GRAMMAR PRACTICE

1. Insert to where necessary before the infinitives in brackets.

1. You ought(go) today. It may (rain) tomorrow.
2. You needn't (say) anything. Just nod your head and he will understand.
3. I want (see) the house where our president was born.
4. He made her (repeat) the message.
5. May I (use) your phone?
6. You needn't (ask) for permission; you can (use) it whenever you like.
7. If you want (get) there before dark you should (start) at once.
8. I couldn't (remember) his address.
9. You'll be able (do) it yourself when you are older.
10. Would you like (go) now or shall we (wait) till the end?
11. They won't let us (leave) the Customs shed till our luggage has been
examined.
12. How dare you (open) my letters!
13. He didn't dare (argue) with his boss.
14. I used (smoke) forty cigarettes a day.
15. Will you help me (move) the bookcase?
16. He wouldn't let my baby (play) with his gold watch.
17. They refused (accept) the bribe.
18. He is expected (arrive) in a few days.
19. Please let me (know) your decision as soon as possible.
20. He made us (wait) for hours.
21. Could you (tell) me the time, please?
22. We must (send) him a telegram.
23. I let him (go) early as he wanted (meet) his wife.
24. Where would you like (have) lunch?
25. You seem (know) this area very well.
26. Yes, I used (live) here.
27. The kidnappers told the parents (not inform) the police, and the
parents didn't dare (disobey).
28. Need I (come)? I'd much rather (stay) at home.
29. You can (take) a horse to water but you can't (make) him (drink).
(proverb)
30. I'm sorry (disappoint) you but I can't (let) you (have) any more
money till the end of the month.
31. We could (go) to a concert, unless you'd prefer (visit) a museum.
32. You can (leave) your dog with us if you don't (want) (take) him with
you.
33. He used (live) in a caravan.

2. Insert to where necessary before the infinitives in brackets. (In some of the
sentences a present participle could be used instead of an infinitive.
1. It is easy (be) wise after the event.
2. Do you (wish) (make) a complaint?
3. We don't (want) anybody (know) that we are here.
4. If you can't (remember) his number you'd better (look) it up.
5. I want her (learn) Esperanto; I think everybody ought to (know) it.
6. He is said (be) the best surgeon in the country.
7. Visitors are asked (not feed) the animals.
8. Could I (see) Mr. Pitt, please?
9. I'm afraid Mr. Pitt isn't in. Would you like (speak) to his secretary?
10. It's better (travel) hopefully than (arrive), (proverb)
11. He should (know) how (use) the film projector, but if he doesn't you
had better (show) him.
12. He was made (sign) a paper admitting his guilt.
13. I heard the door (open) and saw a shadow (move) across the floor.
14. He tried (make) me (believe) that he was my stepbrother.
15. As we seem (have missed) the train we may as well (go) back to the
house.
16. I felt the house (shake) with the explosion.
17. He told me (try) (come) early.
18. Before he let us (go) he made us (promise) (not tell) anyone what we
had seen.
19. Would you (like) (come) in my car?
No, thanks, I'd rather (walk).
20. I advised him (ask) the bus conductor (tell) him where (get) off.
21. It is better (put) your money in a bank than (keep) it under your bed
in an old stocking.
22. He doesn't even bother (read) letters, let alone (answer) them.
23. The bank robbers made the cashier (show) them how (open) the safe.
24. If you knew he was wrong, why didn't you (say) something?
25. I didn't like (say) anything because he always gets angry if you contradict him.
26. It's better (be) sure than sorry.
27. What do you (want) me (tell) him?
28. Tell him that any time he cares (call) I shall be delighted (discuss) the matter with
him.
29. Did you remember (give) him the money?
30. No, I didn't, I still have it in my pocket; but I'll (see) him tonight and I promise (not
forget) this time.
31. I saw the driver (open) his window and (throw) a box into the
bushes.
32. That is far too heavy for one person (carry); let me (help) you.
33. I was afraid (pick) up the revolver as I don't know how (handle)
firearms.
34. I saw the plane (crash) into the hill and (burst) into flames.
35. There is nothing (do) but (wait) till somebody comes (let) us out.
36. He heard a cock (crow) in a neighbouring village.
37. You may as well (tell) us the truth. It will (be) easy (check) your

story.
38. The American said he had seen nine presidents (come) and (go).
He must (be) a very old man.
39. It is up to you (learn) the laws of your own country.
40. Would you rather (be) more stupid than you look or (look) more
stupid than you are?
3. Replace the group of words in italics by an infinitive or an infinitive
construction.
Example:
It is important that he should understand this. It is important for
him to understand this.
He was the first man who arrived. He was the first man to
arrive.
1. The captain was the last man who left the ship.
2. He got to the top and was very disappointed when he found that
someone else had reached it first.
3. Would you be very kind and lend me your umbrella?
4. There are a lot of sheets that need mending.
5. I was astonished when I heard that he had left the country.
6. It is better that he should hear it from you.
7. I was rude to him, which was stupid. (It was stupid . . .)
8. He put his hand into his pocket and was astonished when he found
that his wallet wasn't there. He rushed into the burning house, which was very
brave of him. (It
was very brave . . .)
9. I can't go to the party; I have nothing that I can wear.
10. It is expected that he will broadcast a statement tonight. (He is
expected . . .)
11. He was the only one who realized the danger.
12. It is said that the earth was originally part of the sun. (The earth . . .)
13. I want a kitchen where (= in which) I can cook.
14. He reached the station exhausted and was very disappointed when he
learnt that the train had just left.
15. Haven't you anything with which you could open it?
16. It seems that the crime was committed by a left-handed man. (The
crime seems . . . Use perfect infinitive passive.)
17. Is it likely that he will arrive before six? (Is he . . .)
18. I was on the point of leaving the house when the phone rang.
19. This is the plan: someone will meet you at the station . . . (You . . .
(be met) at the station)
20. She is anxious that they should have every possible advantage.
21. It is said that he was a brilliant scientist. (He is said . . .)
22. The strikers decided that the strike should continue.
23. Would you be very kind and translate this for me?
24. It is advisable that we should leave the house separately.
25. You signed the document without reading it, which was very stupid.
(It was stupid . . .)
26. It is said that she has a frightful temper. (She . . .)

27. He was the first man who swam the Channel.

28. They believe that he is honest. (He . . .)
29. It appears that he was killed with a blunt instrument. (He appears . . .
Use passive infinitive.)
30. He took out his spare wheel and was very disappointed when he
discovered that that tyre was also punctured.

4. Use the perfect infinitive of the verb in italics with the appropriate auxiliary
verb. Phrases in bold type should not be repeated, but their meaning should
be expressed by the auxiliary + perfect infinitive.
It is possible that he telephoned while we were out.
He may have telephoned while we were out.
You (thank) him for his present but you didn't.
You should have thanked him for his present.
1. It is possible that a child broke the window.
2. You carried it yourself, which was not necessary.
3. I've had a toothache for two days.
You (go) to the dentist when it started.
4. There (be) motor-cycle races on the sands but as it is so wet they
have been cancelled.
5. As I was standing in the hall your dog bit me.
6. It (not be) my dog; he was with me all day. It (be) my brother's dog.
7. I feel terribly ill today.
8. You (not eat) those mushrooms yesterday. Mushrooms don't agree with you.
9. I wonder why he didn't answer?
Possibly he didnt understand the question.
10. I gave him a tip, which was not necessary.
11. The prisoner(escape) this way, for here are his footprints.
12. You lied to him, which was wrong.
13. I didn't recognize the voice at the other end of the line.
14. It (be) my elder sister; she is often at home at that time. It (not be) my youngest
sister as she is abroad.
15. Someone (cook) a meal here lately; the stove is still hot.
16. I've brought my own sandwiches.
17. You (not bring) them. I have enough for two.
18. The burglar went straight to the safe although it was hidden behind a picture.
19. Someone (tell) him where it was.
20. The president (unveil) the statue, but he is ill so his wife is doing it
instead.
21. The plane is late; I wonder what has happened?Possibly it was delayed by fog.
22. I have never met him.
23. You (meet) him; he lives next door to you.
24. I (do) it. (It was my duty to do it, but I didn't.)
25. He (not catch) the 9.20 train because he didn't leave home till 9.25.
26. I opened it, which was unnecessary.

27. The police were here while we were out.

Someone (betray) us.
28. I drove at 80 miles an hour, which was wrong.
29. When I was your age I (climb) that mountain, (but I didn't).
30. If a policeman had seen me climbing through your window he (ask)
me what I was doing.
31. He said that censorship of news was ridiculous and it (abolish) years
ago. (passive verb)
32. You boiled so many eggs; but there are only four of us.
33. She (play) the chief part in the film, but she quarreled with the
director, so he engaged someone else.
34. This poem (be) written by Keats, but I am not certain.
35. He (take) off his hat in the theatre, (but he didn't).
36. People used to walk twenty miles to do their shopping.
They (have) a lot of energy in those days.
37. One day he went for a walk up a mountain and never came back.
38. He (fall) over a precipice.
39. I just pressed lightly on the pane and my hand went through.
The glass (be) very thin.
40. You translated it into French, which wasn't necessary.
41. You looked at the new moon through glass. It is most unlucky.
42. I realized that my house was on fire.
That (be) a terrible moment
43. I saw a ghost last night.
You (not see) a ghost; there aren't any ghosts. You (dream) it.

5. Use the perfect infinitive of the verb in italics with the appropriate
auxiliary verb. Phrases in bold type should not be repeated, but their
meaning should be expressed by the auxiliary + perfect infinitive. P ut the
second verb into the perfect infinitive and the first into an appropriate
tense.
This palace (say) (build) in three years.
This palace is said to have been built in three years.
1. You repeated it, which was unnecessary.
2. There (seem) (be) a fight here. Everything is smashed to bits.
3. We (set) out today, but the weather is so bad that we decided to postpone our start
till tomorrow.
4. I thought they were mushrooms.
5. You (not eat) them unless you were sure. They (be) poisonous.
6. He learnt the language in six months. He (work) very hard.
7. I brought my umbrella, which was unnecessary.
8. I (like) (bathe) but there wasn't time.
9. I've forgotten the address. I (write) it down (but I didn't).
10. If I'd known your house was so cold I (not come).
11. You (tell) me you were going camping! If I'd known I (go) with you.

12. But it rained all the time. You (not like) that, would you?
13. Who gave you my address?
14. I don't remember. It (be) Tom. It (not be) Tom; he doesn't know it.
15. You bought flowers but we have plenty in the garden.
16. After two years of his teaching she knew absolutely nothing.
17. He (not be) a good teacher.
18. My sister has just come back from abroad. She (seem) (enjoy) her trip
very much.
19. Life (be) very uncomfortable in the Stone Age.
20. You (stand) still when you were being photographed, (but you
didn't).
21. I (go) to a foreign university but the war prevented it.
22. I (like) (photograph) it but I had no more film.
23. There (be) a bad accident here. Look at all the broken glass.
24. It is possible that prehistoric cave drawings were connected with
religion.
25. I have been driving for 20 years.
26. You (not drive) for 20 years. You are only 30 now.
27. It (take) years to dig the Suez Canal.
28. He walked past me without speaking.
29. He (not recognize) you. He is very short-sighted.
30. I (like) (go) to the match but the tickets were all sold.
31. He says he saw you at the theatre yesterday.
He (not see) me. I wasn't there.
32. This picture may be a fake; on the other hand it (be) painted by one
of the Dutch masters.
33. It is possible that the fire in the ship was started by a bomb.
34. She walked 300 miles, carrying her child.
She (have) great courage.
35. It is possible that he (read) it in the papers.
36. He (not read) it. He can't read. Someone (tell) him.
37. I told them to meet me under the clock but they didn't turn up.
Perhaps they were waiting under the wrong clock. There are two in
the station.
38. He told me his name was Johnson.
You (mishear) him. His name is Jones.
39. I said that I couldn't find my pen and he said that perhaps somebody
40. had borrowed it.
41. I (like) (ask) a question but I was sitting so far back that I didn't
think I'd be heard.
42. There (be) a fort here at one time. You can see where the foundations were.
43. The dinosaur (be said) (be) rather a stupid animal.
44. She (marry) my brother but she was killed in a plane crash a month
before the wedding date.

6. Combine each of the following pairs of sentences into one sentence using
too/enough with infinitive.
Example :
It is very cold. We can't go out.
It is too cold for us to go out.
He is strong. He can carry it.
He is strong enough to carry it.
1. It is very cold. We can't bathe.
2. Would you be very kind and answer this letter by return?
3. I am rather old. I can't wear that kind of hat.
4. The ladder wasn't very long. It didn't reach the window.
5. He hadn't much money. He couldn't live on it. (Omit it.)
6. He was furious. He couldn't speak.
7. The fire isn't very hot. It won't boil a kettle.
8. Tom was very foolish. He told lies to the police.
9. You are quite thin. You could slip between the bars.
10. He is very ill. He can't eat anything.
11. Our new car is very wide. It won't get through those gates.
12. The floor wasn't strong. We couldn't dance on it. (Omit it.)
13. I was terrified. I couldn't move.
14. The bull isn't big. He couldn't harm you.
15. The coffee isn't strong. It won't keep us awake.
16. The river is deep. We can't wade it. (Omit it.) He is lazy. He won't get up early.
17. He won't get up early so he never catches the fast train.
18. Would you be very good and forward my letters while I am away?
19. The ice is quite thick. We can walk on it. (Omit it.)
20. He was very drunk. He couldn't answer my question.
21. It is very cold. We can't have breakfast in the garden.
22. He was extremely rash. He set off up the mountain in a thick fog.
23. We aren't very high. We can't see the summit.
24. You aren't very old. You can't understand these things.
25. He was very snobbish. He wouldn't talk to any of us.
26. The package is very thick. I can't push it through the letterbox.
(Omit it.)
27. She was very mean. She never gave to charity.
28. He is very impatient. He never listens to anyone.
29. I was very tired. I couldn't walk any further.
30. It's not very dark. We can't see the stars clearly.
31. It was very hot. You could fry an egg on the pavement.
32. The oranges were very bitter. We couldn't eat them. (Omit them.)
33. Would you be very kind and turn down the radio a little?
34. He is very selfish. He wouldn't put himself out for anyone
35. You are very young. You can't have a front-door key.

7. In each of the following pairs of sentences an infinitive used in the first sentence
is repeated in the second. Read the sentences, expressing this second
infinitive by to only.
Where the second infinitive has an object, this word/phrase must be omitted.
Example:
Why didn't you tell me the truth the first time? I meant to tell you the truth but I was too
frightened. I meant to but I was too frightened .
1. I want you two to apologize to each other.
Well, 1 am willing to apologize if he apologizes first.
2. Did you reserve seats on the train?
No, I tried to reserve them but they had all been booked already.
3. Did you answer the letter?
No, I intended to answer it but I'm afraid I forgot
4. Why didn't you hit him?
I was afraid to hit him.
5. I'd love to spend a night in a haunted room.
I'd hate to spend a night in a haunted room.
6. Why didn't you ask your father for the money?
I didn't like to ask him.
7. Did you get a chance to fly the aeroplane yourself?
No, I wanted to fly it but the pilot wouldn't let me.
8. Why doesn't he punish his boys when they disobey him?
He often threatens to punish them but he never actually does so.
9. Why didn't he repair the car himself?
He wasn't able to repair it.
10. I used to drink whisky with my meals.
I used to drink whisky with my meals also but I don't now.
11. Did you buy sausages?
No, I meant to buy them but I forgot.
12. Why doesn't he try again?
He doesn't want to try again.
13. You should visit the Prado when you are in Madrid.
Yes, I intend to visit it.
14. Why doesn't he play games?
His mother doesn't want him to play games.
15. You ought to stop work now.
Yes, I am just going to stop.
16. Why do some jockeys carry extra weights?
They are obliged to carry them by the regulations.
17. Did he help you?
No, I asked him to help me but he said he hadn't time.
18. You should have thanked her before you left.
I meant to thank her but when I was going I couldn't find her anywhere.
19. Why did she put parsley in the soup?
I told her to put it in.
20. Why didn't he report it to the police?
He was afraid to report it. He didn't think they'd believe him.

21. Why did he drive so fast?

He had to drive fast; otherwise he'd have missed his train.
22. You used to like rice pudding.
Yes, I know I used to like it but I don't now.
23. Why didn't you buy the car?
I was advised not to buy it.
24. I hope the children won't go near the water.
I warned them not to go near it.
25. Why are we trying to get planning permission?
26. We have to get planning permission. It is the law.
I meant to work hard.
27. I know you meant to work hard but you didn't.
Do the boys tidy their own rooms?
28. They are supposed to tidy them but they don't always.
Why didn't he call the police.
29. He wasn't able to call them. His telephone line had been cut.
30. Why did you move your car?
The policeman told me to move it.
31. Why did you bring your mother-in-law? I particularly asked you not
to bring her.

CHAPTER V
THE GERUND

The Gerund is an -ing form that has both substantival and verbal characteristics.
Taking into account the substantival characteristics of the Gerund, it must be shown that :

it can have a plural form

it can be preceded by a genitive or a possessive adjective
it may have a genitive form
it can be preceded by the definite or indefinite article
it may modify a noun

If we consider the verbal characteristics of the Gerund , we must underline that :

It may have tense and voice :

Present : Marys coming here is unexpected.
Perfect :Your having said that pleased your parents.
Active : He likes sending letters.
Passive : She insisted on being sent at once

It may have an indirect/direct/prepositional object and adverbial modifiers .

Ex: He is fond of telling jokes.

I denied giving her that pencil.
All night she avoided telling about the accident.
Jack is used to driving fast.
USE:
1. Phrasal verbs followed by Gerund :
to go on
to keep on
to give up
to put off etc.
Ex: Father gave up smoking a long time ago.
2. Expressions (be/get + adj./Past Part.) followed by Gerund:
be (get) accustomed to
be angry about
be bored with
be capable of
be committed to
be excited about

be interested in
be prepared for
be responsible for
be tired of
be (get) used to
be worried about etc.

Ex: We were excited about going to the seaside.

3. After the following expressions:

cant help,

to be looking forward to

to be worth
to be looking forward to
to feel like etc.

cant stand
its no use

4. Verbs followed by Gerund:

acknowledge
o
admit
advise
anticipate
appreciate
avoid
cannot bear
cannot help
cannot resist
complain about
consider
consist of
contemplate
defer from
delay
deny

detest
discuss
dislike
dream about
enjoy
escape
evade
favor
finish
give up
have trouble
imagine
include
insist on
keep (on)
mention

mind
object to
postpone
practice
put off
quit
recall
recommend
regret
resent
resist
risk
suggest
talk about
tolerate
understand

Ex:
After being stopped by the police, George admitted having consumed two pints of beer.
We anticipated having difficulty finding candidates with the right qualifications.
We do appreciate your taking time from your busy schedule to come to Hungary.
He tried to avoid meeting her.
5. Some verbs can be followed by a gerund or an infinitive, or both. If both are
possible, then there is usually a difference in meaning:

+Inf.

help, make, let

+ inf. with to agree, appear, arrange, ask, attempt, choose, dare, decide, demand, deserve,
expect, fail, grow, happen, hasten, help, hope, hurry, learn, long, make (passive),
manage, neglect, offer, pay, plan, pledge, pretend, promise, refuse, resolve, seek,
seem, struggle, swear, threaten, vow, want, wish
+ Gerund

appreciate, avoid, burst out, cant stand, contemplate, delay, deny, detest,
dislike, endure, enjoy, escape, excuse, face, fancy, feel like, finish, give up,
involve, its no good/use, keep on, leave off, mention, mind, miss, postpone,
practice , put off, resent, risk, spend/waste time, suggest, want

+ inf. or
gerund

hear, see, watch

+ inf. with to attempt, begin, cant bear, continue, forget, go on, hate, intend, love, mean, plan,
or gerund
prefer, propose, regret, remember, start, stop, try
+ object +
admit, allow, consider, forbid, imagine, permit, require
inf. with to or
gerund
+ object + to

advise, assist, beg, bribe, command, dare, employ, enable, encourage, instruct,
invite, lead, order, persuade, select, send, teach, tell, train, urge, warn

+ that +
clause

admit, advise, agree, appear, appreciate, arrange, decide, demand, deny, expect,
fancy, forget, happen, hope, intend, learn, mean, mention, order, persuade, plan,
pledge, pretend, promise, propose, regret, remember, resent, resolve, seem,
suggest, swear, teach, tell, threaten, vow, warn, wish

Gerund can have the following functions:

1.A gerund is used as the subject of a verb.
Examples:
Walking alone is what he likes the most.
Buying vegetables in that market is a difficult affair.
Following others is not advisable.
You can easily see that the subjects in all these sentences are in gerund forms.
2. A gerund is used as an object of a verb.
Examples:
Begin reading the book.
I like going for a walk.
3. A gerund is used as a prepositional object:
Examples:
My neighbor is good at breeding dogs.

 I am fond of eating sweets.

Before entering the room, please remove your foot-wear.

GRAMMAR PRACTICE

1. Put the verbs in brackets into the gerund:

1.
2.
3.
4.

He gave up (gamble
Try to avoid (make) him angry.
Stop (argue) and start (work).
As a result of (listen) at keyholes he learnt many facts which he had no
hesitation in (use) to his own advantage.
5. The children prefer (watch) TV to (read).
6. I am against (make) any complaints.
7. It's no use (cry) over spilt milk, (proverb)
8. I suggest (hold) another meeting next week.
9. He finished (speak) and sat down.
10. He was fined for (drive) without lights.
11. It is difficult to get used to (eat) with chopsticks.
12. If you can't turn the key try (put) some oil in the lock.
13. He lost no time in (get) down to work.
14. You can't make an omelette without (break) eggs, (proverb)
15. We are looking forward to (read) your new book.
16. They escaped by (slide) down ropes made of blankets.
17. They don't allow (smoke) in here.
18. He is thinking of (leave) his job and (go) to America.
19. After (read) this article you will give up (smoke).
20. If you put your money into that business you risk (lose) every penny.
21. Imagine (live) with someone who never stops (talk).
22. Is there anything here worth (buy)?
23. He was accused of (leak) classified information to the press.
24. You'd better consult your lawyer before (decide) to buy the
property.
25. I don't enjoy (go) to the dentist.
26. Would you mind (put) your pet snake somewhere else?
27. The hostages were rescued without a shot (be) fired.
28. By (work) day and night he succeeded in (finish) the job in time.
29. He has a scheme for (make) grass grow in winter.
30. I don't feel like (work); what about (go) to a disco instead?
31. Would you mind (write) your name and address on the back of the
cheque?
32. I hate (borrow) money.
33. He was furious at (be) mistaken for an escaped convict.
34. After (talk) for ten minutes I succeeded in (convince) him that there
was no danger.
35. I remember (read) a review of that book and (think) I'd like to get it.
2. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct form (gerund or infinitive):
1. He hates (answer) the phone, and very often just lets it (ring).
2. If you go on (let) your dog (chase) cars he'll end by (be) run over.
3. I prefer (drive) to (be driven).

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

I advise you (start) (look) for a flat at once.

Would you mind (lend) me 5? I forgot (cash) a cheque.
(Lie) on this beach is much more pleasant than (sit) in the office.
She likes her children (go) to the dentist every six months.
By (neglect) (take) ordinary precautions he endangered the life of his
crew.
9. An instructor is coming (show) us how (use) the aqualung.
10. I have no intention of (go) to that film;
11. I couldn't bear (see) my favourite actress in such a dreadful part.
12. I suggest (telephone) the hospitals before (ask) the police (look) for him.
13. After (hear) the conditions I decided (not enter) for the competition.
14. Some people seem (have) a passion for (write) to the newspapers.
15. He expects me (answer) by return but I have no intention of (reply)
at all.
16. I tried (explain) to him but he refused (listen) and went on (grumble).
17. By (offer) enormous wages he is persuading men (leave) their
present jobs and (work) for him.
18. He postponed (make) a decision till it was too late (do) anything.
19. Imagine (have) (get up) at five a.m. every day!
20. Try (forget ) it; it isn't worth (worry) about.
21. There is no point in (remain) in a dangerous place if you can't do
anything (help) the people who have (stay) there.
22. The horse won't be well enough (run) in tomorrow's race. He doesn't seem (have
recovered) from his long journey. At first I enjoyed (listen) to him but after a while I
got tired of (hear) the same story again and again.
23. It is usually easier (learn) a subject by (read) books than by (listen) to
lectures.
24. It wouldn't be safe (start) down now; we'll have (wait) till the mist
clears.
25. After (discuss) the matter for an hour the committee adjourned
without (have reached) any decision.
26. It's not much use (have) a bicycle if you don't know how (ride) it.
27. He didn't dare (leave) the house because he was afraid of (meet)
someone who might (recognize) him.
28. I distinctly remember (pay) him. I gave him 2.
29. Did you remember (give) him the key of the safe?
No, I didn't. I'll go and do it now.
30. Please forgive me for (interrupt) you but would you mind (repeat)
that last sentence?
3 1 . I know my hair wants (cut) but I never have time (go) to the hairdresser's.
32. He made a lot of money by (buy) tickets in advance and (sell) them
for twice the price on the day of the match.
33. She rushed out of the room without (give) me a chance (explain).
34. He keeps (ask) me the time and I keep (tell) him (buy) himself a
watch.
35. He has a theory that it is possible (tell) the time in daylight by (look)
into a cat's eyes.
36. I'd hate (be) beside a volcano when it started (erupt).
3. Put the verbs in brackets into gerund or infinitive:

1. I ride sometimes. Would you like (come) with me next time?

2. Most people prefer (spend) money to (earn) it.
3. I resented (be) unjustly accused and asked him (apologize).
4. It isn't good for children (eat) too many sweets.
5. I didn't feel like (work) so I suggested (spend) the day in the garden.
6. Why do you keep (look) back? Are you afraid of (be) followed?
7. Do you remember (post) the letter?
8. Yes, I do; I posted it in the letter-box near my gate.
9. Did you remember (lock) the door?
10. No, I didn't. I'd better (go) back and (do) it now.
11. You still have a lot (learn) if you'll forgive my (say) so.
12. It's no use (try) (interrupt) him. You'll have (wait) till he stops (talk).
13. I'm for (do) nothing till the police arrive. They don't like you (move)
anything when a crime has been committed.
14. He didn't like (leave) the children alone in the house but he had no
alternative as he had (go) out to work.
15. Why didn't you drink it?
16. I didn't like (drink) it as I didn't know what it was.
17. I'm very sorry for (be) late. It was good of you (wait) for me.
18. I keep (try) (make) mayonnaise but I never succeed.
Try (add) the yolk of a hard-boiled egg.
19. Do you feel like (go) to a film or would you rather (stay) at home?
20. She told me (look) through her correspondence and (take) out any
letters that you had written her. I didn't like (look) through someone
else's letters but I had (do) as she said.
21. He took to (get up) early and (walk) noisily about the house.
22. I liked (listen) to folk music much better than (listen) to pop.
23. The car began (make) an extraordinary noise so I stopped (see) what
it was.
24. You'll never regret (do) a kind action.
25. He decided (put) broken glass on top of his wall (prevent) boys
(climb) over it.
26. He annoyed me very much by (take) the piece of cake that I was
keeping (eat) after my supper.
27. He kept (ring) up and (ask) for an explanation and she didn't know
what (do) about him.
28. We got tired of (wait) for the weather (clear) and finally decided (set)
out in the rain.
29. He made me (repeat) his instructions (make) sure that I understood
what I was (do) after he had gone.
30. I suggest (leave) the car here and (send) a breakdown van (tow) it to
the garage.
31. She apologized for (borrow) my sewing-machine without (ask)
permission and promised never (do) it again.
32. I didn't mean (offend) anyone but somehow I succeeded in (annoy)
them all.
33. She claimed (be able) (tell) the future by (gaze) into her crystal ball.
34. He never thinks of (get) out of your way; he expects you (walk)
round him.

35. You don't need (ask) his permission every time you want (leave) the
room.
36. The police accused him of (set) fire to the building but he denied
(have been) in the area on the night of the fire.
37. I left my door open. Why didn't you walk in?
I didn't like (go) in when you weren't there.
38. It's much better (go) to a hairdresser than (try) (save) time by (cut)
your own hair.
39. I'd rather (earn) my living by (scrub) floors than (make) money by
(blackmail) people.
40. I used (ride) a lot but I haven't had a chance (do) any since (come)
here.

CHAPTER VI

THE PARTICIPLE
There are two participle in English: the Present Participle(ending in ing) and the Past Participle(ending
in ed or having special form for irregular verbs).
Form:

present participle

an exciting race

past participle

excited people

We use the participle in order to:

1

to shorten relative clauses

to make one sentence out of two

after verbs of "perception" (e.g. see, watch, hear, listen to, smell, feel)

after verbs of "rest" and "movement" (e.g. run, go, come, stay, stand, lie, sit)

after the verb have

instead of a subordinate clause

Examples:
1

The cars which are produced in Japan are nice.

The cars produced in Japan are nice.

I saw the man. He came to the shop.

I saw the man coming to the shop.

I saw the car coming round the corner.

The girl sat sleeping on the sofa.

I have my clothes washed.

When they went to Texas they expected a better job.

Going to Texas they expected a better job.

Present participle

The present participle is often used when we want to express an active action.
In English we add - ing to the infinitive of the verb.
Use of the present participle:
Progressive/
Continuous tense

He is reading a book.
He was reading a book.
Reading books is fun.

Gerund

He likes reading books.

Look at the reading boy.

Participle

He came reading around the corner.

He sat reading in the corner.
I saw him reading.

Past participle
Use of the past participle:
Perfect tenses
Passive voice

He has forgotten the pencil.

He had forgotten the pencil.
A house is built.
A house was built.
Look at the washed car.

Participle

The car washed yesterday is blue.

He had his car washed.

The Present Participle has the following characteristics:

It can be modified by an adverb.
Ex: She is playing now
It can have a direct object.
Ex : Mother is making a cake.
It can have an indirect object .
Ex: You are giving me very good advice
We use Present Participle :

to talk about an earlier action

The present participle can be used to talk about an earlier action, or one of the actions of the
same subject.
Seeing the snake, the man ran away.
Finding none in the class, the teacher became angry.
Entering the room, we found the child sleeping.

in the appositive position

The present participle can be used in the appositive position.

The woman, quivering and trembling, ran away.

as an adverb modifying an adjective

It is freezing cold.
She was dripping wet.

in absolute phrases

The participles are used in absolute phrases with a noun or pronoun going before them:
God willing, we shall meet again.
The sea being rough, they abandoned the journey.
Each of these absolute phrases can be transformed into a subordinate clause:
If God is willing, we shall meet again.
As the sea was rough, they abandoned the journey.
We use Past participle

to form the perfect tenses

The past participle is used to form the perfect tenses.

They have arrived. (Present perfect)
They have been invited. (Present perfect passive)
They had left. (Past perfect)
They will have returned. (Future perfect)

as an adjective

The past participle can be used as an adjective in all the positions and functions as a typical
adjective.
She swept away the fallen leaves.
A burnt child dreads fire.
He wore a torn shirt.

In this case the past participles are used as adjectives before the nouns they qualify.

as part of the predicate

The past participle can be used as part of the predicate after copular verbs such as : be, seem,
look, appear etc.
The woman looked distressed.
She seemed surprised.
He was left stranded.

in the appositive position

The past participle can be used in the appositive position.

Dejected he left the room.

as an adverb

The past participle can be used as an adverb modifying an adjective.

I am dead tired.
He was dead drunk.

to express an earlier action of the same subject

Deceived by his friends, he killed himself.

Terrified, they fled from the scene.
Participle constructions are more common in written English.

GRAMMAR PRACTICE
1. Join each of the following pairs of sentences, using either a present
participle, a past participle or a perfect participle:
Example:
He got off his horse. He began searching for something on the
ground.
Getting off his horse, he began searching. . .
I had seen photographs of the place. I had no desire to go there.
Having seen photographs of the place, I had no desire . . .
The speaker refused to continue. He was infuriated by the
interruptions.
Infuriated by the interruptions, the speaker refused . . .

1. She became tired of my complaints about the programme. She

turned it off.
2. He found no one at home. He left the house in a bad temper.
3. She hoped to find the will. She searched everywhere.
4. The criminal removed all traces of his crime. He left the building.
5. He realized that he had missed the last train. He began to walk.
6. He was exhausted by his work. He threw himself on his bed.
7. He had spent all his money. He decided to go home and ask his
father for a job.
8. He escaped from prison. He looked for a place where he could get
food.
9. She didn't want to hear the story again. She had heard it all before.
10. They found the money. They began quarrelling about how to
divide it.
11. She entered the room suddenly. She found them smoking.
12. I turned on the light. I was astonished at what I saw.
13. We visited the museum. We decided to have lunch in the park.
14. He offered to show us the way home. He thought we were lost.
15. He found his revolver. He loaded it. He sat down facing the door.
16. She asked me to help her. She realized that she couldn't move it
alone.
17. He fed the dog. He sat down to his own dinner.
18. He addressed the congregation. He said he was sorry to see how few
of them had been able to come.
19. He thought he must have made a mistake somewhere. He went
through his calculations again.
20. I have looked through the fashion magazines. I realize that my
clothes are hopelessly out of date.
21. The tree had fallen across the road. It had been uprooted by the
gale.
22. People were sleeping in the next room. They were wakened by the
sound of breaking glass.

23. I knew that the murderer was still at large. I was extremely
reluctant to open the door.
24. He stole the silver. He looked for a place to hide it.
25. We were soaked to the skin. We eventually reached the station.
26. I sat in the front row. I used opera glasses. I saw everything
beautifully.
27. One evening you will be sitting by the fire. You will remember this
day.
28. I didn't like to sit down. I knew that there were ants in the grass.
29. She believed that she could trust him absolutely. She gave him a
blank cheque.
30. Slates were ripped off by the gale. They fell on people passing
below.
31. The lion found his cage door open. He saw no sign of his keeper. He
left the cage and walked slowly towards the zoo entrance.
32. The government once tried to tax people according to the size of
their houses. They put a tax on windows.
33. I had heard that the caves were dangerous. I didn't like to go any
further without a light.
34. She wore extremely fashionable clothes. She was surrounded by
photographers and pressmen. She swept up to the microphone.
35. I knew that he was poor. I offered to pay his fare.
2. Put the verbs in brackets into a correct form. You may use ing forms,
the gerund and the participle:
1. The snow kept (fall) and the workmen grew tired of (try) (keep) the
roads clear.
2. He offered (lend) me the money. I didn't like (take) it but I had no
alternative.
3. What was in the letter?
4. I don't know. I didn't like (open) it as it wasn't addressed to me.
5. Do you remember (read) about it?
6. No, at that time I was too young (read) newspapers.
7. Did you remember (book) seats for the theatre tomorrow?
Yes, I have the tickets here. Would you like (keep) them? I am
inclined (lose) theatre tickets.
8. Try (avoid) (be) late. He hates (be) kept (wait).
9. I didn't know how (get) to your house so I stopped (ask) the way.
10. I wish my refrigerator would stop (make) that horrible noise. You
can't hear anyone (speak).
11. This book tells you how (win) at games without actually (cheat).
12. The gunman began (fire). He felt a bullet (graze) his cheek.
13. He heard the clock (strike) six and knew that it was time for him
(get) up.
14. I can hear the bell (ring) but nobody seems (be coming) (open) the
door.
15. Did you advise him (go) to the police?
16. No, I didn't like (give) any advice on such a difficult matter.

17. He wanted (put) my chameleon on a tartan rug and (watch) it

(change) colour.
18. It is easy (see) animals on the road in daylight but sometimes at
night it is very difficult (avoid) (hit) them.
19. The fire seems (be) out.
20. It can't be quite out. I can hear the wood (crackle).
21. l8 I caught him (climb) over my wall. I asked him (explain) but he
22. refused (say) anything, so in the end I had (let) him (go).
23. When at last I succeeded in (convince) him that I wanted (get) home
24. quickly he put his foot on the accelerator and I felt the car (leap)
25. forward.
26. I'm not used to (drive) on the left.
27. When you see everyone else (do) it you'll find it quite easy (do)
28. yourself.
29. It is pleasant (sit) by the fire at night and (hear) the wind (howl)
30. outside.
31. There was no way of (get) out of the building except by (climb) down
32. a rope and Ann was too terrified (do) this.
33. We heard the engines (roar) as the plane began (move) and we saw
34. the people on the ground (wave) good-bye.
35. It's no good (write) to him; he never answers letters. The only thing
36. (do) is (go) and (see) him.
37. Why did you go all round the field instead of (walk) across it?
38. I didn't like (cross) it because of the bull. I never see a bull without
39. (think) that it wants (chase) me.
40. The people in the flat below seem (be having) a party. You can hear
the champagne corks (thud) against their ceiling.
41. I don't like (get) bills but when I do get them I like (pay) them
promptly.
42. Ask him (come) in. Don't keep him (stand) at the door.
43. The boys next door used (like) (make) and (fly) model aeroplanes,
but they seem to have stopped (do) that now.
44. I knew I wasn't the first (arrive), for I saw smoke (rise) from the
chimney.
45. We watched the men (saw) the tree and as we were walking away
heard it (fall) with a tremendous crash.
46. I hate (see) a child (cry).
47. We watched the children (jump) from a window and (fall) into a
blanket held by the people below.
48. It is very unpleasant (wake) up and (hear) the rain (beat) on the
windows.
49. He saw the lorry (begin) (roll) forwards but he was too far away (do)
anything (stop) it.
50. There are people who can't help (laugh) when they see someone
(slip) on a banana skin.
51. When the painter felt the ladder (begin) (slip) he grabbed the gutter
(save) himself from (fall).

3. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct forms.

You should use: participle, gerund and infinitive.
1. 'I was lonely at first,' the old man admitted, 'but after a time I got used to (live) alone
and even got (like) it.'
2. Before trains were invented people used (travel) on horseback or in stage coaches. It
used (take) a stage coach three days (go) from London to Bath.
3. I meant (buy) an evening paper but I didn't see anyone (sell) them.
4. Tom: I want (catch) the 7 a.m. train tomorrow.
5. Ann: But that means (get) up at 6.00; and you're not very good at (get) up early, are
you?
6. He accepted the cut in salary without complaint because he was afraid (complain). He
was afraid of (lose) his job.
7. She remembers part of her childhood quite clearly. She remembers (go) to school for
the first time and (be) frightened and (put) 10110x2311k her finger in her mouth. And
she remembers her teacher (tell) her (take) it out.
8. Did you remember (lock) the car?
9. No, I didn't. I'd better (go) back and (do) it now.
10. No, I didn't move the bomb. I was afraid (touch) it; I was afraid of (be) blown to
pieces!
11. Next time we go (house-hunt), remember (ask) the agent for clear directions. I wasted
hours (look) for the last house.
12. Tom: Let's (go) for a swim.
13. Ann: I'm not particularly keen on (swim). What about (go) for a drive instead?
14. The hunters expected (be paid) by the foot for the snakes they caught. This meant
(take) the snakes out of the sack and (measure) them. They seemed (expect) me (do)
it; but I wasn't particularly anxious (be) the first (die) of snakebite.
15. After (spend) two days (argue) about where to go for their holidays, they decided (not
go) anywhere.
16. He is talking about (give) up his job and (go) (live) in the country.
17. I was just about (leave) the office when the phone rang. It was my wife; she wanted
me (call) at the butcher's on my way home.
18. He said, 'I'm terribly sorry to (keep) you (wait).'
19. I said, 'It doesn't matter at all,' but he went on (apologize) for nearly five minutes!
20. The lecturer began by (tell) us where the island was, and went on (talk) about its
history.
21. My father thinks I am not capable of (earn) my own living, but I mean (show) him
that he is wrong.
22. Tom: I can't get my car (start) on cold mornings.
23. Jack: Have you tried (fill) the radiator with hot water? That sometimes helps.
24. Did he manage (carry) the trunk upstairs?
25. No, he didn't. He isn't strong enough (move) it, let alone (carry) it upstairs.
26. Jack: Don't forget (take) a hacksaw with you.
27. Ann: What's a hacksaw? And why should I (take) one with me?
28. Jack: It's a tool for (cut) metal. You see, Tom is bound (get) into trouble for (take)
photographs of the wrong things, and you'll be arrested with him. With a hacksaw
you'll be able (saw) through the bars of your cell and (escape).
29. Peter: Wouldn't it be better (ask) Tom (leave) his camera at home? Jack: It would be
no good (ask) Tom (do) that. It would be like (ask) a woman (travel) without a

handbag.
30. I've got the loaf; now I'm looking for a bread knife (cut) it with.
31. I saw Paul (sharpen) a pencil with the bread knife a minute ago.
32. We stopped once (buy) petrol and then we stopped again (ask) someone the way.
33. When I caught them (cheat) me, I stopped (buy) petrol there and started (deal) with
your garage instead.
34. Do you feel like (dine) out or would you rather (have) dinner at home?
35. I'd like (go) out. I always enjoy (have) dinner in a restaurant.
36. Your hair needs (cut). You'd better (have) it done tomorrow-unless you'd like me
(have) a go at it for you.
37. I tried (convince) him that I was perfectly capable of (manage) on my own, but he
insisted on (help) me.
38. Jack: I don't mind (travel) by bus, but I hate (stand) in queues.
39. Tom: I don't care for (queue) either; and you waste so much time (wait) for buses. I
think it's better (go) by tube, or taxi.
40. He took to (follow) me about and (criticize) my work till I threatened (hit) him.
41. I have (stay) here; I'm on duty. But you needn't (wait); you're free (go) whenever you
like.
42. In Animal Farm the old pig urged the animals (rebel) against man but he warned them
(not adopt) man's habits.
43. There is no point in (arrive) half an hour early. We'd only have (wait).
44. I don't mind (wait). It's better (be) too early than too late.
45. I always try (come) in quietly but they always hear me (go) upstairs. It's impossible
(climb) an old wooden staircase at night without (make) a noise.
46. If you agree (work) for me I'll see about (get) you a work permit.
47. We'd better (start) early. We don't want (risk) (get) caught in a traffic jam.
48. He suggested (call) a meeting and (let) the workers (decide) the matter themselves.
4. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct forms. A participle, gerund or
infinitive ( long/short infinitive ) is required:
1.
We suggested (sleep) in hotels but the children were anxious (camp) out.
2.
Paul: Would you like (come) to a lecture on Wagner tonight? Ann: No, thanks. I
like (listen) to music but I don't like (listen) to people (talk) about it.
3.
If you want the milkman (leave) you milk in the morning, remember (put) a milk
bottle outside your door.
4.
They let us park motorcycles here but they won't allow us (park) cars.
5.
They don't allow (smoke) in the auditorium; they don't want (risk) (set) it on fire,
but you can (smoke) in the foyer during the interval.
6.
Mr. Shaw is very busy (write) his memoirs. He is far too busy (receive) callers (he
is so busy that he can't receive callers), so you'd better just (go) away.
7.
What about (buy) double quantities of everything today? That will save (shop)
again later in the week.
8.
The inspector asked (see) my ticket and when I wasn't able (find) it he made me
(buy) another.
He probably suspected you of (try) (travel) without one.
9.
Would you like me (turn) down the radio a bit? -No, it's all right. I'm used to
(work) with the radio on.
10.
One of the gang suggested (take) the body out to sea, (drop) it overboard and

(pretend) that it had been an accident.

11.
I want the boy (grow) up hating violence but his father keeps (buy) him guns and
swords.
It's almost impossible (prevent) boys (play) soldiers.
12.
Would you children mind (keep) quiet for a moment? I'm trying (fill) in a form.
It's no use (ask) children (keep) quiet. They can't help (make) a noise.
13.
I'm thinking of (go) to Oxford tomorrow on my motorbike. Would you like
(come)?
No, thanks. I want (go) Oxford, but I'd rather (go) by train. I loathe (travel) by road.
14.
Let's (go) (fish) today. There's a nice wind. What about (come) with us, Ann?
No, thanks. I'm very willing (cut) sandwiches for you but I've no intention of (waste) the
afternoon (sit) in a boat (watch) you two (fish).
15.
He resented (be) asked (wait). He expected the minister (see) him at once.
16.
The police have put up a railing here (prevent) people (rush) out of the station and
(dash) straight across the road.
17.
All day long we saw the trees (toss) in the wind and heard the waves (crash)
against the rocks.
18.
I didn't mean (eat) anything but the cakes looked so good that I couldn't resist (try)
one.
19.
Do you feel like (walk) there or shall we (take) a bus?
I'd rather (go) by bus. Besides, it'll take ages (get) there on foot.
20.
All right. When would you like (start)? In a few minutes?
Oh, let's wait till it stops (rain); otherwise we'll get soaked (walk) to the bus station.
21.
The old miser spent all his time (count) his money and (think) up new hidingplaces. He kept (move) it about because he was terrified of (be robbed). He used (get) up at
night sometimes (make) sure it was still there.
22.
Jack suggested (let) one flat and (keep) the other for myself. But Tom advised me
(sell) the whole house.
23.
The child used (lean) on the gate (watch) the people (go) to work in the mornings
and (come) home in the evenings. And he used to hear them (shout) greetings to each other
and (talk) loudly.
24.
He soon got (know) most of them and even managed (learn) the greetings. Then
they began (greet) him too on their way to work and sometimes would stop (talk) to him on
their way home.
25.
He succeeded in (untie) himself, (climb) out of the window and (crawl) along a
narrow ledge to the window of the next room.
26.
Did you have any trouble (find) the house? No, but I had a lot of difficulty (get) in.
Nobody seemed (know) where the key was.
27.
Bill couldn't bear (see) anyone (sit) round idly. Whenever he found rne (relax) or
(read) he would (produce) a job which, he said, had (be) done at once. I wasted a morning
(perform) his ridiculous tasks and spent the rest of the weekend (keep) out of his way.
28.
After (spend) a week in the cottage, he decided that he didn't really enjoy (live) in
the country and began (think) of an excuse for (sell) the cottage and (return) to London.
29.
It's no use (argue) with him. You might as well (argue) with a stone wall. He is
incapable of (see) anyone else's point of view.
30.
I'm delighted (hear) that you can come on Saturday. We are all looking forward to
(see) you. Remember (bring) your rubber boots.
31.
He has been charged with (receive) and (sell) stolen goods. He has admitted
(receive) but denies (sell) them. The fact is that he hasn't had time (sell) them yet.
32.
He noticed the helicopter (hover) over the field. Then, to astonishment, he saw a

rope ladder (be) thrown out and three men (climb) down it. He watched them (run) across the
field and out through a gate. Later he saw a car with four men in it (come) out of the lane
(lead) to the field.
33.
He admitted that it was possible that the car happened (be passing) and that the
three men persuaded the driver (give) them a lift; but he throught it much more likely that
they had arranged for the car (pick) them up and that the driver had been waiting in the lane
for the helicopter (drop) them.
34.
What about (have) a picnic in Piccadilly Circus?
What an extraordinary place (have) a picnic! Fancy (sit) there with the traffic (swirl) round
you and the pigeons (take) bites out of your sandwiches!
35.
Would you mind (write) your address on the back of the cheque and (show) us
some proof of your identity?
36.
Let's (swim) across.
I'm not really dressed for (swim). What's wrong with (go) round by the bridge?

CONCLUSIONS

Language has evolved in the history of man's development as the principal means
by which an individual is able to convey information, thoughts, and ideas to one or many of
his associates and as the chief means by which he/she in turn receives information, thoughts,
and ideas from the others .Communication occurs when a meaningful signal passes from a
sender, who originates it, to a receiver who understands it. The best source of usage
information is the community in which each individual lives. The community is the
laboratory for the objective observation of English as it is actually used by all kinds of
peopleIt is known that language teaching methods come and go, and we cannot speak about
the failure of any particular set of techniques because sometimes, the same techniques
reappear in the next method.
By grammar" it is meant the series of rules or generalizations that is intended to describe the
target language .There is more diversity in the language teaching field today than there was
twenty-five years ago. The science of language teaching couldn't demonstrate the superiority
of one methodology or another cause teaching is a combination of science and art; the
teacher's choices are like those of artists who have full pallets of paint from which they can be
choose a little of each colour ; so, teachers have the freedom to be creative .
The new English textbooks focus on global education, embracing several universal
goals: to help students understand the ways of thinking, the values and the problems of other
peoples, to develop cross-cultural awareness, to enable students to analyze and suggest
measures for using and sharing the earth's resources , to make students aware of the
choices they can make in order to consider themeselves better. Learners are supposed to get
involved in all the above mentioned topics of discussion by competent teachers who know
how to properly use role playing: advertising leaflets, maps, pictures, gestures,
dramatization, so that they could teach grammar items in a very pleasant way.
Students sadly refuse to be taught grammar in an academic way
It is true that some restricted kinds of communication are possible without
grammar. In some situations, for example, we can communicate through gestures or through
phrases learnt from a phrase-book. As soon as we move beyond this rudimentary level,
however, grammar becomes the essential basis for communication. This position was
summed up in strong terms by David Wilkins:
The notion that an individual can develop anything other
than a rudimentary communication ability without an
extensive mastery of the grammatical system is absurd
(David Wilkins in the journal Applied Linguistics, 1981).
So, the more thoroughly a learner masters the grammatical system of the language, the more
effectively he or she can use this language for communication.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books :
1. Badescu, A.- ,,Gramatica limbii engleze", Editura Stiintifica , Bucuresti,1963
2. Curme, G.- "English Grammar", Barnes and Noble Books, New York
3. Comisel, E, / Edison ,R.-"Time to Talk", Editura Spiru Haret, 1995
4. Galateanu, G./Comisel, E.-,,Gramatica limbii engleze pentru uz scolar",
Editura Didactica si Pedagogica, Bucuresti,1983
5. Galateanu, G.- ,,Sinteze de gramatica engleza,", Editura Albatros, Bucuresti,1987
6. Leech, J.- "Meaning of the English Verb"', Longman, London,1969
7. Murar, I.- ,,The English Verb", Editura Universitaria,Craiova,2004
8. Palmer, F.-"The English Verb", Longman, London, 1976
9. Paidos, C.-English Grammar, Editura Polirom,2001
10. Pawlowska, B.,Kempinski, Z- Teste de limba engleza', Editura Teora, l997
11. Quirk, R.- A Grammar of Conternporary English", Longman, 1972/1976
12. Side, R. & Wellman Guy, Grammar and Vocabulary for Cambridge Advanced and
Proficiency, Longman, 2000.
13. Thomson. A. J. & Martinet. A V. A Practical English Grammar", Fourth
Edition, Oxford University,1986
14. Michael Vince, Peter Sunderland - Advanced Language Practice , Macmillan, 2003
15. Walton, R.-"Advanced English C.A.E.", Longman, 1999
Sites :
www.english-for-students.com
www.scribd.com
www.freewebs.com
www.englishlanguageguide.com

www.didactic.ro
www.edb.gov.hk
www.englisch-hilfen.de