Lecture #22: Synthetic Aperture Radar: Fundamentals of Radar Signal Processing

ECE 6272
Fundamentals of Radar Signal Processing
Lecture #22:
Synthetic Aperture Radar
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Georgia Institute of Technology
Fall 2010
Copyright Mark A. Richards . All Rights Reserved.
Lecture# 22, Slide 1
Distance Learning Final Exam

Due Date
Due to GT holiday schedule, due
date for DL final exams will be
Wednesday, Dec. 22, at noon EST
This is less than the normal oneweek delay, which would have it
due on Dec. 23.
You will hear more reminders from
GT DL.
Fall 2010
Lecture #22, Slide 2
ECE6272
Fundamentals of
Radar Signal Processing
Module #67
Introduction to
Synthetic Aperture Radar Imaging,
Continued
Fall 2010
SAR is About Cross-Range Resolution

A good 2D image requires good resolution in both dimensions
Range (a.k.a cross-track) resolution is obtained with appropriate
high-bandwidth waveforms and matched filtering
SAR is a technique for obtaining good resolution in the other
dimension, namely cross-range (a.k.a. along-track)
range (y)
cross-range (x)
Image courtesy of Sandia National Laboratories

Fall 2010
SAR is About Imaging Stationary Clutter

Basic SAR is about imaging terrain
often considered the clutter in many other radar modes
The target is therefore stationary

moving objects in scene (vehicles) require special treatment
space-based SAR must deal with earth rotation
Image courtesy of Sandia National Laboratories

Fall 2010
The Synthetic Aperture Concept:

Synthesizing a Virtual Large Array
future transmit positions
The physical antenna is one element of the synthetic

array
Data is collected at each position sequentially, and then
processed together
Effective aperture size is determined by the distance
traveled while collecting a data set
Fall 2010
Sidelooking Stripmap SAR

Phased array aperture is formed
parallel to the velocity vector
Effective
aperture size
DSAR or aperture
time Ta
determined by
how many
pulses
contribute to
each pixel
Therefore array factor boresight

is perpendicular to the velocity
vector
phase steering can change this
steering of the physical antenna
squints the element pattern
Physical antenna does not

scan
physical beam dragged
along with platform motion
Fall 2010
resolution range bins
typical sinc-like antenna

pattern
DSAR
= avTa
DSAR
= vT
high cross-range
resolution
range bins
high cross-range
Element pattern not broad
high cross-range
resolution range bins
DSAR = vTa
This basic
SAR
operational
mode is
called
stripmap SAR
Aperture Time, Size, and

Resolution
Suppose we integrate data over an aperture
time Ta; what resolution is obtained?
SAR =
well explain this in

the next module
DSAR= vTa
SAR=
2vTa
2 DSAR
CR= R SAR
CR=
R
2vTa
To get constant resolution, aperture time

must be made proportional to range
Ta =
Fall 2010
R
2vCR
Example Airborne Aperture

Time vs. Frequency
aperture time (sec)
10
v = 150 m/s,
R = 10 km
Note aperture
time ranges
from fractions of
a second, to
tens of seconds
Mainstream
range is
usually on the
order of 0.1 to
1 seconds
1 m = cross-range resolution
3m
1
0.1
10 m
10
100
frequency (GHz)
Fall 2010
Space-Based Radar Aperture

Times
2
1
Low earth orbit:

v = 7.6 km/s
770 km
altitude
aperture time (sec)
5 m = cross-range resolution
30 m
0.1
100 m
0.2
1
10
100
frequency (GHz)
Fall 2010
Maximum Synthetic Aperture Size

target
Maximum
synthetic
aperture size is
the maximum
distance traveled
while target is
illuminated
az
R
direction
of flight
DSARmax = R az
Fall 2010
Raz
Best Case SAR Strip Map

Resolution
Cross-range resolution corresponding
to maximum synthetic aperture size:
Daz
=
= =
SAR
2 DSAR 2 R az 2 R
CRmin = R SAR
Fall 2010
Daz
=
2
Where Did the R Dependence Go?

CRmin
target
Daz
=
2
w
R
Targets at longer ranges

( ) are illuminated longer
than shorter-range targets ( )
larger potential aperture finer
resolution
direction
of flight
Rw
Increase in effective aperture size exactly

cancels increase in beamwidth with range
Fall 2010
What Have We Gained?

Cross-range resolution is now independent of
range
far superior for mapping purposes
Cross-range resolution is now much smaller,

and comparable to range resolution
0.5 m lower bound vs. 300 m @ Daz = 1 m, R = 10
km, Fc = 10 GHz
5 m lower bound vs. 4.6 km @ Daz = 10 m, R = 770
km, Fc = 5 GHz
far superior for mapping purposes
Huge integration gains

combine hundreds, even thousands of pulses
The cost is much greater signal processing

complexity
Fall 2010
San Francisco, California
SIR-C X-band SAR image

http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA01791
Fall 2010
RADARSAT Image of Hartsfield

Airport, Atlanta
Produced with commercial

EarthView software
(from Atlantis Scientific)
Fall 2010
Produced with GTRIdeveloped software
Recent TerraSAR-X Images

Tokyo River
Island, 3/7/2008
with Google
earth photo
inset
Both images from R. Werninghaus and S. Buckreuss,

The TerraSAR-X Mission and System Design, IEEE
Trans. Geoscience & Remote Sensing, vol. 48, no. 2,
Feb. 2010
Fall 2010
Spotlight SAR
What if Daz/2 stripmap resolution isnt good enough?
we need a bigger synthetic aperture!
Real beam is actively scanned to

lengthen illumination time
Resolution is expressed
in terms of angle of
rotation:
R
CR
=
=
2 DSAR
2
DSAR
Continuous mapping sacrificed for resolution

Inverse SAR (ISAR) is similar with roles reversed: radar is
fixed, target moves (e.g., target on turntable, ship on
waves)
Fall 2010
Spotlight SAR Image of the Pentagon

Sandia Twin Otter system
Ku band
1 m resolution
Also evidently used in DoE

Airborne Multisensor Pod
System (AMPS) for
nonproliferation R&D
http://www.sandia.gov/radar/images
Fall 2010
TESAR Optical vs. SAR
http://www.es.northropgrumman.com/products/ISR_overview.htm
Notice the layover and shadow effects in the SAR image!

Fall 2010
TerraSAR-X 1.1 m Spotlight

Image of Rio de Janeiro
http://www.infoterra.de/image-gallery/images.html
Fall 2010
ECE6272
Fundamentals of
Module #68
SAR PRF & Area Coverage
Fall 2010
Stripmap Image Depth

Swath length (or depth) Ls extent
is upper bounded by elevation
pattern footprint on ground
Can be less due to
sampling a shorter
range window
unambiguous range
constraints
el
Cross-range extent
is unlimited
so long as data can
be processed or
downloaded in real time
Fall 2010
Rel
sin
Swath Width Constraint on PRF

SAR is operated with no range
ambiguities
across the swath length
does not need to be unambiguous out
to the absolute range
2
( Ls cos ) +
c
2
( Ls cos )
c
c
PRF
2 Ls cos
PRI
R
Ls cos
Ls
Rel
R
=
sin Del sin
Fall 2010
Yet Again: Doppler Bandwidth

The radial velocity relative to stationary scatterers
differs across the physical beamwidth
Therefore the Doppler shift differs
PHYSICAL
az BEAMWIDTH
The spread in Doppler
across the 3-dB beam
edges is
2v az
BDmax
sin Hz
2v
=
sin
Daz
Hz
DIRECTION OF FLIGHT
This is the bandwidth of the slow time data sequence

obtained from a single range bin over multiple pulses
Fall 2010
SAR Is a Low-PRF Mode

2v
c
PRF
Daz
2 Ls cos
(sidelooking = 0)
PRF must exceed Doppler bandwidth to satisfy the Nyquist

sampling theorem
PRF must provide acceptable unambiguous range:
note: Ls is in slant range, not ground range
Typical bandwidth is 100s to a few 1000s of Hz, so PRF

must be at least 100s to 1000s of Hz
Typical unambiguous range is 10 to 50 km, so PRF must be
less than, e.g., 15 kHz at 10 km
Therefore, SAR is a low PRF mode
Fall 2010
Mapping Rate for Stripmap SAR

We map a strip up to Ls meters deep while
moving forward at v m/s
Area coverage rate is therefore A = vLs m2/s
If Ls is large enough to push PRF down to the
Doppler bandwidth limit, Ls cDaz 4v cos
cDaz
A
m 2 /s
4cos
cDaz
2
=
km
/s
6
4 x10
= 0.022cDaz km 2 /day
Fall 2010
Cross-Range Sampling Interval

Recall the Doppler bandwidth
BDmax
2v
Daz
Hz
this must also be the Nyquist sampling rate
Nyquist sampling interval is therefore

Daz
Ts =
2v
sec
At a velocity v, the distance traveled between

cross-range samples is
Daz
=
d s vT
=
meters
s
2
Fall 2010
Maximum Swath Width

Constraint on PRF
If swath length takes on maximum
value:
Del c tan
c
PRF
=
2 Ls cos
2 R
R
Ls
=
Fall 2010
R el
R
=
sin Del sin
Antenna Area Constraint

cDel tan
2v
PRF
Daz
2 R
If the lower bound equals the upper bound, we get
the antenna area constraint:
4vR
Daz Del >
c tan
need bigger antennas for space-based than airborne
large area antennas are needed for simultaneous maximum
swath length and minimum resolution
Several implicit assumptions to get this result; see

A. Freeman et al, The Myth of the Minimum SAR Antenna Area
Constraint, IEEE Trans. GRS, 38(1), Jan. 2000.
Fall 2010
Image Rate for Spotlight

Suppose we want to image a patch of resolution CR at a
range of R meters
Platform LOS must rotate through /2CR radians
So platform must travel R/2CR meters
This requires R/2vCR seconds (aperture time Ta)
Spotlight image rate is therefore

2vCR
Number of images
images s
R
7200vCR
images hr
=
R
this assumes all images have same resolution and standoff
range
Fall 2010
Resolution vs. Swath Depth and

Area Coverage Rate
Fine resolution requires small
CRmin =
Daz 2
Daz to allow large synthetic
aperture in stripmap:
But small Daz gives large
cDaz
Doppler bandwidth
Ls
meters
4v cos
requires high PRF
limits swath length:
cDaz
A
m2 s
Same is true of area
4cos
mapping rate:
Thus, fine resolution conflicts
with deep swath and/or high
mapping rate!
Fall 2010
RADARSAT-2 Stripmap Modes
http://www.radarsat2.info/
Fall 2010
ECE6272
Fundamentals of
Module #69
Stripmap Geometry & Range
Migration
Fall 2010
Stripmap SAR Data Collection

Assume pulse compression done on each pulse as it
is received .
Animation courtesy Seung-mok Oh, Georgia Institute of Technology
Fall 2010
Range to a Point Scatterer - 1

z
Platform coordinates:
px = (u=vt,0,h)
Target coordinates:
pt = (xP,ygP,0)
h
RP
x = u = vt
yg
P = (xP.ygP,0)
Fall 2010
Range to a Point Scatterer - 2

Range is the Euclidean
distance:
R = R (u ) =
2
+ h2
( u xP ) + y gP
2
Define RP as range at point of

closest approach (u=xP); then
R ( u ) = ( u xP ) + RP2
2
= RP
Fall 2010
2
u xP )
(
1+
RP2
(a hyperbola)
Interlude:
Hyperbolas & Parabolas
R=
( u ) RP 1 +
( u xP )
RP2
More advanced SAR algorithms use this

hyperbolic expression for range migration
needed for higher resolutions, deeper swaths,
lower RF frequencies
Many moderate resolution SARs further

simplify this expression to get rid of the
square root
Fall 2010
Range to a Point Scatterer -3

Apply a series expansion of the square
root:
1
1 2
1 + x =1 + x + x +
2
8
Keep only quadratic or lower terms in
(u/RP):
( u x )2
P
RP
R ( u ) 1 +
2
2
R
P
Fall 2010
(a parabola)
The Quadratic Variation of

Range (and Phase)
Remember phase of echo is shifted by (4/)R
radians
The quadratic (i.e., chirp) phase spreads the
bandwidth of the slow time data
motion-induced slow time chirp
( u x )2
P
RP
R ( u ) 1 +
2
2
R
P
4
(u ) =

Fall 2010
R (u )
Pulse Compression in Slow Time

We have just argued that the slow-time data
for a given target is approximately a
geometry-induced LFM
Even without the square root approximation,
we have a hyperbolic phase model fo the
slow-time data
So we can get good resolution by pulse
compressing in slow time with the
appropriate matched filter
So whats the big deal with SAR processing?
Fall 2010
Range Migration:
Range Walk and Curvature
Range migration
describes the down-range
curvature of the data as
cross-range position varies
Decompose into
range walk and
range curvature
sidelooking,
far range
Rc
squinted
Fall 2010
Rw
range
Returns from a given

scatterer may be spread
over multiple range bins
This greatly complicates
cross-range processing
sidelooking, near range
cross-range
Range Walk
Difference in range to scatterer at beginning
(u = xPDSAR/2) and end (u = xP +DSAR/2) of
synthetic aperture
Always zero for side-looking systems:
Rw= R ( xP + DSAR 2 ) R ( xP DSAR 2 )

2
2
DSAR 2 )
DSAR 2 )
(
(
= RP +
RP +
2 RP
2 RP
=0
Fall 2010
Range Curvature
Difference in range to scatterer at beginning or
end (u = xP DSAR/2) and middle (u = xP) of
synthetic aperture
R ( xP + DSAR 2 ) R ( xP )
R=
c
2
DSAR 2 )
(
=
RP +
{ RP }
2 RP
For constant aperture
time, decreases with
range
=
For constant
resolution (Ta R),
increases with range
Fall 2010
2
DSAR
v 2Ta2
=
8 RP
8 RP
Range Migration in Range Bins

SARs usually operate with square pixels:
R = CR =
Using Ta = R/2v and normalizing to ,
range curvature becomes
Rc R
=
323
2
So improving resolution by a factor of 2x

increases range curvature in terms of range
bins by 8x!
Can be less than one range bin, or can be
hundreds of range bins
Fall 2010
Other Big Deals in SAR Processing

sidelooking,
far range
Shift-varying matched filter
Rc
well see this in next module

range
Motion compensation
squinted
Rw
sidelooking, near range
We assumed straight & level,

constant velocity flight
cross-range
No turbulence, no cross winds
Antenna pattern compensation

Computational load
Moving targets in scene
Fall 2010
ECE6272
Fundamentals of
Module #70
Stripmap SAR Dataset
Fall 2010
SAR Waveforms
SAR processing achieves high resolution
in the cross-range dimension
Range resolution is achieved by using
wideband waveforms and pulse
compression
Recall range resolution is R = c/2
Examples: 10 m 15 MHz, 1 m 150 MHz
LFM waveforms are very common in SAR

typically 100 or greater
Fall 2010
Time Signature of a Single Point Target

reflectivity
d[m,n]
Reflectivity
point
spread
s[m,n]
Real Part
of theresponse
Signal Returns
-1500
-1500
-1000
-500
Azimuth [m]
Azimuth [m]
-1000
0
500
-500
500
1000
Before pulse compression!
1000
1500
10
10.2
10.4
10.6
10.8
11
1500
Ground Range [km]
10
10.2
10.4
10.6
10.8
11
Ground Range [km]
Real Part of the Signal for Azimuth = 499.75[m

0.8
0.6
Amplitude
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
s [ m, n0 ]
-0.6
-0.8
10
10.2
10.4
10.6
10.8
11
11.2
Ground Range [km]

Fall 2010
Range Migration Creates Cross-Range Chirp

( u x )2
P
R ( u ) 1 +
2
2 RP
Real Part of the Signal for Ground-Range = 10401.6532[m]

1
0.8
RP
pointPart
spread
response
s[m,n]
Real
of the
Signal Returns
0.4
0.2
-1500
0
-0.2
-1000
-0.4
s [ m0 , n ]
-0.6
-0.8
-1
-2500-2000-1500-1000 -500
500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Cross-Range [m]
Real Part of the Signal for Ground-Range = 10401.6532[m]
Azimuth [m]
Amplitude
0.6
-500
0
500
0.8
1000
Amplitude
0.6
0.4
1500
0.2
10
10.4
10.6
10.8
11
Ground Range [km]
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
s [ m0 , n ]
-0.8
-1
-100 -80 -60 -40 -20
20
40
60
Cross-Range [m]
Fall 2010
10.2
80 100
So point target response is a 2D chirp,

curved in range
Curvature and chirp rates predictable functions
of radar and geometry parameters
Signature of Three Point Targets

Region of Support
Real Part of the Signal for Azimuth = -0.25[m]
-1500
2.5
-1000
1.5
1
Amplitude
Azimuth [m]
-500
500
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
1000
-2
-2.5
1500
10
10
10.2
10.4
10.8
10.6
10.2
11
10.4
10.6
10.8
11
11.2
Ground Range [km]
Ground Range [km]
Real Part of the Signal Returns

-1500
Azimuth [m]
-1000
-500
500
1000
1500
10
10.2
10.4
10.6
10.8
11
Ground Range [km]

Fall 2010
Data Set Size: Number of Range

Samples per Pulse
# of range samples to be processed per pulse =
(swath length)/(range resolution) + (waveform BT
product):
Ls
L=
+ ( 1)
R
not all contribute to a single point target,
but all have to be processed
L-1
Example (SIR-C L band):

Ls = 15 km, R = 15 m,
0
M-1
0
= 10 MHz, = 17 s L = 1170 pulse
# = slow time
Fall 2010
Data Set Size: Number of Pulses

Number of pulses to contributing to the point target
response = (aperture time)(PRF):
M = Ta PRF
Thus
L-1
R 2v az
=
v
CR
R az
R
M
=
CR CR Daz
0
0
M-1
pulse # = slow time
Example (SIR-C L band): R = 250 km, Daz = 10 m,

Fc = 1 GHz, CR = 15 m M = 500
Generally: aperture time on order of 1 second, PRF 100s
to 1000s of Hz 100s to 1000s of pulses to integrate!
Fall 2010
The Goal of SAR Processing
Echo energy from a single point target is distributed in both range and cross-range
(range bins and pulse number, or fast and slow time)
This function is called the point spread response (PSR) or point target response
(PTR) of the SAR sensor
Goal of SAR processing is to compress the PSR in both range and cross-range to a
single (correctly located) point
2D equivalent of pulse compression
Approach is essentially a matched filter
but many variations in implementation and accuracy
Shape of point target response depends on range of scatterer
therefore processing is not shift-invariant
point spread response s[m,n]
Fall 2010
image d [ m, n ]
Pulse Compression First

Many SAR algorithms do pulse compression first:
Range (Pulse)
Compression
After pulse compression, SAR point spread response

(PSR) for a target at (xP,R), in terms of cross-range and
down-range spatial coordinates (u,R) is
2
h ( u , t ; R ) = t
c
Fall 2010
( u xP )2 + R 2
SAR is Not Shift-Invariant

After pulse compression, SAR point spread response
(PSR) for a target at (x,R) is
2
h ( u , t ; R ) = t
c
( u xP )2 + R 2
This is a 2D function with range

migration
non-separable
invariant in cross-range (u)
direction
for a fixed aperture time
variant in down-range (R)

direction
Fall 2010
Illustration courtesy of
Dr. Greg A. Showman
Assignments
Reading:
Chapter 8.1 8.3
Homework
HW #8
DL: due Thursday Nov. 18
HW #9
On campus: due Thursday, Nov. 30
DL: due Thursday, Dec. 9
Computer Project #4: Detection

On campus: due now
DL: Due Tuesday, Nov. 30
Fall 2010
SIR-C L+C band image of Death Valley..

Red=LHH, G=LHV, B=CHV
End of Lecture 22
Next :
Stripmap SAR Image Formation
Fall 2010
Lecture# 22, Slide 58

Lecture #22: Synthetic Aperture Radar: Fundamentals of Radar Signal Processing

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ECE 6272

Fundamentals of Radar Signal Processing

Copyright Mark A. Richards . All Rights Reserved.

Lecture# 22, Slide 1

Distance Learning Final Exam

Copyright Mark A. Richards . All Rights Reserved.

Lecture #22, Slide 2

Copyright Mark A. Richards . All Rights Reserved.

Lecture #22, Slide 3

SAR is About Cross-Range Resolution

Image courtesy of Sandia National Laboratories

Copyright Mark A. Richards . All Rights Reserved.

Lecture #22, Slide 4

SAR is About Imaging Stationary Clutter

The target is therefore stationary

Image courtesy of Sandia National Laboratories

Copyright Mark A. Richards . All Rights Reserved.

Lecture #22, Slide 5

The Synthetic Aperture Concept:

The physical antenna is one element of the synthetic

Copyright Mark A. Richards . All Rights Reserved.

Lecture #22, Slide 6

Sidelooking Stripmap SAR

Therefore array factor boresight

Physical antenna does not

Copyright Mark A. Richards . All Rights Reserved.

resolution range bins

typical sinc-like antenna

Element pattern not broad

Aperture Time, Size, and

well explain this in

To get constant resolution, aperture time

Copyright Mark A. Richards . All Rights Reserved.

Lecture #22, Slide 8

Example Airborne Aperture

Copyright Mark A. Richards . All Rights Reserved.

Lecture #22, Slide 9

Space-Based Radar Aperture

Low earth orbit:

aperture time (sec)

Copyright Mark A. Richards . All Rights Reserved.

Lecture #22, Slide 10

Maximum Synthetic Aperture Size

Copyright Mark A. Richards . All Rights Reserved.

Lecture #22, Slide 11

Best Case SAR Strip Map

Copyright Mark A. Richards . All Rights Reserved.

Lecture #22, Slide 12

Where Did the R Dependence Go?

Targets at longer ranges

Increase in effective aperture size exactly

Copyright Mark A. Richards . All Rights Reserved.

Lecture #22, Slide 13

What Have We Gained?

Cross-range resolution is now much smaller,

Huge integration gains

The cost is much greater signal processing

Copyright Mark A. Richards . All Rights Reserved.

Lecture #22, Slide 14

San Francisco, California

SIR-C X-band SAR image

Copyright Mark A. Richards . All Rights Reserved.

Lecture #22, Slide 15