Freq

S.
Boyd
EE102
Lecture 10
Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response
sinusoidal steady-state
frequency response
Bode plots
101
Response to sinusoidal input

convolution system with impulse response h, transfer function H
PSfrag replacements
y
H
jt
sinusoidal input u(t) = cos(t) = e + e

Z t
h( ) cos((t )) d
output is y(t) =
jt
/2
lets write this as

Z
Z
h( ) cos((t )) d
y(t) =
0
h( ) cos((t )) d
first term is called sinusoidal steady-state response
second term decays with t if system is stable; if it decays it is called the

transient
102
if system is stable, sinusoidal steady-state response can be expressed as

ysss(t) =
h( ) cos((t )) d
= (1/2)
= (1/2)e
h( ) ej(t ) + ej(t )
0
jt
h( )e
d + (1/2)e
jt
h( )ej d
0
= (1/2)ejtH(j) + (1/2)ejtH(j)
= (<H(j)) cos(t) (=H(j)) sin(t)
= a cos(t + )
where a = |H(j)|, = 6 H(j)
103
conclusion
if the convolution system is stable, the response to a sinusoidal input is
asymptotically sinusoidal, with the same frequency as the input, and with
magnitude & phase determined by H(j)
|H(j)| gives amplification factor, i.e., RMS(yss)/RMS(u)
H(j) gives phase shift between u and yss
special case: u(t) = 1 (i.e., = 0); output converges to H(0) (DC gain)
frequency response
transfer function evaluated at s = j, i.e.,
Z
h(t)ejtdt
H(j) =
0
is called frequency response of the system

since H(j) = H(j), we usually only consider 0
104
Example
transfer function H(s) = 1/(s + 1)
input u(t) = cos t
SSS output has magnitude |H(j)| = 1/ 2, phase 6 H(j) = 45

u(t) (dashed) & y(t) (solid)
1
0.5
0.5
PSfrag replacements
1
0
10
15
20
t
105
more generally, if system is stable and the input is asymptotically

sinusoidal, i.e.,
jt
u(t) < Ue
as t , then
as t , where
y(t) yss(t) = < Ysse
jt
Yss = H(j)U
Yss
H(j) =
U
for a stable system, H(j) gives ratio of phasors of asymptotic sinusoidal
output & input
106
thus, for example (assuming a stable system),

H(j) large means asymptotic response of system to sinusoid with
frequnecy is large
H(0) = 2 means asymptotic response to a constant signal is twice the
input value
H(j) small for large means the asymptotic output for high
frequency sinusoids is small
107
Measuring frequency response

for = 1, . . . , N ,
apply sinusoid at frequency , with phasor U
wait for output to converge to SSS
measure Yss
(i.e., magnitude and phase shift of yss)
N can be a few tens (for hand measurements) to several thousand
108
Frequency response plots

frequency response can be plotted in several ways, e.g.,
<H(j) & =H(j) versus
H(j) = <H(j) + j=H(j) as a curve in the complex plane (called
Nyquist plot)
|H(j)| & 6 H(j) versus (called Bode plot)
the most common format is a Bode plot
109
example: RC circuit
1
1
Y (s) =
U (s)
1+s
rag replacements
u(t)
y(t)
1F
H(j) =
15
20
H(j)
10
30
20 log10 |H(j)|
replacements
1
1 + j
60
25
30
PSfrag replacements
35
40 2
10
10
10
10
10
90 2
10
10
10
10
10
1010
example: suspension system of page 8-6 with m = 1, b = 0.5, k = 1,

0.5s + 1
,
H(s) = 2
s + 0.5s + 1
(0.75 2 + 1) j0.5 3
H(j) =
4 1.75 2 + 1
replacements
H(j)(degrees)
0
10
20
30
PSfrag replacements
40
50 2
10
20 log10 |H(j)|
10
10
10
10
10
20
40
60
80
100
120
2
10
10
10
10
10
1011
Bode plots
frequency axis
logarithmic scale for
horizontal distance represents a fixed frequency ratio or factor:
ratio 2 : 1 is called an octave; ratio 10 : 1 is called a decade
magnitude |H(j)|
expressed in dB, i.e., 20 log10 |H(j)|

vertical distance represents dB, i.e., a fixed ratio of magnitudes
ratio 2 : 1 is +6dB, ratio 10 : 1 is +20dB
slopes are given in units such as dB/octave or dB/decade
phase 6 H(j)
multiples of 360 dont matter
phase plot is called wrapped when phases are between 180 (or
0, 360); it is called unwrapped if multiple of 360 is chosen to make
phase plot continuous
1012
Bode plots of products

consider product of transfer functions H = F G:
PSfrag replacements
frequency response magnitude and phase are

20 log10 |H(j)| = 20 log10 |F (j)| + 20 log10 |G(j)|
6
H(j) =
6
F (j) + 6 G(j)
here we use the fact that for a, b C, 6 (ab) = 6 a + 6 b

so, Bode plot of a product is the sum of the Bode plots of each term
(extends to many terms)
1013
example. F (s) = 1/(s + 10), G(s) = 1 + 1/s

0
ag replacements
F (j)
25
30
35
PSfrag replacements
40
45 2
10
10
10
10
90
2
10
10
10
10
10
10
35
G(j)
30
25
20
15
45
20 log10 |G(j)|
40
ag replacements
45
20 log10 |F (j)|
20
10
PSfrag replacements
5
0
2
10
10
10
10
10
90
2
10
10
10
10
10
1014
Bode plot of
s+1
1 + 1/s
=
H(s) = F (s)G(s) =
s + 10
s(s + 10)
30
40
H(j)
replacements
10
50
20 log10 |H(j)|
20
70
PSfrag replacements
80
10
20
30
40
2
10
10
10
10
10
60
90 2
10
10
10
10
10
1015
Bode plots from factored form

rational transfer function H in factored form:
(s z1) (s zm)
H(s) = k
(s p1) (s pn)
20 log10 |H(j)| = 20 log10 |k| +
H(j) =
6
n
X
i=1
k+
m
X
i=1
20 log10 |j zi|
20 log10 |j pi|
m
X
i=1
(j zi)
n
X
i=1
(j pi)
(of course 6 k = 0 if k > 0, and 6 k = 180 if k < 0)

1016
Graphical interpretation: |H(j)|
s = j
Qm
dist(j, zi)
|H(j)| = |k| Qni=1
i=1 dist(j, pi )
since for u, v C, dist(u, v) = |u v|
placements
therefore, e.g.:
|H(j)| gets big when j is near a pole
|H(j)| gets small when j is near a zero
1017
Graphical interpretation:
6
H(j)
s = j
H(j) = 6 k+
m
X
i=1
(jzi)
n
X
6
(jpi)
i=1
placements
therefore, 6 H(j) changes rapidly when a pole or zero is near j
1018
Example with lightly damped poles
poles at s = 0.01 j0.2, s = 0.01 j0.7,

s = 0.01 j1.3,
H(j)
50
20 log10 |H(j)|
50
180
360
100
replacements
PSfrag replacements
150 1
10
10
10
540
1
10
10
10
1019
All-pass filter
(s 1)(s 3)
(s + 1)(s + 3)
0.5
90
H(j)
180
20 log10 |H(j)|
H(s) =
0.5
270
replacements
PSfrag replacements
1 3
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
360 3
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
called all-pass filter since gain magnitude is one for all frequencies
1020
Analog lowpass filters

analog lowpass filters: approximate ideal lowpass frequency response
|H(j)| = 1 for 0 1,
|H(j)| = 0 for > 1
by a rational transfer function (which can be synthesized using R, L, C)

example nth-order Butterworth filter
PSfrag replacements
/(2n)
/n
H(s) =
1
(s p1)(s p2) (s pn)
n stable poles, equally spaced

on the unit circle
p1
p2
/n
/n
pn1
pn
/n
/(2n)
1021
magnitude plot for n = 2, n = 5, n = 10
PSfrag replacements
20 log |H(j)|
0
20
40
n=2
60
n=5
80
100 2
10
n = 10
1
10
10
10
10
1022
Sketching approximate Bode plots

sum property allows us to find Bode plots of terms in TF, then add
simple terms:
constant
factor of sk (pole or zero at s = 0)
real pole, real zero
complex pole or zero pair
from these we can construct Bode plot of any rational transfer function
1023
Poles and zeros at s = 0

the term sk has simple Bode plot:
phase is constant,
6
= 90k
magnitude has constant slope 20kdB/decade

magnitude plot intersects 0dB axis at = 1
examples:
integrator (k = 1):
6
= 90, slope is 20dB/decade
differentiator (k = +1):
= 90, slope is +20dB/decade
1024
Real poles and zeros

H(s) = 1/(s p) (p < 0 is stable pole; p > 0 is unstable pole)
p
magnitude: |H(j)| = 1/ 2 + p2
for p < 0, 6 H(j) = arctan(/|p|)
for p > 0, 6 H(j) = 180 + arctan(/p)
1025
Bode plot for H(s) = 1/(s + 1) (stable pole):

Bode Diagrams
0
10
20
Phase (deg); Magnitude (dB)
30
40
50
60
0
20
40
60
80
0.001
0.01
0.1
10
100
1000
Frequency (rad/sec)
1026
Bode plot for H(s) = 1/(s 1) (unstable pole):

Bode Diagrams
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
100
120
140
160
180
0.001
0.01
0.1
10
100
1000
Frequency (rad/sec)
magnitude same as stable pole; phase starts at 180, increases

1027
straight-line approximation (for p < 0):

for < |p|, |H(j)| 1/|p|
for > |p|, |H(j)| decreases (falls off) 20dB per decade
for < 0.1|p|, 6 H(j) 0
for > 10|p|, 6 H(j) 90

in between, phase is approximately linear (on log-log plot)
1028
Bode plots for real zeros same as poles but upside down
example: H(s) = s + 1
Bode Diagrams
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
80
60
40
20
0
0.001
0.01
0.1
10
100
1000
Frequency (rad/sec)
1029
example:
104
H(s) =
(1 + s/10)(1 + s/300)(1 + s/3000)
(typical op-amp transfer function)
DC gain 80dB; poles at 10, 300, 3000
1030
Bode plot:
Bode Diagrams
50
50
0
50
100
150
200
250
0
10
10
10
10
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
1031
example:
(s 1)(s 3) s2 4s + 3
=
H(s) =
(s + 1)(s + 3) s2 + 4s + 3
|H(j)| = 1 (obvious from graphical interpretation)

(called all-pass filter or phase filter since gain magnitude is one for all
frequencies)
1032
Bode plot:
Bode Diagrams
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
0
100
200
300
0.001
0.01
0.1
10
100
1000
Frequency (rad/sec)
1033
High frequency slope

b0 + b m s m
H(s) =
a0 + + a n sn
bm, an 6= 0
for large, H(j) (bm/an)(j)mn, i.e.,
20 log10 |H(j)| 20 log10 |bm/an| (n m)20 log10
high frequency magnitude slope is approximately 20(n m)dB/decade
high frequency phase is approximately 6 (bm/an) 90(n m)
1034

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S.

Response to sinusoidal input

sinusoidal input u(t) = cos(t) = e + e

lets write this as

first term is called sinusoidal steady-state response

second term decays with t if system is stable; if it decays it is called the

Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response

if system is stable, sinusoidal steady-state response can be expressed as

H(j) gives phase shift between u and yss

is called frequency response of the system

SSS output has magnitude |H(j)| = 1/ 2, phase 6 H(j) = 45

more generally, if system is stable and the input is asymptotically

y(t) yss(t) = < Ysse

Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response

thus, for example (assuming a stable system),

Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response

Measuring frequency response

Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response

Frequency response plots

Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response

Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response

example: suspension system of page 8-6 with m = 1, b = 0.5, k = 1,

Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response

expressed in dB, i.e., 20 log10 |H(j)|

Bode plots of products

frequency response magnitude and phase are

here we use the fact that for a, b C, 6 (ab) = 6 a + 6 b

example. F (s) = 1/(s + 10), G(s) = 1 + 1/s

Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response

Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response

Bode plots from factored form

20 log10 |H(j)| = 20 log10 |k| +

(of course 6 k = 0 if k > 0, and 6 k = 180 if k < 0)

Graphical interpretation: |H(j)|

|H(j)| gets small when j is near a zero

Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response

therefore, 6 H(j) changes rapidly when a pole or zero is near j

Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response

Example with lightly damped poles

poles at s = 0.01 j0.2, s = 0.01 j0.7,

Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response

Analog lowpass filters

|H(j)| = 0 for > 1

by a rational transfer function (which can be synthesized using R, L, C)

n stable poles, equally spaced

magnitude plot for n = 2, n = 5, n = 10

Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response

Sketching approximate Bode plots

Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response

Poles and zeros at s = 0

magnitude has constant slope 20kdB/decade

= 90, slope is 20dB/decade

Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response

= 90, slope is +20dB/decade

Real poles and zeros

for p > 0, 6 H(j) = 180 + arctan(/p)

Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response

Bode plot for H(s) = 1/(s + 1) (stable pole):

Phase (deg); Magnitude (dB)

Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response

Bode plot for H(s) = 1/(s 1) (unstable pole):

Phase (deg); Magnitude (dB)

magnitude same as stable pole; phase starts at 180, increases